Philosophy 1700- Ethical Theories Professor Schwarzenbach 8/31/11 -What is philosophy?

The study of the love of wisdom -Greek: Philos Sophia= friend of lover of wisdom- Philosopher -Sophia- wisdom -Philos- friend or lover -Knowledge vs. Wisdom -Wisdom: Knowledge of a whole (Plato) (more general) -Thales -The first philosopher -Lived before Socrates -All is water -The ultimate element of the world is water -Appearance and reality are different things- philosopher seeks underlying reality -You cannot step in the same river twice Pre-socratics -Studying natural world, things are different than they appear -5 Different branches of philosophy 1. Metaphysics- the study of the nature of reality (Is it made of water, atoms) (Whats the nature of time, a person) -Meta: beyond nature (the physics)

-Studies the first principles or essences of things -Why do you want the essence of things? -Want to know what a good person is vs. a quack 2. Ontology- the study of being -Logos: word/speech -Ontos: being -Is there only ONE substance (god) in the world or multiple -Studies the nature of being -Narrower than metaphysics 3. Epistomology- the study of episteme- knowledge -Do we get knowledge through senses or intellect -Theoretical Knowledge vs. Practical -Looking for the notion or truth, whats reality 4. Ethics- the study of the good/the right (were focusing primarily here) 5. Aesthetics- beauty -Eye in the eye of the beholder or out there? -Why do we start with the ancient Greeks? -Thales -Tries to give an explanation of the underlying reality -Socrates- 15th century BC -Condemned to death but took poison instead -Charged with corruption of the youth and impiety (not being religious)

-During time of Greek gods- didnt believe in them -Teacher of Plato -399 BC -Traditional Greek Morality- Homeric Morality -Author of Iliad and the Odyssey -Aristocratic people -Pride, Power, Physical beauty, Courage, Loyalty -Education -Rote memory (no questioning) -Nomos vs. Phusis -Nomos: Man-made or made by law (made through human law) changeable, arbitrary -Phusis: In the nature of things, unchanging, eternal At this point, they wondered are our moral nature or are they changeable? -Socrates -Science of Ethics- What motivates people, underlying principles, are things good -Stone mason and very poor, spent time in Market place discussing philosophic issues with young men of Athens from good families -Young men said, I want to philosophize and not go into family business! so parents got mad -Replacing with what? Ground ethics/morality in reason- Socratic Method -Can be ethical without religion (Greek gods werent even good) -Should allow you to make good decisions in life 9/7/11 Nicomachean Ethics-Socrates-Plato-Aristotle -Plato thought he was virtuous and then was condemned to death. -Aristotle studied at Platos academy -Aristotle started a school in Athens- The Lyceum: philosophers here called peripetetics (means walking)

-From age 17-38 he studied at Platos academy (384-322 BC) -Then hes Alexanders tutor -Aristotle wrote on almost everything -Son of a doctor so interested in philosophy and physics -He wrote in aesthetics -DeAnima (On the soul)- Psychology - Nichomacus was Aristotles son so wrote the book to give guidance to him -Virtue ethics- studies the good person -Why is the person good and what is it about them, how can I be like them? -Plato thought ethics should be a science like math, wanted precision -Wanted to find definition of things like justice, has to be definite -Genreal method- Aporetic method (Greek- Aporea-perplexity or problem) -Cant use same method we use in math or science -Humans are variable, we change and develop so nothing is absolute whereas a triangle always has 3 sides -Precision has to be relative to the subject matter -Method is try to get rid of contradictions in the problem -Chapter 4 pg. 163 -You have to be well trained from the beginning to be ethical -But what if youre not? Then youre in trouble and wont live a decent life -Have to start from whats known and familiar to us- what is happiness? -Take ta phenomen-phenomenon- what do people think happiness is? Note that. Aporetic Method

1.

Start with what you know, what you think is true, and what people say- especially the wise and the many

2.

Try to resolve the difficulties and (try to come up with a subset of what people think happiness is and)

3.

Find the underlying definition or principle- true definition= Aristotles positive theory of X

-Aim of ethics is ultimately practical- to live in practice of a good life and in happinessACTION -Were happy for the most part -Shouldnt be studied for the young -Assumed that people reading his book are educated, upper class males like his son -Page 161 -Precision in some crafts isnt the same in others Beginning of the book -1. All human activities aim at some good -Is there one good ultimately or many different ones? -There could be many things (wealth, money, power or honor) -Money making is not a serious contender in life -Done under compulsion, a necessity -What is happiness? -Eudaimonia (happiness) 1. Entails activity-not a couch potato 2. Over a complete life- not such a couple of hours or days -One swallow (bird) doesnt make a summer 3. Live a life thats specifically human 4. Activities done for their own sake (not out of necessity) -Learning, Sports, mating, traveling, experience of beauty, sensuous enjoyment

-Money is compulsion 5. Complete and self-sufficient- you need nothing more -The human function argument (book 1 chapter 7 169-170)= (Greek-Ergon) -Pocket knife: Whats its function? Whats good for it is whatever helps it do its function (part of its identity and critical to what makes it happy) -Characteristic activity -Do humans have a function? 1. Life- plants have life too so not special 2. Perception (sensation)- animals also have 3. The active life of the element that has a rational principleReason (pg. 169)- ability to reason rationally, specifically human activities -3 Different lives 1. Sensuous enjoyment -Whats wrong with this life? 2. Politics/Life of activity 3. 9/12/11 DeAnima (of the soul) -Greek: psuche (soul) What did the Ancient Greeks think about the soul? And how does relate to human character? -Psuche- originally meant breath or air but cant really mean that, rather aliveness -Pre- socratics (natural philosophers)= Herachlitus, Thales A. -Thought soul was a material substance (fire, water, air, earth) -Aristotle said it cant be, fire isnt alive!! B. -Platonists

-Soul is an immaterial substance (separate from body)- taken over by Christianity later C. -Aristotle -Life is in body -Soul is a compound of form in a particular matter (organizes the matter)

-Substance (Ousia) a. Matter- Potentiality That which in itself is not a this b. Form- Actuality [shape, ability to self organize] That in virtue of which a thing is called a this a. Its nothing until it has a form! c. Compound of form and matter- (hylomorphism- matter + form) This is substance! The other 2 dont really exist. a. Aristotle believes in this. Soul- the organization to function of a particular body, must have at least on 1st grade -pg. 65 -Actuality has 2 grades of actuality 1st grade- passive- you have actual knowledge but when asleep, not using it 2nd grade- exercising Soul- matter that is informed by form (Eidos) specifically suited for it Why cant the soul be the actual body? Doesnt have the element of functioning without the soul, not just body because need aliveness and movement/nutrition

Soul- substantial form of the body necessarily realized in a suitable matter (principle of a thing) (essential whatness)

3 Basic types of soul

1. First Soul- Threptikon (The Nutritive and Reproductive) a. Plants only have this b. Nutrition- reproduction of self c. Reproduction- reproduction of everyone d. Irrational Activity 2. The Animal Soul- Aisthetikon (Sensitive/Perceptive) a. Sensation- dependent on objects out there -Plants dont have sensations b. Locomotion c. Implies theres desire d. Imagination e. Partly rational f. Can only apprehend particulars 3. The Intellectual Soul (Noetikon) a. Logos- speech or word then logic and reasoning b. We can apprehend universals (ex: concept of time) i. Not perceived only conceived 9/19/11 Read Nicomachean Ethics 181-187 210-223 The soul- form of the body and principle of organization 1. Threptikon (vegetable soul)- Nutritive or reproductive soul 2. Aisthetikon- sensitive/perceiving soula. Desire and imagination (having images) b. Locomotion c. Apprehends particulars- have sense organs (see/smell people from long distance without the matter hitting the eye) 3. Intellectual soul/human soul (Noetikon) a. Logos- can apprehend universals (essential characteristic/form/essence) i. Common essence that things of a common category have in common, definition of what the thing is

Passive vs. Active intellect Passive- intellect dependent on body (sensations/memories) tells you who your are (dies with death) Active- makes a thought and focuses, has a plan or principle (can survive death) Aristotles 4 causes (Aitia- Greek)= ways of explaining (the existence of the thing) = a reason why? 1. The Material Cause (Pg.31)- That out of which a thing comes to be and persist (Ex: a statue. Cause or Aitia-bronze) 2. The Formal Cause- The statement of essence= its definition- what kind of thing? Organization to function for living things (Formal cause of bronze is the form/shape so statue of a horse) 3. Efficient/Moving Cause- Source of change (the sculptor) 4. Final Cause- that for the sake of which ultimate reason/motive/end. Telos or end. Teleological cause. Aristotle says our soul is only 2,3 and 4 not 1. Demiurgos (god)- Thinking thinking its own thinking 1. Formal, Final and Efficient cause of the universe a. Unmoved mover because hes pure form and activity and all the creatures in the universe long to be like him b. NOT material cause i. He imposes form, did not create the matter because its eternal c. God didnt create world, matter is eternal (Christianity said he does d. God doesnt love you back (Christianity says God loves you back) 9/21/11 Read the Doctrine of the mean (Book 3) Human Function Argument- Active life in accordance with rational principle -Ergon- Actualizing function and that will make you happy Interpretation of how the 3 souls relate to each other: Intellectual Sensitive/Perceptive

Nutritive/Reproductive Interpretation 1 (Christian reading) 1. Maximize intellect (logos) and minimize the lower functions= leads to aesthetic life Interpretation 2 (Closer to Aristotle) 1. Human life is organized by reason (organizes reproduction, nutrition, and perceptions/sensation) Arete- virtue or excellence (can be and mostly is physical- running horse would be long legs, knife would be sharp blade) What are Aretes of humans? (2 types) 1. Moral Virtue of Character (Ethike) a. A product of Habit (Hexis)- does not arise by nature b. A circularity to developing them (do it and itll develop) c. A mean between two extremes- in actions and passions i. The mean in the object ii. The mean relative to us 1. Milo (a wrestler, if u eat as much as he does youll be obese) (courage is the mean between rashness and cowardice) iii. How do you know the mean and extreme? Look to other people who look like they have practical wisdom iv. Doctrine of the Mean/Intermediate 1. Right thing at the right time to the right degree 2. Righteous indignation 3. Deduction- moving from a general to a particular (All men are mortal, Socrates is a man, Socrates is a mortal) d. Pertain to actions and passion (I couldnt help it) 2. Intellectual Virtue of Intellect (Dianoeitke) 9/26/10 Good human luck entails a lot of luck/chance (tuche)

Need external props of the good life (Choregia)- wealth, high birth (nobility), friends, good children, and personal beauty If you have moral virtue and are pretty lucky then youll lead a good life Christian view- wealth corrupts or interferes with moral virtue -Moral virtue or excellence of character (ethike)-ethical (arte)-excellence: In the soul we have: 1. Passions and emotions 2. Faculties (of reasoning and seeing) 3. States of character (hexis) a. A product of habit (stabilized habit) b. Arises out of like activities (circularity)- training and education (by doing the act it becomes habit and part of you) c. The aim is internal to the activity d. Habit or trained faculty of choice Can you be morally responsible? You can if you: Have knowledge, Take pleasure in an activity, Are doing the act for itself, It proceeds from a firm character Definition of virtue in syllabus Excellence is a state of character concerned with choice, lying in a mean relative to us, this being determined by reason and in the way practical wisdom would determine it 10/3/11 Voluntary action- source of movement is not from myself (efficient cause) Choice- Narrower than voluntary, deliberation, reveals character, relates to possibilities What has been decided upon by previous deliberation Object of choice has to be within our power to obtain or alter Deliberation- 1. Deliberate about possible things within our power- actions that can be done 2. Deliberate about things that are unclear or obscure when we are in doubt (Should I eat this kind of food?) 3. Do not deliberate about particular facts

4. Deliberate about things that happen for the most part-actions (can never know absolutely how a person is going to act, human nature can never be known for the most part) 5. We deliberate about means not ends 2 Models of Practical Deliberation that are not Aristotles: -Both scientific (episteme) universal, precise, exact and scientific paradigm 1. Moral utilitarianism (Hume, Benthan, Adam Smith)- Cost benefit analysis A. The end is simple and it is set by our desires. (quantifiable) B. Practical reason= calculation or deliberation C. About the means only D. Aim= maximization of satisfying our desires (1. Cost benefit analysis 2. The action maximizes utility [public great, pleasure, happiness, profit] 3. Calculation. 4. Precise/ universal rule)

2. Moral Deductivism (Rule case interpretation) a. The ends form a hierarchy (god, happiness?) b. Fixed set of rules independent of me c. Applies the rules to particular cases (3. Deduction) 10/5/11 3. Practical Wisdom: (Phronesis)- Intellectual Virute (Arete) - NOT poisesis or making (techne): the product is important - Action or Praxis - NOT a form of scientific knowledge or episteme (not studying universals only particulars) - Purely human (the good is within us, standard of excellence is human) VARIABLE - Concerned with particular fact - Rests on educated perception - Training of the emotions- moral virtues

- Aristotles concept of rules are really summaries of good advice rules of thumb -Practical Syllogism- practical instance of reasoning Light meats are digestible This meat before me is light meat Therefore, we should eat this meat before me 10/12/11 Philos- friend or lover (Philia- friendship/love) Eros- sexual love [Agape- Christian love] Characteristics of a friend (Philia): must be reciprocated, necessary mutuality 1. We ought to wish the other well for their sake 2. Practical Doing (actually do stuff for the other) 3. Mutuality of awareness and caring and benefiting 4. The object of desire- whole person Eros: 1. One-sided 2. Can have sex for money 3. Object of desire- partial person 3 types of friendships 1. Pleasure (like young lovers)- unstable because when pleasure goes, so does the relationship 2. Utility or Advantage (like business partners)-based on advantage that reciprocally you bring each other 3. Character- most stable and long-lasting, most genuine and much deeper, I like the whole of him (can only be between two good characters) a. Brings self awareness about yourself and others b. Also pleasurable in itself c. Greatest of external goods Good life:

1. Self-sufficient- lacks nothing choregia- external goods and internal goods which are virtues (moral and intellectual- practical wisdom) 2. Completeness a. Activities in themselves pleasurable (not couch potato) Sensuous pleasures (2 types): 1. Those deriving from a lack= overcoming pain (example: eating, sleeping) 2. Those enjoyed positively for own sake- goes on longer and much more continuous Intellectual pleasures: 1. Intellect is active -Enjoyable to think about objects and you can go on and on about them (example: the person you like or contemplating about god) -Sophia= theoretical wisdom (highest point) -Knowledge of universal -Contemplation with the aim of truth -Most self- sufficient Exhibits leisure- schole -Most pleasurable Theoretical Wisdom vs. Practical Wisdom TEST 1 10/24/11 Modern Period 1. Problematization of God- (84 different proofs he existed and skeptics said he didnt exist) 2. Enlightenment turn back to Ancients (Greek and Rome- Pre Christian) 3. Reformation- (break away from the church) led to a certain freedom of religion- to be different from the church 4. The new mechanical physics (vs. Aristotle)- all change in nature can be explained through purely mechanical causes or Aristotles efficient cause efficient causality is enough to explain all natural events

a. Example- an acorn wants to grow into an oak tree, thats its final causality. It yearns for it. b. This is the new experimental method. c. Economy- economy emerges from feudal to capitalism David Hume (1711-1776) -Part of the new scientific outlook that developed the new experimental method a. Observing the behavior of people b. Listening to common sense c. Introspection -Empiricist (all knowledge arrives from the senses) -Moral distinctions dont rely on reason; they rely on a moral sentiment -Reason- the capacity to ascertain true or false 1. Abstract Reasoning or Reasoning on the relations between ideas (logic, math) necessary, certain, the opposite is impossible (a round square doesnt exist)= Logical/Theoretical Reasoning 2. Reason about matters of fact- about casual relationship (cause and effect) not certain, not necessary, problem because only probable= Empirical Reasoning (ex: we all believe the sun will come up tomorrow) 10/26/11 - Hume uses experimental method to understand morality (right and wrong) - Reason does NOT motivate the will or the decision to act -It doesnt originate action -Reason is a passive mirror that cant move anything -Then why do people think it could affect actions? Because at some point their desires are countered by another desire -Only thing that can stop a desire is a counter desire -Reason is a slave to our passions -Passion: is an original existence, or modification of existence, and contains not any representative quality, which renders it a copy of any other existence or modification -Original existence: a thing, which originates movement

-Modification of existence: change something/movement -Contains not any representative quality: (ideas represent objects) the correspondence theory of truce- the idea has to mirror the truth -A passion has no representative quality- not representing, just an expression 2 ways that we can call a passion unreasonable: 1. Hope/fear rests on a false believe about an object (child excited about unicorn) 2. Use insufficient means- theres a mistake in reasoning about cause and effect (want to walk to movies and still see the beginning of the movie even though it starts in 5 minutes) Morality has to do with our passion (not reason) the moral sentiment The moral sentiment: (calm passion) -Original instincts 1. To the good/pleasure (we get upset if others are in pain) [instinct of pleasure/pain] 2. The instinct to benevolence/sympathy/kindness 10/31/11 -Hume is a utilitarianism- the right action is that which maximizes utility- public good -Utilitarianism is a consequentialism- in order to determine the right action you look to the consequences (cost-benefit analysis of pain and pleasure) -Act Utilitarianism- look to the consequence of this particular action -Rule Utilitarianism- look to the consequence of the type of action (this action as a general rule)- Hume [Stealing a tv from a rich guy who wont notice its gone is still wrong because stealing tvs in general is wrong]

Judicious Spectator- Stand back and look at the action and say does this lead to the public good 11/2/11 Moral Sentiment: (pain/pleasure and benevolence/sympathy) -Reasoning is instrumental (between ideas and matter of facts)

-Consequentialist Position- The right action is that that has good consequences (utility- Hume thinks utility is the public good) -Act Utilitarian -Rule Utilitarian * Hume * Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) Scholasticism (studied old texts) Humans seek pleasure (Hume) but ought they to? And always? Deontologist (Kant) -Deontos: to bind -The good (moral) action is good in itself not about consequences -Good without qualification (under certain conditions they are good ex: courage is good but not when a guy has the courage to kill people) -Purpose of reason cannot simply be to give you pleasure/happiness because instinct would be better. Reason actually makes us unhappy! -So whats the purpose of reason? -To develop a good will -Paradox of Hedonism (hedonism- happiness is just sensuous pleasure like eating, drinking, sex) -Trying every minute to be happy will make you miserable! -Hume had empirical reason but Kant had pure practical reason. 11/7/11 Kant thinks reasoning deals with the good will and argues against Hedonism (Humes definition of happiness) -Kant thinks happiness is a wavering idea -The good will- that will that acts from duty (that does what it ought to do and acts for the right reasons) -The will- practical reason another definition Why would you not cheat people? 1. Prudence Acting in accordance (whats good for you) (animals dont have this)

2. Out of pflicht/right-to care (duty) (we have a duty to treat people well)Acting from the principle of duty Kant is a deontologist- believes the right actions value is in itself not the consequence (so lying is wrong) Duty is the necessity to act out of Achtung (respect or reverence) of the law Idea of law= universality and the moral law Pure practical reason The Categorical Imperative- make sure that the reason (maxim) youre acting upon is a universal law. It ought to be the case not that it is the case. No exceptions. Not conditioned by any further end. For all x, do y. Knowledge A Priori- before experience, not based on experience. (Its truce and falsity is not based on experience like a circle has 360 degrees) This is categorical imperative. Knowledge A Posteriori- based on experience Empirical (prudential) practical reason (will- ability to change the world) The Hypothetical Imperative- valid for all rational creatures if they want a particular end (if you want x, do y in circumstance z) (if you want to get better and you have a cold, take fluids and go to bed) On the hypothesis that you want this end (you wouldnt do it if you didnt want that end) Principles of rational choice. There are many of these but all conditional on the end. 11/9/11 Categorical Imperative- Framework of deliberation moral compass 1. Formulate your subjected maxim (as hypothetical imperative- whenever I believe myself short of money, I will borrow money and promise to pay it back though I know this will never be done)- principle on which you act, generalized motivewhat is your reason for acting? (Hes assuming youre a normal moral creature and sincere) 2. Universalize the maxim. (Whenever anyone finds themselves in such a state) 3. Generalize maxim (For all x) Formulate the maxim as if it were a law of natureabsolute and as if by instinct. (It has to happen, they have to do it) 4. Join the new law of human nature to everything you know about humans. The new social world. Then you ask 2 questions.

Ask yourself 2 questions: If your maxim survives these tests, then its moral. 1. Can I coherently conceive such a world? Contradiction in conception perfect duties (because theres no leeway to lie etc.) come out of this test. a) duty to others- law of contract b) duty to self (This is a legal duty- law of contracts) (Taking loans even though you know you wont be able to pay it back) 2. Can I sincerely will such a world? Contradiction in the will imperfect duties come out of this test (suicide, if everyone committed suicide when they felt pain, there would be no world) 11/14/11 Categorical imperative- we experience it as a command because were sensuous and rational creatures Moral Law- god and angels act according to this but dont experience it as a constraint because not sensuous and no bodies

Developing your natural talent- You have a talent (of healing people) but then you get a lot of money and doesnt want to do anything anymore. Asks himself is this right? Does my maxim of neglecting my natural gift violate the moral law? Can conceive the world but wouldnt will or want such a world. This is imperfect duty to myself. Helping Others- Maxim of indifference. I will not help others unless its in my selfinterest Cant will a world like this because we would want help. This is a duty to others. 11/16/11 Most of multiple choice on Hume, most of essay on Kant

Coercion by Kant 1. External by nature (hurricane) 2. Internal natural coercion (addictions) 3. Threatened by other people

Autonomy- giving yourself the law yourself, being principle in your actions- you act on your principle, doesnt come from outside or compulsion- (heteronomous), ideal of reason- if everyone were to act like that, positive freedom

Dignity-intrinsic value, infinite worth vs. things with price- relative value and can be exchanged

Must know 3 formulations- 3 ways of stating the categorical imperative TEST 2 11/23/11 Sexism/Racism 1.Sexism, unlike racism, readily lends itself to a morally unobjectionable descriptiondont recognize it as sexism. Benefactor role- social rule, could be broken down but vey hard cuz makes men feel good about themselves, men are supposed to take care of women determined by nature and thats why its problematic 2. The positive self concept of men has been more readily tied to their being sexists then has the positive self-concept of whites to their being racist. 3. Racist attitudes are relatively easier to give up their sexists ones.

Equality between humans 1. Descriptive sense of equality- lowest common denominator, many animals (apes) 2. Prescriptive sense of equality- moral ideal (aiming it) so include animals but no because of specisim- humans think their species is better than animal species the moral issue is can they suffer? 3 Practices with which we think were superior 1. Experiment 2. Eat 3. Philosophize a. No defense in eating meat for nutrition b. Suffer before they die? 11/30/11 World Hunger

Strong (Utilitariansim) 1. If it is in our power to prevent something bad from happening without thereby sacrificing anything of comparable moral importance, we ought morally to do it Weak 2. sacrificing something of moral importance

Hardin Libertarian- market is best way of distributing anything Life Boat ethics, 1/3 are wealthy nations 12/7/11 Michael Walzer Terrorism- an attack on the innocent 1.Violence is a last resort 2. Terrorism works 3. Universal resort of politics= everyone does it 4. National Liberation Struggle