Marxism and Christianity in Latin America Author(s): Michael Lowy and Claudia Pompan Source: Latin American Perspectives,

Vol. 20, No. 4, The Struggle for Popular Participation (Autumn, 1993), pp. 28-42 Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2633912 . Accessed: 27/09/2011 17:23
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Marxismand Christianity Latin America in

byMichaelL6wy Translated Claudia Pompan by For halfa century, Marxism beenproscribed-under caricatural has the epithet "atheist of communism"-asthe mostformidable insidious and enemy theChristian of faith. excommunication The decreed thepope in by the thepostwar yearswas merely canonical sanction theimplacable of and in that obsessivestruggle has builta wall of hostility LatinAmericaand the between faithful the the of church Marxist-oriented and throughout world in thiswall by the surprising The breaches politicalmovements. opened in of and the convergence Christianity Marxism LatinAmerica during past 30 years-particularly liberation been amongthe through theology-have inthe factors socialtransformation modern of most important history the of of hemisphere. Indeed,someof thekeysocial and political events recent in the decades-such as theNicaraguan revolution, popularuprising El in Brazil-can be and thenew grass-roots workers' movement Salvador, in nor neither understood explainedwithout bearing mindtheprofound in as has occurred LatinAmerican Catholic culture a result of changethat embraced incorporated ofthebasictenets and some of broad sectors' having current authoritarian offenof of Marxism. Regardless theoutcome Rome's will that sive-and thepossibility thisoffensive meetwithsome success an shouldnot be ruledout-these eventsalreadyconstitute irreversible historical fact. for have not Thesedevelopments beena causeofconcern only conservaof and tivebishopsand theologians, defenders Rome's orthodoxy, doctriin of of and naires thefaith thehighest spheres theVatican theConferencia Episcopal Latino-Americana (Latin AmericanBishops' Conferencewhometin 1987inMar the CELAM) butalso for LatinAmerican generals to advisors thepresident the of and del Plata,Argentina, theRepublican to Stateswhometin SantaFe in 1980and 1988.In an attempt head United
in He Perspectives. resides Parisand American of editor Latin MichaelLowyis a participating National la Recherche de Centre withtheGroupede Sociologiedes Religions, is associated in published Lua Nova (Vol. 19) in Sao Paulo,Brazil. was This Scientifique. article originally the her sciencefrom University a of received Ph.D. inpolitical ClaudiaPompan, native Brazil, in California. She resides Redlands, Riverside. currently ofCalifornia,
LATIN AMERICANPERSPECTIVES, Issue79, Vol.20 No. 4, Fall 199328-42 ? 1993LatinAmerican Perspectives 28

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off unexpected this phenomenon, Ronald Reagan's advisors resorted classic to inthe policeterminology ("infiltration") May 1980Santa document: Fe
U.S. foreign policyshould begintoconfront liberation theology (andnot just react it a posteriori) .... In LatinAmerica, roleoftheChurch vital to the is to of theconcept political freedom. the Unfortunately, Marxist-Leninist forces haveusedtheChurch a political as weaponagainst private ownership the and of capitalist system production, the infiltrating religious community ideas with that more are communist Christian. than

It would serveno purposeto dwell on thegrossinadequacy such an of it "analysis";suffice to say thatit is entirely incapableof explaining the internal dynamics these of sectors the of church ledthem take that to positions the of that often much against capitalist system production were more radical Marxist-Leninist thanthosetaken thetraditional by forces (i.e., theLatin communist American parties). Thesameteam experts of for (nowworking President Bush)haspublished a secondreport the as (SantaFe II) with thrust the basically samegeneral in first, albeit slightly sophisticated more terms. discussion not The has turned totheGramscian tactics usedbytheMarxists, havediscovered the who that most effective tocometopower by"dominating nation's is the way culture, a which meanssecuring position strong of influence religion, over schools, "It that themass media,and theuniversities": is in thiscontext liberation in should viewed, a political be as doctrine theguiseofa religious theology aimed beliefthatis antipapal and anti-free-enterprise, at weakening the in faceofstate of control." complex unique The and independence society the in betweenreligious and politicalconsiderations liberation relationship is thusreduced a mere"disguise," result theMarxists' to a of theology Machiavellian strategy. is A similar in thrust found thedocument liberation on theology presented at the Inter-American Conference ArmedForces in December1987. of and Despiteitssignificantly higher levelofdetail "expertise"-it probwas a conservative to as ablycomposed by theologian acting advisor thearmed also the within general the forces-thisdocument interprets phenomenon in of communist movement Latin framework a "strategy theinternational of various modioperandi." America, implemented through for to of Now, a minimum good sense would suffice any observer ofChristianity and that the recognize liberation theology-and convergence of in sectors thechurch-wasnottheresult anyconspirof Marxism certain or acy, strategy, tactic,infiltration, maneuver communists, by Marxists, an or but Gramscians, Leninists rather internal development thechurch of What needs to be and culture. itself, stemming fromits own tradition

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explained why occurred-why, a given is it at point history theearly in (i.e., 1960s) andin a givenarea (i.e.,LatinAmerica), sector theclergy a of and the Christian (mainly Catholic) laity the felt needtoadopt Marxist the method ofinterpretation transformation and ofreality. In this light, analysis Rome'smain the of opponent liberation of theology, Cardinal Ratzinger (1985: 122-130, translation), my is much more interesting and insightful. to According theeminent prefect theHoly Office the of of of in Doctrine Faith, the1960s"a perceptible vacuum meaning arisen of had in theWestern world. thissituation, various In the forms neo-Marxism of a force a promise meaning seemed and 'of becameboth moral that practically irresistible academic to youth." Moreover, moral "the challenge poverty of in andoppression itself an ineluctable presented form thevery at time when EuropeandNorth America attained hitherto had a unknown affluence. This newresponses were tobe found the calledfor that not in challenge evidently The tradition. changed and situation was existing theological philosophical in invitation seektheanswer a Christianity alloweditself to that a formal to be guidedby themodelsof hope,scientifically grounded, forward put by The of Marxist philosophies." outcome theemergence liberation was theologians"whofully embraced basicMarxist the If approach." thegraveness was it was of thedanger presented thisnew doctrine underestimated, by its "because it did notfitintoany of theacceptedcategories heresy; of concern cannot detected theexisting be fundamental by rangeof standard the Thereis no denying, cardinal that theology, this questions." concedes, which combines biblical Marxist is and exegesiswith analysis, "appealing" to has an "almost flawless of logic."It seemstorespond "therequirements scienceandthemoral of does challenges ourtime." This, however, notmake it anyless a threat: an is the "Indeed, error all themoredangerous, greater of thegrain truth contains." it The question remains "modelsof hope"in whyit was Marxist-oriented of that particular wereabletoseducesuchlargesectors theRomanCatholic whataspectsor ApostolicChurchin Latin America-morespecifically, of own and havefavored, elements thechurch's doctrine ofMarxism might A thatmight or their facilitated, encouraged convergence. concept prove Max Weber(1971) used to usefulin thistypeof analysisis theone that between religious form Protestant the a study reciprocal relationship (the selective of ethic) and an economicethos(thespirit capitalism): affinity certain On (Wahlverwandtschaft).thebasis of certain analogies, affinities, historical two structures certain correspondences, cultural may-in theright of into of circumstances-enter a relationship attraction, choice,ofmutual but a Thisis nota unilateral of selection. process influence rather dynamic or that dialectic interaction mayleadinsomecasestosymbiosis evenfusion.

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The following someexamples possible are of areasofaffinity corresponor dencebetween and Christianity socialism: The liberation slavesand theoppressed, a moralimperative a of as and historical process. Thisidea hasitsroots theOld Testament; is notmere in it coincidence grass-roots that communities liberation and theology attribute so much to importance thebookofExodus. The viewthat poor are innocent the victims injustice, of immune the to reigning corruption, the and ideaofa moral imperative acttosavethe to poor. thereis considerable Obviously, distancebetween poor of Catholic the doctrine the of and proletariat Marxist but theory, there nodenyingcertain is a socio-ethical the "kinship" between two. (Verwandtschaft) Universalism, internationalism ("catholicism" in its etymological and sense)-doctrine transnational institutions viewmankind a whole; that as affirmation thesubstantial of humanism, of unity humankind above races, ethnic and groups, nations. Criticism individualism. theMarxist of As LucienGoldmann sociologist in Marxism Christianity and (1955) observed hisbookonPascal,both reject or pureindividualism For (liberal/rationalist, hedonistic, empiricist). both the valuesaretransindividual: (for God theories, supreme and religion) the human community socialism). (for of Assignment greater valueto thecommunity,community tothe to life, communal of of sharing goods;criticism anonymity, alienimpersonality, selfish in societal life. ation, competition modern Anticapitalism. Webercorrectly Max a identified profound opposition between ethicalrationality theCatholicchurch the of and the economic of The church rationality capitalism. reified rejectsa totally impersonal, economicsystem thatlies beyondits moraland religious (Versachlicht) imperatives 1971:591-592).Criticism liberal of (Weber, has capitalism been one of the basic tenets thechurch's of ever magisterium since the 19th century. The hope for a future of kingdom justice and freedom, peace, and brotherhood The of amongall mankind. identificationthisaffinity between Christian socialist and doesnotnecessarily meanaccepting thesis the utopias ofNikolaiBerdiaev, KarlL6with, many and others Marxism merely that is a secularized of avatar Judeo-Christian messianism. It is obviousthat these in elements haveentirely different meanings the twocultural do and formal in systems that analogies andofthemselves not For is constitute a causefor there nothing farther from convergence. example, thepooras construed thechurch's in doctrine-astheobjectof traditional in and the charity paternal protection-than roleof theproletariat Marxist The outlined as of action. correspondences thinking, theagents revolutionary

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order from reconciling itself with capitalist abovedo notprevent church the andfrom communism, Marxism theintrinsically and as regarding socialism, faith-although there havebeenindividuals, perverse enemies Christian of branches within Catholicism the (and various groups, currents thought and of doctrines. to revolutionary ofProtestantism) havebeenattracted modern that of these analogiesintoa dynamic relationship Whattransforms formal selective is conjuncture, specifically one that the affinity a givenhistorical the a beganinthelate1950s.Thiswas,on theonehand, globalconjuncture: renewal European of crisis theological and Catholicism thewarandthe after of XXIII in 1958 and hisconvening a newcouncilwith of a election John doctrine practices. theother and On viewto theaggiornamentoof church Marxism thrown a crisis the20th was into Congress of institutional by hand, of of theCommunist Party theSovietUnionandthedenunciation Stalinism. for conditions a moreopen relationship These eventscreatedfavorable and a between although Europe (with fewexceptions, Christianity Marxism, than dialogbetween two a see more the e.g.,France)wouldnever anything and politically culturally opposedblocs. It was in LatinAmerica circumstances madepossiblea muchmore that The at radical point conjuncture beginning that convergence. LatinAmerican of inhistory characterized (1) anaccelerated was development capitalism, by and (underthe aegis of NorthAmerican urbanization, industrialization and capital)that deepenedsocial contradictions (2) theCuban revolution in the victory against imperialism LatinAmer(1959-1960), first grass-roots revolution thehemisphere, byMarxist in led forces socialist ica andthefirst communism. ofa newkind of (i.e., independenttraditional Stalinist-oriented) and The coming of twoprocesses-one structural socioecotogether these the of the and nomic, other political ideological-marked beginning a new in a grass-roots history, periodof social struggle, chapter LatinAmerican that the and leap movements, insurrections tooka quantum with Sandinista revolution continues this to was by and day.Thisnewstage marked a renewal in in American Marxist andanincrease influence Latin of thought, particular in It that (butnotexclusively) academia. was in thisconjuncture a relationwoulddevelop and between Christianity Marxism shipof selective affinity This America. and certain sectors thechurch itssocialbaseinLatin of among or was founded existing on analogies, tolead toa convergence relationship, in of articulation thesetwo traditionally opposedcultures; some cases it of in fusion a Marxist-Christian current thought. wouldevenlead to their describes which Weber for of the merely affinity, Indeed, concept selective of reinforcement mutual selection reciprocal and therelationship between that stemsfroman alchemicdoctrine distinct sociocultural phenomena,

L6wy/MARXISM AND CHRISTIANITY

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of in of of sought explain fusion bodiesin terms theaffinity elements to the their chemical makeup. of manifestationsthisprocessof The past30 yearshaveseennumerous The convergence selectiveaffinity. threeof mostdecisivehistorical by Christian Left order) Brazilian the importance been(in chronological have and revolution. Other oftheearly1960s,liberation theology, theSandinista example Camilism (basedon theideas of important modelsandforms-for the for and Camilo Torres), Christians Socialismmovement, the various in (Workers' Christian sympathies Brazil's Partidodos Trabalhadores the article. party-PT)-are beyond scopeofthis form Juventude of in Brazil'sChristian as itappeared the1960sinthe left, Academic Youth-JUC), Juventude EsCrista(Christian Universitaria Crista Student (Popular tudantil Youth-JEC),andAcao Popular (Christian inLatin of manifestation America thearticulation Action-AP), wasthefirst faith Marxist Christian and as witha broad between politics a movement This and the was the socialbase,inacademia evenamong clergy. process not eclesiasde base (ecclesiresult Vatican of CouncilII orofthecomunidades or asticbase communities-CEBs)or of liberation theology of the 1964 all Thatstudents werethe military coup; itbeganlongbefore theseevents. within church cometo knowthe"Marxist the to is first temptation" group on Marxandhisdisciples notsurprising, this the since was socialgroup which similar occurred inChileand later hadhadthestrongest influence; processes in on the Muchhas beenwritten JUC'shistory, particular noteelsewhere. of Gomezde Souza, OscarBeozzo, Emmanuel works Luiz Alberto worthy to is Bruneau. What ofinterest ouranalysis tosituate is de Kadt,andThomas in of ofCatholic culture Latin itin thehistorical process thetransformation here: America. Two aspects merit specialmention in the TheJUCof 1960and 1962represented first attempt anywhere the of of to current thought usingelements hemisphere developa Christian movement was marked a and Marxism. such,it was a pioneering As by its and level that, creativity despite initial surprising ofintellectual political in for was Latin set failure, thestage what tocomelater Brazilandthroughout was whenhe termed JUC's 10th-anniversary America. Pablo Richard right in of of in congress 1960"thebeginning a newstage thehistory Christianity that inBrazilandLatinAmerica" (1984:154).It is also noteworthy thiswas movement the bothwithin student but notjust newrhetoric a newpractice de de education and in thearea of grass-roots (theMovimento Educac,ao action Educational Base/Grass-roots political Movement-MEB) and,later, in it was while (AP). Furthermore, JUC'sdoctrine nottheological nature, did of an reality the represent effort thelaityto playa rolein thehistorical by

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country. was not a discussion religious It of topics(Christology, Bible exegesis, ecclesiology) rather analysis but an from religious a (i.e.,Catholic) viewpoint Brazil'seconomic, of social,andpolitical problems. During first this stage, Marxist the elements embraced JUCwerefew by certain butsignificant: basicconcepts (alienation, proletariat), the a general of analysis exploitation (defining working the class as "thegroup forced to on in sell itswork themarket exchange wagesthat notcorrespond for do to the value of its contribution theproduction to processand thatdoes not participate the in management saidproduction of process" [Regional CentroOesteda JUC,1979(1960)]),anda general anticapitalist stance favored that of socialism thewords Herbert Souza [1979 (1962), mytranslation], de (in "Wearewitnessing endofcapitalism the the and beginning world of socialist JUC'sideologs not did invoke construction"). Marx, although didreject they theanti-Marx to taboo;according de Souza, "We do notviewMarxas our becausewe already one,a different before. had master, one, we However, do readMarx."Themain references thedocuments strictly of are Catholic: Saint XXIII. Itis also worth Leo Thomas, XIII, PiusXII, John that noting JUCdid in of current Brazil, not follow model Marxism suchas that thePartido of any Brasileiro Communist Comunista (Brazilian party-PCB) or of anyof its its but of and dissidents, attempted own interpretationMarx'sthought of Brazilian conclusions muchmoreradicalthan PCB's, reality (reaching the in weremore linewith which state populism). in of Why was Brazil thefirst country whichthisdynamic selective and between was able to evolve,achieving affinity Christianity Marxism in the than anyother in church Latin during past30 yearsa greater impact The answer, course, in a series historical structural of America? lies of and factors. relevant theradicalization JUC,however, the to of Particularly is traditional influence French of Catholicculture theFrench and in church Brazil in contrast the Spanishand Italianmodelsof Christianity to that in prevailed the restof the hemisphere. Postwar French theology (Yves Christian YvesCalvez,Henri Lubac) de Congar, Duquoc,Dominique Chenu, an of represented advanced stageoftherenewal Catholicism, raising topics thatwouldlaterbe adoptedby Vatican Furthermore, II. French Catholic was had flow culture theonlyone that an uninterrupted of socialist figures of the from Charles andcurrents thought throughout 20th century: Peguyto Front the Christians thePopular of from revolutionary Esprit, (1936-1938) the of to theTemoignage Chretien theResistance (1940-1945),and from of fathers theMissionde Franceto the socialistConfederation working of des Travailleurs Chretiens (FrenchConfederation Christian Frangaise Workers-CFTC)oftheearly1960s.

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In addition thisdiffuse to influence theroleof French and missionaries at present thattimein Brazil (JeanCardonnel others), figures and two of progressive French Catholicism a direct had impact JUC in the 1960s: on FatherLebretand, above all, Emmanuel Mounier. Although Lebretwas toward he hostile Marxism, did nothesitate use categories to from Marxist and he recognized socialism"a pro-human in economicsin his studies, reaction against capitalism an inhuman as system" (1963 [1959]: 53, my was Mounier more radical: the translation). categorically rejecting capitalist he that Christians couldlearna lotfrom system, felt Marxism. Describing in "Personalism viewsthestructures his socialphilosophy 1947,he wrote: in of capitalism an obstacle thepathofman'sliberation needsto be as that and of and destroyed replaced a socialist by organization production conIn sumption" (1963 [1947]:244,mytranslation). JUC'sdocuments (suchas its guidelines a historical for ideal of 1960) notonlyis Mounierquoted but from writings criticism capitalist his frequently themes (e.g., of anonymityandimpersonality,thetyranny money) of of appearat every turn. There for is no doubt that an entire generation Brazilian of Catholics, Emmanuel and Mounier was thebridge between Christian anticapitalism Marxist antiIn context Brazilian in capitalism. suchan explosive as society that period of crisisof the populistmodel (1960-1964),Mounierand Lebretwere in and of reinterpreted evensurpassed a process growing political social and radicalization. is the of Liberation rather-asthe theology not origin radical Christianity; of themselves that theologians stress-itis theproduct a practice beganwith of Brazil'sJUCbetween 1960 and 1962.In thewords ClodovisBoff(Boff andBoff, 1985: 16,mytranslation),
in in beforeliberation theology emerged the late 1960s,the church Latin had a praxisof liberation. Beforetheadvent liberation of Americaalready we an and comtheologians, hadprophetic bishops, involved laity, liberation munities. Thatwas mostly theearly1960s.The theology in aroseduring a and of second moment, it came as the expression the church'spraxisof liberation. is Hence,liberation theology thetheology a church liberation, of of for that and a church optspreferentially with solidarity thepoor.

America witnessed development the the Indeed, throughout 1960sallofLatin described of (as a result theglobaland regional conjunction above) of a with ofthought was marked solidarity thepoor,a that current Christian by in and consciousness-raising emancipationist praxis, participation grassrootscultural movements, literacy programs, neighborhood organization, Marxist-oriented and rural unionization, even,in somecountries, political this had to The movements. basicidea,which begun germinate within deep

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praxisas a resultof experience withthe poor,landlesspeasants, slumdwellers, workers, women, blacks,and indigenous people,was that onlya radical change socialstructures-led the in by poorthemselves-could bring an endtopoverty. Liberation theology-the bodyof works published since 1971 by such figures Gustavo as Gutierrez, HugoAssmann, PabloRichard, Leonardo and ClodovisBoff,EnriqueDussel, and Frei Betto-embodiesthisidea and placesitatthecenter itsreinterpretation Gospel, newhermeneuof ofthe its ticsoftheOld Testament themessage Christ, itsreformulation and of and of This the church's embraces aspects Marxof magisterium. reformulation key in ismintegrated religious into rhetoric a much morecoherent organic and in manner than thedocuments theChristian of the1960s.Liberation of left saw as a theologians Marxism theonlytheory capableof offeringprecise, of as and systematic analysis thecausesofpoverty wellas a specific radical for it. proposal abolishing Thustheold anticapitalist tradition thechurch of with entered a relationship selective into of of affinity theMarxist analysis and launched LatinAmerican capitalist exploitation withthecriticism by was that Marxists (dependency theory) dependent capitalism thestructural of and authoritarianism. foundation underdevelopment, poverty, military for newtheology. with of Solidarity thepoorwas thepoint departure this the decisivenewelement, qualitative from The majordifference-the leap Catholic view-was that nowthepoorwereconsidered not thetraditional and the of the passivevictims, objectofcharity aid,butrather agents their It of own liberation. was becauseof thischange-theresult thepractical of the Christians experience involved during 1960s and 1970s-that the of with basicpolitical the problematic liberation theology cametoconverge of will tenet Marxism: theemancipation theworkers be achieved that of by theworkers themselves. Theprioritizationthepoorapproved theCELAM inPueblain 1979 of by in is in reality formula commitment, for sense a interpreted thetraditional more and of moderate conser(i.e.,theprovision assistance) thechurch's by and vative ranks ina radical but sensebytheliberation theologians themore to sectorsof the clergy, whomit is a commitment the for progressive The own liberation. class and of organization struggle thepoor fortheir but of struggle-not as a method analyzing just reality also as a guidefor a in or action-thusbecomes,implicitly explicitly, keyelement thenew In words Gustavo of Gutierrez theology. the (1974:276-277, translation), my to of "To deny existence classstruggle inessence, takethesideofthe the is, is on sectors. dominating Neutrality this point impossible." in with their Some liberation theologians present relationship Marxism tool. or it instrumentan analytical utilitarian terms, describing as a scientific

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(or often distinguishes philosophy ideology)of the This typeof approach the with Christian faith, from as Marxism, which rejected incompatible the is as which and shouldbe usedin theology a can social scienceof Marxism, arises two mediation. distinction from different This means socioanalytical of theory an "episof motivations: influence Althusser's the of butconvergent Marx and scienceand ideology his claimthat temological break"between (e.g., Lavoisier, shouldbe regarded a "manof sciencelike anyother" as in pressure defensibility,thefaceof anti-Marxist Galileo) and thegreater instrumental relationship bishops, a merely of from Romeandconservative of the underestimating importance withMarxistsocial science.Without it the that socialscience, is difficult overlook fact therelationship to Marxist in is and theology broader and between Christianity Marxism liberation of As concepts. a borrowing a seriesof analytic deeperthantheheuristic this also selective affinity, relationship refers through process convergence of values(community), ethical political and with options (solidarity to certain utopias society ofexploitation oppression). free and (a thepoor),andfuture as is of a theology theexpression a socialpraxis, And,inasmuch liberation an with at base,itsencounter socialmovement, activeexperience society's also-and mainly-occurs thelevelof a practical at commitment Marxism for Marxismis not merely method a of to popularstruggles liberation. in interpretation also, and above all (as Marx stressed his "Eleventh but of ofreality. Thesison Feuerbach" [1975(1845)]),a method transformation contribution toliberation has Marxism's theology As Ignacio Ellacuria noted, and is at once ethical, epistemological scientific), philosophical-to (i.e., which be should addedsocialandpolitical. embraces of Marxist all theology This does not mean thatliberation with that It those incompatible rejects aspects itconsiders thinking.obviously and cosmological materialism, criticism example, atheism, Christianity-for It thoseaspectsthatare of religiousalienation. selectively incorporates the and to the with congruent itseffort reinterpret Gospel, Old Testament, the takes the this church's However, reinterpretation intoaccount magisterium. of for of situation LatinAmerica's struggle poorand theexperience their It withtheaid of Marxism). is in thiscomplex social liberation (analyzed takes of that dialectic thealchemic affinity place. process selective was first since1789inwhich one revolution the TheSandinista Christians, level playeda keyroleatthegrass-roots as wellas in laypeopleandclergy, were in Christians not It of theleadership themovement. was thefirst which of alliesbutanorganic or component therevolutionary justtactical strategic National Nacional de Sandinista Liberacion the (Sandinista vanguard, Frente in was Liberation Christianity one Front-FSLN). Itwas also thefirst which

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of Marxism theSandino and tradition, the ofthekeyingredients, with along struggle. ideology inspired revolutionary that the youth and In thecourseof the 1970s,a growing number Christian of Marxism." With support suchpriests the of students discovered "Sandinista Cardenal, Uriel Molinaandthe Jesuit Fernando andclerics theFranciscan as university amongthemthe Christian variousmovements were formed, revolutionary movement, ofwhosememmost movement theChristian and Front bers would Christian ofthe cell Sandinista later the join FSLN. Thefirst Joaquin Cuadra,Alvaro Baltodano,and was made up of Luis Carrion, who on of Roberto Gutierrez, went to becomekeyleaders theorganization. Ernesto Cardenal, founder the Solentiname of At the same time,Father himself Marxist a whobelieved in did to community, nothesitate proclaim death. Cardenal (1973) wasadamant Godandinlifeafter Apoetanda mystic, the what was Marxbutreading Gospel. that madehima Marxist notreading of that than synthesis is moreintuitive As partof a movement spiritual free he that a society ofselfishness theological, argued Marx'scommunism, of is Christians understand thekingdom GodonEarth. as andinjustice, what in his Father to Gaspar group 1977, Justifying decision joinanFSLN guerrilla in his in in before death combat: GarciaLavianawrote a letter 1978,shortly
church force totakean me and that My faith thefact I belongto theCatholic of in with FSLN, sincetheliberation the activepart therevolutionary process of an oppressed My part peopleis an integral of thefullredemption Christ. in withthe activecontribution thisprocessis a signof Christian solidarity whoarefightingfree to them and those (n.d.:21,mytranslation). oppressed with

in and these links thecity the areas (in basecommunities) inrural Through de the ComAgraria [Evangelical (through Comit6 Evangelico Promocion a was unity mittee Agrarian for Advancement-CEPA]), kindof organic Christian atheist and revolutionaries within Sandinista the created between been seen. Whenthefinalinsurrection movement had neverbefore that in the the was occurred 1978-1979, areaswhere struggle themostintense weremainly thosein which andthebestorganized CEBs, Delegatesofthe had and Christians beenworking Monimbo, previously: Word, revolutionary and Esteli, thepoorneighborhoods Masaya,Chinandega, Leon,Matagalpa, ofManagua. in that had never anywhere happened Something happened Nicaragua not else: RadicalChristians, peopleas wellas clergy, onlytookan active lay in Somozabutalso assumed responsibilitiesthe in revolt key part the against of FSLN. As testimony under auspices the newrevolutionary government the in noted its"Declaration the Front of tothenovelty this situation, Sandinista have of on Religion" October 1980: "Christians beenan integral of part 7,

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at our revolutionary history a level unprecedented any revolutionary in in movement LatinAmerica, perhaps theworld.... Ourexperience and in hasproven itis possible be a believer atthesametime dedicated that to and a and revolutionary that there no contradiction is between two." the ThisactiveChristian participation-criticized growing with hostility by theofficial church Nicaraguan hierarchy (Cardinal Obandoandmost the of but bishops)and by theVatican supported thereligious by orders the in the country (particularly Jesuits)-wasan essential of element Sandinismo, an original from ideology stemming thefusion Sandino's of radical agrarian nationalism, revolutionary Christianity, the and Guevara-inspired interpretaMarxism. terminology, tionof LatinAmerican The and symbols, imagesof culture often are basedon Christian Sandinista themes. Thiscan be seenat thegrassrootsof themovement well as in therhetoric someof the as of FSLN's keyfigures, as LuisCarrion Tomas such and Borge. Commenting on the this phenomenon, Italian theologian GiulioGirardi (1983: 63, mytranslation)notes:
The clearest lies ethical content that signof thisinfluence in thevery strong to the that theoreticians the of permeates revolution, thepoint many European revolution, paladins the"scientificity"revolutionary of of wouldnot rhetoric, to it and hesitate classify as "moralist" "ideological." there no is Obviously, reasonto grant Christians monopoly ethicalconcerns; a on the however, in with the are frequency which they occur, language which they presented, reference Christ, Gospel,andtheBiblebyleaders to the who andtheexplicit a of are publicly peopleallowus to see in thissensibility reflection the lay Christian as presence well.

Front was also influenced Christian The very of practice theSandinista by with for to principle ideals, example, regard the proclaimed Toma's by Borge: "Ourvengeance be forgiveness." Nicaraguan will The revolution abolished and thedeath the modern movement since penalty became first revolutionary or its 1789nottouse theguillotine perform executions after victory. It is obviousthat thisconvergence notfreeof contradiction, was resissides.According Girardi to were and on tance, mistrust both (1983: 69),there in Sandinista old cadre: the orthodox based twodistinct positions the (1) view, that are on SovietMarxism-Leninism manuals, Christians alliesbutunreliAt with church. best, the converfaith links and able ones becauseoftheir at can gencewiththem occuronlyat thelevel of practice; thetheoretical and betweenmaterialism idealismis total.This level the contradiction the cadres without found was attitude often among average experience prior to 1979.(2) Thenew"Nicaraguan" view, inspired the by concrete experience are of that Christians part thevanguard. of common struggle, revolutionary

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The traditional Marxist theory religion of mustbe reformulated as to so recognize revolutionary its potential. Convergence revolutionary with Christiansis at once practical and theoretical faras the liberation the as of is oppressed concerned. Thislatter attitude shared themajority the is by of historical leadersoftheFSLN. An example this of original innovative and position be seenin Carrion's can (1985: 16,mytranslation) description of and fusion within revolutionary the convergence organic process that to led thetriumph July of 1979:
I see noobstacle wouldprevent that Christians, without renouncing faith, their all from embracing theconceptual Marxist instruments arenecessary that for of the scientific understanding social processesand forthe revolutionary of In orientation their political practice. other words, Christian be a a can and at there Christian a Marxist thesametimewithout beinganycontradicin tion.... In this sense, experience rich lessons. our is ManyChristians have in there evensomepriests. are fought are fighting theSandinista and Front; AndI do notmeanonlythose at are fighting thebase: someofthem members I oftheSandinista and Assembly havegreat responsibilities....think political tended perceive progressive that someoftheMarxist to the revoluvanguard sectors a rivalforcethat as wouldtakepotential tionary Christian political I avoided error from them. think weremistaken, having and that clientele they was one of theFSLN's greatest successes.We have linkedourselves with grass-roots structures thechurch to drawpeopleawaybuttointegrate of not as of without them theSandinista into Front a stage political development this in implying opposition their any to participation Christian organizations. On in them thosestructures that higher so this commitment thecontrary, left we might taketheform political of action thisarea.Theirintegration the in into their FSLN was never presented them a dilemma to as between Christian faith in Had we castthedebatein theseterms, and their we militancy theFront. wouldhavebeenreduced a very to smallnumber militants. of

Thephilosophical enigma-ortheoretical challenge-that Marxist Christior materialism can from of anity presents thepoint viewofhistorical dialectic If at and be discussed length ourselves among (Marxists atheists). we define then and Marxism above all as materialism (abstract metaphysical), it is an of it as unacceptable heresy. however,isconceived If, apriori a philosophypraxis of its a of (Gramsci), theory therevolutionary practice globaltransformation, is into integration selective by affinity revolutionary Christianityperfectly is for what comprehensible. Nevertheless, is essential Marxist analysis what Christians-in in The of happens reality. existence Marxist Nicaragua, Brazil, to socialandpolitical andthey an countries-is undeniable andother fact, bring in movement a moral the revolutionary sensibility, experience grass-roots work, but it. that anda utopian urgency cannot enrich

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by in The Vaticanhas been verymuchworried developments Latin in to the of America has beentrying thepastfewyears limit influence and of Theolliberation theology. "Instruction SomeAspects Liberation The on in for Doctrine Faith of criticized ogy"published 1984bythe HolyOffice the theology, but what calledthe"Marxist is option" thenewLatinAmerican of the results-instead giving of sincethis document notproduce expected did witharguments defended and their in, theradicaltheologians responded Instead theological of debate, it socialchoices-Rome changed strategy. its in Latin American church hasactedatthelevelofthestructurespower the of conservative known their for bishops hostility bysystematically nominating and base communities. best-known The to liberation theology totheradical of exampleis thenomination Mgr.JoseCardosoto replacetheagingD. of and in HelderCamaraas archbishop Recife.A conservative a specialist 1957 to 1979,thenewbishopquickly canonlaw wholivedin Romefrom the the and known dismissed leadersoftheLand Pastoral removed priests in to seminaries the fortheir commitment thepoor.Severaltheological to Northeast considered be influenced theprogressive by tendency Brazilian weresummarily closed. The aim of the Vaticanwas to preparethe 1992 CELAM in Santo of by Domingotoputan endtotheprioritizationthepooradopted previous in conferences Medellinin 1968 and Puebla in 1979. The preparatory for written theconservative CELAM leadership ("Elements document, by in Conference the of for Reflection Preparation theIVthGeneral Pastoral not celebraLatinAmerican Bishops,"1990),proposed onlya triumphalist of and of tionoftheFifth Centennial theHispanic Conquest Evangelization to traditional socialdoctrine thechurch. of This America also a return the but went as Leo Rerum document-which so far topresent XlI's 1891encyclical Novarum "the as Christian tothewarcry Marxism"-has of countermessage criticism from progressive theologians, general and metwithconsiderable ofviewwould a serious be not for of setback only liberation adoption itspoint in but theology forall of the social movements LatinAmericathathave oftheprogressive church. the and enjoyed material spiritual support the raising implemented pastoral by However, workof consciousness and leaders radicaltheologians, base community leftist agents, Christians, results are irreversible. that the during past30 yearshas already produced the of The hundreds thousands Christians of throughout continent (and who arepartandparcelof the in America) particularly Braziland Central ofthe movement self-liberation poorwillnotgivein,andthetheologians for in a tool who andChristian activists havediscovered Marxism precious lay tochange their minds. are the and for interpreting changing world notlikely

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REFERENCES
Boff, Leonardo ClodovisBoff and 1985 Teologia libertaV&o debateatual.Petropolis: da no Vozes. Cardenal, Ernesto 1973"Comunismo igualreino diosen la tierra," 37-42inMurolatino. de pp. Medellin. Comandante Luis Carri6n, 1985"Les Chr6tiens la r6volution dans sandiniste." Inprecor (August): 246 15-17. Giulio Girardi, 1983Fe en la revoluci6n, revolucion la cultura. en Managua:Editorial NuevaNicaragua. Lucien Goldmann, 1955Le Dieu cache.Paris:Gallimard. Gustavo Guti6rrez, de Lumen 1974Thtologie la liberation: Brussels: Vitae. Perspectives. Laviana,Comandante PadreGasparGarcfa n.d.Folletos populares GasparGarciaLaviana.No. 8. Managua. Lebret, J. L. Paris:Economie Humanisme. et solidaire. 1963Pour unecivilisation Marx,Karl in London:Penguin Books/New LeftRe1975 "Concerning Feuerbach," EarlyWritings. view. Mounier, Emmanuel in vol. 1963"Qu'est-ceque le personnalisme?" Oeuvres, 3. Paris. Ratzinger, Cardinal 1985"Les cons6quences fondamentales option in d'une marxiste," 122-130 Theologies pp. Paris:Cerf. de la liberation. da Regional Centro-Oeste JUC diretrizes umidealhist6rico de 1979"Algumas cristao parao povobrasileiro," 84-97in pp. dos Luis Gonzagade Souza Lima(ed.),EvoluVdo catolicos da igrejano Brasil:Hipoteses e Vozes. para umainterpretagdo. Petropolis: Pablo Richard, e da 1984Morte cristandades nasciemento igreja.Sao Paulo:Edic6esPaulinas. das de Souza, Herbert crista 1979 (1962) "Juventude hoje,"pp. 108-117in Luis Gonzagade Souza Lima (ed.), e umainterpretaCdo. dos Petr6polis: EvoluCdo cat6licos da igrejanoBrasil:Hipotesespara Vozes. Max Weber, et 1971Economie societe.Paris:Plon.