Science (Handout she gave) Unit 1: unity and diversity among living things 1-1 Concept of life. 1.

Biology: a branch of science dealing with the study of living things (bios meaning life and logos meaning reasoning of study) 2. Definition of life: here as some criteria that are shared by, and unique to (all) living things. Highly ordered Cellular basis Requires energy Responds to stimuli* Grow and develop Reproduce (these 2 are related) Transfer genetic information from one generation to the next *Examples of stimuli and response Stimulus (plural: stimuli) Any change in the environment that causes an organism to react (response) in some way, such as a muscular response, or a hormonal response. Response An organisms reaction in order to best cope with the change Stimulus Bright or darkness Babys cry Severe danger Sunshine from one direction Response Pupils constrict or dilate Nursing mom produces milk (regulated by hormone, prolactin) Fight or flight instinct: body produces adrenalin which makes you faster and stronger* Plants bend toward sun (phototropism)

*(Note: epinephrine is the same thing- different name- as adrenaline) Q) Suppose you touch something hot. What occurs (Sensory, neurologically, muscularly) in order to allow you to pull your hand away? A) A nerve signal (impulse) travels from one neuron (nerve cell) to another, to the brain, then back, through more neurons, to the muscles that control your hand. Drawing in notebook! 3) The life functions: A. Nutrition- all living organism need nutrients in order to stay alive (perform the necessary life functions) 3 Phases: Ingestion: take in the food Digestion: breaks down the food (Physical and Chemical) Note: chemical digestion occurs as early as in the mouth (along with physical digestion) Chemical digestion in the mouth involves the enzyme amylase (found in saliva), which begins to chemically break down starch into sugars. Egestion: the body gets rid of undigested, unused food (defecationpooping) B: Transport: Living things need a way to transport necessary substances throughout their bodies (Ex) In mammals: Circulatory System Organs: Tissues: Cells: Heart Blood Red blood cells Veins White blood cells Arteries Muscle cells

C: Respiration: Once we have ingested energy-rich food, for example: glucose, we need a way to break down the food in order to release useable energy called ATP (Adenosine TriPhopshate.) There are two different type of respiration 1) aerobic, uses need O2 as a reactant. 2) Anaerobic, does not use O2. Chemical equation for Aerobic (Cellular) respiration: Glucose (C6H12O6)+ O2 carbon dioxide+ water (+ATP) () () (Reactants. ) (Products. ) So we get fuel, glucose, from our food, we get O2 from breathing, and through the process of cellular respiration the glucose is burned to produces simpler compounds (O2+H2O) and energy-rich ATP. Aerobic (cellular) vs. Anaerobic Respiration Both processes are similar because glucose is broken down and ATP is produced. However, there are many important differences. Aerobic Requires O2 as a reactant Chemically breaks down glucose into tiny compounds Very efficient: A lot of ATP (about 36) molecules are produces for every glucose Done by mammals, animals, plants, fungi (*Note) 1. When we speak about respiration we usually speak about breathing. This is still true- it is respiration on a big, whole body, level. We breathe in order to take in O2, so that we can do Anaerobic Does not use O2 Does not break down glucose as well. Not as efficient only 2 ATP produce glucose Done by certain bacteria

respiration on a tiny, cellular and molecular level, which is shown by the equation. 2. Comparing photosynthesis and aerobic respiration: Photosynthesis review: Photosynthesis is a process unique in green plants (and some microorganisms) in which simple inorganic compounds can be converted to food energy by harnessing energy from sunlight. Green plants can do this because only they possess structures inside their cells, called chloroplasts (which contain chlorophyll and necessary enzymes.) Since green plants can make their own food they are always the 1st step in any food chain. They are called Autotrophs (auto self, trophs food.) (In contrast, all other organisms depend on green plants directly or indirectly and these are called heteretrophs. Chemical equation for photosynthesis: Carbon dioxide + Water+ Sunlight------- Glucose + Oxygen (These are reactants) (These are products) Chemical equation for cellular respiration: Glucose (C6H12O6)+ O2 carbon dioxide+ water (+ATP) Notice the similarity between this equation and that of cellular respiration DRAWING IN NOTEBOOK Notice how the reactants of photosynthesis are the products of respiration (vise versa) D: Excretion: All organisms need a system in order to remove metabolic waste. All living things are constantly performing thousands of chemical changes in order to stay alive and healthy. (Ex: respiration is a chemical change) As a result, a lot of metabolic product accumulates; some may become toxic at higher concentrations. The process of excretion involves the removal of these products. System: Excretory system

Organs: Kidney, bladder, liver, skin (to a smaller extend since sweat contains some metabolic products) (In mammals) E: Synthesis: Synthesis means building up, among the chemical changes living things undergo, one type is synthesis in which smaller molecules are chemically combined to build longer more complex molecules. EX: we will learn about macromolecules (macro means big), which are formed in living things by chemical combination of many smaller subunits called monomers. DNA is a macromolecule called nucleic acids. It is composed of monomers called nucleons. Carbohydrates are another type of macromolecule. They are composed of monomers called monosaccharaides (simple sugars) F: Regulation: Living things are ale to maintain favorable conditions by having different systems work together in a coordinated way, and by being able to respond appropriately to stimuli. G: Growth: All living things grow and develop. Growth: Organisms get larger in a (fairly) proportional way by having cells increase in size, or increase in number (by cell division called mitosis) Develop: As an organism matures, new structures, abilities, behaviors, chemical production, develop. H: Reproduction: Reproduction is essential that organisms are able to reproduce, so that genetic material can be passed from generation to generation and the species can continue to survive.

Asexual

and

sexually

A(not) sexual reproduction: Organisms and many plants and a few animals do asexual reproduction. It involves one parent. The offspring has the same genetic make-up as its one parent; called a clone. Sexual reproduction: Offspring is produced by the combination (fertilization) of 2 different parent cells. This is a significant because the new individual is a brand new unique genetic individual, with an own unique genome. Animals, plants, and some microorganisms do this. 4.Metabolism: Refers to all of the chemical changes that are constantly occurring in living things. Chemical changes are happening in living things all of the time: photosynthesis, respiration, synthesis, reactions, and digestion. Enzymes are special macromolecules that are types of proteins that allow these chemical changes to occur in living things, even though they would never occur in other conditions. There is a different enzyme for every different chemical change. People with lactose intolerance lack on efficient/sufficient lactose enzyme, which is supported to chemically, decompose. Lactose, which is a disaccharide, is divided in to 2 monosaccharide. Look at picture 2 in notebook. 5. Homeostasis: Living things have complex mechanisms that allow them to maintain fairly constant internal conditions, despite changing environments. Ex: living things can maintain a fairly constant body temperature despite changes in environment. Humans Hypothalamus in brain controls the body temperature We sweat to cool down We shiver to warm down Snakes Seek sunny areas when cold Note: homeostasis is not only about temperature. Its also about chemical stabling, stimulus and response, organ systems that work together in a coordinated way. 6. Branches of Biology:

See vocabulary and definitions (in package she gave.) Note: These are only some branches of biology. There are more categories and subcategories. Many of these categories overlap. 7. Levels of organization: We have seen that a big theme, a major idea in biology is how organisms are so well organized, with smaller structures form larger structures, which form larger structures and so on. In this section we look at some of these structures from smaller to larger. [A] Atoms: An atom is the smallest part of an element that still has the characteristics of that element. All of the atoms of one element are similar to each other but different from atoms of other elements. Ex: All models of atoms are the same as each other and all models of carbon atoms are the same as each other but gold atoms are different then carbon atoms. [B] Molecules: Clusters of atoms that are chemically bound to each other. The atoms of a molecule may be the same as each other (in which case the molecule is an element) or different (the molecule is a compound) Ex O2 (Oxygen gas) this is a molecule and it is also an element. Because: Composed of atoms of the same element. PICTURE IN Notebook Ex: H2O (water) this is a molecule and it is also a compound. Because: Composed of atoms of different elements. [C] Complex Molecules: In biology we talk about four types of huge molecules called macromolecules. Each macromolecule is composed of many similar units, smaller compounds called monomers (a general term). The monomers come together chemically by chemical changes called synthesis reactions. What makes one type of macromolecules different from the other is the type of monomer that composes it.

An overview of the four macromolecules: Monomers Monosaccharaides (simple sugars) Amino acids Glycerol and fatty acids Nucleotides [D] Supra molecular Assemblies Ex: Organelles, which are tiny structures inside cells that have a particular function. An example of organelles: Endoplasmic Reticulum it is involved in transport inside a cell. Note about Structure and Function A major theme in biology is that of structure and function. At all levels (in all sizes) parts, or structures, are built with features that help them do specific jobs they are meant to carry out. Ex: The shape of a red blood cell, and is shaped liked a biconcave disc
This is a red blood cell

Polymer (macromolecules) Carbohydrates Proteins LIPID (includes fats and more) Nucleic acid (DNA, RNA)

Why does this matter? RBC (red blood cell) function: to carry O2 to body tissues (we need O2 to carry out respiration) To do this a RBC must: Have a larger surface area (to soak in maximum amount of oxygen) Be flexible to squeeze through tiny blood vessels

The biconcave shape fills this need best. It has a lot of surface area compared to its smaller size (though a sphere would be best) but its slightly flattened shape provides it with more flexibility.

[E] Cells: The unit of structure and function of all living things. Even the tiniest organism is composed of one cell: unicellular other is multicellular. Even in the same organism we have different types of cells, each type with its own unique structure and function (see RBC note, above) The cell is the first, smallest, most basic, level of organization of living things. (See photocopy: cell organism) [F] Tissues: Group of similar cells that together have a certain function. Often in biology, we divide tissues into four main categories: 1. 2. 3. 4. Muscle tissue: - Movement contracting and relaxing Nervous tissue: - In brain, spinal cord, and sensory organs. Epithelial tissue: - Associated with covering and protection Connective tissue: - includes blood, bone, ligaments

[G] Organs: These are many tissues that work together to perform a function (remember: structure and function!) Ex: Hand is an organ composed of: Epithelial tissue (skin) Muscle tissue (around bones, helps move) Nerve (we feel sensations) Connective (blood, bones)

Other Examples: Lungs, heart, kidneys, thyroid gland, pituitary [H] Organ Systems: Many different organs that work together to perform a function (structure and function) *See coloring book for examples and read text

Ex: Endocrine system: It is a system of endocrine glands that secrete hormones into circulatory system. This system contains many glands: Thyroid, pituitary, testes, ovaries, adrenal, and pancreas. [I] Organisms: One complete living thing. All of the organ systems work together in a coordinated way to ensure one complete, healthy, living thing. J) Populations: All of the organisms of the same type living in a certain area. EX: All of the humans in room 051. All of the trout in lake Manitou. All of the dogs in Trudeau Park. K) Community: All of the populations in an area and the interactions between them. Ex: Spiders and humans in a classroom. Spiders bite and scare humans. Humans kill spiders. Ex: Describing the different species in a food chain (or web,) some prey, (most are both.) On the park Ladybugs eat grass. Aphids eat Ladybugs. L) Ecosystem: Includes a community and all of the abiotic (non-living) factors that affect the community. Ex: a puddle on Kellert. Different populations (insect types, earthworms, spiders...) interact and are also affected by abiotic factors: moisture, oil, and temperature... M) Biome: A very large ecosystem having similar Abiotic factors throughout. Ex: tropical rainforest, boreal forest, marine biomes, and freshwater biomes. N) Biosphere: The entire area of earth that contains organisms. All ecosystems on earth make up the biosphere. First test ends here

Structures of the cell (handout number 2) {A} The cell theory Includes 2 basic points: 1. The cell is the unit of structure and function of all living things 2. All cells come from pre-existing calls through cell division process (mitosis and meiosis) {B} Historical Development of cell Theory Anton van Leeuwenhoek: Dutch. Using simple microscopes discovered one-celled organisms, sperm cells, and blood cells. Robert Hooke: English. Saw structure of hollow spaces, which is named: cells. He invented the scale. When you put weight the spring will go more down because of the force. Hooks Law: Hookes law is about the way springs contract and expand. It is a law of mechanics and physics by Robert Hooke. This theory of elasticity says the extension of a spring is proportional to the load applied to it. Many materials obey this law as long as the load does not exceed the material's elastic limit. Materials for which Hooke's law is useful are known as linear-elastic. Spring equation: F = KX The spring equation shows Hooke's law with equations. Robert Brown: English. Discovered the cell nucleus. Matthias Schleiden: German. Stated that all plants were composed of cells. Theodor Schwann: German. Stated that animals were composed of cells Schleiden and Schwann are considered to have established the cell theory of the structure of living things. Rudolph Virchow: German. Stated that all cells arise from pre-existing cells, thus completing the cell theory in its modern form.

{C} Exceptions to the cell theory

- Viruses. Which consist of DNA or RNA (macro molecules, proteins) in a protein capsule, reproduce themselves inside living cells, but are not cells them. (Viruses). Seem in many ways livings yet are not made of cells. - Some organelles (chloroplasts, mitochondria. Inside the cell) seem like cells themselves- they have DNA and they can duplicate (reproduce it) themselves. - The first cell must have arisen from non-cellular structures. D) Techniques of cell study: Much of what we know today about cells comes from our use of the compound (because it involves 2 lenses, the ocular, which is also called the eyepiece and objective lenses) light microscope. See parts and functions on pg. 9 #1-8

This is a labeled microscope found on pg. 11. Notes Page 10 (fill in the blanks) 1. Total magnification is the product of the magnification of each lens. Ex: 40x15=600. Resolving power, or resolution describes how well you can distinguish between two separate points. (Sharpness) As magnification increases, resolving power decreases. 2. A light microscope works because lenses (like those in your eyes) cause rays of light to bend, change direction, which results in the object appearing (in this case) larger. This new view of the object: is called an image

3. Describes the path of light:(memorize it) Light Source Mirror Diaphragm Stage Opening Thin, Transparent specimen Objective lens Body Tube Eyepiece Your eyes 4. As magnification increases these 2 factors decrease: A) Resolution (See Note 1) B) field of vision: How much of the whole picture do you see? Ex: Stevies microscope uses a 10x eyepiece and has 2 objectives, 100x and 20x. When Stevie uses the low power objective, he sees 50 cells. Then he switches to high power objective how many cells do he sees now? Case Magnification 1 10x20=200 2 10x100=1000 How do you solve this? Number of Cells 50 ?

When magnification becomes 5x more (1000/200) then he sees 5x less, so there are 10 cells. Case Magnification Number of Cells 1 10x20=200 50 2 10x100=1000 10 Ex: Menachem uses a microscope with a 15x ocular and two objectives. When he uses the 50x objective he sees 250 cells. Later he switches objectives and then he sees 800 cells. What is the magnifying power of the new, 2nd objective?
When magnification increases, you will see a zoomed in image. Which means that you will see less of the whole picture.

Case Magnifying Number of Cells 1 15x50=750 250 2 ? 800 How do you solve this? The number of cells increased by 3.2x more (800/250=3.2) So the magnifying is 3.2x less (750/3.2=234.4) This magnification is from 2 senses, one that is 15x. So the other is 234.4=15X

234.4/15=15.6 X=15.6 so the Objective Lens is 15.6x Case Magnifying Number of Cells 1 15x50=750 250 2 15x15.6=234.4 800
When magnification decreases you will see a zoomed out image, which means that you will picture.

5. If the objective is extremely tiny, any light microscope do not effectively work bigger than 2000x, because of resolution problems, you can use an electron microscope, as this depends on streams of electrons which does not behave like light.

Scanning electron microscope - Enlarged 3D Image Dissecting Microscope:

Transition electron microscope - Enlarged 2D Image

This has two oculars so you can benefit from stereovision. Magnification is not so high (50x) It works with light and lenses. Useful for conducting experiments with tiny instruments and tiny samples.

You use this microscope while you do the experiments.

6. Ultracentrifuge: As in any centrifuge, mixtures are separated according to density. For example a sample of blood can separate using a centrifuge like this:

An ultracentrifuge works the same way, but spins faster so it can separate substances with more similar densities, such as different parts of cells or different sized-DNA molecules. 7. Micro dissection instruments: LOOK AT THE PACKAGE PG 10 8. Staining: Sometime we add dyes to see better contrast. Some parts of cells will soak up the dye more than others, so you can see the parts. In our class, we will use Iodine solution. Note: Not in handout she gave Lab experiment: Observation of onion sell using a compound light microscope. 1) Introduction: (Contains back ground info, aim, hypothesis.) We have been learning about cells, cell theory, and about the microscope. Our aim today is to view onion cells (as example of a plant cell) using a compound light microscope. 2) Materials and Methods:(tells you what you used, how you did experiment.) We prepared onion cell slides by taking a very thin membrane from a layer of an onion. We placed this (trying to keep it in one flat layer) on a glass slide. We added a small amount of Iodine solution; the Iodine solution was prepared by dissolving a small amount of solid elemental iodine in methanol (= methyl alcohol) to produce an orange/brown solution.

Results (simply present results, in words, graphs, diagrams) Depending on which sample or microscope was used, we were able to see geometrically shaped units, attached to one another.

Conclusion (Discussion): (Summarize the results, additional ideas, sources, future experiments, ideas.) In this lab we were fairly successful we were able to see the outline of onion cells and perhaps some nuclei were visible. Using the techniques we used, we didnt expect to see a cell membrane, which lies inside the cell wall, or any structures other than the nucleus. This diagram shows some of the main parts of a cell. Note that a cell is unique to plant cells. Animal cells have no cells wall. Animals cells, which have no cells walls, are much rounder in appearance. Using light microscopes also help us appreciate some of the concepts learned previously. Increase magnification smaller field of vision Increase magnification decreased resolution Image is inverted up/down, left/right Ex: R Object Image

Hand out pg. 11 notes #9 mu metric prefix:

m CHECK IN NOTEBOOK

Prefix

Meter
Multiplying by 1: Practice

1. A Tylenol tablet contains 500mg of acetaminophen. What is the mass of acetaminophen in Kg? Answer: Ask yourself: Where am I starting? Where am I trying to go? Then we will be able to go form mg kg Ask you: What relationships can help me? 1kg: 1000mg Or 1Kg=1000g Or Ready to start: Start with the give info below: = Another problem You need to carpet your bedroom, which is a rectangle with an area of When you get to the carpet 2. store all the prices are in M How many M2 is equal to 2.5X105cm? Answer: Where am I going? You are going from cm2 m2 What tools can I have? X Start with your one piece of info and use relationships (tools) to cancel unwanted units, to being in new, wanted units 2.5X105 cm x cm x = kg = = 5x10-4kg

m2=

= 2.5 X 101m2

Eitan is exactly 15 years old. How many second has he lived? = = You have 150$. You need to buy tennis balls. Each pack contains four tennis balls. Each pack costs 6$. You use two tennis balls for every 5 games you play. How many games can be used with 150$? = games = = 250

You are running a kollel program. You promise each kid 2 slices pizzas for every hour they learn. Each cost pie cost 15.00$ and has 8 slices in it. You have 25,000 dimes (10 cents) how many kids can learn for an hours. How many hours of learning can you finance 25000 dimes X 666.7 hours X =

Using the multiplying by one technique we take care of our units, which allows us to automatically take care of our numbers. Sometimes multiplying by one eliminates they need to memorize certain equations. EX: Speed is the relation of distance and time. You can memories equations that relate distance, speed, and time. Or you can use speed as your relationship (your fraction=1) to solve any problem: Problem: A car has a speed of 12m/s. how long does it take to travel 1km? 1km X = = 83.3333 seconds.

Problem: A car has a speed of 12m/s. How far does it go in one hour.

1hr=

X = 43,200 meters.

Example: Density is a quantitative characteristic that describes how much mass if a substance is packed into a certain volume.

Every substance has its own characteristic, no matter how much stuff you have. If you double the mass, then the volume will double as well. It is all-proportional, and the relationship remains the same. EX: Imagine different samples of water: Sample 1: m=10g, v=10ml, d= 10g/10ml= 1g/ml Sample 2:m=57g, v= 57, d= = 1g/ml 1g/ml

Sample 3: 12000g=m, 12000ml=v, Density of H2O is always 1g/ml. Ex: Imagine different sample of gold. Sample 1: 10g=m, 0.52ml=v d= Sample 2: Sample 3: Density of gold is always 19g/ml.

Once again, we can use the density of a substance as a relationship (fraction that=1) to convert units of mass volume. Ex: Copper has a density of 8.9g/ml. What would be the volume of 5kg of copper?

Part of Cells page 16

Note: Even in the same organism (ex: human) Cells are differentiated so that different cells are built to do different jobs. Ex: RBC (biconcave disc) Muscle cells (specialized to contact, relax, movement) Nerve cells (specialized to transmit impulse) [A] Cell Membrane (plasma membrane) The cell membrane is found in all types of cells. Its semi-permeable, which means that it selectively, allows certain materials to go inside and outside the cell. In fact, if we examine the cell membrane more closely, we see that is a very complex structure. Fluid Mosaic Model Of Cell Membrane: The name of this model reminds us that the cell membrane is a moving, changing, complex structure, which is a mosaic of different smaller structures. A cell membrane is composed of units called phospholipids. This is phospholipid.

The phosphate head: Is known to be hydrophilic, which means that is lives water. It likes to be in water, and it mixes well inside it. The Lipid Tails: They are known to be hydrophobic, which means that it hates water. They are greasy, fatty, which do not mix well with water. The big question: If a cell membrane separates a cell from its environment, and if the cell is watery in the inside, and surrounded by water on the outside. Why are there these fatty parts in a cell membrane (lipids) are hydrophobic? And where do they go? The answer: Phospholipid bilayer

The phosphate heads, meaning the hydrophilic part, see water on the inside and the outside of the cell, the lipid tails, which are hydrophobic, avoiding contact with H20. There are other added components to this lipid bilayer, for example, proteins are embedded and dispersed throughout the membrane. Some of these proteins are important in the transport of specific substances across the cell membrane. Final complete picture of fluid mosaic model: On a piece of paper DONE FOR SECOND TEST23 [B] Cytoplasm (p.16) The cytoplasm is a watery substance inside the cell. Many substances, nutrients are dissolved inside. Different organelles are dispenses inside the cytoplasm. [C] 1) Nucleus The nucleus is the control center of the cell. The nucleus contains chromosomes, which are made of many genes, which are made of DNA, which provides the instructions for all cell activities. The Nuclear Membrane: 1) separates nucleus from rest of the cell. 2) Structure is similar to plasma membrane Nucleolus: 1) there is a few per nucleus 2) It is involved for synthesis of some types of RNA Nucleoplasm: 1) similar to cytoplasm of the whole cell, the nucleoplasm is the background liquid of the nucleus. 2) Chromosomes and Chromatin One form changes into the other. This consists of DNA, associated with proteins.

 The DNA is what carries all of the cells instructions, making the nucleus the control center of the cell. So whats the difference? Chromatin- very loose, threadlike Chromosome- the same piece DNA, but wound up more tightly Whether the nucleus has chromosome or chromatin, it depends on the life stage of the cell. Mitochondria: an oval, double membrane structure known as the cells powerhouse because it is the site of cellular respiration. (This is where glucose -> -> ATP)

The purpose of all these folds is to increase surface area so there is more room for enzymes on the membrane to their work of respiration. (Other parts of respiration do occur in the matrix) Lysosomes (A.K.A. suicide sacs): they are found in animal cells and they are responsible for cleaning up old waste with their digestive enzymes. Tay Sachs disease, common in Ashkenazic Jews, is a genetic disease caused by 1 faulty lysosome enzyme. It makes us appreciate how important every small detail is, how important each organelle and each proteins, in developing a healthy individual.

Centrioles Centrioles are located in animal cells Photo of one:

Found near the nucleus It is important in cell division Endoplasmic Reticulum It is involved in the transport of materials within the cells It is a membranous organelle with many folds, channels Works closely with Golgi Apparatus There are two types of E.R

Smooth No ribosomes

Rough Has ribosomes

The Endoplasmic Reticulum helps to transport substances (ex: proteins) that are made in the cell, to be brought out of the cell. Ribosomes

 Ribosomes are tiny spherical structures actually composed of 2

subunits It is at the ribosomes that proteins get made. Some ribosomes are on rough ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum); some are loose in the cytoplasm. Golgi Apparatus
Golgi is A series of sacs (connected) Works closely with ER Proteins are ready to be transported out to go from ER to Golgi At the Golgi, modification are done to finally prepare the protein for transport

Vacuoles Storage sacs Store water, nutrients, water Many small ones in animal cells Few large ones in plant cell

[D] Structures: Structures are found on the outside of all cells. Cilium: (plural Cilia) Many tiny hair-like projections, which are located on the outside of some cells, which function to: - Clear away debris - Move in a coordinated way to allow the cell to move. Flagellum (plural: flagella)

 Its is 1 or 2 longer projections (longer than the cilia) which beat or whip creating a motor and propelling the cell Located on the outside of some cells

[E] Extracellular Materials Just a reminder that cells arent located alone (vacuum.) Fluids surround them with different substances dissolved in these fluids. In addition, there are sometimes solid substances such as calcium deposits or proteins, which surround the cells. [F] Plant Cells Also Have: Cell walls is located outside the membrane, it help keep plants cells firm and water-filed without bursting Chloroplasts: o The organelle responsible for photosynthesis. o It is oval, double membrane structures o They Contain Thylakoid Discs which contain chlorophyll o The whole structure is green, and is why plants green o Chlorophyll and enzymes inside chloroplasts are responsible for the ability to undergo photosynthesis.

Prokaryotic VS. Eukaryotic Eukaryotic They have nuclei Fungi, plants, Animals Are Eukaryotic

Prokaryotic Have no nuclei Genetic material is loose in Cytoplasm

Bacterial cells are prokaryotic

When we speak of Eukaryotic organism we are mentioning that it has only Eukaryotic cells.

Plant VS Animals Cells Plants Have Chloroplasts Have Cell wall Dont Dont Have few large vacuoles Animals Dont Dont Have Lysosomes Have Centrioles Have many small vacuoles

At first, glance it is fairly easy to distinguish plant cells and animal cells, because plant cells look more rigid and geometric (cell wall) and most of its volume is taken up by a large vacuole.

The Chemistry of Life

[A] Chemical Elements 1. Definition: Elements are pure substances that cannot be broken down into anything simpler, not even by chemical changes. 2. Elements in living things: There are two categories: 1. Most common (Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen) 96% 2. Less common (Sulfur, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Iron, Calcium, Sodium, Chlorine and Potassium) 4%1 LOOK AT TABLE FOR MORE INFO 3. Symbol (you have to know the symbols in package) 4. Atoms: An atom is the smallest part of an element that still has the characteristics of that element. All of the atoms of one element are similar to each other but different from atoms of other elements.

We dont have to know the percentage; its just for us to show that it is the most common category.
1

5. Ions: Recall that atoms have equal numbers of protons and electrons, which makes the atom neutral. o Sometimes an atom will gain electron(s), which makes the particle a negative Ion. o Sometimes an atom will lose electrons, which makes the particle a positive Ion. An Ion is a charged (not neutral) particle that results an atom has gained or lost electrons. An atom becomes an Ion by a chemical change, which means that they have entirely different characteristics. EX: Nao Atom (Neutral) Reactive Metal Reacts explosively with water Na+ Ion (Positive) Found in table salt Tastes salty Dissolves in water

Note: In Biology we care about Ions, because it is essential that there is a proper concentration of Ions dissolved in our watery body fluids, inside and outside our cells. A healthy balance of electrolytes is essential for our nervous system and muscular system (and other systems) to work properly. Classification of Matter Matter is anything that has mass and volume (solid, liquid, or gazes.) There are many ways to classify matter. Here is one:

Matter

Homogeneous

Heterogeneous

Mixture Pure Mixture (solution)

Element Compound

Pure: It is the opposite of mixture, it is either a compound or an element, and something that is pure cannot be broken down into anything simpler by a physical change. (Compounds are pure because they can be broken down, but only by a chemical change.) The particles that compose a pure substance are all the same as each other. [B] Chemical Compounds 1. A pure substance composed of 2 or more elements that have chemically combined. 2. Formula: We use formulas to indicate how many atoms of each element are in one molecule of the compound. Molecule Formula Structure form Ex: H2O shows how many atoms O of each type H. H Shows how atoms in a molecule are connected

Sample Problem (a) Draw a particle model that represents a sample of MgCl2
Mg Cl Cl Mg Cl Cl Mg Cl Cl

(b) Choose all of the words that correctly describe the sample. If yes, say why! (Highlighted is right) Heterogeneous Homogeneous: All pure things are homogeneous. There is only 1 kind of particle. They have the same properties through Pure
All particles are identical, all compounds are pure.

Mixture Solution Compound Element

Compounds are formed from 2 or more elements that are chemically combined. Here there are 2 elements (mg and Cl) It has more then 2 elements so it is not an element

Pg. 20. 3. Inorganic Compounds: Compounds that are not unique to living things. They may be important to living things, they may be found in living, but they can also be found in non-living things. Inorganic compounds are usually small and simple. (In terms of number of atoms) Inorganic compounds may have carbon or hydrogen, but not both. If there is no carbon or hydrogen they are inorganic. Example of inorganic compounds

Compound Carbon dioxide Hydrochloric acid Sodium Chloride Calcium Carbonate

Formula Co2 HCl NaCl CaCO3

4. Organic Compounds: They are unique to living things, produced uniquely by living things. Organic compounds tend to be large, more complex (more atoms inside) Organic compounds must have at least carbon and hydrogen inside Compound Formula Glucose C6H12O6 you need to know Methane CH4 you need to know Ethane C2H6 5. Importants of water H2O is extremely important in biology. Organisms mass is largely composed of H2O (About 70%) H2O is an important solvent (part of solution that allows dissolving to occur Many chemical reactions in living things occur in H2O H2O is often a reactant or a product in biochemical reactions. (Chemical reactions occurring in an organism) [C] Kind of Organic Compounds Overview: There are four different types of organic macromolecules. Each type is unique because of the monomer (building block) that composes it. 1. Carbohydrates: Elements inside: Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen

 Generally, there are x more Hydrogen atoms compared to oxygen atoms. o EX: Glucose: C6H12O6 o Sucrose: C12H22O11 (a) Monosaccharide The monomer of all carbohydrates Ex: Glucose, galactose, fructose Often have the formula C6H12O6 (b) Disaccharides They have 2 monosaccharaides chemically combined Often have the formula C12H22O11 This is the formula for sucrose, maltose, Lactose (They are different in the way that the atoms are linked)

The Big Question: If a typical monosaccharide is C6H12O6, and disaccharide is composed of 2 monosaccharaides that are chemically combined, why isnt the disaccharide C12H24O12? When it is C12H22O11. Some atoms seem to have disappeared! The answer is: Dehydration Synthesis: When 2 monomers (here we see monosaccharide), which are monomers of carbohydrates, need to chemically join together, they need to first be made chemically sticky (chemically attracted.) When one monomer loses 1 Hydrogen atom, one monomer loses OH together. This allows a chemical bond to form between 2 monomers. The H and OH also bind, create H2O. So 1 H2O is released for each connection that is made.

Word Equation: General Monomer+ MonomerDimer (2 monomers)+ H2O You see in this word equation that dehydration synthesis is for the building up of all kinds of macromolecules. Specific for Carbohydrates: Monosaccharide+ Monosaccharide disaccharide+ H2O Glucose+ Glucose Maltose+ H2O Glucose+ Galactose Lactose+ H2O Glucose+ Fructose Sucrose+ H2O Note: Dehydration synthesis is not only for carbohydrates. It is the way any monomer of any macromolecule gets chemically joined. Dehydration synthesis is not only for monomers being added to monomers. It can be for 1 monomer to be added to a long chain or for 2 long chains to be connected.

(c) Polysaccharides Many monomers, monosaccharaides chemically combined They may combine in straight chains or in brackets.

TO EXPLAIN YOU SOMETHING (SACHER WROTE ON BOARD) Polymer (macromolecule)

Lipids Carbohydrates Nucleic Acid Protein

Monosaccharaides (1 monomer) Sugars

Disaccharides (2 monomers)

Polysaccharides (many monomers) Complex Carbohydrates

Examples of Polysaccharides Many carbohydrates are composed only of glucose monomers, yet they are different from each other in the way they are chemically linked EX: Glycogen a carbohydrate in mammals. Starch
Carbohydrates in plants.

Cellulose

Main functions of

Cellulose is a good source of fiber since we cannot break it down chemically. We dont get energy from it, but it helps keep our digestive system healthy.

Carbohydrates: A source of energy Carbohydrates, even complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides) can be broken down into monosaccharide. As we have seen, monosaccharide like glucose can be used as reactant for cellular respiration. ATP is produced (recall ATP is our bodys energy currency.) Note: Monosaccharaides and disaccharides are called sugars. We can usually recognize the chemical names of sugars by seeing the ose at the end of their names. Note: When we talk about food energy, we use the unit calories. One calorie is very small. So we use Calories (1 Calorie: 1 kcal [make sure there is a capital C in calories]) Every gram of carbohydrates (regardless of the type) packs in 4 calories.

Another way to measure energy is in Joules (capital). Every Joule is about 4x smaller than every calorie 1 calorie (small)= 4.2J 1 Calorie (big)= 4.2kJ Used for measuring food Note: A secondary, less common function of carbohydrates: some complex carbohydrates provide structure Ex: Cellulose in the cell walls of plant cells.

Hydrolysis: Recall dehydration synthesis: In order to chemically link monomers together, one molecule of H2O is released for each connection. The Big Question: How do we separate a monomer from a chain that is already there? The Big Answer: For every bond that is broken, 1 molecule of H2O is used (as a reactant) This process is the opposite of dehydration synthesis. It is called Hydrolysis. Hydrolysis Monomer+Monomer
Chemical Change Enzyme Monomer+Monomer

Dehydration Synthesis

Enzymes
Dimer Chemical Change Monomer+Monomer

In hydrolysis water is necessary so one OH can be added to one monomer and the other H can be added to the other monomer. 2. Lipids (pg. 26) Elements: C, H, and O Unlike carbs, there is no 2:(to) 1 ratio of Hydrogen to Oxygen. Most lipids are fats and oils.

Fats are solid at room temperature.

Oil is liquid at room temperature

Fats and oils are called triglycerides, because there are 3 fatty acid chains attached to one glycerol.

One single triglyceride

Dehydration synthesis occurs in 3 places to form this triglyceride, so 3 H2O water molecules are released. When we speak of healthier, unsaturated fats, or more worrisome saturated fats. We are referring to the chemical structure of the type of fatty acid Unsaturated fats are usually liquid at room temperature but saturated fat is solid and can collect in blood vessels, leading to heart disease. Note: Not all lipids are fats. Other lipids include cholesterol and other steroids, waxes etc. Lipids
Many more

Fats, Oils Steroids Waxes Phospholipids

Functions

Most Common Type

of Lipids

Main Function: Source and storage of energy Fats Have: 9 Calories/gram Other lipids have other function, for example in cell membranes. Fats are also extremely important in the proper development of our nervous system. 3. Proteins: Pg. (30) Elements that are inside most proteins C, H, O, N and S. Building Blocks of Proteins Amino Acids

Every amino acid looks like this. Notice that there is H, C, O, and N always. R is the extra part that makes each amino acid (there are 20 types of amino acids.) The R may be as simple as a single H atom (in Glycine) or much more complex. Some amino acids have Sulfur, S as part of this R group, which is why most Amino Acids will have some sulfur inside. The Huge Variation among Different Proteins Proteins have many different functions: Example: o Enzymes (of which there are thousands of different one) o Structure o Hemoglobin is a protein (In RBC, helps carry O2) o Transport across cell membrane o Help Blood clot after injuries

o Antibodies are types of proteins (there are thousands of types) The Big Question: How can one type of macromolecule, composed of the same monomers (building blocks called amino acids.) Be responsible for such a divers set of functions. The Big Answer: Its all about the R; there are 20 different amino acids because of 20 different R. Among the smallest amino acid chain has about 100 amino acids. At each position there are 20 different amino acid choices. How many 100 Amino Acids peptides (chain of Amino Acid) are possible?

That is equal to 20100!!!! So imagine how many proteins (which are often made of more then 1 peptide) can be formed from the same 20 amino acids. Many Amino acid Peptide
Some Polypeptide

Proteins

Once again, the amino acids (monomers) chemically combine by the process of dehydration synthesis. [See Photocopy]

AA+AA2Dipeptide+H2O (The bond that forms between neighboring AA is called a peptide bond.) One AA loses OH from carboxyl group; one loses AA H from amino group. 4. Nucleic Acids This class of macromolecules includes DNA and RNA. Nucleotide=monomer More Later!

Genetics Genetics is the study of heredity. In our study of genetics we will learn how traits are passed down from one generation to the next. As we study genetics, realize that All healthy humans have many traits that are common; we share many of the same genes. (In some ways our genes are alike) All healthy humans are unique in appearance, personality, and intelligence In part because of each of our unique genomes (in some ways genes are different) In this unit we focus on genetics but understand that our environment also plays a role in who we are and who we become. Nature Vs. Nurture Argument

We are who we are because of our genes

We are who we are because of our experiences

We understand that both of these arguments hold some truth.

Today we know a lot about genes, DNA, chromosomes, etc. But we will start our discussion of genetics with Gregor Mendel o Father of Genetics o Born in mid 1800s o Developed theories of genetics that are applicable today (without knowing about genes, chromosomes) o His interesting data went unnoticing for years as it was published in a mathematics journal, uninteresting to the readers. Mendels Famous Pea Plant Experiments Pea plants turned out to be an excellent choice because: They are genetically quite simple They have a lot of traits that are easy to measure and come in 2 simple, opposite varieties. Ex: Flowers: white or purple Height: tall or short Seed color: yellow or green Texture: smooth or wrinkled.

His First Big Experiments: 1. Mendel took a pure tall plant and mated it with a pure short plant. What does it mean by pure?? Pure means: that pants parents grandparents (All ancestors) all had that same trait.
P1

Parents

Tall x Short

F1

Children

100% tall plants

This result was shocking. Did the short trait completely disappear?

2. Experiment 2: He mated 2 members of the F1 generation with each other Tall x Tall
F1

F2

75% tall and 25% short

First: Review of Experiment of 1 and 2 P1 Parents Tall x Short

F1

Children

100% tall plants

F2

75% tall and 25% short

The T represents tall (dominant gene) the t represent shirt (gene.) The t's and T's on the outside represent each gene of the second-generation pea plant. The inside represents the possible outcome. Since T is dominant 75% is tall. Mendel's conclusions: Concept of unit characters: all traits are by factors (genes alleles that occur in pairs (ex: a pure tall pea plant has two tall alleles, TT) Law of segregation: When an individual produces gametes (sex cells: egg in female; sperm in make) the 2 alleles separate so that each single

cell receives one gene. (This way, during fertilization the offspring will have, once again, 2 alleles for each trait.) Principal of dominance and recessive: When there are two possible variations if a trait (now we call these genes, or alleles) one may mask the effect of the other. The one that makes the other: dominant The one that gets masked: Recessive In pea plants, for example, the tall allele is dominant and the short allele is recessive. Some important vocabulary words: Phenotype: The outward appearance of a trait. Ex: tall (pea plants), short (pea plants), Type A blood (in humans), Brown eyes (humans), blue eyes (humans), green eyes (humans),

Genotype: The genetic make-up, the 2 alleles of a certain type. So if you know the genotype (and you know which one is dominant) then you can determine the phenotype. But if you know the phenotype you may not know the genotype. The only way you will know if the phenotype is recessive. Example: Color in pea plants: Yellow: Dominant Green: Recessive (getting covered up) Y= Yellow, y=Green Possible Genotypes YY Yy yy Homozygous (pure): Phenotype Yellow Yellow Green

 Both alleles are the same Terms like homozygous dominant or homozygous recessive are ways to describe the genotype Heterozygous (hybrid) The two alleles are different each other. Practice with Punnett Squares (Problems): In humans, cystic fibrosis is a recessive disease. Determine the probability (phenotype, genotype) ratio of kids born to a pure healthy mom and a carrier (heterozygous) Dad. C c c= cystic fibrosis C= Healthy Mom Phenotype: 100% healthy Genotype: 50% CC 50% Cc (50% homozygous dominant, 50% heterozygous) A pedigree is a chart showing the transfer of a trait from generation to generation: Short sightedness is dominant. C C CC CC Cc cc

Q: Fill in all possible genotypes. S- short sightedness s- normal vision Example 2 Legend: N-grey eyes n-non-grey eyes 1: Is grey eyes dominant or recessive? They are recessive because A and B are normal eyes, had a child with (c) grey eyes

2: fill in as many genotypes as possible.

More Punnet square examples 1. Huntingtons disease is a dominant disease: An affected heterozygous mom marries a healthy dad. Find the phenotype and the genotype (probabilities/ratio) of their kids.

H h H- affected, disease H- healthy

h Hh hh

h Hh hh

Phenotype: It is a 1:1 ratio, 50% sick: 50% healthy Genotype: 1:1 ratio 50% heterozygous: 50% homozygous recessive.

Carrier means heterozygous. 2. Another example In humans cystic fibrosis is a recessive disease If 2 carriers marry what is the phenotype and genotype ratio of the kids? Note: Carrier is often used to describe the genotype of a healthy individual who is heterozygous for a recessive disease. C-healthy c- sic Mom- Cc Dad- Cc C c C CC Cc c Cc cc Phenotype: three children are healthy and one is sick Genotype: 1 CC: 2Cc: 1cc Note: This hybrid cross is the famous cross from Mendels experiment when F1 generation (tall) gave rise to 25% short in F2 generation. Punnet Square In humans, suppose brown eyes are dominant over blue eyes. A blueeyed mom marries a heterozygous dad. Predict phenotypes and genotypes of the offspring.

b b
B- brown b- blue

B Bb Bb
dad- Bb Mom- bb

b bb bb

Phenotype: 50% brown eyes, 50% blue eyes Genotype: 2Bb: 2bb

Multiple Alleles examples: Some traits have more than 2 possible alleles, although each individual can only have 2 alleles of them. Ex: Human: A, B, And O Blood Types. This is an example of multiple Alleles. Blood types refer to various proteins that we may or may not have on the surface of our RBC. Phenotype Blood type A Blood type B Blood type AB Blood type O Whats on our RBC A protein is on RBC B protein on your RBC A and B protein on your RBC Neither A nor B proteins are present

What are the alleles responsible for theses different blood types? A allele Dominant B allele Dominant O allele Recessive
Co-dominant

Genotypes and possible Phenotype: Phenotype Type A Type B Tybe AB Type O Blood Types and Punnet Squares: Genotype AA (homo), AO (hetero) BB (homo), BO (hetero) AB (hetero) OO (homo)

1. A Dad, heterozygous for blood type B, marries a mom with AB blood type. Predict the genotypes and phenotypes of their offspring. Dad: BO Mom: AB A B B AB BB O AO BO

Phenotype: 25%AB, 25%A, 50% B Genotype: 1AB: 1AO: 1BB: 1BO 2. What are the genotypes of 2 parents who can have kids of every blood type? A O B AB BO O AO OO (Missing from natys) Note: Although A, B, O blood types, and Rh+ and Rh- blood types are about proteins on the RBC, they are completely different characteristics (traits) and they are completely independent of each other. So if you are blood type A, you may be RH+ or you may be RH-. One trait does not affect in the other. A Very Very Important Note about Genetics We now know more than Mendel did. We know that in our cells we have chromosomes (46 chromosomes in every human somatic cell.)
Regular body cells, not gamete cells

Chromosomes contain DNA, and long streches of DNA of these chromosomes are divided into smaller units of these genes. So genes are composed of streches of DNA. The Big Question: What is the connection between these genes (DNA) that are inside our cells, and our traits some of which are common to all healthy individuals, and some which are what makes each of us unique. The Big Answer: Genes are like blue prints. They give instructions so that a very specific molecule of a very specific molecule of RNA (another amino acid) can be made, and this molecule of RNA gives instructions so that a very specific protein can be made. It is theses proteins that are responsible for our traits. Hair color/eye color Peanut allergies Ability to digest lactose Type A blood