METAL FORMING PROCESS

Forming can be defined as the process in which the desired size and shape of the object are obtained through plastic deformation of material. The stresses induced during the process are greater than yield strength but should be less than the fracture strength. Different types of loading may be used depending on the process. Tensile Compressive Shear Bending CLASSIFICATION OF METAL WORKING PROCESS Metal working process may be classified as the ease with which metal may be formed into useful shapes byPlastic deformation process Metal removal process PLASTIC DEFORMATION PROCESS In this the volume and the mass of the metal are conserved and the metal is displaced from one location to another. METAL REMOVAL PROCESS In this the material is removed from the stock in order to give it required shape. CLASSIFICATION OF METAL FORMING PROCESS Metal forming process may be classified on the basis of type of forces applied to the work piece as it is formed into direct shape Direct compression type process (e.g.-Forging, Rolling) Indirect compression process (e.g.-Extrusion, Wire Drawing) Tension type process (e.g.-Stretch forming) Bending process Shearing process These categories are: 1) Direct compression type process 2) Indirect compression processes 3) Tension type processes 4) Bending processes 5) Shearing processes

CHARACTERISTICS OF WROUGHT PRODUCTS Plastic deformation Surface defects is eliminated Finer grain structure

Advantages of Metal Forming

Mechanical Properties Microstructure Material Yield Saving Short Runs Low Tooling Costs Design and Change Flexibility Quality Production Lead Times Part Integrity Directional Strength

Cross section of continuous grain flow of custom forged contoured ring.

Structural Strength Impact Strength Part Flexibility Variety of Sizes Variety of Shapes

Grain Flow Comparison Forged Bar: Directional alignment through the forging process has been deliberately oriented in a direction requiring maximum strength. This also yields ductility and resistance to impact and fatigue. Machined Bar: Unidirectional grain flow has been cut when changing contour, exposing grain ends. This renders the material more liable to fatigue and more sensitive to stress corrosion cracking. Cast Bar: No grain flow or directional strength is achieved through the casting process.

HIGH ENERGY RATE FORMING (HERF)

New forming techniques have been developed in the recent years with the main aim of increased production rates and also to form a variety of high strength materials. The new processes have been termed as High Energy Rate Forming (HERF) processes. Yet another development is super plastic forming wherein under certain conditions, the ductility of materials can increases from around 40% to 300%. In high speed forming, the speed of the metal movement is appreciably higher and depending upon the source of energy, HERF is classified as under: a) Explosive forming b) Electro-hydraulic forming c) Electro-magnetic forming PROCESS PRINCIPLES High-energy rate forming refers to processes that form parts at very high velocities and high pressures. A more accurate name for the process may be high-velocity forming because the most distinguishing feature is the high forming velocity rather than the expenditure of large quantities of energy. All of the HERF processes involve a short, sharp, forming energy input usually of microsecond duration. The energy level employed in HERF varies widely depending upon the requirements of application. While as little as 10 joules of energy may be required to form a small transistor enclosure, a large work piece such as a tank turret may require a forming energy in excessive 1*109 joules. PROCESS VELOCITY m/sec (f/sec) Hydraulic press 0.03 (0.10) Brake press 0.03 (0.10) Mechanical press 0.03-0.73 (0.1-2.4) Drop hammer 0.24-4.2 (0.8-14) Gas-actuated ram 2.4-82 (8-270) Explosive (HERF) 9-228 (30-750) Magnetic (HERF) 27-228 (90-750) Electro-hydraulic (HERF) 27-228 (90-750) Generally speaking, HERF processes make use of a short burst of energy that is transmitted to the part surface through a medium such as water or air. The resulting force or shock wave acts to force the part into the die cavity that has the desired shape of the finished part. Forcing the part into the die in this manner drastically reduces die cost because the need for the male die is completely eliminated. Materials being formed at a very high velocity behave almost like a fluid; they can be formed beyond their usual limits and maintain excellent dimensional control. Materials that are difficult to form by conventional methods because of springback will undergo large amount of plastic deformation with almost no springback when HERF is used. In

addition, HERF will typically improve material properties by improving the ultimate tensile strength and producing a more uniform strain throughout the part. Three processes are prominent in HERF family; they are electro-magnetic forming, explosive forming and electro-hydraulic forming. As illustrated in the table the forming velocities for these HERF ranges from 10 to 100times faster than the conventional processes. When the forming speed for the process is above 150m/s (500ft/s), it is usually considered to be a part of the HERF family.

EXPLOSIVE FORMING
Explosive forming has evolved as one of the most dramatic of the new metalworking techniques. Explosive forming is employed in Aerospace and aircraft industries and has been successfully employed in the production of automotive-related components. Explosive Forming or HERF (High Energy Rate Forming) can be utilised to form a wide variety of metals, from Aluminium to high strength alloys. In this process the punch is replaced by an explosive charge. The process derives its name from the fact that the energy liberated due to the detonation of an explosive is used to form the desired configuration. The charge used is very small, but is capable of exerting tremendous forces on the workpiece. In Explosive Forming chemical energy from the explosives is used to generate shock waves through a medium (mostly water), which are directed to deform the workpiece at very high velocities. Methods of Explosive Forming Standoff Method Contact Method Working The system used for Standoff operation consists of following parts: 1) An explosive charge 2) An energy transmitted medium 3) A die assembly 4) The workpiece. Figure 1 shows an arrangement of Standoff Explosive forming operation. The die assembly is put together on the bottom of the tank. Workpiece is placed on the die and blankholder placed above. A vacuum is then created in the die cavity. The explosive charge is placed in position over the centre of the workpiece. The explosive charge is suspended over the blank at a predetermined distance. The complete assembly is immersed in a tank of water.

Fig. 1 , Explosive Forming Set Up After the detonation of explosive, a pressure pulse of high intensity is produced. A gas bubble is also produced which expands spherically and then collapses until it vents at the surface of the water. When the pressure pulse impinges against the workpiece, the metal is displaced into the die cavity. The basic elements are : an explosive charge an energy transmitting medium work-piece holder work-piece Auxiliary equipments include forming tank, vacuum pump & air compressor. Explosive charge There are two categories: low power explosive with velocity of detonation of around 200 m/sec (gun powder & cordite) high power explosive with velocity of detonation of around 8000 m/sec Tri-Nitro Toulene (TNT), Cuclotrimethylene trinitramine (RDX) and pentacrythritol tetranitrate (PETN). Detonation is carried out from remote using a detonator. Explosives Features of Low and High Explosives

Property Method of initiation

High Explosives

Low Explosives

Primary HE-ignition, spark, flame, or impact Ignition Secondary HE-detonator, or detonator and booster combination Microseconds

Milliseconds up to about Pressure up to about 4,000,000psi 40,000psi + Time required to convert a working amount of high explosive into high-pressure gaseous products Properties of Some Explosives

Conversion time+

Explosive
RDX (Cyclotrimethylene trinitramine, C3H6N6O6) TNT (Trinitrotoluene, C7H5N3O6) PETN (Pentaerythritol tetranitrate, C5H8N12O4) Tetryl (Trinitrophenylmethyli nitramine, C7H5O8N5) Blasting gelatin

Relative power %TNT 170 100 170 129 99

Form of charge Pressed granules Cast Pressed granules Pressed granules Cartridge plastic

Detonation Energy, KJ/kg velocity, m/s 8380 7010 8290 7835 7985 1270 780 1300 ---1220

Maximum pressure, Gpa 23.4 16.5 22.1 ---17.9

Die Materials Different materials are used for the manufacture of dies for explosive working, for instance high strength tool steels, plastics, concrete. Relatively low strength dies are used for short run items and for parts where close tolerances are not critical, while for longer runs higher strength die materials are required. Kirksite and plastic faced dies are employed for light forming operations; tool steels, cast steels, and ductile iron for medium requirements.

Material of Die
Kirksite

Application Area

Low pressure and few parts

Fiberglass and Kirksite Fiberglass and Concrete Epoxy and Concrete Ductile Iron Concrete

Low pressure and few parts Low pressure and large parts Low pressure and large parts High pressure and many parts Medium pressure and large parts

Characteristics Very large sheets with relatively complex shapes, although usually axisymmetric. Low tooling costs, but high labor cost. Suitable for low-quantity production. Long cycle times.

Transmission Medium Formability Aspects

Advantages of Explosion Forming Maintains precise tolerances. Eliminates costly welds. Controls smoothness of contours. Reduces tooling costs. Less expensive alternative to super-plastic forming. Application Explosive forming is the preferred method for forming extremely large parts such as tank car bulkheads, rocket fuel tanks and missile nose cones which may be impractical to form

conventionally. Explosive forming is primarily used to form parts of complex shape and metals that are difficult to form by conventional methods (i.e. titanium or work hardening stainless-steel). Simple shapes that can easily be formed conventional forming methods should not be considered for explosive forming. Because only a single die is required with explosive forming, the die saving for large work pieces can equal tens of thousands of dollars and when compared with spin forming cost can be cut 20-50%. Parts produced range from a few grams to several tons. Jet engine nose cones which were earlier produced by conventional methods involved spot welding of several pieces. Now a single piece is obtained by explosive forming. Spark igniter guide and steel domes are now formed by this method. Typical components produced by Electro-hydraulic Forming includes fabrication of Al Nose Cones for Jet Engines, Spark igniter guide and explosively formed steel dome.

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC FORMING
Electro-magnetic forming is a process used for forming electrically conductive work piece by electro-magnetic pressure. The work piece is placed in the proximity of the pulsed magnetic field that is created by an electrically driven magnetic coil. During the electric pulse, the eddy currents created within the part act to resist the force of the coils magnetic flux. The resulting force between the magnetic flux and the eddy currents deform the parts rapidly pushing it into the die. Force of approximately 410Mpa (60,000psi) can be achieved with electro magnetic forming. Electro-magnetic forming is also called magnetic pulse forming and uses the fundamental principle that when current passes through a conductor, a magnetic field is established around it. If there is a change in the current, there is a change in the magnetic field which in turn induces current in another conductor placed in the field. The direction of the current is such that the magnetic field associated with it opposes the original magnetic field. Interaction of the two magnetic fields causes the conductors to be repelled. The current drawn from the capacitor causes magnetic field surrounding the forming coil. Work-piece acts as a secondary conductor and as a result of repelling force. Forming is achieved by virtue of the work-piece impinging on a Die or mandrel. In electro-magnetic forming, current is discharged very rapidly through the coil and the link between the coil and the work-piece is purely inductive and there is no spark or shock wave as is the case in explosive forming.

In certain types of applications, field shapers ( as per the sketch indicated) are used. These are insulated from the work-piece to prevent arcing (which would result in loss of energy and also damage to the work-piece. Field shapers aid in metal movement so as to conform to the shape of the Die.

The work-piece must be electrically conductive ( at least with resistivity less than 15 micro-ohm/cm and provide uninterrupted path for the current to travel. Factors affecting the performance electro-magnetic forming are: voltage, frequency and energy gap between coil and work-piece circuit inductance force and pressure work-piece characteristics coil geometry How does electromagnetic forming work? Electromagnetic forming is based on something called the Lorentz force. Basically whenever an electrical current is rapidly imposed within an electrical conductor, it will develop a magnetic field. This change in magnetic field will induce eddy currents in any nearby conductor that generally run in a direction opposite to the primary current (like in a transformer). These eddy currents develop their own magnetic field and cause a mutual repulsion between the workpiece and actuator. This technique is quite general and is

suitable for any workpiece made from a good conductor provided the current pulse is of a sufficiently high frequency. The spatial distribution of pressure can be controlled by the configuration of the actuator and the overall force magnitude is largely controlled by the discharge energy. What are the fundamental benefits of high velocity forming? Formability is improved. We have observed over 100% plane strain elongation in aluminum subjected to a single room temperature high velocity forming event. A full understanding of high velocity formability is still not available, but it appears one primary reason is a resistance to sheet metal necking that is developed by inertia. Impact has benefits. When sheet metal strikes a tool at high velocity large compressive impact stresses are developed. These coin the sheet into the die surface. This can reduce springback, improve surface finish and enhance formability. Wrinkling is suppressed. When a sheet is launched with a particular velocity profile, each part of the sheet would like to travel along its launch path. Wrinkling usually necessitates a change in direction. Thus at high velocity wrinkling is inhibited my material momentum. As an example, one can reduce the diameter of slender rings with an electromagnetic impulse by a 2:1 ratio or more.

What is Electromagnetic Metal Forming?

Electromagnetic metal forming (EMF) is the use of electromagnetic forces to form metal. There are two very broad implementations.

Radial forming, in which a round part such as a tube or ring is compressed or expanded. The forming can be done either onto a die to give the tube a more complex shape, or onto a smaller tube to swage the two tubes together. Sheet forming, in which a metal sheet is formed against a die to give it a more complex shape.

How does EMF work?

Briefly, EMF works by the magnetic induction effect. When a coil or solenoid is placed near a metallic conductor and pulsed via an energy store like a capacitor bank, a magnetic field is generated between the coil and the workpiece. If done quickly enough, the magnetic field is excluded from penetrating into the workpiece for a short period of time. During this time, a pressure is generated on the workpiece that is proportional to the magnetic flux density squared. This "magnetic" pressure is what provides the forming energy.

The energy is usually supplied to the workpiece in the form of kinetic energy. The magnetic pressure pulse accelerates the workpiece up to a certain velocity (such as 200300 m/s). This kinetic energy drives the material into the die, causing forming on impact.

Why would I choose EMF over other processes?

For some applications, EMF has distinct advantages over conventional forming processes. Any time you need to form a round part radially inward (or outward), the radial direction of the electromagnetic forces is ideal. Examples are forming a ringshaped part onto a tube-shaped part, or a tube-shaped part onto a disk-shaped part. The forming causes the two parts to swage or mechanically lock together. IAP has formed tubes and rings with diameters ranging from about 1 inch to above 24 inches. If you use your imagination, this describes a lot of parts. Another reason to choose EMF is to form sheet materials in a different way than conventional processes to improve surface quality. EMF can eliminate sheet surface problems present in conventional metal forming methods such as stretching stringers or marring from punches. Reduced Springback Electromagnetic forming is also beneficial in forming applications where spring back is more of a concern than formability.

What are the cost benefits of EMF?

EMF has the highest cost savings in the following situations:

eliminate one or more processing steps combine assembly or joining operations eliminate the need for welding (especially in aluminum alloys) eliminate quality problems by improving forming quality of sheet systems are smaller and more flexible than hydraulic presses of comparable capacity

How fast can EMF make parts?

It varies. The electromagnetic forming step takes a fraction of a second, so the only speed limitations are 1) how fast can the EMF system recharge and fire its capacitor banks, and 2) how fast can the material handling system move workpieces in and out of the EMF press. Our current equipment designs are rated at 4 - 12 parts per minute. Faster designs are possible. Electromagnetic sheet forming, also known as magnetic pulse forming, is based on the repulsive force generated by the opposing magnetic fields in adjacent conductors. The primary field is developed by the rapid discharge of a capacitor bank through the "driver

coil" conductor and the opposing field results from the eddy current induced in the "workpiece" conductor. Therefore, a fundamental requirement for this forming method is that the workpiece must be an electrical conductor. The efficiency of electromagnetic forming is directly related to the resistance of the workpiece material. Materials, which are poor conductors, can only be effectively formed with electromagnetic energy if an auxiliary driver sheet of high conductivity is used to push the workpiece. Electromagnetic forming of axisymmetric parts, using either compression or expansion solenoid type forming coil is, to date, the most widely used of the electric pulse energy methods. The common application is for the swaging of tubular components onto coaxial mating parts for assembly. Not as common is the forming of shallow shells from flat sheets using flat spiral coils. Figure 1.5 shows schematics of the general classes of electromagnetic forming coils and work pieces.

Figure 1.5: Electromagnetic forming coils for small parts a) tube compression b) tube expansion c) flat sheet or pan forming Electromagnetic pulse forming is currently used in the automotive industry most commonly for crimping and swaging operations on tubular type parts. One high production example of the industrial application of electromagnetic pulse forming is the pressure tight crimping of canister type oil filter assemblies. Electromagnetic forming can be performed, with lower efficiency, without coils. In this case the work piece itself forms part of the direct current path closing the circuit on the charge source. For this reason it could also be called "direct" electromagnetic forming. If the part pre-form is such that the current flow is parallel to itself, the driving form

pressure can be contained completely within the part. If the initial part geometry does not permit a parallel current flow, then an insulated "reaction" block of highly conductive material must be placed close to the part area to be formed, opposite to the direction of desired deformation. An opposing eddy current will be induced in the reaction block, which can generate the desired repulsive magnetic forming pressure on the part. This condition is the inverse of more conventional electromagnetic forming where the induced eddy current is in the workpiece. In general, part geometries will allow only a single current loop path. Therefore, such "direct" forming will tend to have rather low electromagnetic force efficiency compared to separate multi-turn coils which can generate greater force per ampere on the work piece. Advantages Only one die is required No requirement for part lubrication Easily automated with high rates Applicable to high volume production Disadvantages Coil placement sometimes limits configuration Capital cost is potentially very high Size and thickness of work piece is limited Application This process is mainly used mainly to compress, expand or form tubular works. Flat pieces also can be formed by using specially designed coils. In many instances, this process leads to a single piece component eliminating assemblage of multiple parts In automobile industry, this process is used for assembling hoses for high pressure work, assembling dust covers for shock absorbers, heat exchangers etc. Likewise, cams, universal joints etc are assembled on to a shaft by this process In electrical industry, this process is used for fitting ceramic sleeves to the conductors In nuclear industry, this process is used to provide sheath for fuel rods which are sealed for remote operations Electro-magnetic forming can be used to form light-gauge metals into shapes up to 300mm (12in.) in diameter and, in very special cases, shapes very light gauges in diameter up to 1.3m(50in.). The process is limited to a minimum 25mm(1in.) diameter part because of limitation in fabricating small forming coils. Electromagnetic radial compression forming is used by the automotive industry to form and simultaneously swage copper rings around rubber seals in automotive ball joint assemblies. Process rate are 300 parts an hour and because the ball joint assembly provides the backing, no die is needed.

Another electro-magnetic retaining ring application is shown in the fig_8.3. This figure shows a complete system for forming and installing retaining bands onto oil filters that are used for aircrafts and off road vehicles. The system is completely automated and contains two electro-magnetic forming machines, a rotary table and automatic unloading devices. Production rates of 1200 assemblies an hour are achieved with this system. A rather unique use for electro-magnetic forming is repair of dents in aircrafts and spacecrafts. An electromagnetic dent puller as shown in the fig_8.4 is often used by aerospace industry to remove dents from structure that have no access to the back side such as tanks, honey comb surfaces and double walled assemblies. The hand held device is pressed against the damaged surface while a series of magnetic pulses hammers out the dents. Comparing with the old methods of repairing the damaged surface by filling, the electromagnetic technique is much faster, minimizes the loss of strength due to damaged material and eliminates the need to clean up or strip painted surfaces before repair.

ELECTRO HYDRAULIC FORMING

This method is mainly for forming tubular and flat products by rapid discharge of electrical energy and is particularly suitable for large volumes of small components. The set-up required for Electro-hydraulic forming is indicated in the sketch below. The workpiece is immersed in water together with electrodes which are connected through a switch to a bank of capacitors. Initially the capacitors are charged with from a power rectifier through a charging resistor to a predetermined voltage and energy level. When the switch connecting the capacitors and the electrodes is closed, the energy stored in the capacitor is suddenly released and is converted into a shock wave in the water which forms the work-piece into a Die. In some cases, a thin wire is kept between the electrodes which get vaporized and increases the intensity of the shock waves. Energy stored in the capacitor is E = CV2, where E is energy in Joules, C is capacitance in Farads and V is the charge voltage. A typical electro-hydraulic forming unit having an energy level of 20 kJ could be obtained from a 100 F capacitor bank with a charge voltage of 20 kV. By keeping the inductance of the capacitors a slow as possible to get rapid discharge of the capacitor and achieve peak pressures for forming.

Electro hydraulic forming of tubular parts

Electro hydraulic forming of Flat parts Process variables in Electro-hydraulic forming Following process variables have to be optimized for maximum efficincy of operation: gap between the electrodes capacitance, voltage and energy distance between spark gap and work-piece (stand off distance) Vertical distance between spark gap & surface of water Diameter of initiating wire (vary from 0.20 mm & 1.5 mm) and material of the wire (Al or Cu) Overall cycle time Die material and Tooling requirements for Electro-hydraulic forming: For small quantities of production, plaster of Paris or epoxy resin can be used. For larger parts steel Dies are required. Heat treated steel is necessary for blanking operations. For

forming tubular products, split Dies can be used. Evacuation of the Die is required to avoid surface defects and conformance to the Die configuration. Applications of Electro-hydraulic forming The main applications of electro-hydraulic forming are: 1. Bulging of tubs 2. Dishing of flat plates 3. Embossing 4. Piercing of holes 5. Tube expansion Advantages and disadvantages Advantages: 1. Odd shaped holes can be easily made 2. Compared to conventional process of wherein separate sheets are to be formed and welded, electro-hydraulic forming offers the advantage of making the part as a single piece and thereby reducing the cost. 3. Blanking operations with exact conformance to the configuration can be made 4. The principle of this method can be extended other applications such as : To accelerate chemical reactions To produce fine metallic and non-metallic particles To join two materials The disadvantage of the process is mainly the longer cycle time required

POWDER METALLURGY TECHNIQUE

Powder metallurgy (P/M) is a manufacturing process in which components are directly produced by bringing powder of the starting material into the desired final shape by compressing the powders in Dies. The strength and other desirable properties are imparted to the consolidated powders by subsequent sintering operation. It is one of the cheap mass production process for manufacturing high quality, high strength and complex parts with high degree of dimensional accuracy. Porous parts as well as parts with high density can be produced. It is an expensive process due to the cost of Dies and machine. Schematic Diagram of Powder Metallurgy Process Basic steps of the process are: Preparation of metal powders of desired composition Mixing and blending to ensure even distribution. Additives (binders) and lubricants are added Compacting the blended powders to bring out the final configuration. The powders are brought into intimate contact by applying pressure to get the desired shape and green strength Sintering operation by heating the compacted powders at temperatures slightly lower than melting point to establish permanent bonding. Powder metallurgy route involves repeated welding or fracturing of metal powders and finally mechanical mixing g of matrix with reinforcement.

Preparation of powders
Common methods include Atomization, Reduction, Electrolytic deposition and Crushing and grinding Atomization Following three techniques are used Rotary arc electrode technique Water jet or inert gas jet technique Soluble gas atomization technique

Characteristics of metal Powder

Both strength and density of green compact (after consolidation) and sintered product depend upon various characteristics (as outlined below) of the metal powders. Surface area Density Flow rate

Particle size and shape

Mixing and blending

The aim of this step is necessary in following situations: to obtain uniform distribution of particle sizes. Making of homogeneous alloyed powders To ensure filling up of interstices between large particles To thoroughly mix binders in cases where adequate strength are required (for example in sintered carbide tool material like tungsten carbide, cobalt is added as binder) Additives to aid the process of sintering Lubricants are added to reduce Die wall friction and also reduce friction between particles Mixing and blending is generally done in a Ball mill.

During compacting green strength is obtained due to the following reasons.

sliding action with pressure promotes adhesion and even cold welding of powders mechanical inter-locking takes palce especially with irregularly shaped particles bonding agents occupy the interstices and increase the adhesion

In the single punch design, the bottom punch acts as a support at the time of compacting and as an ejector at the end of compacting stroke. The upper punch and the Die cavity apply pressure on the powders. The main drawback of the design is the powder compact will transmit the pressure uniformly as a solid would, due to the wall friction. This will result in significant variation in the green compact strength and density along the thickness. Hence, this method is restricted to parts with a wall thickness less than 5 mm. The improved design is to have a floating Die and not fixed. Die will also move by the friction force between the powder and container, when the upper punch moves downwards. There will be uniform density of compact as against the single punch with fixed Die. The design can be further improved by having double punch, wherein there is movement of both upper and bottom punch. In this case, minimum density would be in the middle. The variation in density will be appreciably less than that of single punch. In order to overcome the frictional forces in the walls, other methods have been developed. These include cold iso-static pressing, extrusion and Roll bonding. In this method, a uniform density through out the compact can be achieved. An elastic or a flexible mould (reusable rubber or single use metal foil) contains the metal powder while omni directional pressure is applied by means of a pressure vessel. If the medium is gas then the method is called iso-staic pressing or when water is used then the method is known as hydro-static pressing. Pressures up to 500 Mpa can be achieved. Metal

powders such as Al, Mg, W, Be, Stainless steel can be compacted. If the pressuring medium directly acts on the powder fill, then the method is known as wet bag tooling , whereas if the medium acts on a membrane, the method is called as Dry Bag Moulding. Advantages of iso-static pressing: 1. Uniform density distribution even in complex shapes 2. No lubrication necessary and hence no burning off stage during sintering 3. Larger parts can be compacted economically Disadvantages of iso-static pressing: 1. Dimensional control not very precise 2. Rate of production lower as compared to Die-Punch method 3. Smooth Surface finish is not possible

Hot densification
Sometimes, instead the conventional compaction to produce the green compact, parts of desired shape is formed without pressure and subsequently hot pressed. This method is also called powder forging wherein densities up to 99.5% can be obtained. Advantages of Powder forging include: 1. High density 2. High production rates 3. Lower forging load and hence lower wear of the Die 4. Lower forging temperature 5. Reduction of lead time and inventory

Infiltration
In this process, molten metal with lower melting point is used to fill the porosity of the sintered part. Capillary action with use of vacuum is employed to fill the molten metal. The operation effectively seals the surface porosity and hence electro-plating can be done successfully. Copper and brass are common metals used for infiltration.

Impregnation
If the pores are filled with an organic oil, the operation is called impregnation. Lubricants are added to the porous bearings, gears and pump rotors. Application of vacuum aids the process. Such bearings are called self lubricated bearings. Porosities for such parts are in the range of 30 to 35%. For production of self lubricated bearings, Iron or bronze compositions are used. Typically powders of copper, tin and graphite and a small amount of stearic acid are added. Parts may be impregnated with wax for moisture resistance. Hot iso-static pressing:

The chief problem in hot pressing is the wear out of the Dies. Further in hot pressing, ceramic or graphite Dies are used where pressure transmission is not uniform. These can be overcome by hot iso-static pressing. In this process, the metal powder is encased in metal or ceramic container or can. The can is heated to elevated temperature with simultaneous application of pressure. Pressure up to 300 MPa is applied omni directionally. The powders get compacted, densified and sintered in one step. This process is particularly suitable for exotic metals like Uranium, Zirconium and Ti alloy powders.

Advantages
1. Process is ideally suited for exotic metals and ceramics 2. Since low temperatures can be used, high degree of micro-structural control possible. 3. Near net geometries of complex parts can be produced

Limitations
1. High cost of canning 2. Longer cycle time 3. Difficulty in marinating uniform pressure

Advantages and limitations of P/M Parts

1. High cost effectiveness since near-net shape of the part can be made with close dimensional tolerances and eliminating scrap 2. Certain parts can only be made by P/M route a) Electrical contact points having good electrical conductivity and wear resistance (W-Cu, W-Ag) b) Electrical bushes (Cu with graphite) c) Production of Cermets (metal + ceramics) for tool material (alumina with 10%W) d) Mechanically alloyed super-alloys e) Production of welding electrodes (Cu + W) f) Thoriated nickel for jet engine parts g) Production of permanent magnets (Fe-Al-Ni-Co) h) Production of Self lubricated bearings i) Bi-metallics and laminated parts can be produced 3. Powders are available with high purity and hence parts with extreme purity can be made 4. Very high production rates (500 to 100 pieces per hour) 5. Complex parts can be produced

Limitations
Equipment and Die Costs as well as powder costs are high Storage of metal powders can pose problems A complete dense part not possible Part size and weights are restricted Product design limitations & Lower mechanical properties Significant points to remember during Powder Metallurgy Processing Since Powder Metallurgy can produce parts Near Net Shape, this process eliminates a number of secondary processing and assembly operations. Therefore P/M process is becoming highly competitive processing amongst the conventional manufacturing processes like Casting, Forging and Machining. However, because of high costs of Punches and Dies as well as that of the Presses, production volume should be high to justify thee cost. Powder Metallurgy processing also reduces the amount of scrap to a very great extent. The very nature of P/M processing to Near Net shape products poses lot of challenges. A number of factors have to be considered at the design stage itself. A few examples of correct design procedures are illustrated below:

Configuration of the part Wrong design Correct design

Remarks
Diameter of the hole and distances from edge should be more than 1.5 mm. As otherwise, there is high risk of failure during compaction

d S

d S

S / d < 1.5

S / d > 1.5

When upper punch is withdrawn, there is no balance of force acting on the flange of the Part and hence spring back produced by lower punch will try to bend the piece. Adequate thickness of the flange should be ensured Deep and narrow splines must be avoided as it will lead to weak sections

Configuration of the part Wrong design Correct design

Remarks
Rounded corners allow better filling of powders and increase the Die life

Completely conical shape parts may cause Upper Punch jam during pressing. A flat portion provides easy removal of the Part

A fillet radius favours adequate filling of the metal powders and increases the robustness of the Part

FORGING
Forging is the process by which metal is heated and is shaped by plastic deformation by suitably applying compressive force. Usually the compressive force is in the form of hammer blows using a power hammer or a press. Forging refines the grain structure and improves physical properties of the metal. With proper design, the grain flow can be oriented in the direction of principal stresses encountered in actual use. Grain flow is the direction of the pattern that the crystals take during plastic deformation. Physical properties (such as strength, ductility and toughness) are much better in a forging than in the base metal, which has, crystals randomly oriented.

Forgings are consistent from piece to piece, without any of the porosity, voids, inclusions and other defects. Thus, finishing operations such as machining do not expose voids, because there aren'any. Also coating operations such as plating or painting are t straightforward due to a good surface, which needs very little preparation. Forgings yield parts that have high strength to weight ratio-thus are often used in the design of aircraft frame members. A Forged metal can result in the following Increase length, decrease cross-section, called drawing out the metal. Decrease length, increase cross-section, called upsetting the metal. Change length, change cross-section, by squeezing in closed impression dies. This results in favorable grain flow for strong parts

Forging is manufacturing process where metal is pressed, pounded or squeezed under great pressure into high strength parts known as forgings. The process is normally (but not always) performed hot by preheating the metal to a desired temperature before it is worked. It is important to note that the forging process is entirely different from the casting (or foundry) process, as metal used to make forged parts is never melted and poured (as in the casting process). Why use forgings and where are they used? The forging process can create parts that are stronger than those manufactured by any other metalworking process. This is why forgings are almost always used where reliability and human safety are critical. But you' rarely see forgings, as they are ll normally component parts contained inside assembled items such a airplanes,

automobiles, tractors, ships, oil drilling equipment, engines, missiles and all kinds of capital equipment - to name a few. How FORGINGS compare to Castings 1. Forgings are stronger. Casting cannot obtain the strengthening effects of hot and cold working. Forging surpasses casting in predictable strength properties - producing superior strength that is assured, part to part. 2. Forging refines defects from cast ingots or continuous cast bar. A casting has neither grain flow nor directional strength and the process cannot prevent formation of certain metallurgical defects. Preworking forge stock produces a grain flow oriented in directions requiring maximum strength. Dendritic structures, alloy segregation' and like s imperfections are refined in forging. 3. Forgings are more reliable, less costly. Casting defects occur in a variety of forms. Because hot working refines grain pattern and imparts high strength, ductility and resistance properties, forged products are more reliable. And they are manufactured without the added costs for tighter process controls and inspection that are required for casting. 4. Forgings offer better response to heat treatment. Castings require close control of melting and cooling processes because alloy segregation may occur. This results in nonuniform heat treatment response that can affect straightness of finished parts. Forgings respond more predictably to heat treatment and offer better dimensional stability. 5. Forgings' flexible, cost-effective production adapts to demand. Some castings, such as special performance castings, require expensive materials and process controls, and longer lead times. Open-die and ring rolling are examples of forging processes that adapt to various production run lengths and enable shortened lead times. How FORGINGS compare to Weldments/Fabrications 1. Forgings offer production economies, material savings. Welded fabrications are more costly in high volume production runs. In fact, fabricated parts are a traditional source of forging conversions as production volume increases. Initial tooling costs for forging can be absorbed by production volume and material savings and forgings intrinsic production economics lower labor costs, scrap and rework reductions and reduced inspection costs. 2. Forgings are stronger. Welded structures are not usually free of porosity. Any strength benefit gained from welding or fastening standard rolled products can be lost by poor welding or joining practice. The grain orientation achieved in forging makes stronger parts.

3. Forgings offer cost-effective designs/inspection. A multiple-component welded assembly cannot match the cost-savings gained form a properly designed, one-piece forging. Such part consolidations can result in considerable cost savings. In addition, weldments require costly inspection procedures, especially for highly stressed components. Forgings do not. 4. Forgings offer more consistent, better metallurgical properties. Selective heating and non-uniform cooling that occur in welding can yield such undesirable metallurgical properties as inconsistent grain structure. In use, a welded seam may act as a metallurgical notch that can lead to part failure. Forgings have no internal voids that cause unexpected failure under stress or impact. 5. Forgings offer simplified production.Welding and mechanical fastening require careful selection of joining materials, fastening types and sizes, and close monitoring of tightening practice both of which increase production costs. Forging simplifies production and ensures better quality and consistency part after part. How FORGINGS compare to Machined Bar/Plate 1.Forgings offer broader size range of desired material grades. Sizes and shapes of products made from steel bar and plate are limited to the dimensions in which these materials are supplied. Often, forging may be the only metalworking process available with certain grades in desired sizes. Forgings can be economically produced in a wide range of sizes from parts whose largest dimension is less than 1 in. to parts weighing more than 450,000 lbs. 2. Forgings have grain oriented to shape for greater strength. Machined bar and plate may be more susceptible to fatigue and stress corrosion because machining cuts material grain pattern. In most cases, forging yields a grain structure oriented to the part shape, resulting in optimum strength, ductility and resistance to impact and fatigue. 3. Forgings make better, more economical use of materials. Flame cutting plate is a wasteful process one of several fabricating steps that consumes more material than needed to make such parts as rings or hubs. Even more is lost in subsequent machining. 4. Forgings yield lower scrap; greater, more cost-effective production. Forgings, especially near-net shapes, make better use of material and generate little scrap. In highvolume production runs, forgings have the decisive cost advantage. 5. Forgings require fewer secondary operations. As supplied, some grades of bar and plate require additional operations such as turning, grinding and polishing to remove surface irregularities and achieve desired finish, dimensional accuracy, machine-ability and strength. Often, forgings can be put into service without expensive secondary operations. How FORGINGS compare to Powder Metal Parts (P/M)

1. Forgings are stronger. Low standard mechanical properties (e.g. tensile strength) are typical of P/M parts. The grain flow of a forging ensures strength at critical stress points. 2. Forgings offer higher integrity. Costly part-density modification or infiltration is required to prevent P/M defects. Both processes add costs. The grain refinement of forged parts assures metal soundness and absence of defects. 3. Forgings require fewer secondary operations. Special P/M shapes, threads and holes and precision tolerances may require extensive machining. Secondary forging operations can often be reduced to finish machining, hole drilling and other simple steps. The inherent soundness of forgings leads to consistent, excellent machined surface finishes. 4. Forgings offer greater design flexibility. P/M shapes are limited to those that can be ejected in the pressing direction. Forging allows part designs that are not restricted to shapes in this direction. 5. Forgings use less costly materials. The starting materials for high-quality P/M parts are usually water atomized, pre-alloyed and annealed powders that cost significantly more per pound than bar steels. How FORGINGS compare to Reinforced Plastics/Composite (RP/C) 1. Forgings offer greater productivity. New advanced-composite part designs may often require long lead times and substantial development costs. The high production rates possible in forging cannot yet be achieved in reinforced plastics and composites. 2. Forgings have established documentation. RP/C physical property data are scarce and data from material suppliers lack consistency. Even advanced aerospace forgings are established products with well-documented physical, mechanical and performance data. 3. Forgings offer broader service temperature range. RP/C service temperatures are limited and effects of temperature are often complex. Forgings maintain performance over a wider temperature range. 4. Forgings offer more reliable service performance. Deterioration and unpredictable service performance can result from damage to continuous, reinforcing RP/C fibers. Forging materials out-perform composites in almost all physical and mechanical property areas, especially in impact resistance and compression strength. APPLICATIONS AUTOMOTIVE & TRUCK The characteristics of forged parts strength, reliability and economy are what makes them ideal for vital automotive and truck applications. Forged components are commonly

found at points of shock and stress such as wheel spindles, kingpins, axle beams and shafts, torsion bars, ball studs, idler arms, pitman arms and steering arms. Another common application is in the powertrain, where connecting rods, transmission shafts and gears, differential gears, drive shafts, clutch hubs and universal joints are often forged. Although typically forged from carbon or alloy steel, other materials such as aluminum and microalloyed steels are seeing great advances in forged auto and truck applications. AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY & EQUIPMENT Strength, toughness and economy are also important in farm implements. In addition to engine and transmission components, key forgings subjected to impact and fatigue range from gears, shafts, levers and spindles to tie-rod ends, spike harrow teeth and cultivator shafts. VALVES, FITTINGS, OIL FIELD APPLICATIONS Because of their superior mechanical properties and freedom from porosity, forgings are often associated with the high pressure applications of the valve and fitting industry. Corrosion and heat-resistant materials are used for flanges, valve bodies and stems, tees, elbow reducers, saddles and other fittings. Oil field applications include rock cutter bits, drilling hardware, and high-pressure valves and fittings. HAND TOOLS & HARDWARE Forged has traditionally been the mark of quality in hand tools and hardware. Pliers, hammers, sledges, wrenches and garden tools, as well as wire-rope clips, sockets, hooks, turnbuckles and eye bolts are common examples. Surgical and dental instruments are also often forged. Special hardware for electrical transmission and distribution lines such as pedestal caps, suspension clamps, sockets and brackets are commonly forged for strength, dependability and resistance to corrosion. OFF-HIGHWAY EQUIPMENT/RAILROAD Strength, toughness, machinability and economy account for the many uses of forgings in off-highway and heavy construction equipment, mining equipment, and material handling applications. In addition to engine and transmission parts, forgings are used for a wide variety of gears, sprockets, levers, shafts, spindles, ball joints, wheel hubs, rollers, yokes, axle beams, bearing holders and links. GENERAL INDUSTRIAL EQUIPMENT Forgings of great size are often found in industrial equipment and machinery used by the steel, textile, paper, power generation and transmission, chemical and refinery industries to name just a few. Typical forged configurations include bars, blanks, blocks, connecting rods, cylinders, discs, elbows, rings, T' shafts and sleeves. s, ORDNANCE/SHIPBUILDING Forged components are found in virtually every implement of defense, from rifle triggers to nuclear submarine drive shafts. Heavy tanks, missiles, armored personnel carriers, shells and other heavy artillery are common defense-related applications of forged components.

AEROSPACE High strength-to-weight ratio and structural reliability can favorably influence performance, range, and payload capabilities of aircraft. Made of various ferrous, nonferrous and special alloy materials, forgings are widely used in commercial jets, helicopters, piston-engine planes, military aircraft and spacecraft. Some examples of where a forging' versatility of size, shape and properties make it an ideal component s include bulkheads, wing roots and spars, hinges, engine mounts, brackets, beams, shafts, landing gear cylinders and struts, wheels, brake carriers and discs and arresting hooks. In jet turbine engines, iron-base, nickel-base and cobalt-base superalloys are forged into components such as discs, blades, buckets, couplings, manifolds, rings, chambers and shafts. What metals are forged? Just about any metal can be forged. However, some of the most common metals include: carbon, alloy and stainless steels; very hard tool steels; aluminum; titanium; brass and copper; and high-temperature alloys which contain cobalt, nickel or molybdenum. Each metal has distinct strength or weight characteristics that best apply to specific parts as determined by the customer. What are the types of forging processes? There are basically four methods (or processes) to make a forged part. 1. Impression Die Forging 2. Cold Forging 3. Open Die Forging 4. Seamless Rolled Ring Forging 1. Impression Die Forging Upsetting Fundamentally, impression die forgings produced on horizontal forging machines (upsetters) are similar to those produced by hammers or presses. Each is the result of forcing metal into cavities in dies which separate at parting lines.

The impression in the ram-operated "heading tool" is the equivalent of a hammer or press top die. The "grip dies" contain the impressions corresponding to the hammer or press bottom die. Grip dies consist of a stationary die and a moving die which, when closed, act to grip the stock and hold it in position for forging. After each workstroke of the machine,

these dies permit the transfer of stock from one cavity to another in the multipleimpression dies. Process Capabilities Commonly referred to as closed-die forging, impression-die forging of steel, aluminum, titanium and other alloys can produce an almost limitless variety of 3-D shapes that range in weight from mere ounces up to more than 25 tons. Impression-die forgings are routinely produced on hydraulic presses, mechanical presses and hammers, with capacities up to 50,000 tons, 20,000 tons and 50,000 lbs. respectively. As the name implies, two or more dies containing impressions of the part shape are brought together as forging stock undergoes plastic deformation. Because metal flow is restricted by the die contours, this process can yield more complex shapes and closer tolerances than open-die forging processes. Additional flexibility in forming both symmetrical and non- symmetrical shapes comes from various preforming operations (sometimes bending) prior to forging in finisher dies. 2. Cold Forging Most forging is done as hot work, at temperatures up to 2300 degrees F, however, a variation of impression die forging is cold forging. Cold forging encompasses many processes -- bending, cold drawing, cold heading, coining, extrusions and more, to yield a diverse range of part shapes. The temperature of metals being cold forged may range from room temperature to several hundred degrees. Process Operations 1. Forward extrusion reduces slug diameter and increases its length to produce parts such as stepped shafts and cylinders.

2. In backward extrusion, the steel flows back and around the descending punch to form cup-shaped pieces.

3. Upsetting, or heading, a common technique for making fasteners, gathers steel in the head and other sections along the length of the part.

Process Capabilities Cold forging encompasses many processes bending, cold drawing, cold heading, coining, extrusion, punching, thread rolling and more to yield a diverse range of part shapes. These include various shaft-like components, cup-shaped geometry' hollow parts with s, stems and shafts, all kinds of upset (headed) and bent configurations, as well as combinations. Most recently, parts with radial flow like round configurations with center flanges, rectangular parts, and non-axisymmetric parts with 3- and 6-fold symmetry have been produced by warm extrusion. With cold forging of steel rod, wire, or bar, shaft-like parts with 3-plane bends and headed design features are not uncommon. Typical parts are most cost-effective in the range of 10 lbs. or less; symmetrical parts up to 7 lbs. readily lend themselves to automated processing. Material options range form lower-alloy and carbon steels to 300 and 400 series stainless, selected aluminum alloys, brass and bronze. There are times when warm forging practices are selected over cold forging especially for higher carbon grades of steel or where in-process anneals can be eliminated. Often chosen for integral design features such as built-in flanges and bosses, cold forgings are frequently used in automotive steering and suspension parts, antilockbraking systems, hardware, defense components, and other applications where high strength, close tolerances and volume production make them an economical choice.

In the process, a chemically lubricated bar slug is forced into a closed die under extreme pressure. The unheated metal thus flows into the desired shape. As shown, forward extrusion involves steel flow in the direction of the ram force. It is used when the diameter of the bar is to be decreased and the length increased. Backward extrusion, where the metal flows opposite to the ram force, generates hollow parts. In upsetting, the metal flows at right angles to the ram force, increasing diameter and reducing length. 3. Open Die Forging Open die forging is performed between flat dies with no precut profiles is the dies. Movement of the work piece is the key to this method. Larger parts over 200,000 lbs. and 80 feet in length can be hammered or pressed into shape this way. Process Operations

Process Capabilities Open-die forging can produce forgings from a few pounds up to more than 150 tons. Called open-die because the metal is not confined laterally by impression dies during forging, this process progressively works the starting stock into the desired shape, most

commonly between flat-faced dies. In practice, open-die forging comprises many process variations, permitting an extremely broad range of shapes and sizes to be produced. In fact, when design criteria dictate optimum structural integrity for a huge metal component, the sheer size capability of open-die forging makes it the clear process choice over non-forging alternatives. At the high end of the size range, open-die forgings are limited only by the size of the starting stock, namely, the largest ingot that can be cast. Practically all forgeable ferrous and non-ferrous alloys can be open-die forged, including some exotic materials like age-hardening superalloys and corrosion-resistant refractory alloys. Open-die shape capability is indeed wide in latitude. In addition to round, square, rectangular, hexagonal bars and other basic shapes, open-die processes can produce: a. Step shafts solid shafts (spindles or rotors) whose diameter increases or decreases (steps down) at multiple locations along the longitudinal axis. b. Hollows cylindrical in shape, usually with length much greater than the diameter of the part. Length, wall thickness, ID and OD can be varied as needed. c. Ring-like parts can resemble washers or approach hollow cylinders in shape, depending on the height/wall thickness ratio. d. Contour-formed metal shells like pressure vessels, which may incorporate extruded nozzles and other design features. 4. Seamless Rolled Ring Forging Seamless rolled ring forging is typically performed by punching a hole in a thick, round piece of metal (creating a donut shape), and then rolling and squeezing (or in some cases, pounding) the donut into a thin ring. Ring diameters can be anywhere from a few inches to 30 feet. Process Operations

Process Capabilities Rings forged by the seamless ring rolling process can weigh < 1 lb up to 350,000 lbs., while O.D.s range from just a few inches up to 30-ft. in diameter. Performance-wise, there is no equal for forged, circular-cross-section rings used in energy generation, mining, aerospace, off-highway equipment and other critical applications. Seamless ring configurations can be flat (like a washer), or feature higher vertical walls (approximating a hollow cylindrical section). Heights of rolled rings range from less than

an inch up to more than 9 ft. Depending on the equipment utilized, wall-thickness/height ratios of rings typically range from 1:16 up to 16:1, although greater proportions have been achieved with special processing. In fact, seamless tubes up to 48-in. diameter and over 20-ft long are extruded on 20 to 30,000-ton forging presses. Even though basic shapes with rectangular cross-sections are the norm, rings featuring complex, functional cross- sections can be forged to meet virtually any design requirements. Aptly named, these contoured rolled rings can be produced in thousands of different shapes with contours on the inside and/or outside diameters. A key advantage to contoured rings is a significant reduction in machining operations. Not surprisingly, custom-contoured rings can result in cost-saving part consolidations. Compared to flatfaced seamless rolled rings, maximum dimensions (face heights and O.D.s) of contoured rolled rings are somewhat lower, but are still very impressive in size. High tangential strength and ductility make forged rings well-suited for torque- and pressure-resistant components, such as gears, engine bearings for aircraft, wheel bearings, couplings, rotor spacers, sealed discs and cases, flanges, pressure vessels and valve bodies. Materials include not only carbon and alloy steels, but also non-ferrous alloys of aluminum, copper and titanium, as well as nickel-base alloys. What kind of equipment is used to make forgings? Although the styles and drive systems vary widely, a forging can be produced on any of the following pieces of equipment. Hammers with a driving force of up to 50,000 pounds, pound the metal into shape with controlled high pressure impact blows. Presses with a driving force of up to 50,000 tons, squeeze the metal into shape vertically with controlled high pressure. Upsetters are basically forging presses used horizontally for a forging process known as "upsetting". Ring Rollers turn a hollow round piece of metal under extreme pressure against a rotating roll, thereby squeezing out a one-piece ring (with no welding required).