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ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
DEFINING ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR (OB):
Organizational behavior has emerged about a couple of decades ago. OB is a theoretical subject and field of science. Or in other words OB tends to be more theoretically oriented and at the micro level of analysis. Specifically, OB draws from many theoretical frameworks of the behavioral sciences that are focused at understanding and explaining individual and group behavior in organizations. So OB can be defined as; It is an attempt to replace all the management with behavioral science concepts and techniques. Or much more comprehensive definition can be; Organizational Behavior is the science which tries to understand, predict and manage the human behavior in an organization

EXPANATION:
Organizational Behavior represents the behavioral approach to management, not the whole management. It works on the principles and knowledge of Psychology. OB has its basis from the Industrial psychology. But it is not the new version of translation of industrial Psychology. It has its own grounds of study. Simply, to put it in a few words Organizational behavior is the science which makes an easy and better management of the human resources to perform better.

WHAT MANAGER DO?

What do managers do? One good answer to this question comes from the late Peter Drucker, whose name that stands out above all others in the century-long history of management studies.

Mr. Drucker divided the job of the manager into five basic tasks. The manager, he wrote: 1) Sets objectives. The manager sets goals for the group, and decides what work needs to be done to meet those goals. 2) Organizes. The manager divides the work into manageable activities, and selects people to accomplish the tasks that need to be done. 3) Motivates and communicates. The manager creates a team out of his people, through decisions on pay, placement, promotion, and through his communications with the team. Drucker also referred to this as the integrating function of the manager. 4) Measures. The manager establishes appropriate targets and yardsticks, and analyzes, appraises and interprets performance.

5) Develops people. With the rise of the knowledge worker, this task has taken on added importance. In a knowledge economy, people are the companys most important asset, and it is up to the manager to develop that asset. While other management experts may use different words and focus on different aspects of these responsibilities, Mr. Druckers basic description of the managers job still holds. MANAGEMENT FUNCTION: Henery Fayol wrote that each manager perform five management function:

1. Planning:
It is the basic function of management. It deals with chalking out a future course of action & deciding in advance the most appropriate course of actions for achievement of pre-determined goals. According to KOONTZ, Planning is deciding in advance - what to do, when to do & how to do. It bridges the gap from where we are & where we want to be. A plan is a future course of actions. It is an exercise in problem solving & decision making. Planning is determination of courses of action to achieve desired goals. Thus, planning is a systematic thinking about ways & means for accomplishment of pre-determined goals. Planning is necessary to ensure proper utilization of human & non-human resources. It is all pervasive, it is an intellectual activity and it also helps in avoiding confusion, uncertainties, risks, wastages etc.

2. Organizing:
It is the process of bringing together physical, financial and human resources and developing productive relationship amongst them for achievement of organizational goals. According to Henry Fayol, To organize a business is to provide it with everything useful or its functioning i.e. raw material, tools, capital and personnels. To organize a business involves determining & providing human and non-human resources to the organizational structure. Organizing as a process involves:

Identification of activities. Classification of grouping of activities. Assignment of duties. Delegation of authority and creation of responsibility. Coordinating authority and responsibility relationships.

3. Staffing:
It is the function of manning the organization structure and keeping it manned. Staffing has assumed greater importance in the recent years due to advancement of technology, increase in size of business, complexity of human behavior etc. The main purpose o staffing is to put right man on right job i.e. square pegs in square holes and round pegs in round holes. According to Kootz & ODonell, Managerial function of staffing involves manning the organization

structure through proper and effective selection, appraisal & development of personnel to fill the roles designed un the structure. Staffing involves:

Manpower Planning (estimating man power in terms of searching, choose the person and giving the right place). Recruitment, selection & placement. Training & development. Remuneration. Performance appraisal. Promotions & transfer.

4. Directing:
It is that part of managerial function which actuates the organizational methods to work efficiently for achievement of organizational purposes. It is considered life-spark of the enterprise which sets it in motion the action of people because planning, organizing and staffing are the mere preparations for doing the work. Direction is that inert-personnel aspect of management which deals directly with influencing, guiding, supervising, motivating subordinate for the achievement of organizational goals. Direction has following elements:

Supervision Motivation Leadership Communication

Supervision- implies overseeing the work of subordinates by their superiors. It is the act of watching & directing work & workers. Motivation- means inspiring, stimulating or encouraging the sub-ordinates with zeal to work. Positive, negative, monetary, non-monetary incentives may be used for this purpose. Leadership- may be defined as a process by which manager guides and influences the work of subordinates in desired direction. Communications- is the process of passing information, experience, opinion etc from one person to another. It is a bridge of understanding.

5. Controlling:
It implies measurement of accomplishment against the standards and correction of deviation if any to ensure achievement of organizational goals. The purpose of controlling is to ensure that everything occurs in conformities with the standards. An efficient system of control helps to predict deviations before they actually occur. According to Theo Haimann, Controlling is the process of checking whether or not proper progress is being made towards the objectives and goals and acting if necessary, to correct any deviation. According to Koontz & ODonell Controlling is the measurement & correction of performance activities of subordinates in order

to make sure that the enterprise objectives and plans desired to obtain them as being accomplished. Therefore controlling has following steps: a. b. c. d. Establishment of standard performance. Measurement of actual performance. Comparison of actual performance with the standards and finding out deviation if any. Corrective action.

MANAGEMENT ROLES:
These are three roles:

1. INTERPERSONAL ROLES:
Figurehead: All social, inspiration, legal and ceremonial obligations. In this light, the manager is seen as a symbol of status and authority. Leader: Duties are at the heart of the manager-subordinate relationship and include structuring and motivating subordinates, overseeing their progress, promoting and encouraging their development, and balancing effectiveness. Liaison: Describes the information and communication obligations of a manager. One must network and engage in information exchange to gain access to knowledge bases.

2. INFORMATION ROLES:
Monitor: Duties include assessing internal operations, a department's success and the problems and opportunities which may arise. All the information gained in this capacity must be stored and maintained. Disseminator: Highlights factual or value based external views into the organisation and to subordinates. This requires both filtering and delegation skills. Spokesman: Serves in a PR capacity by informing and lobbying others to keep key stakeholders updated about the operations of the organisation.

3. DECISIONAL ROLES:
Entrepreneur: Roles encourage managers to create improvement projects and work to delegate, empower and supervise teams in the development process. Disturbance handler: A generalist role that takes charge when an organisation is unexpectedly upset or transformed and requires calming and support. Resource Allocator: Describes the responsibility of allocating and overseeing financial, material and personnel resources. Negotiator: Is a specific task which is integral for the spokesman, figurehead and resource allocator roles.

MANAGEMENT SKILLS:
Robert L. Katz suggests that three important managerial skills that must be cultivated and enhanced by the organization are technical, human, and conceptual.' The degree of development a manager has in each of these three skills will have a strong impact not only upon the success of the organization but also upon the career success of the manager.

1. TECHNICAL SKILLS:
Technical skills are those abilities that are necessary to carry out a specific task. Examples of technical skills are writing computer programs, completing accounting statements, analyzing marketing statistics, writing legal documents, or drafting a design for a new airfoil on an airplane. Technical skills are usually obtained through training programs that an organization may offer its managers or employees or may be obtained by way of a college degree. Indeed, many business schools throughout the country see their role as providing graduates with the technical skills necessary for them to be successful on the job.

2. HUMAN SKILLS:
Human skills involve the ability to work with, motivate, and direct individuals or groups in the organization whether they are subordinates, peers, or superiors. Human skills, therefore, relate to the individual's expertise in interacting with others in a way that will enhance the successful completion of the task at hand. Some human skills that are often necessary for managers to display are effective communication (writing and speaking), creation of a positive attitude toward others and the work setting, development of cooperation among group members, and motivation of subordinates.

3. CONCEPTUAL SKILLS:
Conceptual skills require an ability to understand the degree of complexity in a given situation and to reduce that complexity to a level at which specific courses of action can be derived. Examples of situations that require conceptual skills include the passage of laws that affect hiring patterns in an organization, a competitor's change in marketing strategy, or the reorganization of one department which ultimately affects the activities of other departments in the organization.

While successful managers must possess a high level of expertise in technical, human, and conceptual skills, it is also true that each skill will vary in importance according to the level at which the manager is located in the organization. Generally, technical skills become least important at the top level of the management hierarchy, replaced with a greater emphasis on

conceptual skills. Technical skills are most pronounced at lower levels of management because first-line managers are closer to the production process, where technical expertise is in greatest demand. Human skills are equally necessary at each level of the management hierarchy. Conceptual skills are critical for top managers because the plans, policies, and decisions developed at this level require the ability to understand how a change in one activity will affect changes in other activities.

ORGANIZATIONAL THEORY:
Study of organizational designs and organizational structures, relationship of organizations with their external environment, and the behavior of managers and technocrats within organizations. It suggests ways in which an organization can cope with rapid change.

COMMON ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGNS:

There are three common organizational designs- Simple structure, bureaucracy and the matrix structure.

1. Simple Structure:
Simple structure is characterized by a low degree of departmentalization, wide span of control, authority centralized in a single person and little formalization. The simple structure is a felt organization, it usually has only two or three vertical levels, a lower body of employees and one individual in whom the decision making authority is centralized. The simple structure is most widely practiced in small businesses in which the manager and the owner are one and the same. The strength of the simple structure less in its simplicity. Its fast flexible and inexpensive to maintain and accountability is dear.

2. Bureaucracy:
The key concept that underlies all bureaucracy is standardization. It is a structure with highly routine operating tasks achieved through specialization very formalized rules and regulations, tasks that are grouped into functional departments, centralized authority, narrow span of control and decision making the chain of command.The primary strength of bureaucracy lies in its ability to perform standardized activities in a highly efficient manner. Putting like specialties together in functional departments results in economics of scale, minimum duplications of personal and equipment. Furthermore bureaucracy gives opportunity to less talented and hence less costly middle and lower level managers. The pervasiveness of rules and regulations substitutes for managerial discretion. Standardized operations, coupled with high formalization allow decision making to be centralized. There is little need therefore for innovative and experienced decision makers below the level of senior executives.

3. Matrix Structure:
Matrix structure creates dual line of authority and combines functional and product departmentalization .The strength of functional departmentalization lies in putting like specialists together, which minimizes the number necessary while allowing the pooling and sharing of specialized resources across products. Its major disadvantage is the difficulty of coordinating the tasks of diverse functional specialists so that their activities are completed on time and within budget. Product departmentation, on the other hand, has exactly the opposite benefits and disadvantages. It facilitates coordination among specialties to achieve on-time completion and meet budgets targets. Further more, it provides clear responsibility for all activities related to a product, but with duplication of activities and costs. The matrix attempts to gain the strength of each, while avoiding their weaknesses. The most obvious structural characteristics of the matrix is that it breaks the unity of command concept. Employees in the matrix have two bosses-their functional department managers and their product managers. Therefore, the matrix has a dual chain of command.The strength of the matrix lies in its ability to facilitate coordination when the organization has a multiplicity of complex and interdependent activities. As an organization gets larger, its information processing capacity can become overloaded. In a bureaucracy, complexity results in increased formularization. The direct and frequent contact between different specialists in the matrix can make for better communication and more quickly reaches the people who need to take account of it.

MODERN ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGNS: 1. Team Structure

A team structure is a design in which an organization is made up of teams, and each team works towards a common goal. Since the organization is made up of groups to perform the functions of the company, teams must perform well because they are held accountable for their performance. In a team structured organization there is no hierarchy or chain of command. Therefore, teams can work the way they want to, and figure out the most effective and efficient way to perform their tasks. Teams are given the power to be as innovative as they want. Some teams may have a group leader who is in charge of the group.

2. VIRTULE ORGANIZATION
The term virtual organization is used to describe a network of independent firms that join together, often temporarily, to produce a service or product. Virtual organization is often associated with such terms as virtual office, virtual teams, and virtual leadership. The ultimate goal of the virtual organization is to provide innovative, high-quality products or services instantaneously in response to customer demands. The term virtual in this sense has its roots in the computer industry. When a computer appears to have more storage capacity than it really possesses it is referred to as virtual memory. Likewise, when an organization assembles resources from a variety of firms, a virtual organization seems to have more capabilities than it actually possesses.

3. Boundaryless Organization
A boundaryless organization is one in which its design is not defined by, or limited to, the horizontal, vertical, or external boundaries imposed by a predefined structure. In other words it is an unstructured design. This structure is much more flexible because there is no boundaries to deal with such as chain of command, departmentalization, and organizational hierarchy. Instead of having departments, companies have used the team approach. In order to eliminate boundaries managers may use virtual, modular, or network organizational structures. In a virtual organization work is outsourced when necessary. There are a small number of permanent employees, however specialists are hired when a situation arises. Examples of this would be subcontractors or freelancers. A modular organization is one in which manufacturing is the business. This type of organization has work done outside of the company from different suppliers. Each supplier produces a specific piece of the final product. When all the pieces are done, the organization then assembles the final product. A network organization is one in which companies outsource their major business functions in order to focus more on what they are in business to do.

WHY DO STUUCTURES DIFFER:

One extreme well call the mechanistic model. Its generally synonymous with the bureaucracy in that it has extensive departmentalization, high formalization, a limited information network (mostly downward communication) and little participation by low level members in decision making. At the other extreme is the organic model. This model looks a lot like the boundary less organization. Its flat, uses cross hierarchical and cross functional teams, has low formalization, possesses a comprehensive information network (using lateral and upward communication as well as downward), and involves high participation in decision making. With these two models in mind, we are now prepared to address the question: Why are some organizations structured along more mechanistic lines whereas others follow organic characteristics? What are the forces that influence the design that is chosen? In the following paragraphs, we present the major forces that have been identified as causes or determinants of an organizations structure.

1. STRATEGY
An organizations structure is a means to help management achieve its objectives. Because objectives are derived from the organizations overall strategy, its only logical that strategy and structure should be closely linked. More specifically structure should follow strategy. If management makes a significant change in its organizations strategy, the structure will need to be modified to accommodate and support this change. Most current strategy framework focus on three strategy dimensions, innovation cost minimization and imitation and the structural design that works best with each.

2. ORGANIZATION SIZE:
There is considerable evince to support the ideas that an organizations size significantly affects its structure. For instance large organizations those that typically employ 2,000 or more people tend to have more specialization, more departmentalization, more vertical levels, and more rules and regulations than do small organizations. However, the relationship is not linear. Rather, size affects structure at a decreasing rate. The impact of size becomes less important as an organization expends. Why is this? Essentially once an organization has around 2,000 employees, its already fairly mechanistic. An additional 500 employees will not have much impact. On the other hand, additional 500 employees will not have much impact. On the other hand, adding 500 employees to an organization that has only 300 members is likely to result in a significant shift towards a more mechanistic structure.

3. TECHNOLOGY:
The term technology refer to how an organization transfer its inputs into outputs. Every organizations has at least one technology for converting financial, human, and physical resources into products or services.

4. ENVIRONMENT:
An organizationals environment is composed of those institutions or forces that are outside the organization and potentially affect the organizations performance. These typically include suppliers, customers, competitors, government regulatory agencies, public pressure groups, and the like.

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURES FUNCTIONS:

Culture is the unique possession of man. Man is born and brought up in a cultural environment. Man is not only a social animal but also a cultural being. Man cannot survive as a man without culture. Culture fulfils our needs and represents the entire achievements of mankind. E. B. Taylor defined culture as "that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morale, laws, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society." Culture has been fulfilling a number of functions which may be divided into two - (a) for the individual and (b) for the group.

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a. Importance to the individual:

(1) Culture distinguishes man from animal. It is the culture that makes the human animal a man. It regulates his conduct and prepares him for a group life. Without culture he would have been forced to find his own way which would have meant a loss of energy. (2) Culture provides solution for complicated situations. Culture provides man a set of behaviour for difficult situations. In the absence of culture man would have been baffled even at the simplest situations. Culture not only defines but also determines what we eat and drink, when to sleep, when to laugh etc. (3) Culture provides traditional interpretation to certain situations. Through culture man gets traditional interpretations for many situations according to which he determines his behaviour. For example, if a cat crosses his way he postpones the journey. (4) Culture shapes personality. No child can develop human qualities in the absence of cultural environment. Culture prepares man for group life. It is culture that provides opportunities for the development of personality and sets limits on its growth.

b. Importance for the group:

(1) Culture keeps social relationship intact. Culture has importance not only for men but also for the group. Culture prepares man for group life. Group life would have been poor, nasty, and short if there had been no cultural regulations. Group solidarity rests on the foundation of culture. (2) Culture has given a new vision to the individual. Secondly, culture has given a new vision to the co-operation of the individuals. Culture teaches him to think of himself as a part of the larger whole. It provides him with the concepts of family, state, nation etc. and makes possible the coordination and division of labour. (3)Culture creates new needs. Finally, culture also creates new needs and drives, for example, thirst for knowledge and arranges for their satisfaction. It satisfies the moral and religious interests of the members of the group.

Conclusion:
From the discussion we know that culture is the unique possession of man. No one can develop human qualities without culture. Culture distinguishes, leads, changes the personality of the individual and structure of the group.

HOW EMPLOYEES LEARN CULTURE:

Culture is transmitted to employees in a number of forms, the most potent being stories, rituals, material symbols, and language.

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1. Organizational stories:
Typically contain a narrative of significant events or people, including such things as the organizations founders, rules breaking or reaction of past mistakes, and so forth.

2. Rituals:
Are repetitive sequences of activities that express and reinforce the key values of the organization what goals are most important, and which people are important.

3. Material symbols:
Include the layout of an organizations facility, how employees dress, the type of automobile provided to top executives and the availability of corporate aircrafts. Others include the size of offices, the elegance of furnishings, executive perks, and attire.

4. Language:
Is used by organizations and units within organizations as a way to identify members of a culture or subculture. By learning this language, members attest to their acceptance of the culture and, on so doing, help to preserve it. Organizations, over time, often develop unique terms to describe equipment, offices, key personnel, suppliers, customers, or products that relate to its business. Once assimilated, this terminology acts as a common denominator that unites members of a given culture or subculture

Culture as a Liability: 1. Barriers to change:

Culture is a liability when the shared values are not in agreement with those that will further the organizations effectiveness. This is mostly likely to occur when an organizations an organization is dynamic. When an environment is undergoing rapid change, an organizations entrenched culture may no longer be appropriate. So consistency of behavior is an asset to an organization when it faces a stable environment .

2. Barriers to diversity:
Hiring new employee who, because of race, age, generation, disability, or other differences, are not like the majority of the organizations members create a paradox. Management wants new employee to accept the organizations core culture values. Otherwise , these employee are unlikely to fit in or be accepted. But at same time, management wants to openly acknowledge and demonstrate support for the differences that these employee bring support to the workplace.

3. Barriers to acquisitions and Mergers:

Cultural compatibility has become the primary concern. While favorable financial statement or product line may be the initial attraction of an acquisition candidate, whether the acquisition actually works seem to have more to do with how well the two organizations culture match up.

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Keeping a culture alive : 1. Selection:

Concern with how well the candidates will fit into the organization. Provides information to candidates about the organization.

2. Top Management:
Senior executives help establish behavioral norms that are adopted by the organization.

3. Socialization:
The process that helps new employees adapt to the organizations culture

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE:
Organizational structure refers to the way that an organization arranges people and jobs so that its work can be performed and its goals can be met. When a work group is very small and face-to-face communication is frequent, formal structure may be unnecessary, but in a larger organization decisions have to be made about the delegation of various tasks. Thus, procedures are established that assign responsibilities for various functions. It is these decisions that determine the organizational
structure.

In organized structure how job tasks are formally divided, grouped and coordinated. There are six key elements that manages need to address when they design their organizations structure. These are: work specialization, departmentalization chain of command, span of control, centralization and decentralization and formalization. The following sections describe these six elements of structure.

1. WORK SPECIALAZATION:
Early in the twentieth century, Henry Ford became rich and famous by building automobiles on an assembly line. Every Ford worker was assigned a specific, repetitive task. For instance, one person would just put on the right-front wheel and someone else would install the right-front door. By breaking jobs up into small standardized tasks, which could be performed over and over again, Ford was able to produce cars at the rate of one every 10 seconds, using employees who had relatively limited skills. For demonstrated that work can be performed more efficiently if employees are allowed to specialize. Today we use the term work specialization, or division of labor, to describe the degree to which activities in the organization are subdivided into separate jobs. The essence of work specialization is that, rather than an entire job being done by one individual, it is broken down into a number of steps, with each step being completed by a separate individual. In essence, individuals specialize in doing part of an activity rather than the entire activity.

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2. DEPARTMEMTALIZATION: Departmentalization by function organizes by the functions to be performed. The functions reflect the nature of the business. The advantage of this type of grouping is obtaining efficiencies from consolidating similar specialties and people with common skills, knowledge and orientations together in common units. Also, Functional departmentalization - Grouping activities by functions performed. Activities can be grouped according to function (work being done) to pursue economies of scale by placing employees with shared skills and knowledge into departments for example human resources, IT, accounting, manufacturing, logistics, marketing, and engineering. Functional departmentalization can be used in all types of organizations. 3. CHAIN OF CAMMOND: The chain of command, sometimes called the scaler chain, is the formal line of authority, communication, and responsibility within an organization. The chain of command is usually depicted on an organizational chart, which identifies the superior and subordinate relationships in the organizational structure. According to classical organization theory the organizational chart allows one to visualize the lines of authority and communication within an organizational structure and ensures clear assignment of duties and responsibilities. By utilizing the chain of command, and its visible authority relationships, the principle of unity of command is maintained. Unity of command means that each subordinate reports to one and only one superior. 4. SPAN OF CONTROL: The concept of "span of control," also known as management ratio, refers to the number of subordinates controlled directly by a superior. It is a particularly important concept for small business owners to understand because small businesses often get into trouble when the founder ends up with too wide a span of control. Span of control is a topic taught in management schools and widely employed in large organizations like the military, government agencies, and educational institutions. When a small business owner's span of control becomes too large, it can limit the growth of his or her company. Even the best managers tend to lose their effectiveness when they spend all their time managing people and their issues and are unable to focus on long-term plans and competitive positioning for the business as a whole. 5. CENTRALIZATION: Centralization is said to be a process where the concentration of decision making is in a few hands. All the important decision and actions at the lower level, all subjects and actions at the lower level are subject to the approval of top management. According to Allen, Centralization is the systematic and consistent reservation of authority at central points in the organization. The implication of centralization can be :1. Reservation of decision making power at top level. 2. Reservation of operating authority with the middle level managers.

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3. Reservation of operation at lower level at the directions of the top level. Under centralization, the important and key decisions are taken by the top management and the other levels are into implementations as per the directions of top level. For example, in a business concern, the father & son being the owners decide about the important matters and all the rest of function. Like product, finance, marketing, personnel, are carried out by the department heads and they have to act as per instruction and orders of the two people. Therefore in this case, decision making power remain in the hands of father & son. 6. DECENTRALIZATION: Decentralization is a systematic delegation of authority at all levels of management and in all of the organization. In a decentralization concern, authority in retained by the top management for taking major decisions and framing policies concerning the whole concern. Rest of the authority may be delegated to the middle level and lower level of management.

7. FORMALIZATION: Formalization is the extent to which rules and procedures are followed in an organization. This element varies greatly across organizations. For example, in some organizations arrival and departure times to and from work are specified to the minute, with time clocks used to control deviant behavior. In other organizations it is understood that employees will spend sufficient time on the job to get the work done. In some organizations rules and procedures cover most activities, while in others people are allowed to exercise their own judgment. AUTHORITY: In an organization, authority refers to that which makes control legitimate. The individuals working for an organization must see the control methods as legitimate; that is, the organization must control human activity reasonably, appropriately, and lawfully. A subordinate should accept the orders of a supervisor as long as the orders are reasonable, appropriate, and lawful. If a subordinate refuses legitimate orders, the subordinate gets fired. If the supervisor gives illegitimate orders, the supervisor gets fired. Regardless of perspective, control and authority both become manifest through the communication practices in an organization. Unity of command principle helps preserve the concept of unbroken line of authority. Authority is backed up with a reward system or appropriate sanctions.

SOURCES OF INFLUENSE OR POWER:

Five widely recognized sources of power are used by managers and leaders to influence their subordinates, and not all of these sources require a big title to be effective. Most of these sources you will probably recognize as being used all around you. The five sources of power and influence are: reward power, coercive power, legitimate power, expert power and referent power.

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1. POWER REWARD: Using a reward to obtain power is something you may be familiar with from childhood. Perhaps you were offered a trip to the amusement park if you earned good grades in school. Motivation through the offering of reward is common, and when you have the ability to offer such a reward, you have a source of power. Offering your employees the opportunity to leave work early if they accomplish the desired task is using the power of reward. 2. POWER OF COERCION: Coercive power is also something that you may be familiar with from childhood. A parent using coercion will send a child to bed early if the child refuses to clean his room, just as an employer will threaten disciplinary action if an employee refuses to perform the desired task. When your employee complies with your orders in an effort to avoid punishment, you have effectively utilized coercion as a source of power.

3. LEGITIMATE POWER: Legitimate power is power granted and recognized by your position. As a manager, you have legitimate power over those who directly report to you. Your position is recognized as that of authority, and your direct reports recognize they are obligated to comply with your requests. Even when your direct report feels he has a better way to complete the task, your wishes will be followed out of respect for your position. 4. REFERENT POWER: When you admire someone, or when you feel that you relate to him, and this leads to a desire to earn his approval, it can be said that he has a referent source of power. It is likely that you have been influenced by, or have influenced others through referent power some time in your life. In a basic sense, referent power is a son attempting to earn the approval of his father or mother. The son will do what is asked of him, expecting approval or acceptance in return. 5. EXPERTISE POWER: Being knowledgeable and experienced in your position provides you with a source of power known as expert power. With expert power you do not require the title of manager, nor do you need to be in any position of leadership to effectively influence those around you. The respect you earn from your experience and knowledge becomes your source of power. Others will listen to you and follow your guidance because of your high level of expertise. CONSIDERATIONS:

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The use of coercion as a source of power often leads employee resentment and poor morale. Other sources of power such as reward power, expert power and legitimate power can be used in combination to achieve positive results for all levels of your organization.

AUTHORITY AND THE QUESTION OF OBIDIENCE:

No human social organization can function without some degree of obedience to authority, as the alternative would be anarchy leading to total chaos. Hence we find some sort of a hierarchy in both the most underdeveloped and the most civilized societies where certain individuals exercise authority over others. Almost everyone will agree that some degree of authority in certain individuals or groups (and their obedience by other groups) is desirable for the proper functioning of a society. The problem arises when the obedience to authority is taken to extremes. Unfortunately, history has shown that this happens time and again, usually with undesirable results. It is this blind obedience to authority that every individual with a conscience needs to guard against. The conflict between compliance with the demands of those in authority and individuals having private and sometimes different views, has been a subject of debate since ancient times in religion and philosophy. Gods command to Abraham to kill his son, being one such example. Many psychologists and writers have thought about, discussed and conducted experiments to understand this human characteristic. The psychology experiments conducted by Stanley Milgram in the 1960s and 70s to study obedience to authority among ordinary individuals are, perhaps, the most significant and startling. These experiments were conducted at a time when the world was still struggling to understand the atrocities committed by the Nazis in World War II. Milgrams experiments, conclusively showed that such traits of obedience to authority as exhibited by the Germans, were by no means confined to them or even to a particular set of circumstances. MILGRAMS EXPERIENT: Milgrams experiment consisted of selection of teachers from ordinary people who were asked to participate in an experiment in which the teacher was to ask certain simple questions from a learner. In case of an error or incorrect response from the learner, he was to be given an electric shock through a generator. These shocks were to start at a mild 15 volts and gradually increased to an extremely painful (and lethal) level of 450 volts. During the experiment the teacher was coaxed to continue giving the shocks to the learner. The results of the experiment were most disturbing: most (60%) of the teachers (who were ordinary people) continued to give the electric shocks right up to the maximum (lethal) level of 450 volts, just with a little bit of coaxing from the psychologist. Milgram repeated his experiments in several other countries apart from the USA, like Australia, South Africa and several European countries. The response of the teachers in most of these countries was similar. In one of these studies, 85% of the teachers readily obeyed to give the maximum (lethal) punishment to the erring learner.

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CONCLUSION: Although no such experiment can be 100% conclusive, the Milgram experiments do shed considerable (and disturbing) light on the behavior of ordinary people in obedience of authority. They also explain, to a large extent, the seemingly perplexing behavior of many ordinary Germans during World War II and some American soldiers in Vietnam. (Milgram, Obedience to Authority..).

CONFLICT :
Conflict means different things to different people. For some, a definition of conflict involves fighting, war, trade embargos and so on. For others, it may be a difference in opinion, perspective or personality. One party may feel they are in a conflict situation, when the other party feels that they are just discussing opposing views. A lot depends on our personal "take" of the situation. FOR EXAMPLE: As managers, we need to be aware of how conflict arises and how to manage conflict. If unhealthy conflict is allowed to develop, the spin off effects can result in lasting damage to relationships and the business

TRANSITIONS IN CONFLICT THOUGHT:

It is entirely appropriate to say that there has been conflict over the role of conflict in groups and organizations. One school of thought has argued that conflict must be avoided that it indicates a mal functioning within the group. We call this the traditional view. Another school of thought the human relations view, argues that conflict is a natural and inevitable outcome in any group and that it need not be evil, but rather has potential to be a positive force in determining group performance The third, and most recent, perspective proposes not only that conflict can be a positive force in a group but explicitly argues that some conflict is absolutely necessary for a group outperform effectively. We label this third school the interactions view. Lets take a closer look at each of these views. 1. THE TRADITIONAL VIEW: The early approach to conflict assumed that all conflict was bad. Conflict was viewed negatively and it was used synonymous with such terms as violence, destruction and irrationality to reinforce its negative connotation. Conflict by definition, was harmful and was to

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be avoided. The traditional view was consistent with attitudes that prevailed about group behavior in the 1930s and 1940s. Conflict was seen as a dysfunctional outcome resulting from poor communication, lack of openness and trust between people and the failure of managers to be responsive to the needs and aspirations of their employees. 2. THE HUMAN RELATIONS VIEW: The human relations view argued that conflict was a natural occurrence in all groups and organizations. Because conflict was inevitable, the human relations school advocated acceptance of conflict. Proponents rationalized its existence. It cannot be eliminated, and there are times when conflict may benefit a groups performance. The human relations view dominated conflict theory from the late 1940 through the mid-1970s.

3. THE INTERECTIONIST VIEW:

While the human relations view accepted conflict, the interactionist view encourage conflicts on the grounds that a harmonious, peaceful, tranquil, and cooperative group is prone to becoming static apathetic and non-responsive to needs for change in innovation. The major contribution of the ineteractionist view therefore is encouraging group leaders to maintain an ongoing minimum level of conflict enough to keep the group viable, self critical and creative.

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT:
Conflict management is the principle that all conflicts cannot necessarily be resolved, but learning how to manage conflicts can decrease the odds of nonproductive escalation. Conflict management involves acquiring skills related to conflict resolution, self-awareness about conflict modes, conflict communication skills, and establishing a structure for management of conflict in your environment.

CONFLICT RESOLUTION TECHNIQUES OR METHOD:

Conflict situations are an important aspect of the workplace. A conflict is a situation when the interests, needs, goals or values of involved parties interfere with one another. A conflict is a common phenomenon in the workplace. Different stakeholders may have different priorities; conflicts may involve team members, departments, projects, organization and client, boss and subordinate, organization needs vs. personal needs. Often, a conflict is a result of perception. Is conflict a bad thing? Not necessarily. Often, a conflict presents opportunities for improvement. Therefore, it is important to understand (and apply) various conflict resolution techniques.
1. PROBLEM SOLVING (COLLABORATIVE):

People tending towards a collaborative style try to meet the needs of all people involved. These people can be highly assertive but unlike the competitor, they cooperate effectively and

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acknowledge that everyone is important. This style is useful when you need to bring together a variety of viewpoints to get the best solution Examples of when collaborating may be appropriate:

When consensus and commitment of other parties is important In a collaborative environment When it is required to address the interests of multiple stakeholders When a high level of trust is present When a long-term relationship is important When you need to work through hard feelings, animosity, etc When you don't want to have full responsibility

Possible advantages of collaborating:

Leads to solving the actual problem Reinforces mutual trust and respect Builds a foundation for effective collaboration in the future Shared responsibility of the outcome You earn the reputation of a good negotiator For parties involved, the outcome of the conflict resolution is less stressful

Some caveats of collaborating:

Requires a commitment from all parties to look for a mutually acceptable solution May require more effort and more time than some other methods. A win-win solution may not be evident For the same reason, collaborating may not be practical when timing is crucial and a quick solution or fast response is required Once one or more parties lose their trust in an opponent, the relationship falls back to other methods of conflict resolution. Therefore, all involved parties must continue collaborative efforts to maintain a collaborative relationship

2. COMPROMIZING: People who prefer a compromising style try to find a solution that will at least partially satisfy everyone. Everyone is expected to give up something, and the compromiser him- or herself also expects to relinquish something. Compromise is useful when the cost of conflict is higher than the cost of losing ground, when equal strength opponents are at a standstill and when there is a deadline looming. Examples of when compromise may be appropriate:

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When the goals are moderately important and not worth the use of more assertive or more involving approaches, such as forcing or collaborating To reach temporary settlement on complex issues To reach expedient solutions on important issues As a first step when the involved parties do not know each other well or havent yet developed a high level of mutual trust When collaboration or forcing do not work

Possible advantages of compromise:

Faster issue resolution. Compromising may be more practical when time is a factor Can provide a temporary solution while still looking for a win-win solution Lowers the levels of tension and stress resulting from the conflict

Some caveats of using compromise:

May result in a situation when both parties are not satisfied with the outcome (a loselose situation) Does not contribute to building trust in the long run May require close monitoring and control to ensure the agreements are met

3. AVOIDING:
People tending towards this style seek to evade the conflict entirely. This style is typified by delegating controversial decisions, accepting default decisions, and not wanting to hurt anyone's feelings. It can be appropriate when victory is impossible, when the controversy is trivial, or when someone else is in a better position to solve the problem. However in many situations this is a weak and ineffective approach to take. Examples of when avoiding may be appropriate:

When the issue is trivial and not worth the effort When more important issues are pressing, and you don't have time to deal with it In situations where postponing the response is beneficial to you, for example o When it is not the right time or place to confront the issue o When you need time to think and collect information before you act (e.g. if you are unprepared or taken by surprise) When you see no chance of getting your concerns met or you would have to put forth unreasonable efforts When you would have to deal with ostility When you are unable to handle the conflict (e.g. if you are too emotionally involved or others can handle it better)

Possible advantages of avoiding

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When the opponent is forcing / attempts aggression, you may choose to withdraw and postpone your response until you are in a more favourable circumstance for you to push back Withdrawing is a low stress approach when the conflict is short Gives the ability/time to focus on more important or more urgent issues instead Gives you time to better prepare and collect information before you act

Some caveats of avoiding

May lead to weakening or losing your position; not acting may be interpreted as an agreement. Using withdrawing strategies without negatively affecting your own position requires certain skill and experience When multiple parties are involved, withdrawing may negatively affect your relationship with a party that expects your action

4. SMOOTHING:
Also known as accommodating. This style indicates a willingness to meet the needs of others at the
expense of the person's own needs. The accommodator often knows when to give in to others, but can be persuaded to surrender a position even when it is not warranted. This person is not assertive but is highly cooperative. Accommodation is appropriate when the issues matter more to the other party, when peace is more valuable than winning, or when you want to be in a position to collect on this "favor" you gave. However people may not return favors, and overall this approach is unlikely to give the best outcomes.

Examples of when smoothing may be appropriate:

When it is important to provide a temporary relief from the conflict or buy time until you are in a better position to respond/push back When the issue is not as important to you as it is to the other person When you accept that you are wrong When you have no choice or when continued competition would be detrimental

Possible advantages of smoothing:

In some cases smoothing will help to protect more important interests while giving up on some less important ones Gives an opportunity to reassess the situation from a different angle

Some caveats of smoothing:

There is a risk to be abused, i.e. the opponent may constantly try to take advantage of your tendency toward smoothing/accommodating. Therefore it is important to keep the right balance and this requires some skill. May negatively affect your confidence in your ability to respond to an aggressive opponent It makes it more difficult to transition to a win-win solution in the future

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Some of your supporters may not like your smoothing response and be turned off

5. COMPETING: People who tend towards a competitive style take a firm stand, and know what they want. They usually operate from a position of power, drawn from things like position, rank, expertise, or persuasive ability. This style can be useful when there is an emergency and a decision needs to be make fast; when the decision is unpopular; or when defending against someone who is trying to exploit the situation selfishly. However it can leave people feeling bruised, unsatisfied and resentful when used in less urgent situations. Examples of when forcing may be appropriate

In certain situations when all other, less forceful methods, dont work or are ineffective When you need to stand up for your own rights, resist aggression and pressure When a quick resolution is required and using force is justified (e.g. in a life-threatening situation, to stop an aggression) As a last resort to resolve a long-lasting conflict

Possible advantages of forcing:

May provide a quick resolution to a conflict Increases self-esteem and draws respect when firm resistance or actions were a response to an aggression or hostility

Some caveats of forcing:

May negatively affect your relationship with the opponent in the long run May cause the opponent to react in the same way, even if the opponent did not intend to be forceful originally Cannot take advantage of the strong sides of the other sides position Taking this approach may require a lot of energy and be exhausting to some individuals

CONFLICT STIMULATION TECHNIQUES:

Conflict stimulation is also a measure to solve conflict. In traditional concept, conflict was taken as dangerous factor. But in modern concept, conflict is not taken as dangerous all time. Nowadays, some institutes create conflict to find new way and for innovation. If there is not created conflict in institute, manager should think that there is some mistake. Thats why conflict is index of development. So that while solving the conflict, it is necessary to create the conflict. While creating conflict, following methods should be applied;

1. USES OF COMMUNICATION:

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Communication encourages and discourages the conflict. So that, while creating conflict in required level unclear message should be sent. Threatened and challenge to the workers also a measure to create conflict.

2. BRINING IN OUT SIDE:

Conflict also can be created by entering members with different background, value, view and managerial skill. The discussion with the person with different background helps to find new way. In this way, orientation with different members from outsides provides creative way at last

3. RESTRUCTURING THE ORGANIZATION:

By changing current design of organization, functional conflict can be created. With the help of restructure, the size of organization is changed. In this way with the help of restructure different difficulties and problems are solved in current situation.

4. APPOINTING A DEVILS ADVOCATE:

Appointing a Devils Advocate, the organization also can create the conflict. This types of person solves the problems differently of the members of organization. He works as conflict motivator. If he has good skill, knowledge and mind, can be good advocator of organization.

TYPES OF CONFLICT:
Followings are the types of conflict:

1. INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT:
Interpersonal conflict involves two or more individuals. Such conflict situations are made up of atleast two individuals who hold polarized points of view, who are somewhat intolerant of ambiguities, who ignore delicate shades of grey, and who are quick to jump to conclusions. Individuals, who join an organization, bring along with them certain needs and beliefs. When they work for the organizational goal the needs, beliefs, values, and customs of individuals do clash and this results in conflict.

Reasons for inter-personal conflict:

Reasons for interpersonal conflict are the following

1. Personal differences;
Everyone has different values and preferences and the environment in which everyone is grown is different from the others and hence everyone has a different personality which is different

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from the others. So, personal differences is the main cause of personal conflict because no one has the same family, education, values and beliefs. And there is often a disagreement which takes a very emotional and aggressive appearance.

2. Information deficiency;
This source of conflict and disagreement is due to the communication breakdown in the organization. It is possible that in an organization two people have a conflict because they use different information and hence they do not agree on a certain matter. This kind of conflict is also emotionally charged but once the information is corrected there is no conflict.

3. Role incompatibility;
Sometimes a conflict arises because of the different roles played by different persons. Sometimes what a person wants is not compatible and according to the needs of other person and hence there is a conflict aroused between the two persons. For example, the work of a sales and marketing manager is to increase sales and that of a production is to reduce costs to a minimum level. To reduce costs the production manager keeps the inventory low (say ten units of the product) to avoid warehouse rent. Now suppose that the sales manager promises a customer the twenty units of the product and there are no more that ten units and hence there is a conflict or clash created between the two managers which is due to the different roles of the managers which dont match. 4. Environmental stress; There can also be a pressure or stress in the environment which can cause disagreement and conflict among the individuals. For example, downsizing (when the organizations reduce the size of their personal) occurs the workers and employees want to remain employed and not to be hired and this also causes a disagreement and conflict among all the workers for the less remaining positions and posts.

1. INTRAPERSONAL CONFLICT:
Conflict within a person is not always easy to identify, but it can become apparent when mood swings are present or depression is evident. Intrapersonal conflict is also apparent when a person has trouble choosing between two or more goals. Most of us do not possess the skills to handle serious intrapersonal conflicts, therefore referring your afflicted employee to a trained professional is the best way to handle this problem.

2. INTRAGROUP CONFLICT:
Intragroup conflict refers to a specific kind of conflict that occurs between members of a group that shares common goals, interests or other identifying characteristics. Intragroup conflict can be small-scale, such as within a workplace or large-scale, such as between members of a

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specific population group. Though conflict is generally regarded as a problem, intragroup conflict can also serve as a valuable tool in some contexts. Intragroup conflict is distinctive in that it occurs between members of a group or team who are theoretically united over a common characteristic or objective; in contrast, intergroup conflict occurs between two competing or distinct groups. Intragroup conflicts are most common in workplaces that divide employees into specific teams or departments. An example of intragroup conflict would be members of a marketing group debating about the best way to launch a new product. If the group was experiencing intergroup conflict, the marketing team may argue with the technology development team about the launch.

3. Inter-group Conflict:
Intergroup conflicts are one of the most important types of conflict in an organization, as an organization is structured in the form of several interdependent task groups. These groups could be formal or informal, and the members of these groups interact with each other for different purposes. These groups differ in goals, work activities, power, and prestige. The seeds of intergroup conflict are sown in these differences. The various reasons for intergroup conflict in an organization include goal segmentation/diversity of goals/incompatible goals; task interdependence; resource allocation; differential reward systems; ambiguities and task uncertainty; differences in values and perceptions; overload on some groups; and introduction of change.

REASONS FOR INTERGROUP CONFLICT:

Some major reasons for the intergroup conflict are;

1. Competition for resources: Most organizations have very limited resources and so is the case with the group within organizations as there are limited budget funds, space, supplies, personnel, and support services.

2. Task interdependence: If two groups in an organization depend on one another there tends to be more conflict between the groups than if the groups are independent of one another.

3. Jurisdictional ambiguity: When there is an ambiguity because of the roles and responsibilities of the two or more groups there always arises a conflict. So, this type of conflict arises when the groups try to take control of activities that do not relate to them.

4. Status struggles: -

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This conflict arises when one group tries to improve its status and have an edge over the other group and the other group perceives it as a threat to its position or status. Or when a group feels that they are not equally treated with other groups in an organization it gives rise to this type conflict. Example: - In many organizations the human and resources department personnel think that they are not given as much importance as the marketing, finance, and operations department.

Conflict and Organizational Performance:

The assumption that conflict is always unhealthy or dysfunctional is frequently fallacious. Conflicts have functional aspects too. They have also therapeutic value. For organizations to be productive, certain amount of conflict is always necessary. An optimum level of conflict prevents stagnation, stimulates creativity, allows tension and stress to be released, and initiates the seeds for change. It also facilitates critical thinking among group members, makes a group more responsive to the needs for change, and provides similar other benefits that can enhance group and organizational performance. Such a level of conflict resulting in productive stress is, thus, definitely good for the organization. It is to be realized that the demarcation between functional and dysfunctional conflict is neither clear nor precise. The functionality of a conflict can be measured by the impact it has on the group/unit performance rather than on a single individual. It is known that in organizations, there is an optimal, highly functional level of conflict at which the units / organizations performance is at the maximum. This can happen because at that level of conflict, the group or units internal environment is characterized by self-criticism and innovativeness. When the conflict level is low, it is dysfunctional as the units / organizations performance is low due to apathy, stagnation, lack of new ideas, and non-responsiveness of the organization members to the demands of change. On the other hand, when the conflict level is too high it is again dysfunctional as the survival of the group is threatened due to diversion of energy away from performance and goal attainment. The most important task for managers would be to stimulate conflict during those times when it is low, and contain conflict during those times when it is high, so that conflict can be effectively brought to the optimum level, which leads to productive stress, and thus proving good for the organization.

GOAL CONFLICT:
Another common source of conflict for a person or individual is a goal conflict that has both positive and negative features. Whereas in frustration, motives are blocked before the goal is reached, in goal conflict two or more motives block one another. Three separate types of goal conflict are identified as; 1. Approach-approach conflict, where the person is to motivated to approach two or more positive but mutually exclusive goals.

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2. Approach-avoidance conflict, where the individual is motivated to approach a goal and at the same time is motivated to avoid it. The single goal contains both positive and negative characteristics for the person. 3. Avoidance-avoidance conflict, where an individual is motivated to avoid to avoid two or more negative but mutually exclusive goals. Example: when a person has to avoid two goals when they are not relevant to each other.

ROLE CONFLICT AND AMBIGUITY:

A person has many roles to play in a society and the personality of a person has many faces and roles. For example a person at the same time has many roles like a father, a brother, a son, a husband, a worker and a friend. Every of the roles of the person has expectations and sometimes there arises a conflict among the expectations of these roles and the person faces real pressure and depression in decision making. Example; in a company a person was working as a labor and now as a supervisor to check and control the working of working of the other workers and to report to the top management. The person observes that one of his closest friends and coworker is not performing the job. The supervisor has two roles to play, as the supervisor to report and his longtime friend may be fired and the second role as a friend and he has to protect his friend by not reporting. Now the person faces role conflict.

CONFLICT NEGOCIATIONS:
1. LOW RISK NEGOTIATION TECHNIQUES a. Flattery: Subtle flattery usually works best, but the standards may differ by age, sex, and cultural factors. b. Addressing the Easy Points first: This helps build trust and momentum for the tougher issues. c. Silence: This can be effective but one must be careful not to provoke anger and frustrate in opponents. d. Oh Poor Me: This may lead to sympathy but could also bring out the killer instinct in opponents. e. Inflated Opening Position: This may illicit a counter offer that shows the opponents position or may shift the point of compromise. 2. HIGH RISK NEGOTIATION TECHNIQUES:

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a. Unexpected Temper Losses: Irrupting an anger can break an impasse in get ones point across but in can also be viewed as immature or manipulative and lead opponents to harden their positions. b. High-Balling: This is used to gain trust by appearing to give into the opponents position but when over turn by a high authority concisions or gains based on the trust. c. Boulwarism (Take it or Leave it): This is a highly aggressive strategy that may also produce anger and frustration in opponents. d. Waiting Until the Lost Moment: After using stall tactics and knowing the deadline is near, a reasonable but favorable offer is made. Leaving the opponent with little choice but to accept.

COPING STRATEGIES FOR CONFLICT:

1. Abandoning. Abandoning a conflict means, literally or figuratively, walking away from it. Some conflicts amount to pointless jousting with few or no consequences, good or bad. They are simply not worth your time and energy. Moreover, when you are terribly outnumbered, feel physically threatened, or find yourself in the middle of someone else's conflict (and for personal, professional or ethical reasons don't wish to participate), then abandoning is probably the best choice. 2. Avoiding. Avoidance is one of the most common strategies for coping with conflict. Avoiding a conflict doesn't mean you're a cowardunless, of course, you do it all the time. Avoiding is a legitimate strategy when you need time to cool off, when you stand to gain nothing from confronting a situation, when power is drastically unequal, when you want to put distance between yourself and the other person, or when you need time to prepare. Avoidance buys time. Use the time wisely once you have it. For example, if you postpone a meeting, immediately get to work, prepare yourself and reschedule. 3. Dominating. Dominating is an effective strategy when a quick decision is needed or when the issue is relatively unimportantit gets things done. Dominating is usually power-oriented and delivered assertively. The ability to take control can actually be quite helpful when the other person lacks knowledge or expertise, and your opponent may be relieved that you have offered a solution. Don't try to dominate too often, however. Dominating is only effective as long as you have "right and might" on your side. 4. Obliging.

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This strategy deliberately elevates the other person, making him or her feel better about the situation. By obliging, you play down the differences between yourself and your opponent. It's a way of seeking common ground. Obliging requires that you give away power, which, if you have plenty to spare, can build trust and confidence. If you are secure in your position, obliging becomes almost a form of delegation. 5. Getting help. This strategy involves bringing in a third party to act as a conflict mediator. Sometimes a conflict can't be resolved by opponents acting alone. If big skill differences put either of you at a distinct disadvantage, if emotions are highly charged, if there's a language barrier, or if your opponent is blatantly uncooperative, you probably need to get help. Mediation is always needed if your opponent threatens in any way to retaliate against you. Depending on the seriousness of the conflict and the potential impact of the resolution, the person doing the intervention can be anyone from a skillful communicator to a professional mediator, just as long as he or she is unbiased and respectful of both (or all) parties involved. 6. Humor. Using humor to defuse a conflict can be particularly effective if you and your opponent are peers, or if the conflict is not terribly serious. Being humorous may involve looking at the situation in a comical way, poking fun at yourself for a style of reacting that frequently gets you into trouble, or generally making light of the situation. 7. Postponing. Postponing is putting off until tomorrow what neither you nor the other person is prepared to deal with today. It differs from avoiding in that postponing is a low-level, handshake type of preliminary agreement. The ability to jointly agree to put off dealing with a conflict until you have cooled off, are more rested, or have your facts straight requires control and skill. However, postponing is a strategy, not an escape hatch, so before going your separate ways, establish the time and place of your next contact. 8. Compromise. This is a middle-of-the-road strategy that gets everyone talking about the issues and moves you closer to each other and to a resolution. In compromise, each person has something to give and something to take. Compromise is most effective when issues are complex, and power is balanced. Compromise can be chosen when other methods have failed and when both you and your opponent are looking for middle ground, willing to exchange concessions. It almost always means giving up something in order to attain part of what you want. 9. Integrating. Integrating focuses on gathering and organizing information; at the same time, it encourages creative thinking and welcomes diverse perspectives. Suppose, for example, that the conflict

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concerns a major financial outlay. You don't like the direction things are going, but lack all the facts and figures. The other person doesn't have complete information either, but sees no reason to change course. Instead of continuing to argue, you agree to integrateto pool all of the information you can get your hands on, put your differences on the table and examine them along with any data that might contribute to a resolution. Integrating turns you and your opponent into allies on a mission to master the complexities of the issue and thereby develop alternative solutions. Integrating is often a prelude to collaboration and problem-solving. 10. Collaboration/Problem-solving. Collaborating means working together to resolve the conflict and necessitates information gathering as well as some form of problem-solving. In order to collaborate, you and your opponent must be able and willing to contribute time, energy and resources to finding and implementing a solution. You must also trust each other to a degree. Trust grows as you cooperate in finding a solution to the problem. A good place to see expert conflict management in action is the courtroom. For many if not most attorneys, conflict is a way of life. The good ones rarely select a strategy without figuring out in advance a full range of possible responses from the opposing side. Even displays of emotion are calculated to produce specific results. I'm not suggesting you start acting like an attorney (talk about creating conflict!) but, rather, that you view conflict as an opportunity, giving it the respect and conscious attention it deserves. Win-win resolutions are often possible, and getting to them can be stimulating and productive. Good conflict management can clear the air, improve relationships, and produce creative solutions to tough problems.

ATTITUDE:
This is an important concept in psychology. Below is one definition of attitude: An attitude is an opinion that one has about someone or something. It can reflect a favorable, unfavorable, or neutral judgment. We may have attitudes about many things. For example, we have attitudes about people, political issues, pets, music, art, movies, books, and education. Attitudes may reflect both beliefs and feelings. For example, a positive attitude concerning a psychology course may include the belief that the course involves learning about something that is important to your life and the feeling that you like the course.

CHARACTERSITICS OF ATTITUDE:
You don't have to be born with a good attitude. Books, movies, videos, courses, groups and movements promote a positive attitude for a successful life. The one thing all these secrets-tosuccess stories have in common is a good attitude. The tortoise beat the hare not because he was

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faster, but because he had a better attitude. Henry Ford was right when he said, "Whether you think you can, or whether you think you can't, you're right."

Good Thoughts:
From Norman Vincent Peale's book "The Power of Positive Thinking" to EST seminars to sports psychology, the search for success has consumed humans forever. One thing they agree on is that good attitude and good thoughts are inseparable. Those with a good attitude control their thoughts and keep them positive. This influences their outcomes from trying a new activity to winning a political or physical race. Noble-winning physicist Max Planck said, "When you change the way you look at things, the things you look at change." Thinking you can succeed is a key characteristic of a good attitude.

Self-Assurance:
Those with a good attitude know their own capabilities. A characteristic of their good attitude is they accept poor results realistically. They don't become negative if they don't win the first time they try something because they are realistic about their abilities and talents. Once they decide to try a new challenge, they give it their whole effort and become as good as they can be, taking as much pleasure in improving and participating as winning or beating an opponent.

Positive Comments:
Comments influence attitude. When you make good comments, you foster a positive attitude both in you and those around you. Cultivating a good attitude makes you the kind of person others like to be with, which buoys your positive feelings. A characteristic of those with a good attitude is that they make positive comments about others and themselves. Whether it's learning to play tennis or master an equation, a good attitude will get you further than intelligence or ability and produce an outlook of hope, says academictips.org.

Gratitude:
A good attitude also stems from gratitude for what you have right now. Counting blessings is more than trite --- it works. Nursing grievances can change an attitude from good to bad. A characteristic of a positive outlook on life is to be grateful for the benefits you possess. This attitude fosters hope that you have more good things to look forward to.

Clear Goals:
Another characteristic of a good attitude is knowing what you want. Clear goals are easy to define and set a standard to meet, giving you motivation to achieve them. By deciding on set goals, those with a good attitude unclutter their minds and allow themselves to focus on what it is they must do to get to where they want.

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CHARACTERSTICS OF ATTITUDE:
Attitude can be characterized in the following ways: An attitude is the predisposition of the individual psychological structure of beliefs which are to be evaluated a favorable or an unfavorable manner. They tend to persist unless something is done to change them. Attitudes can fall anywhere along a continuum from very favorable to very unfavorable. Attitudes are directed toward some object about which a person has feelings(sometimes called affect) and beliefs. Attitudes are different from values. Values refers to the ideals, whereas attitude sare narrows, they are feelings, thoughts and behavioral tendencies toward a specic object or situation Attitude is a predisposition to respond to a certain set of facts. Attitudes are evaluating statements either favorable or unfavorable which concerned about the objects and people or event

COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE:
There are three components of attitude.

1: Cognitive component:
It refers that's part of attitude which is related in general know how of a person, for example, he says smoking is injurious to health. Such type of idea of a person is called cognitive component of attitude.

2: Effective component:
This part of attitude is related to the statement which affects another person. For example, in an organization a personal report is given to the general manager. In report he point out that the sale staff is not performing their due responsibilities. The general manager forwards a written notice to the marketing manager to negotiate with the sale staff.

3: Behavioral Component:
The behavioral component refers to that part of attitude which reflects the intension of a person in short run or in long run. For example, before the production and launching process the product. Report is prepared by

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the production department which consists of there intention in near future and long run and this report is handed over to top management for the decision

FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDE:
Attitudes serve four major functions for the individual: (1) the adjustments function, (2) the ego defensive function, (3) the value expressive function (4) the knowledge function. Ultimately these functions serve peoples need to protect and enhance the image they hold of themselves. In more general terms, these functions are the motivational bases which shape and reinforce positive attitudes toward goal objects perceived as need satisfying and / or negative attitudes toward other objects perceived as punishing or threatening. These situations are diagrammed in Figure below. The functions themselves can help us to understand why people hold the attitudes they do toward psychological objects.

1. Adjustment Function :
The adjustment function directs people toward pleasurable or rewarding objects and away from unpleasant, undesirable ones. It serves the utilitarian concept of maximizing reward and minimizing punishment. Thus, the attitudes of consumers depend to a large degree on their perceptions of what is needed satisfying and what is punishing. Because consumers perceive products, services and stores as providing need satisfying or unsatisfying experiences we should expect their attitudes toward these object to vary in relation to the experiences that have occurred.

2. Ego Defensive Function:

Attitudes firmed to protect the ego or self image from threats help fulfill the ego defensive function. Actually many outward expressions of such attitudes reflect the opposite of what the person perceives him to be. For example a consumer who has made a poor purchase decision or a poor investment may staunchly defend the decision as being correct at the time or as being the result of poor advice from another person. Such ego defensive attitude helps us to protect out self image and often we are unaware of them.

3. Value expression function:

Whereas ego defensive attitudes are formed to protect a persons self image, value expressive attitudes enable the expression of the persons centrally held values. Therefore consumers adopt certain attitudes in an effort to translate their values into something more tangible and easily expressed . Thus, a conservative person might develop an unfavorable attitude toward bright clothing and instead be attracted toward dark, pin striped suits.

Marketers should develop an understanding of what values consumers wish to express about themselves and they should design products and promotional campaigns to allow these self

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expressions. Not all products lend themselves to this form of market segmentation however. Those with the greatest potential for value expressive segmentation are ones with high social visibility. Cross pens, Saks Fifth Avenue clothes. Ferrari automobiles and Bang & Children stereo systems are examples.

4. Knowledge function:
Humans have a need for a structured and orderly world, and therefore they seek consistency stability definition and understanding. Out of this need develops attitudes toward acquiring knowledge. In addition, the need to know tends to be specific. Therefore an individual who does not play golf, nor wish to learn the sport is unlikely to seek knowledge or an understanding of the game. This will influence the amount of information search devoted to this topic. Thus, out of our need to know come attitudes about what we believe we need or do not need to understand. In addition attitudes enable consumers to simplify the complexity of the real world. That is, as was pointed out in the chapter information processing, the real world is too complex for us to cope with so we develop mechanisms to simplify situations. We saw that this involves sensory thresholds and selective attention and it also involves attitudes. Attitudes allow us to categorize or group objects as a way of knowing about them. Thus, when a new object is experienced we attempt to categorize it into a group which we know something about. In this way the object can share the reactions we have for other objects in the same category. This is efficient because we do not have to spend much effort reacting to each new object as a completely unique situation. Consequently we often find consumers reacting in similar ways to ads for going out of business sales limited time offers American made goods etc. Of course there is some risk of error in not looking at the unique aspects or new information about objects but for better or worse, our attitudes have influenced how we feel and react to new examples of these situations.

TYPES OF ATTITUDES:
A person can have thousands of attitudes, but Organizational Behaviour focuses our attention on a very limited number of w o r k - r e l a t e d attitudes. These work-related attitudes tap positive or negative evaluations that employees hold about aspects of their work environment. Mostof the research in OB has been concerned with three attitudes: job satisfaction, job involvement, and organizational commitment.

1. Job Satisfaction:
The term job satisfaction to an individuals general attitude t o w a r d s h i s o r h e r j o b . A p e r s o n w i t h a h i g h l e v e l o f j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n h o l d s positive attitudes about their job, while a person who is dissatisfied with his or her job holds negative attitudes about the job. When people speak of employee attitudes, more often mean job satisfaction.

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2. Job Involvement:
The term job involvement is a more recent addition to the OB literature while there isnt complete agreement over what the tem means. A workable definition states that job involvement measures the degree to which a p e r s o n i d e n t i f i e s h i m w i t h h i s o r h e r j o b a n d c o n s i d e r s h i s o r h e r p e r c e i v e d performance level important to self worth. Employees with a high level of job involvement strongly identify with and really care about the kind of work they do.

3. Organizational Commitment:
The third job attitude is organizational commitment, which is defined as a state in which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals, and wishes to maintain membership in the organization. So, high job involvement means identifying with ones specific j o b , w h i l e h i g h o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m m i t m e n t m e a n s i d e n t i f yi n g w i t h o n e s employing organization.

WAY OF CHANGING ATTITUDE:

Providing New Information Use of Fear Resolving Discrepancies Inuence of Friends and Peers Co-opting Providing New Information: Sometimes a dramatic change in attitude is possible only by providing relevant and adequate information to the person concerned. Scan ty and incomplete information can be a major reason for brewing negative feeling and attitudes

Use of Fear:
Attitudes can be changed through the use of fear. People might resort to change their work habit for the fear of unpleasant consequences. However, the degree of the arousal of fear will have to be taken into consideration as well.

Resolving Discrepancies:
It refers to the people; whenever they face a dilemma or conicting situation they feel confused in choosing a particular course of action. In the case, where one person is to choose from between two alternative courses of action, it is often become difcult for him to decide which is right for him. Even when he chooses one over the other, he might still feel confused. If some one helps him in pointing out the positive points in favor of the chosen course of action, the person might resolve the dilemma.

Inuence of Friends and Peers

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A very effective way of changing ones attitude is through his friends and colleagues. Their opinion and recommendation for something often proves to be more important. For example, they are all praise for a particular policy introduced in the work place; chances are high that an individual will slowly accept that even when he had initial reservations.

Co-opting:
If you want to change the attitude of somebody who belongs to a different group, it is often becomes very effective if you can include him in your own group. In the case of the union leader who are all the time vehemently against any management decision, can be the person who takes active initiative in implementing a new policy when he had participated in that decision-making process himself.

PERCEPTION:
Perception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory perceives in order to give meaning to their environment. However, what one perceives can be substantially different from objective reality. There need be, but there is often, disagreement. For example: its possible that all employees in a firm may view it as great place to work favorable working conditions, interesting job alignments, good pay, excellent benefits, an understanding and responsible management but, as most of us known, its very unusual to find such agreement.

FACTORS OF PERCEPTION:
Perception is our sensory experience of the world around us and involves both the recognition of environmental stimuli and action in response to these stimuli. Through the perceptual process, we gain information about properties and elements of the environment that are critical to our survival. A number of factors operate to shape and sometimes distort perception These factors can reside: i) In the perceiver ii) In the Object or target being perceived or iii) In the context of the situation in which the perception is made

1. Characteristics of the Perceiver:

Several characteristics of the perceiver can affect perception. When an individual looks at a target and attempts to interpret what he or she stands for, that interpretation is heavily influenced by personal characteristics of the individual perceiver. The major characteristics of the perceiver influencing perception are: a) Attitudes:

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The perciver's attitudes affect perception. For example, Mr. X is interviewing candidates for a very important position in his organization - a position that requires negotiating contracts with suppliers, most of whom are male. Mr. X may feel that women are not capable of holding their own in tough negotiations. This attitude with doubtless affect his perceptions of the female candidates he interviews. b) Moods: Moods can have a strong influence on the way we perceive someone. We think differently when we are happy than we do when we are depressed. In addition, we remember information that is consistent with our mood state better than information that is inconsistent with our mood state. When in a positive mood, we form more positive impressions of other. When in a negative mood, we tend to evaluate others unfavourably. c) Motives: Unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate individuals and may exert a strong influence on their perceptions. For example, in an organizational context, a boss who is insecure perceives a sub ordinate's efforts to do an outstanding job as a threat to his or her own position. Personal insecurity can be translated into the perception that others are out to "get my job", regardless of the intention of the subordinates. d) Self - Concept: Another factor that can affect social perception is the perceivers self-concept. An individual with a positive self-concept tends to notice positive attributes in another person. In contrast, a negative self-concept can lead a perceiver to pick out negative traits in another person. Greater understanding of self allows us to have more accurate perceptions of others. e) Interest: The focus of our attention appears to be influenced by our interests. Because our individual interests differ considerably, what one person notices in a situation can differ from what other perceive. For example, the supervisor who has just been reprimanded by his boss for coming late is more likely to notice his colleagues coming late tomorrow than he did last week. f) Cognitive structure: Cognitive structure, an individual's pattern of thinking, also affects perception. Some people have a tendency to perceive physical traits, such as height, weight, and appearance, more readily. Cognitive complexity allows a person to perceive multiple characteristics of another person rather than attending to just a few traits. g) Expectations: Finally, expectations can distort your perceptions in that you will see what you expect to see. The research findings of the study conducted by Sheldon S Zalking and Timothy W Costello on some specific characteristics of the perceiver reveal i) Knowing oneself makes it easier to see others accurately.

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ii) One's own characteristics affect the characteristics one is likely to see in other. iii) People who accept themselves are more likely to be able to see favourable aspects of other people. iv) Accuracy in perceiving others is not a single skill. These four characteristics greatly influence how a person perceives other int he environmental situation.

2) Characteristics of the Target :

Characteristics in the target that is being observed can affect what is perceived. Physical appearance pals a big role in our perception of others. Extremely attractive or unattractive individuals are more likely to be noticed in a group than ordinary looking individuals. Motions, sound, size and other attributes of a target shape the way we see it. Verbal Communication from targets also affects our perception of them. Nonverbal communication conveys a great deal of information about the target. The perceiver deciphers eye contact, facial expressions, body movements, and posture all in a attempt to form an impression of the target.

3) Characteristics of the Situation:

The situation in which the interaction between the perceiver and the target takes place, has an influence on the perceiver's impression of the target. The strength of the situational cues also affects social perception. Some situations provide strong cues as to appropriate behaviour. In this situation, we assume that + i.e individual's behaviours can be accounted for by the situation, and that it may not reflect the individual's disposition. SENSATION V/S PERCEPTION: Sensation is the way human beings use their sensory organs to experience color, loudness, taste, scent and smell and heat. There are five senses, vision, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. But perception is the complicated process of interaction of selection, organization, and interpretation of stimuli. Although, perception depends upon the senses for raw data, the cognitive process may filter, modify, or completely change these data. Examples of the difference between sensation and perception are; # The purchasing agent buys a part that she thinks is best, not the part the engineer says is best. # The same worker may be viewed by one supervisor as a very good worker and by another supervisor as a very poor worker. # The same cooking oil may be viewed healthy by a doctor and not good by any other individual.

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PERCEPTION SELECTIVITY:
Numerous stimuli constantly confront everyone. The noise of air conditioners, the sound of other people talking and moving, and outside noises from cars and vehicles, planes, and many other sounds are heard by us every minute but why and how people select a specific stimulus or a few stimuli at a given time? The answers can be found in the principles of perceptual selectivity. a) External attention factors b) Internal set factors

a) EXTERNAL ATTENTION FACTORS:

Many external factors affect perceptual selectivity. These factors are; 1. INTENSITY: The intensity principle states that the more intense the external stimulus, the more likely it is to be perceived. A loud noise, strong odor, or bright light will be noticed more than a soft voice, weak odor or dim light. Advertisers use this principle to gain the attention of customers. Examples include bright packaging and TV commercials that are slightly louder to gain attention. So, supervisors may yell at their subordinates to get their attention but sometimes it may turn the subordinate off instead of gaining their attention. 2. SIZE: It says that the larger the object, the more likely it will be perceived. The maintenance engineering staff may pay more attention to a big machine than a smaller one even the smaller may cost much more than the bigger one. Therefore, a 6-foot 5-inch, 250 pound supervisor gets more attention than a 5-foot 6-inch, 160 pound supervisor. 3. CONTRAST: This principle states that a stimulus which stands out against the background gets more attention. Therefore, safety signs have black lettering on a yellow background or white lettering on red back ground. Example:- a worker with many years of experience hardly notices the deafening noise in a manufacturing company. However, if one or more machines stop working the person suddenly notices the difference. 4. REPITION:

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It means that a repeated object is more attention getting than a single one. Thus, it is better to give directions more than once for a dull or difficult job. This explains why supervisors have to repeat themselves even for the simplest of tasks to make the workers understand. 5. MOTION: The motion principle states that a moving object gets more and more attention than a stationary one. For example, the workers pay more attention to the moving objects like a conveyer belt than a stationary machine placed beside them. 6. NOVELTY AND FAMILIARITY: Novelty means something new and fresh and familiarity means something known and experienced. So, the principle of novelty and familiarity states that new objects in familiar settings and familiar objects in new settings get more attention. Job rotation is an example of it. Recent researches show that job rotation not only increased attention but also improved employees, learning skills. b) INTERNAL SET FACTORS: Some factors that affect the selectivity of perception of are following; 1. LEARNING AND PERCEPTION: Learning may play the most important role in developing perceptual set. Read the following. TURN OFF THE THE ENGINE It will take you several seconds to realize there is something wrong. Because of familiarity with the sentence from prior learning, the person is perceptually set to read Turn off the engine ignoring the second THE in it. This shows that learning affects selectivity of perception, because the people read and see what they expect to see and hear. Another example can be M-A-C-T-V-I-S-H M-A-C-D-O-N-A-L-D M-A-C-B-E-T-H M-A-C-H-I-N-E-R-Y If the last word was pronounced Mac-Hinery instead of machinery, the reader was caught in a verbal response set. 2) PERCEPTUAL SET IN WORKPLACE:

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In organization life, some employees have learned to perceive the world around them in the same way. For example, a recent study shows that the functional background (e.g., accounting, finance, marketing, and human resources) of a sample of managers significantly affect the changes they perceive in their organizations effectiveness. Another common example is the difference in perception that occurs between the union and management. Some researchers say that perceptual differences are a major explanation of disputes in organizations and firms. For example, union members may perceive that they are underpaid, whereas management may perceive that they are overpaid for the amount they work. And so this difference in perception starts a dispute. 3) MOTIVATION AND PERCEPTION: Motivation also plays an important role in perceptual selectivity. For example, a person who has a relatively high need for power, affiliation, or achievement will be more attentive to the relevant situation. An example is the worker who has a strong need for affiliation. When such a worker walks into the lunchroom, the table where several coworkers are sitting tends to get more attention and the empty table gets no attention. 4) PERSONALITY AND PERCEPTION: Personality of the perceiver also affects what is attended to in confronting situations. For example, the senior managers often complain that the younger mangers have trouble making tough decisions in management like the firing and hiring of personnel. The young managers, on the other hand, say that the old managers resist the change in rules and paperwork which ends against them.

PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION:
The perceptual process organizes the incoming information into a meaningful whole. In other words, the perceivers mind organizes the information in such a way that it can give meaning and is understandable. For example, when a basket ball is shown to a student he does not see it as round object made of grain texture leather but he perceives it as a ball which provides fun and excitement as participants or spectators. 1. FIGURE GROUND: The figure ground principle means simply that perceived objects stand out separable from their background. It can be effectively demonstrated as one is reading the following items. At first glance, the receiver is receiving patches of irregularly shaped black and white shapes.

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only when the white letters are perceptually organized against a black background the words FLY and TIE jump out. 2. PERCEPTUAL GROUPING: It states that there is a tendency to group several stimuli together into a recognizable pattern. When people are presented with stimuli they tend to group them into closure, proximity and similarity.

Closure: It means that people sometimes perceive a whole when it does not exist. For example, a manager perceives complete agreement of his workers on a given project, when, in fact, there was opposition from several workers. Proximity: It means closeness and nearness. This principle states that stimuli and things close together are perceived to be parts of a single whole. For example, a number of workers working on a single machine are perceived as one. Similarity: When objects and things are similar they are perceived as in the same group. For example, workers wearing same uniform tend to be perceived as one although they have their own different personalities.

3. Perceptual Context:
The highest and most sophisticated form of organization is perceptual context. I t g i v e s meaning and value to simple stimuli, objects, events, situations and other p e r s o n s i n t h e environment. The organizational structure and culture provide the primary context in which workers and managers do their perceiving.

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For example A verbal order, a new policy, a pat on the back, a raised eye brow or a suggestion takes on special meaning when placed in the context of the work organization.

4. Perceptual Defense:
Closely related to perceptual context is the perceptual defense. A person may build a defense against stimuli or situational events in a particular context that are personally or culturally u n acceptable or threatening. Accordingly, perceptual defense may play a very important role in understanding union-management and supervisor-subordinate relationship. Most studies verify the existence of a perceptual defense mechanism.

5. Perceptual Constancy:
Constancy is one of the more sophisticated forms of perceptual organization. This concept gives a person a sense of stability in this changing world. This principle permits the individuals to have some constancy or stability in a tremendously variable and highly complex world. If constancy were not at work, the world would be very chaotic and disorganized for the individual. There are several aspects of constancy: a) Shape Constancy: Whenever an object appears to maintain its shape despite marked changes in the retinal image e.g. the top of a glass bottle is seen as circular whether we view it from the side or from the top. b) Size Constancy: The size constancy refers to the fact that as an object is moved further away from us we tend to see it as more or less invariant in size. For example The players in cricket field on the opposite side of the field do not look smaller than those closer to you even though their images on the retina of the eye are much smaller c) Color Constancy: Color constancy implies that familiar objects are perceived to be of the same color in varied conditions. The owner of a red car sees it as red in the bright sunlight as well as in dim twilight. Without perceptual constancy the size, shape and color of objects would change as the worker moved about and it would make the job almost impossible.

MOTIVATION:

Motivation is a term that refers to a process that elicits, controls, and sustains certain behaviors. Motivation is a group of phenomena which affect the nature of an individual's behaviour, the strength of the behaviour, and the persistence of the behaviour.

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For instance: An individual has not eaten, he or she feels hungry, as a response he or she eats and diminishes feelings of hunger. ELEMENTS OF MOTIVATION: Motivation consists of three interacting and interdependent elements: needs, drives and goals. Needs
The best one-word definition of a need is deficiency. In the homeostatic sense, needs are created

whenever there is a physiological or psychological imbalance. Drives With a few exceptions drives or motives are set up to alleviate needs. A simply defined as a deficiency with direction .Drives are action-oriented and d r i v e c a n b e provide an energizing thrust toward goal accomplishment. They are at the very heart of the motivational process. Goals
At the end of the motivation cycle is the goal. A goal in the motivation cycle can be defined as anything, which will alleviate a need and reduce a drive. Thus, attaining a goal will tend to restore

physiological or psychological balance and will reduce or cut off the drive. There are two basic types of Motivation, Intrinsic and Extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation is based on an individual or self, being enthusiastic. Enjoying the work at hand is a fire within that desires more pleasure thus being drawn toward greater outcomes. This may be fired by goals or by the simple joy of enthusiasm. Extrinsic motivation takes its rise outside the individual. Training for an award, to win a prize or earn a bonus. This may amount to some coercion within the workplace. Employers may set monetary bonuses related to production goals.

Primary Motives
Physiologists do not totally agree on how to classify the various human motives, but they would acknowledge that some motivates are unlearned and physiologically based. Such motives a r e variously called physiological, biological, unlearned, or primary. The last term is used here because it is more comprehensive than the others. The use of the term primary does not imply that this group of motives always takes precedence over the general and secondary motive

General Motives

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A separate classification for general motives is not always given. Yet such a category seems necessary because there are a number of motives, which lie in the gray area between the primary and secondary classifications. To be included in the general category, a motive must be unlearned but not physiologically based. Although n o t a l l p s yc h o l o g i s t s w o u l d a g r e e , t h e motives of competence, curiosity, manipulation, activity, and affection seem best to meet the criteria for this classification. An understanding of these general motives is important to the study of human behaviour especially in organizations. They are more relevant to organizational behaviour than the primary motives

The Curiosity, Manipulation, and Activity Motives

It is generally recognized that human curiosity, manipulation, and activity drives are quite intense; anyone who has reared or been around small children will quickly support this generalization. Although these drives often get the small child into trouble, curiosity, manipulation, and activity, when stifled or inhibited, the total society might become very stagnant

The Affection Motives

Love or affection is a very complex form of general drive. Part of t h e complexity stems from the fact that in many ways love resembles the primary drives and in other ways it is similar to the secondary drives. For this reason, affection is sometimes placed in all three categories of motives,

Secondary Motives
Whereas the general drives seem relatively more important than the primary ones to the study of human behaviour in organizations, the secondary drives are unquestionably the m o s t important. As a human society develops economically and becomes more complex, the primary drives, and to a lesser degree the general drives, give way t o t h e learned secondary drive s in motivating behaviour. With some glaring e x c e p t i o n s t h a t h a v e y e t t o b e eradicated, the motives of hunger and thirst are not dominant among people living in the economically developed Western world. I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e l e a r n i n g p r i n c i p l e o f r e i n f o r c e m e n t i s c o n c e p t u a l l y a n d practically related to motivation. The relationship is obvious when reinforcement is divided into primary and secondary categories and is portrayed as incentives. Some writers regards reinforcement and motivation as equivalent. O nce again, however, it should be emphasized that although the various behavioural concepts can be separated for study and analysis, in reality concepts like reinforcement and motivation do not operate as separate entities in producing human behaviour. The interactive effects are always present .A motive must be learned in order to be included i n the secondary classification. Numerous important human motives meet this criterion.

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Some of the more important ones are power, achievement, and affiliation, or as they are commonly referred to today, n Ach, and n Aff. In addition, especially in reference to organizational behaviour, security and status are also important secondary motives.

WORK MOTIVATION APPROACH:

Employee motivation is a central problem for leaders and managers, as an unmotivated employee is unlikely to expend much effort in the job, producing low-quality work. Frederick W. Taylor, founder of the scientific managerial method, advocated the use of scientifically designed incentives. Motivation is not an exact science: Multiple theories are available that propose sometimes contradictory, but often complementary, approaches toward work motivation.

Instinct Approach:
This approach upholds instincts, or inborn patterns of behavior that are biologically predetermined, as the factors that influence behavior. This approach provides an explanation to the food-seeking and mate-seeking behavior displayed by all organisms as hunger and sex are primary instincts. The Psychoanalytic School of Psychology also believes the primary instincts play an important role in determining behavior. However, this approach fails to explain the complex behavioral patterns displayed by humans. The instinct to survive does not influence the behavior of an individual saving a friend from a car accident. Hence, there are factors different from instincts that influence behavior.

Drive-Reduction Approach:
Proposed by Clark C Hull, this approach seeks to establish a relationship between needs and the fulfillment of needs. This approach believes every organism has certain Drives or arousals that create a feeling of tension and anxiety. To reduce this feeling, the organism behaves in certain ways, exploring the actions that will cease the anxiety. The tension usually arises from the deprivation of a need, physiological or psychological, and satisfying this need leads to the reduction of the anxiety. This stems from the organisms need to maintain Homeostasis or internal body balance. This approach is similar to the instinct approach, and it too, fails to explain complex behaviors.

Incentive Approach:
This approach believes that motivation stems from the desire to obtain valued external goals or incentives. The incentive can be a tangible reward like money, food, grades or in the form of intangible compliments, love and recognition.

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However, this approach does not determine why certain incentives direct behavior. The value of an incentive cannot be scientifically determined.

Cognitive Approach:
This is a modern approach that is widely accepted by psychologists. It focuses on the individuals understanding of the world, thoughts, beliefs and perceptions. Toleman, in his Cognitive Theory of Motivation says that, behavior is determined by an individuals expectation of the behavior and the value attached to its consequences. Motivation is thus a function of Expectancy and Value. M= f (E)*V This theory also seeks to differentiate between Intrinsic Motivation and Extrinsic Motivation. Intrinsic motivation is the process in which people participate in an activity for their own enjoyment. For example, reading a book. Extrinsic motivation is the process in which people participate in an activity for a tangible reward. For example, working long hours at office in order to obtain a higher salary.

McClelland's Theory of Needs:

In his acquired-needs theory, David McClelland proposed that an individual's specific needs are acquired over time and are shaped by one's life experiences. Most of these needs can be classed as either achievement, affiliation, or power. A person's motivation and effectiveness in certain job functions are influenced by these three needs. McClelland's theory sometimes is referred to as the three need theory or as the learned needs theory.

Achievement motivation [n-ach]:

People with a high need for achievement (nAch) seek to excel and thus tend to avoid both lowrisk and high-risk situations. Achievers avoid low-risk situations because the easily attained success is not a genuine achievement. In high-risk projects, achievers see the outcome as one of chance rather than one's own effort. High nAch individuals prefer work that has a moderate probability of success, ideally a 50% chance. Achievers need regular feedback in order to monitor the progress of their acheivements. They prefer either to work alone or with other high achievers.

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Authority/power motivation [n-pow]:

A person's need for power (nPow) can be one of two types - personal and institutional. Those who need personal power want to direct others, and this need often is perceived as undesirable. Persons who need institutional power (also known as social power) want to organize the efforts of others to further the goals of the organization. Managers with a high need for institutional power tend to be more effective than those with a high need for personal power.

Affiliation motivation [n-affil]:

Those with a high need for affiliation (nAff) need harmonious relationships with other people and need to feel accepted by other people. They tend to conform to the norms of their work group. High nAff individuals prefer work that provides significant personal interaction. They perform well in customer service and client interaction situations. He suggested that most of us possess and demonstrate a combination of these characteristics, and some of us show a strong bias to a particular motivational need that will inevitably influence and affect our working behaviour and management style.

EQUITY THEORY:
The equity theory focuses on an individual's perceived relationships between outcomes they receive from their organization and the inputs that are contributed. The theory maintains a relativistic approach and that each individual's outlook can be different. The individual compares his own outcome-input ratio with a referent's outcome-input ratio. A referent could be another person, a group of people similar to oneself, oneself in a previous job, or one's own expectation of what the outcome-input should be. The referent that an employee selects adds to the complexity of equity theory. There are 4 referent comparisonsthat an employee can use: 1. Self-inside. 2. Self-outside. 3. Other-inside. 4. Other-outside. Which referent an employee chooses will be influenced by the information the employee holds about referents as well as by the attractiveness of the referent. Employees with short tenure in their current organization tend to have little information about others and on the long tenure rely more heavily on coworkers for comparison. Equity theory is also related with the pay of the employees. Thus on these grounds, the theory establishes the following 4 propositions related to inequitable pay:

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1. Given payment on time, over rewarded employees will produce more than will equitably paid employees. 2. Given payment by quantity of production, over rewarded employees will produce fewer, but higher-quality, units than equitably paid employees. 3. Given payment on time, under rewarded employees will produce poorer quality of output. 4. Given payment by quality of production, under rewarded employees will produce a large no of low-quality units in comparison with equitably paid employees. These propositions have generally been supported with few minor qualifications.

Conclusion of equity theory:The equity theory demonstrates that, for most employees,motivation is influenced significantly by relative rewards as well by absolute rewards. But some key issues related to this theoryare still unclear

Expectancy Theory:The Expectancy theory states that employees motivation is an outcome of how much an individual wants a reward (Valence), the assessment that the likelihood that the effort will lead to expected performance (Expectancy) and the belief that the performance will lead to reward (Instrumentality). In short, Valence is the significance associated by an individual about the expected outcome. It is an expected and not the actual satisfaction that an employee expects to receive after achieving the goals. Expectancy is the faith that better efforts will result in better performance. Expectancy is influenced by factors such as possession of appropriate skills for performing the job, availability of right resources, availability of crucial information and getting the required support for completing the job. Instrumentality is the faith that if you perform well, then a valid outcome will be there. Instrumentality is affected by factors such as believe in the people who decide who receives what outcome, the simplicity of the process deciding who gets what outcome, and clarity of relationship between performance and outcomes. Thus, the expectancy theory concentrates on the following three relationships:

Effort-performance relationship: What is the likelihood that the individuals effort be recognized in his performance appraisal? Performance-reward relationship: It talks about the extent to which the employee believes that getting a good performance appraisal leads to organizational rewards. Rewards-personal goals relationship: It is all about the attractiveness or appeal of the potential reward to the individual.

Vroom was of view that employees consciously decide whether to perform or not at the job. This decision solely depended on the employees motivation level which in turn depends on three factors of expectancy, valence and instrumentality.

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Advantages of the Expectancy Theory

It is based on self-interest individual who want to achieve maximum satisfaction and who wants to minimize dissatisfaction. This theory stresses upon the expectations and perception; what is real and actual is immaterial. It emphasizes on rewards or pay-offs. It focuses on psychological extravagance where final objective of individual is to attain maximum pleasure and least pain.

Limitations of the Expectancy Theory

The expectancy theory seems to be idealistic because quite a few individuals perceive high degree correlation between performance and rewards. The application of this theory is limited as reward is not directly correlated with performance in many organizations. It is related to other parameters also such as position, effort, responsibility, education, etc.

Implications of the Expectancy Theory

The managers can correlate the preferred outcomes to the aimed performance levels. The managers must ensure that the employees can achieve the aimed performance levels. The deserving employees must be rewarded for their exceptional performance. The reward system must be fair and just in an organization. Organizations must design interesting, dynamic and challenging jobs. The employees motivation level should be continually assessed through various techniques such as questionnaire, personal interviews, etc.

JOB DESIGN:
Job design has emerged as a very new technique and idea used to motivate workers in the field of organizational behavior. In the recent years much work and progress is made in the job designing and a lot of theories have been presented for job designing to better motivate the workers. Initially, the field of organizational behavior paid attention only to job enrichment approaches to job design. But now the new approaches like job engineering, job enrichment, job enlargement, and job rotation have broadened the perspective of job design. Some of these techniques or approaches are stated below.

JOB ENGINEERING:

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Frederick W. Taylor was a leading scientific manager and he suggested that job design may be the most important element in better management. He studied how to increase the efficiency of humans in jobs. So, the scientific management approach was evolved into what is now called the job engineering. This job engineering approach is concerned with product, process, and tool design; plant layout; standard operating procedures; work measurement and standards; work methods; and human-machine interactions. So, keeping this approach in mind different systems were designed to make the workers more efficient and hard working. For example, sophisticated computer applications involving artificial intelligence (AI), expert systems and soft wares and computer-assisted design (CAD) were designed to increase the working power and efficiency of workers. So, with the introduction of these systems the jobs became much more specialized (the employee did one or a very few tasks) and standardized (the employee did the task the same way every time). For example, a person working in a factory used to do the same job each time and every day. Same was the case with the offices and banks; a person used to do only one job and their works was brief and specialized. This approach was very successful at first and the results were very productive and satisfactory. Though these specialized and standardized jobs were practiced till 1960s and employers had a better control over the jobs and it was cost saving but still some problems were arising out of this system and side effects like boredom, quality of work, absenteeism and turnover were ignored.

JOB ENLARGEMENT:
Job enlargement is another approach to Job Design. It is horizontally loading the job. Or it is the method in which the number of tasks to be performed by a person is expanded and hence made less specialized. Job enlargements make workers more hard working and they get knowledge of different tasks performed in an organization. For example, the work of a person working in finance department can be enlarged as he has to do some of the tasks of management department.

SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT:
Reinforcement schedules for behavior refer to the frequency with which a student receives reinforcement (or a reward) for performing a desired behavior. On a continuous reinforcement schedule, the student receives the reinforcer for each time she shows the desired behavior (such as giving a child a piece of cookie for each correct answer). A partial reinforcement schedule, also known as an intermittent reinforcement schedule, requires giving a reward for some responses, but not each response. The frequency and timing of the reinforcer depends on the type of partial reinforcement schedule.

1. Continuous Reinforcement:

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In continuous reinforcement, the desired behavior is reinforced every single time it occurs. Generally, this schedule is best used during the initial stages of learning in order to create a strong association between the behavior and the response. Once the response if firmly attached, reinforcement is usually switched to a partial reinforcement schedule.

2. Partial Reinforcement:
In partial reinforcement, the response is reinforced only part of the time. Learned behaviors are acquired more slowly with partial reinforcement, but the response is more resistant to extinction. There are four schedules of partial reinforcement:

1. Fixed Ratio Schedules:

Fixed-ratio schedules are those where a response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses. This schedule produces a high, steady rate of responding with only a brief pause after the delivery of the reinforcer.

2. Variable Ratio Schedules:

Variable-ratio schedules occur when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule creates a high steady rate of responding. Gambling and lottery games are good examples of a reward based on a variable ratio schedule.

3. Fixed Interval Schedule:

Fixed-interval schedules are those where the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed. This schedule causes high amounts of responding near the end of the interval, but much slower responding immediately after the delivery of the reinforcer.

4. Variable Interval Schedules:

Variable-interval schedules occur when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. This schedule produces a slow, steady rate of response.

PUNISHMENT:
In behaviorism, punishment refers to the consequence for undesired behavior. Punishment can be either negative or positive, depending on the nature of the consequence. In negative punishment, something that the person desires is taken away. For example, a parent might forbid a child to watch a favorite television show. In positive punishment, something undesirable is given in response to the behavior. For example, a parent may require a child to wash the dishes.

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Although punishment is still relatively common, many experts now believe that reinforcement has more lasting effects. In reinforcement, the focus is on desired behaviors rather than those that are undesirable.

MEANING OF STRESS:

People usually take the meaning of stress in a negative sense. It is thought to be caused by something really bad and unwanted. But it is not always due to some problem or trouble that we feel stress. Stress can also be caused by good things, so, stress can be categorized into two types according to the causes, distress and eustress. A) DISTRESS When we face pressure and strain due to something bad happened it is called distress. For example, a loved one is seriously ill, the boss gives formal warning for a poor performance, or a student has to do his best to pass the examinations. B) EUSTRESS But there is also a positive, pleasant side of stress called by good things (for example, an employee is offered a job promotion, or a good looking attractive acquaintance asks for a date). This type of stress is called eustress. Eu a Greek word meaning good. So, stress can be defined as an adaptive response to the external situation that results in physical, psychological or behavioral deviations for the participants. It is important to note here that stress is not: 1. Stress is not anxiety: anxiety operates only in emotional and psychological area but stress has psychological and emotional as well as physiological effects. Thus, stress also accompanies anxiety but the two should not be equated. 2. Stress is not simply nervous tension: Though stress may cause nervous tension like anxiety but the two are not the same. Nervous tension can be a way in which people exhibit and express stress. 3. Stress is not necessarily something damaging, bad, or to be avoided: Eustress is not damaging or bad and is something that people should want rather than avoid it. The real matter is how people handle the stress (whether good or bad). Stress is inevitable but distress can be controlled and prevented effective

POTENTIAL SOURCES OF STRESS:

While environmental factors are forces outside the organization, which may act as potential sources of stress due to uncertainties and threats that they create for any organization and its members, factors within organization can also act as potential source of stress. Together or singly they may cause a tense and volatile working environment which can cause stress for

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organizational members because the inability of individuals to handle the pressures arising out of these sources. The following may be seen to be the potential sources of stress:

1. Environmental factors:
Environmental uncertainy influences stress levels among employees in an organization. It includes:

a) economic uncertainties:
Changes in the business cycle crate economic uncertainties.

b) Political uncertainties:
Political uncertainties can be stress inducing.

c) Technological uncertainty:
Technological uncertainty can cause stress because new innovations can make an employee's skills and experience obsolete in a very short period of time.

2. Organizational factors:
Pressures to avoid errors or complete tasks in a limited time period, work overload, a demanding and insensitive boss, and unpleasant coworkers are a few examples.

a) Task demands:
Task demands are factors related to a person's job. They include the design of the individual's job (autonomy, task variety, degree of automation) working conditions, and the physical work layout.

b) Role demands:
Role demands relate to pressures that are a function of the role an individual plays in an organization.

c) Interpersonal demands:
Interpersonal demands are pressures created by other employees

d) Organizational structure:

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Organizational structure defines the level of differentiation in the organization, the degree of rules and regulations, and where decisions are made. Excessive rules and lack of participation in decisions might be potential sources of stress.

e) Organizational leadership:
Organizational leadership represents the managerial style of the organization's senior executives. CEOs by virtue of their managerial styles create an organizational culture which reflects tension, fear and anxiety. They overemphasize tight control, hire and fire policies which keep organizational members on hot seat and create stress among them.

3. Individual factors:
These are factors in the employee's personal life. Primarily these factors are family issues, personal economic problems, and inherent personality characteristics. a) FAMILY LIFE: Broken families, wrecked marriages and other family issues may create stress at workplace as well.

b) Economic problems:
Economic problems created by individuals overextending their financial resources. Spending more than earnings stretches financial positions, create debt situation leading to stress among individuals.

c) INHERENT PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS:

A significant individual factor influencing stress is a person's basic dispositional nature. Oversuspicious anger and hostility increases a person's stress and risk for heart disease. There individuals with high level of mistrust for others also cause stress for themselves. PROBLEMS DUE TO STRESS: Stress can give rise to the following problems. 1. PHYSICAL PROBLEMS DUE TO STRESS: A high level of stress is accompanied by high blood pressure and high levels of cholesterols and may even result in heart diseases, ulcers and arthritis. It is to be noted here that all the heart diseases are not due to the stress and many other factors also cause heart diseases.

2. PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS DUE TO STRESS: The psychological problems that stress cause are as important as the physical problems. High levels of stress can be accompanied by anger, anxiety, depression, nervousness, irritability, tension, and boredom. One study shows that stress has the strongest impact on aggressive

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actions, such as sabotage, interpersonal aggression, hostility, and complaints. And the result from the stress is relevant to poor job performance, lowered self-esteem, dislike of supervision, inability to concentrate and make decisions, and job dissatisfaction. 3. BEHAVIORAL PROBLEMS DUE TO STRESS: Beside the physical and psychological problems, stress can also give birth to many behavioral disorders like overeating or under eating, sleeplessness, increased smoking and drinking, and drugs. Stress has also to do with absenteeism and turnovers.

CAUSES OF STRESS:
Stressors that cause stress and affect the employees can be inside as well as outside the organization. Some of the below are; Extra-Organizational Stressors+Organizational Stressors+Group Stressors+Individual Stressors=Job Stress. Categories of stressors affecting occupational stress

1. EXTRAORGANIZATIONAL STRESSORS:
It has become very clear that the outside factors have a very important impact on the employees as stressors. We know that most organizations today are open systems and therefore, it is clear that some external factors also affect the working of the workers and job stress is not limited just to things inside an organization during working hours. Extra-organizational stressors include things such as societal/technological change, the family, relocation, economic and financial conditions, race and class and residential or community conditions.

a. technological stressors:
In the last years, science and technology has made great advancements and progresses. Though the medical science has made a lot of advancements but the problems of science has also been many and a man has little peace of mind in this todays world and people have less wellness. These are some of the external stressors caused by the changes in lifestyle and progresses made in the field of science.

b. family:
Family has a great impact as a job stressor on a person. Whether its the illness of a family member or the strained relations with the spouse or children, they all affect the working of a person and have many bad consequences.

c. sudden life changes:

Life changes may be slow (getting older) or sudden (the death of a person). Sudden changes in

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life have a dramatic effect on the health and working of a person. For example, divorces have a very stressful effect on the job performance of a person. Similarly, all the other sudden changes make the working of a person bad. The more sudden the changes in the life the more stressful will be the effect.

d. sociological variables:
Social variables such as race, class and sex (gender) can also become stressors. Minority group (such as blacks and other minorities face stress in USA) face many stresses in the same way woman have had and still have many job stresses due to their gender in the man dominated societies.

2. ORGANIZATIONAL STRESSORS
There are also some stressors inside the organizations which make life difficult for the workers. Besides the individual and group stressors there are some macro-level organizational stressors that make life difficult for the workers. Some of them can the following;

3. GROUP STRESSORS
We have studied the effect of groups on the individuals and also teams and groups. The group can also be the source of stress. These group stressors can be categorized into three areas: a. Lack of group cohesiveness: cohesiveness and togetherness is very important for group performances and when there is not enough unity and coordination in the group then the result can be very stress-producing. b. Lack of social support: employees are greatly affected by the support of one or more of their coworkers. By sharing there problems and joys with others they are much better off. So, if a worker does not get support from the others they feel very lonely and stressful. c. Intraindividual, interpersonal and intergroup conflict: conflict is very closely related to stress. So, any kind of conflict and disagreement can cause real strain and stress.

4. INDIVIDUAL STRESSORS
All the other types of stressors (for example, extraorganizational, organizational and group conflicts) end up in the in the form of individual stressors. For example, role conflict, ambiguity, and individual disposition (nature), personal control, self-efficacy, learned helplessness and psychological hardiness may all affect the level of stress someone experiences.

STAGES OF STRESS:
Stress can be divided into three different stages namely alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. A). ALARM In the alarm stage an outside stressor mobilizes the stress system of the individual. There are a number of psychological and chemical reactions in the body, such as increased pituitary and

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adrenaline secretions; noticeable increase in respiration, heart rate and blood pressure and a heightening of the senses. B). RESISATANCE If the stress continues beyond the alarm stage it enters a second phase called resistance. During this stage, the body calls upon the corresponding organs to deal with the stressor. When there is a lot of resistance from the body to one stressor, the body becomes vulnerable and weak to other diseases. So, this is the reason why a person also suffers other diseases when having stress. C). EXHAUSTION Finally, if the problem persists over a long period of time, the reserves of the body exhausts and the body becomes weak. And it may return back to the first stage of alarm and a new cycle starts. It can really be very hard on a person and even death occurs.

THE EFFECTS OF STRESS:

Stress is not always harmful and dangerous, sometimes low levels of stress can even be helpful to enhance job performance. For example, a change in the job or even a change in the supervisor may make the worker perform better and search for the new information. It also noted that mild stress can be very helpful to activate the workers and hence make them do better and perform more than the normal. Though a little bit of stress can be useful but it can strongly be concluded that; A. The performance of many tasks is in fact strongly affected by stress. B. Performance usually drops off sharply when stress rises to high levels. COPING STRATEGIES FOR STRESS: Tough stress is sometimes impossible to avoid but it is never impossible to manage and fight against stress. Stress can be managed at the individual as well as the organizational level. 1. INDIVIDUAL COPING STRATEGIES Today people are taking responsibility and they want to help themselves. So, people can make changes in their lives and attitudes to cope with the stress and its problems. Some techniques that people can use to manage stress are; EXERCISE: Today many people know the importance of exercise. People of all ages are walking, jogging, swimming, riding bicycles, or playing many different games and sports. Exercise can help people manage stress better and take there minds off the problem for sometime. 1. RELAXATION: Relaxing some time and leaving all the work aside is very good for health and it helps approach the problem after a break with a fresh and better approach. It can be done easily by watching

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something light on Television or reading some light book and there are also some techniques for relaxation like meditation and other mental and physical exercises like yoga. 2. BEHAVIORAL SELF CONTROL: When a person controls his own behavior and attitude it also helps in managing stress better. Having a brave and positive approach towards every problem is very good and it really helps in managing stress to a great extent. 3. COGNITIVE THERAPY: Psychologists have designed many techniques to lessen the pressure of the stress that people feel and it really has proved to be very successful and fruitful. But there is still a lot to be done in this field. 4. NETWORKING: Job stress can be managed by having friends in the working area and coworkers who are experienced and can give good advice and guide the person through the problems

ORGANIZATIONAL COPING STRATEGIES:

Organizations and their management can really prove to be very effective in the coping and managing stress. They can design jobs and structure of the organization so that the employees feel very much at home and easy hence, reducing the chances of stress and its effects. Some general strategies for the organizations to cope with stress are: 1. CREATE A SUPPORTIVE ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE: Very formal and inflexible management can really cause some stress for the workers and if organizations can make an environment and climate that is supportive then it is really very helpful for the workers and reduces stress and pressure of the tasks. 2. ENRICH THE DESIGN OF TASK: The management of an organization can enrich the tasks and jobs to be performed by the individuals. If the jobs are design properly and the workers have an understanding of their authorities, responsibilities and roles then it reduces the amount of stress. 3. REDUCE CONFLICT AND CLARIFY ORGANIZATIONAL ROLES: When there is a good understanding of what is a person needed to do in an organization so there is no role conflict and ambiguity. So, when everyone knows what he has to do and what are his responsibilities and authorities there are less chances of stress. 4. PLAN AND DEVELOP CAREER PATHS AND PROVIDE COUNSELING:

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Good planning is always the basic thing to be done in an organization, it is always very effective to resolve ambiguities and reduce the stress. When a person in an organization knows about the direction of his tasks and knows about his career and working duration there is no stress felt and the working productivity of the workers also increases. It is always great to have someone that can give useful advice to the workers and solve their problems. So, what an organization can do is have counselors and mentors to clarify the situations for the workers to reduce the pressure and control stress.

GUIDELINES FOR DOWNSIZED ORGANIZATIONS TO COPE WITH STRESS:

Many organizations today are lying off their workers and reducing their sizes to be efficient in the environment. Downsizing can create some problems for the workers that can be drastic and be very stressful for them. Some guidelines for the downsized organizations to manage stress can be the following. 1. Be proactive: The managers can be trained how to outplace people and how to help those who still remain in the organization. 2. Acknowledge the survivors: Workshops and seminars can be held for those who remain in the organization. These workshops and seminars are meant to sharpen the skills of the workers and make them compatible to face changes. 3. Communicate after downsizing: Employees can be given the permission to communicate with the top mangers after the downsizing and have their questions and ambiguities answered. When their problems are solved then they face less or no job stress. 4. Clarify new roles: After every restructuring occurs the roles that employees have to play change in the organization. Sometimes when the roles are not clarified it creates stress. It is always preferable to clarify all new roles so that there is no ambiguity and stress created.

What is Leadership:
Leadership is a process by which an executive can direct, guide and influence the behavior and work of others towards accomplishment of specific goals in a given situation. Leadership is the ability of a manager to induce the subordinates to work with confidence and zeal. Leadership is the potential to influence behaviour of others. It is also defined as the capacity to influence a group towards the realization of a goal. Leaders are required to develop future visions, and to motivate the organizational members to want to achieve the visions.

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According to Keith Davis, Leadership is the ability to persuade others to seek defined objectives enthusiastically. It is the human factor which binds a group together and motivates it towards goals.

Characteristics of Leadership:
1. It is a inter-personal process in which a manager is into influencing and guiding workers towards attainment of goals. 2. It denotes a few qualities to be present in a person which includes intelligence, maturity and personality. 3. It is a group process. It involves two or more people interacting with each other. 4. A leader is involved in shaping and moulding the behaviour of the group towards accomplishment of organizational goals. 5. Leadership is situation bound. There is no best style of leadership. It all depends upon tackling with the situations. Leadership is an important function of management which helps to maximize efficiency and to achieve organizational goals. The following points justify the importance of leadership in a concern. 1. Initiates action- Leader is a person who starts the work by communicating the policies and plans to the subordinates from where the work actually starts. 2. Motivation- A leader proves to be playing an incentive role in the concerns working. He motivates the employees with economic and non-economic rewards and thereby gets the work from the subordinates. 3. Providing guidance- A leader has to not only supervise but also play a guiding role for the subordinates. Guidance here means instructing the subordinates the way they have to perform their work effectively and efficiently. 4. Creating confidence- Confidence is an important factor which can be achieved through expressing the work efforts to the subordinates, explaining them clearly their role and giving them guidelines to achieve the goals effectively. It is also important to hear the employees with regards to their complaints and problems. 5. Building morale- Morale denotes willing co-operation of the employees towards their work and getting them into confidence and winning their trust. A leader can be a morale booster by achieving full co-operation so that they perform with best of their abilities as they work to achieve goals. 6. Builds work environment- Management is getting things done from people. An efficient work environment helps in sound and stable growth. Therefore, human relations should be kept into mind by a leader. He should have personal contacts with employees and should listen to their problems and solve them. He should treat employees on humanitarian terms. 7. Co-ordination- Co-ordination can be achieved through reconciling personal interests with organizational goals. This synchronization can be achieved through proper and effective co-ordination which should be primary motive of a leader.

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Trait Theory of Leadership: What type of person makes a good leader? The trait model of leadership is based on the characteristics of many leaders - both successful and unsuccessful and is used to predict leadership effectiveness. The resulting lists of traits are then compared to those of potential leaders to assess their likelihood of success or failure. Scholars taking the trait approach attempted to identify physiological (appearance, height, and weight), demographic (age, education and socioeconomic background), personality, self-confidence, and aggressiveness), intellective (intelligence, decisiveness, judgment, and knowledge), task-related (achievement drive, initiative, and persistence), and social characteristics (sociability and cooperativeness) with leader emergence and leader effectiveness. Successful leaders definitely have interests, abilities, and personality traits that are different from those of the less effective leaders. Through many researches conducted in the last three decades of the 20th century, a set of core traits of successful leaders have been identified. These traits are not responsible solely to identify whether a person will be a successful leader or not, but they are essentially seen as preconditions that endow people with leadership potential. Among the core traits identified are:

Achievement drive: High level of effort, high levels of ambition, energy and initiative Leadership motivation: an intense desire to lead others to reach shared goals Honesty and integrity: trustworthy, reliable, and open Self-confidence: Belief in ones self, ideas, and ability Cognitive ability: Capable of exercising good judgment, strong analytical abilities, and conceptually skilled Knowledge of business: Knowledge of industry and other technical matters Emotional Maturity: well adjusted, does not suffer from severe psychological disorders. Others: charisma, creativity and flexibility

Strengths/Advantages of Trait Theory

It is naturally pleasing theory. It is valid as lot of research has validated the foundation and basis of the theory. It serves as a yardstick against which the leadership traits of an individual can be assessed. It gives a detailed knowledge and understanding of the leader element in the leadership process.

Limitations of The Trait Theory

There is bound to be some subjective judgment in determining who is regarded as a good or successful leader

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The list of possible traits tends to be very long. More than 100 different traits of successful leaders in various leadership positions have been identified. These descriptions are simply generalities. There is also a disagreement over which traits are the most important for an effective leader The model attempts to relate physical traits such as, height and weight, to effective leadership. Most of these factors relate to situational factors. For example, a minimum weight and height might be necessary to perform the tasks efficiently in a military leadership position. In business organizations, these are not the requirements to be an effective leader. The theory is very complex

Implications of Trait Theory

The trait theory gives constructive information about leadership. It can be applied by people at all levels in all types of organizations. Managers can utilize the information from the theory to evaluate their position in the organization and to assess how their position can be made stronger in the organization. They can get an in-depth understanding of their identity and the way they will affect others in the organization. This theory makes the manager aware of their strengths and weaknesses and thus they get an understanding of how they can develop their leadership qualities.

Conclusion
The traits approach gives rise to questions: whether leaders are born or made; and whether leadership is an art or science. However, these are not mutually exclusive alternatives. Leadership may be something of an art; it still requires the application of special skills and techniques. Even if there are certain inborn qualities that make one a good leader, these natural talents need encouragement and development. A person is not born with self-confidence. Selfconfidence is developed, honesty and integrity are a matter of personal choice, motivation to lead comes from within the individual, and the knowledge of business can be acquired. While cognitive ability has its origin partly in genes, it still needs to be developed. None of these ingredients are acquired overnight.

Behavioral Theories of Leadership:::::

Behavioral theories of leadership are classified as such because they focus on the study of specific behaviors of a leader. For behavioral theorists, a leader behavior is the best predictor of his leadership influences and as a result, is the best determinant of his or her leadership success. This behavior-focused approach provides real marketing potential, as behaviors can be conditioned in a manner that one can have a specific response to specific stimuli. As a result, we have gone from the supposition that leaders are born (Great Man Theory) through to the possibility that we can measure your leadership potential (Trait Theory) via psychometrics measurements and then to the point that anyone can be made a leader (Behavioral Theories) by teaching them the most appropriate behavioral response for any given situation. When a few of those situations are combined; you have a program that you can trademark and market! On a

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side note: There are excellent programs available to guide you on your leadership journey, just assure that the program you chose is complete.

There are two important Behavioral studies Ohio State University (1940s)
As leadership studies that were aimed at identifying the appropriate traits didn't yield any conclusive results, a group of people from Ohio State University developed a list of 150 statements from their generated responses that included 1,800 hundred statements. The list was designed to measure nine different behavioral leadership dimensions. The resulting questionnaire is now well-known as the LBDQ or the Leaders Behavior Description Questionnaire. As part of the study, the LBDQ was administered to various groups of individuals ranging from college students and their administrators, private companies including military personnel. One of the primary purposes of the study was to identify common leadership behaviors. After compiling and analyzing the results, the study led to the conclusion that there were two groups of behaviors that were strongly correlated. These were defined as Consideration (People Oriented behavioral Leaders) and Initiating Structure (Task Oriented Leaders).

Task oriented leaders

The task concerned leaders are focusing their behaviours on the organizational structure, the operating procedures (S.O.P.) and they like to keep control. Task-oriented leaders are still concern with their staff motivation; however it's not their main concern. They will favor behaviours that are in line with:

Initiating Organizing Clarifying Information Gathering

People oriented leaders

The people oriented leaders are focusing their behaviours on ensuring that the inner needs of the people are satisfied. Thus they will seek to motivate their staff through emphasizing the human relation. People oriented leaders still focus on the task and the results; they just achieve them through different means. Leaders with a people focus will have behaviours that are in line with:

Encouraging Observing Listening Coaching and Mentoring

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University of Michigan (1950s)

Lead by the famous organizational psychologist, Dr. Rensis Likert, the leadership studies at the University of Michigan identified three characteristics of effective leadership; two of which were previously observed in studies that had been conducted at Ohio State University. The study showed that task- and relationship-oriented behaviors weren't of major significance within the world of organizational psychology. However it was the third observation that introduced a new concept, one of participative leadership! LEADERS VERSUS MANAGERS There are significant differences between managers and leaders but it is true that a person can be a leader without being a manager. Some differences can be the following ones, Some characteristics of managers versus leaders in the 21st century can be Leaders have been defined in many ways but a very good definition of a leader states that: Good leaders seem to be aligning people toward common goals and empowering them to take an action needed to reach them.

LEADERSHIP THEORIES:
There are many theories given by the people about leaders and there characteristic some of these theories are the following; 1. Trait theory of leaders; according to this theory leaders can not be made and there is no way to learn the characteristics of a good leader and these characteristics are innate and natural. So, leaders are born not made 2. Group and Exchange theory; this simply means that leaders provide more benefits/rewards than burden/cost for their followers. There must be a positive exchange between the leaders and the followers for the group to be formed. 3. Path-Goal leadership theory; this theory outlines four major types of leaders like, #Directive leadership. Subordinates know what exactly is expected from them, and the leader gives specific directions. There is no participation by the subordinate. # Supportive leadership. The leader is friendly and approachable and shows genuine concern for subordinates. # Participative leadership. The leader asks for and uses suggestions from the subordinates but still makes the decisions. # Achievement-oriented leadership. The leader sets challenging goals for the subordinates and shows the confidence that they will attain these goals and perform well.

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4. Transformational theory; Transformational leader theory is based on leaders changing the values, beliefs, and needs of their own followers. According to researchers, some characteristics of transformational leaders are; # They themselves as a change agent. # They are courageous. # They believe in people. # They are value-driven. # They are life long learners. # They have the ability to deal with complexity, ambiguity, and uncertainty. # They are visionaries. 5. Charismatic leaders; these leaders are God sent and have some extraordinary characteristics. They have very strong personalities and subordinates are influenced by their attitudes and behaviors. They are characterized by self-confidence and confidence in subordinates, high expectations from subordinates, ideological vision, and the use of personal example. The followers of charismatic leaders are extremely loyal to their leader and emulate the leaders values and behavior.

LEADERSHIP SKILLS:
There are some leadership skills that are very important for every leader to have and some skills are needed to become a good leader, they the following. What Skills Do Leaders Need? Some specific skills needed for an effective manager include the following; 1. cultural flexibility: Leaders must have an awareness of the culture or cultural differences in an organization. So, that he gives all his subordinates and followers the rights they deserve. 2. communication skills: Effective leaders must be able to communicate in written, oral and nonverbal way. 3. HRD skills: Since human resources are so much a part of leadership effectiveness, leaders must have human resource development (HRD) skills of developing a learning climate, designing and conducting training programs, transmitting information and experience, assessing results, providing career counseling, and creating organizational change. 4. creativity: Problem solving, innovation and creativity provide the competitive advantage in todays global marketplace. Leaders must not only be creative in their works but also provide a climate that encourages creativity. 5. self-management and learning: This skill refers to the need for continuous learning of new knowledge and skills. In this time of dramatic change and global competitiveness, leaders must be able to learn and change themselves according to the situations.

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TEN MOST EFFECTIVE SKILLS:

A study was carried on 400 highly effective managers about the most important skills for leaders and the most votes were given for the following ten characteristics.

# verbal communication (including listening) # managing time and stress # managing individual decisions # recognizing, defining, and solving problems # motivating and influencing others # delegating # setting goals and articulating a vision # self-awareness # team building # managing conflict So, according to this study the four categories of effective leadership skills are; # participative and human relations (e.g., communication and team building) # competitiveness and control (e.g., power and influence)
# innovativeness and entrepreneurship (e.g., creative problem solving) # maintaining order and rationality (e.g., managing time and rational decision-making)

LEADERSHIP STYLES:
Different leaders have different ways and approaches and some famous ones are; 1. VISION. Outstanding leaders articulate an ideological vision that is congruent with deeply held values of followers, a vision that describes a better future to which the followers have a moral right. 2. PASSION AND SELF-SACRIFICE. Leaders have a great passion for the moral correction of their vision. They make extraordinary self-sacrifices in the interest of their vision and the mission. 3. CONFIDENCE, DETERMINATION, AND PERSISTANCE. Outstanding leaders display a high degree of faith in themselves and in the attainment of the vision. They are determined and persistent in moving towards their goals despite of the hardships they face. 4. IMAGE-BUILDING. Outstanding leaders are self-conscious about their own image. They recognize that they must be perceived by followers as competent, credible and trustworthy. 5. ROLE MODELING. A Leader models his own personality and values as a standard of behavior for his followers so that they can follow him. 6. EXTERNAL REPRESENTATION. Leaders act as the spokesperson for their organizations and symbolically represent the organization to others and outsiders. 7. EXPECTATIONS AND CONFIDENCE IN FOLLOWERS. Great leaders have a lot of confidence in their followers and expect them to do well.

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8. SELECIVE MOTIVE AROUSAL. Great leaders arouse those motives of their followers that are relevant to the mission and vision. 9. FRAME ALIGNMENT. Outstanding leaders mold and shape the values and behaviors of their followers so that they are congruent with the mission and vision. 10. INSPIRATIONAL COMMUNICATION. Most of the great leaders are so that they inspire the others through their communication using vivid stories, slogans, symbols, and ceremonies.

Leadership Theories:
Researchers have developed a number of leadership theories over the years. These fall into four main groups: 1. Behavioral theories What does a good leader do? Behavioral theories focus on how leaders behave. Do they dictate what needs to be done and expect cooperation? Or do they involve the team in decisions to encourage acceptance and support? In the 1930s, Kurt Lewin developed a leadership framework based on a leader's decisionmaking behavior. Lewin argued that there are three types of leaders:
a. Autocratic leaders make decisions without consulting their teams. This is considered appropriate when decisions genuinely need to be taken quickly, when there's no need for input, and when team agreement isn't necessary for a successful outcome. b. Democratic leaders allow the team to provide input before making a decision, although the degree of input can vary from leader to leader. This type of style is important when team agreement matters, but it can be quite difficult to manage when there are lots of different perspectives and ideas. c. Laissez-faire leaders don't interfere; they allow people within the team to make many of the decisions. This works well when the team is highly capable and motivated, and when it doesn't need close monitoring or supervision. However, this style can arise because the leader is lazy or distracted, and, here, this approach can fail.

Similar to Lewin's model, the Blake-Mouton Managerial Grid helps you decide how best to lead, depending on your concern for people versus your concern for production. The model describes five different leadership styles: impoverished, country club, team leader, produce or perish, or middle of the road. The descriptions of these will help you understand your own leadership habits and adapt them to meet your team's needs. Clearly, then, how leaders behave impacts on their effectiveness. Researchers have realized, though, that many of these leadership behaviors are appropriate at different times. So, the best

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leaders are those who can use many different behavioral styles and use the right style for each situation. 2. Contingency theories How does the situation influence good leadership? The realization that there isn't one correct type of leader led to theories that the best leadership style is contingent on, or depends on, the situation. These theories try to predict which leadership style is best in which circumstance. When a decision is needed fast, which style is preferred? When the leader needs the full support of the team, is there a better way to lead? Should a leader be more people oriented or task oriented? These are all examples of questions that contingency leadership theories try to address. A popular contingency-based framework is the Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Theory, which links leadership style with the maturity of individual members of the leader's team. 3. Power and influence theories What is the source of the leader's power? Power and influence theories of leadership take an entirely different approach. They're based on the different ways in which leaders use power and influence to get things done, and the leadership styles that emerge as a result. Perhaps the most well known of these theories is French and Raven's Five Forms of Power. This model distinguishes between using your position to exert power, and using your personal attributes to be powerful. French and Raven identified three types of positional power legitimate, reward, and coercive and two sources of personal power expert and referent (your personal appeal and charm). The model suggests that using personal power is the better alternative and, because Expert Power (the power that comes with being a real expert in the job) is the most legitimate of these, that you should actively work on building this. Similarly, leading by example is another highly effective way to establish and sustain a positive influence with your team. Another valid leadership style that's supported by power and influence theories is Transactional Leadership. This approach assumes that work is done only because it is rewarded, and for no other reason, and it therefore focuses on designing tasks and reward structures. While it may not be the most appealing leadership strategy in terms of building relationships and developing a long-term motivating work environment, it does work, and it's used in most organizations on a daily basis to get things done.

Transactional Leadership: Assumptions

People are motivated by reward and punishment.

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Social systems work best with a clear chain of command. When people have agreed to do a job, a part of the deal is that they cede all authority to their manager. The prime purpose of a subordinate is to do what their manager tells them to do.

Style
The transactional leader works through creating clear structures whereby it is clear what is required of their subordinates, and the rewards that they get for following orders. Punishments are not always mentioned, but they are also well-understood and formal systems of discipline are usually in place. The early stage of Transactional Leadership is in negotiating the contract whereby the subordinate is given a salary and other benefits, and the company (and by implication the subordinate's manager) gets authority over the subordinate. When the Transactional Leader allocates work to a subordinate, they are considered to be fully responsible for it, whether or not they have the resources or capability to carry it out. When things go wrong, then the subordinate is considered to be personally at fault, and is punished for their failure (just as they are rewarded for succeeding). The transactional leader often uses management by exception, working on the principle that if something is operating to defined (and hence expected) performance then it does not need attention. Exceptions to expectation require praise and reward for exceeding expectation, whilst some kind of corrective action is applied for performance below expectation. Whereas Transformational Leadership has more of a 'selling' style, Transactional Leadership, once the contract is in place, takes a 'telling' style.

Discussion
Transactional leadership is based in contingency, in that reward or punishment is contingent upon performance. Despite much research that highlights its limitations, Transactional Leadership is still a popular approach with many managers. Indeed, in the Leadership vs. Management spectrum, it is very much towards the management end of the scale. The main limitation is the assumption of 'rational man', a person who is largely motivated by money and simple reward, and hence whose behavior is predictable. The underlying psychology is Behaviorism, including the Classical Conditioning of Pavlov and Skinner's Operant Conditioning. These theories are largely based on controlled laboratory experiments (often with animals) and ignore complex emotional factors and social values.

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In practice, there is sufficient truth in Behaviorism to sustain Transactional approaches. This is reinforced by the supply-and-demand situation of much employment, coupled with the effects of deeper needs, as in Maslow's Hierarchy. When the demand for a skill outstrips the supply, then Transactional Leadership often is insufficient, and other approaches are more effective.

Transformational Leadership Assumptions

People will follow a person who inspires them. A person with vision and passion can achieve great things. The way to get things done is by injecting enthusiasm and energy.

Style
Working for a Transformational Leader can be a wonderful and uplifting experience. They put passion and energy into everything. They care about you and want you to succeed.

Developing the vision

Transformational Leadership starts with the development of a vision, a view of the future that will excite and convert potential followers. This vision may be developed by the leader, by the senior team or may emerge from a broad series of discussions. The important factor is the leader buys into it, hook, line and sinker.

Selling the vision

The next step, which in fact never stops, is to constantly sell the vision. This takes energy and commitment, as few people will immediately buy into a radical vision, and some will join the show much more slowly than others. The Transformational Leader thus takes every opportunity and will use whatever works to convince others to climb on board the bandwagon. In order to create followers, the Transformational Leader has to be very careful in creating trust, and their personal integrity is a critical part of the package that they are selling. In effect, they are selling themselves as well as the vision.

Finding the way forwards

In parallel with the selling activity is seeking the way forward. Some Transformational Leaders know the way, and simply want others to follow them. Others do not have a ready strategy, but will happily lead the exploration of possible routes to the promised land.

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The route forwards may not be obvious and may not be plotted in details, but with a clear vision, the direction will always be known. Thus finding the way forward can be an ongoing process of course correction, and the Transformational Leader will accept that there will be failures and blind canyons along the way. As long as they feel progress is being made, they will be happy.

Leading the charge

The final stage is to remain up-front and central during the action. Transformational Leaders are always visible and will stand up to be counted rather than hide behind their troops. They show by their attitudes and actions how everyone else should behave. They also make continued efforts to motivate and rally their followers, constantly doing the rounds, listening, soothing and enthusing. It is their unswerving commitment as much as anything else that keeps people going, particularly through the darker times when some may question whether the vision can ever be achieved. If the people do not believe that they can succeed, then their efforts will flag. The Transformational Leader seeks to infect and reinfect their followers with a high level of commitment to the vision. One of the methods the Transformational Leader uses to sustain motivation is in the use of ceremonies, rituals and other cultural symbolism. Small changes get big hurrahs, pumping up their significance as indicators of real progress. Overall, they balance their attention between action that creates progress and the mental state of their followers. Perhaps more than other approaches, they are people-oriented and believe that success comes first and last through deep and sustained commitment.

Discussion
Whilst the Transformational Leader seeks overtly to transform the organization, there is also a tacit promise to followers that they also will be transformed in some way, perhaps to be more like this amazing leader. In some respects, then, the followers are the product of the transformation. Transformational Leaders are often charismatic, but are not as narcissistic as pure Charismatic Leaders, who succeed through a belief in themselves rather than a belief in others. One of the traps of Transformational Leadership is that passion and confidence can easily be mistaken for truth and reality. Whilst it is true that great things have been achieved through enthusiastic leadership, it is also true that many passionate people have led the charge right over the cliff and into a bottomless chasm. Just because someone believes they are right, it does not mean they are right.

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Paradoxically, the energy that gets people going can also cause them to give up. Transformational Leaders often have large amounts of enthusiasm which, if relentlessly applied, can wear out their followers. Transformational Leaders also tend to see the big picture, but not the details, where the devil often lurks. If they do not have people to take care of this level of information, then they are usually doomed to fail. Finally, Transformational Leaders, by definition, seek to transform. When the organization does not need transforming and people are happy as they are, then such a leader will be frustrated. Like wartime leaders, however, given the right situation they come into their own and can be personally responsible for saving entire companies.

DECISION MAKING:
Decision making is the choosing among the alternatives. So, it means that when we have more than one choice we have to decide among the choices and this process of choosing one alternative is called decision making. Decision making is the most important function of a manager. A manager is involved in the process of decision making every thing he does. For example, while doing the function of planning, at every step the manager has to make decisions and choose from the alternatives and choices. While staffing, the manager here also has to make decisions of how to choose staff and which one to choose. Same is the case with the organizing, while organizing a manger has to decide that what should be placed where and who should be working at which position? So, the above example shows that decision making is the most important of all the duties of a manager and without it none of the managerial functions is complete and effective.

STEPS IN DECISION MAKING:

According to Herbert A. Simon, a Noble Prize winning decision theorist, the process of decision making is a three step process: 1. intelligence activity. The word intelligence is borrowed from the military. Which means to get information on the environment? So, here this first phase consists of the searching the environment for the conditions needing decisions making. 2. design activity. During this second phase, the actions of inventing, developing, and analyzing possible courses of action take place. 3. choice activity. The third and final phase is the actual choice, which means selecting a particular course of action from among those available alternatives.

PARTICIPATIVE DECISION MAKING TECHNIQUES:

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Participation means the contribution and involvement of people in any task. At first it was considered that decision making is only the job of the manger and the owner of the business and no one else can interfere in this process. And all that workers have to do is to obey the orders. But like everything else, the patterns and techniques of decision making have also changed and there is an awakened feeling that unity is strength and two is better than one certainly in the case of decision making. No matter how much a person gets experienced and knowledgeable but there is always a restriction to thinking and a single mind can not analyze all sides of a problem. So, in todays modern organization a participative technique is used while making decisions. A problem is paced in front of the workers and then everyone gives his/her suggestion of how should it be solved. It was found that the more the individuals know about the problem the more are the chances of solving the problem. So, mangers should define the problem in the easiest possible words so that everyone can recognize and then give a possible solution.

CREATIVITY AND GROUP DECISION MAKING CREATIVITY:

Creativity is the ability to think in a different way and give new and useful ideas. Of course, creativity is a God gifted talent and some people are born with it. And they are very creative while solving a problem. In todays competitive and global environment organizations need to be creative and innovative to be more efficient than their competitors. So, management of all the organizations should promote creativity and innovations. They should encourage their workers to take part and participate in the process of decision making. It is not easy to point out the causes of creativity but the two aspect of the creativity found by Feldman are; 1. Divergent thinking This refers to the ability of a person to generate novel but still appropriate, responses to the questions and problems. This is the opposite of the convergent thinking which is based mainly upon knowledge and rational logic. For example, if the newspaper is the problem, a convergent thinker would say that You need it! but a convergent thinker would say that Make a kite out of it! 2. Cognitive complexity This refers to a persons use of and preferences for elaborate, intricate, and complex stimuli and thinking patterns. Creative people have such cognitive complexity and display a wide range of interests, are independent and are interested in philosophical or abstract problems.

GROUP DECISION MAKING:

Individual decision making has given way to group decision making and organizations and studies show that decisions taken by groups are much more complete and comprehensive and they give much better solutions for the problems. There are many ways of decision making in groups like;

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a). The majority wins scheme.

In this method the decision is made with the idea having the support of most of the participant and hence the decision is made regardless of the fact that the decision may not be right and beneficial.

b). The truth wins scheme.

In this scheme, more information is gathered on the problem and it is discussed and seen that what is the truth and what to be done which should be appropriate. In this method, it is not seen that what the majority says and the decision is made purely on the basis of logic and rationality.

c). The two-thirds majority scheme.

This scheme is frequently used by juries, and defendants are convicted when two third of the jury vote against them.

d). The first-shift rule.

In this method first of all, the participants are divided according to what they want. And if one of the members of either of the groups changes his mind the decision is made according to that. For example, if the workers of a car manufacturing company are divided into two groups whether to produce convertible cars or not, the decision may be taken when a person first opposing the manufacturing of the convertible now agrees.

THE DELPHI TECHNIQUE:

In this technique the following steps take place; 1. A group (of mostly experts but sometimes nonexperts) is formed but there is no face to face contact between the members. Thus, there is no expense sustained in bringing the group together. 2. Each member is asked to make predictions or input into the problem. 3. Each member then receives the feedback on what the other members of the group have inputted. 4. This process goes on until the result remains the same and the feedback becomes the same.

THE NOMINAL GROUP TECHNIQUE:

This method consists of the following steps. 1. Silent generation of the ideas through writing. 2. Feedback from the members who record the ideas on a paper or a board. 3. Discussion of each recorded idea for clarification and evaluation. 4. At the last, individual voting for the priority of the ideas and choosing the best and the one which has the most votes.

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The DecisionMaking Process:

Quite literally, organizations operate by people making decisions. A manager plans, organizes, staffs, leads, and controls her team by executing decisions. The effectiveness and quality of those decisions determine how successful a manager will be. Managers are constantly called upon to make decisions in order to solve problems. Decision making and problem solving are ongoing processes of evaluating situations or problems, considering alternatives, making choices, and following them up with the necessary actions. Sometimes the decision-making process is extremely short, and mental reflection is essentially instantaneous. In other situations, the process can drag on for weeks or even months. The entire decision-making process is dependent upon the right information being available to the right people at the right times. The decision-making process involves the following steps: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Define the problem. Identify limiting factors. Develop potential alternatives. Analyze the alternatives. Select the best alternative. Implement the decision. Establish a control and evaluation system.

Define the problem

The decision-making process begins when a manager identifies the real problem. The accurate definition of the problem affects all the steps that follow; if the problem is inaccurately defined, every step in the decision-making process will be based on an incorrect starting point. One way that a manager can help determine the true problem in a situation is by identifying the problem separately from its symptoms.

Identify limiting factors

All managers want to make the best decisions. To do so, managers need to have the ideal resources information, time, personnel, equipment, and supplies and identify any limiting factors. Realistically, managers operate in an environment that normally doesn't provide ideal resources. For example, they may lack the proper budget or may not have the most accurate information or any extra time. So, they must choose to satisfice to make the best decision possible with the information, resources, and time available.

Develop potential alternatives

Time pressures frequently cause a manager to move forward after considering only the first or most obvious answers. However, successful problem solving requires thorough examination of

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the challenge, and a quick answer may not result in a permanent solution. Thus, a manager should think through and investigate several alternative solutions to a single problem before making a quick decision. One of the best known methods for developing alternatives is through brainstorming, where a group works together to generate ideas and alternative solutions. The assumption behind brainstorming is that the group dynamic stimulates thinking one person's ideas, no matter how outrageous, can generate ideas from the others in the group. Ideally, this spawning of ideas is contagious, and before long, lots of suggestions and ideas flow. Brainstorming usually requires 30 minutes to an hour. The following specific rules should be followed during brainstorming sessions:

Concentrate on the problem at hand. This rule keeps the discussion very specific and avoids the group's tendency to address the events leading up to the current problem. Entertain all ideas. In fact, the more ideas that come up, the better. In other words, there are no bad ideas. Encouragement of the group to freely offer all thoughts on the subject is important. Participants should be encouraged to present ideas no matter how ridiculous they seem, because such ideas may spark a creative thought on the part of someone else. Refrain from allowing members to evaluate others' ideas on the spot. All judgments should be deferred until all thoughts are presented, and the group concurs on the best ideas.

Although brainstorming is the most common technique to develop alternative solutions, managers can use several other ways to help develop solutions. Here are some examples:

Nominal group technique. This method involves the use of a highly structured meeting, complete with an agenda, and restricts discussion or interpersonal communication during the decision-making process. This technique is useful because it ensures that every group member has equal input in the decision-making process. It also avoids some of the pitfalls, such as pressure to conform, group dominance, hostility, and conflict, that can plague a more interactive, spontaneous, unstructured forum such as brainstorming. Delphi technique. With this technique, participants never meet, but a group leader uses written questionnaires to conduct the decision making.

No matter what technique is used, group decision making has clear advantages and disadvantages when compared with individual decision making. The following are among the advantages:

Groups provide a broader perspective. Employees are more likely to be satisfied and to support the final decision. Opportunities for discussion help to answer questions and reduce uncertainties for the decision makers.

These points are among the disadvantages:

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This method can be more time-consuming than one individual making the decision on his own. The decision reached could be a compromise rather than the optimal solution. Individuals become guilty of groupthink the tendency of members of a group to conform to the prevailing opinions of the group. Groups may have difficulty performing tasks because the group, rather than a single individual, makes the decision, resulting in confusion when it comes time to implement and evaluate the decision.

The results of dozens of individual-versus-group performance studies indicate that groups not only tend to make better decisions than a person acting alone, but also that groups tend to inspire star performers to even higher levels of productivity. So, are two (or more) heads better than one? The answer depends on several factors, such as the nature of the task, the abilities of the group members, and the form of interaction. Because a manager often has a choice between making a decision independently or including others in the decision making, she needs to understand the advantages and disadvantages of group decision making.

Analyze the alternatives

The purpose of this step is to decide the relative merits of each idea. Managers must identify the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative solution before making a final decision. Evaluating the alternatives can be done in numerous ways. Here are a few possibilities:

Determine the pros and cons of each alternative. Perform a cost-benefit analysis for each alternative. Weight each factor important in the decision, ranking each alternative relative to its ability to meet each factor, and then multiply by a probability factor to provide a final value for each alternative.

Regardless of the method used, a manager needs to evaluate each alternative in terms of its

Feasibility Can it be done? Effectiveness How well does it resolve the problem situation? Consequences What will be its costs (financial and nonfinancial) to the organization?

Select the best alternative

After a manager has analyzed all the alternatives, she must decide on the best one. The best alternative is the one that produces the most advantages and the fewest serious disadvantages. Sometimes, the selection process can be fairly straightforward, such as the alternative with the most pros and fewest cons. Other times, the optimal solution is a combination of several alternatives.

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Sometimes, though, the best alternative may not be obvious. That's when a manager must decide which alternative is the most feasible and effective, coupled with which carries the lowest costs to the organization. (See the preceding section.) Probability estimates, where analysis of each alternative's chances of success takes place, often come into play at this point in the decision-making process. In those cases, a manager simply selects the alternative with the highest probability of success.

Implement the decision

Managers are paid to make decisions, but they are also paid to get results from these decisions. Positive results must follow decisions. Everyone involved with the decision must know his or her role in ensuring a successful outcome. To make certain that employees understand their roles, managers must thoughtfully devise programs, procedures, rules, or policies to help aid them in the problem-solving process.

Establish a control and evaluation system

Ongoing actions need to be monitored. An evaluation system should provide feedback on how well the decision is being implemented, what the results are, and what adjustments are necessary to get the results that were intended when the solution was chosen. In order for a manager to evaluate his decision, he needs to gather information to determine its effectiveness. Was the original problem resolved? If not, is he closer to the desired situation than he was at the beginning of the decision-making process? If a manager's plan hasn't resolved the problem, he needs to figure out what went wrong. A manager may accomplish this by asking the following questions:

Was the wrong alternative selected? If so, one of the other alternatives generated in the decision-making process may be a wiser choice. Was the correct alternative selected, but implemented improperly? If so, a manager should focus attention solely on the implementation step to ensure that the chosen alternative is implemented successfully. Was the original problem identified incorrectly? If so, the decision-making process needs to begin again, starting with a revised identification step. Has the implemented alternative been given enough time to be successful? If not, a manager should give the process more time and re-evaluate at a later date.

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