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Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Department of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering Manipal Institute of Techno logy - Manipal

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Introduction Practically every industrial process requires objects to be moved, manipulated o r be subjected to some form of force. This is generally accomplished by means of electrical equipment (such as motors or solenoids), or via devices driven by ai r (pneumatics) or liquids (hydraulics). Traditionally, pneumatics and hydraulics are thought to be a mechanical engineer's subject (and are generally taught as such in colleges). In practice, techniques (and, more important, the fault findi ng methodology) tend to be more akin to the ideas used in electronics and proces s control. This book serves as a guide to the operation of hydraulic and pneumat ic systems. It is intended for engineering students and technicians who wish to have an insight into the components and operation of a pneumatic or hydraulic sy stem. The entire content has been deliberately kept simple with the aim of makin g the book readable rather than rigorous. It is not, therefore, a design manual and topics such as sizing of pipes and valves have been deliberately omitted. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 1

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Chapter 01 1. Introduction to pneumatics Most industrial processes require objects or substances to be moved from one loc ation to another or a force to be applied to hold, shape or compress a product. Such activities are performed by Prime Movers; the workhorses of manufacturing i ndustries. In many locations all prime movers are electrical. Rotary motions can be provided by simple motors, and linear motion can be obtained from rotary mot ion by devices such as screw jacks or rack and pinions. Where a pure force or a short linear stroke is required a solenoid may be used (although there are limit s to the force that can be obtained by this means). Electrical devices are not; however, the only means of providing prime movers. Enclosed fluids (both liquids and gases) can also be used to convey energy from one location to another and, consequently, to produce rotary or linear motion or apply a force. Fluid based s ystems using liquids as transmission media are called hydraulic systems (from th e Greek words hydra for water and aulos for a pipe; descriptions which imply fluids are water although oils are more commonly used). Gas-based systems are called Pn eumatic systems (from the Greek pneumn for wind or breath). The most common gas is simply compressed air. Although nitrogen is occasionally used. The main advan tages and disadvantages of pneumatic or hydraulic systems both arise out of the different characteristics of low density compressible gases and (relatively) hig h density incompressible liquids. A pneumatic system, for example, tends to have a 'softer' action than a hydraulic system which can be prone to producing noisy and wear inducing shocks in the piping. A liquid-based hydraulic system, howeve r, can operate at far higher pressures than a pneumatic system and, consequently , can be used to provide very large forces. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 2

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 1.1 Pneumatics in review Pneumatics has long since played an important role as a technology in the performance of mechanical work. It is also used in the develo pment of automation solutions. In the majority of applications compressed air is used for one or more of the following functions: To determine the status of pro cessors (sensors) Information processing (processors) Switching of actuators by means of final control elements Carrying out work (actuators) To be able to cont rol machinery and installations necessitates the construction of a generally com plex logic interconnection of statuses and switching conditions. This occurs as a result of the interaction of sensors, processors, control elements and actuato rs in pneumatic or partly pneumatic systems. The technological progress made in material, design and production processes has further improved the quality and d iversity of pneumatic components and thereby contributed to their widely spread use in automation. Some industrial applications employing pneumatics are listed below: General meth ods of material handling: Clamping Shifting Positioning Orienting Branching of m aterial flow General applications: Packaging Filling Metering Locking Driving of axes Door or chute control Transfer of materials Turning and inverting of parts Sorting of parts Stacking of components Stamping and embossing of components Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 3

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 1.2 Advantages and distinguishing characteristics of compressed air Availability Air is available practically everywhere in unlimited quantities. Transport Air can be easily transported in pipelines, even over large distances Storage Compressed air can be stored in a reservoir and removed as required. In addition , the reservoir can be transportable. Temperature Compressed air is relatively insensitive to temperature fluctuations. This ensur es reliable operation, even under extreme conditions. Explosion proof Compressed air offers no risk of explosion or fire. Cleanliness Un-lubricated exhaust air is clean. Any un-lubricated air which escapes through leaking pipes or components does not cause contamination. Components The operating components are of simple construction and therefore relatively ine xpensive. Speed Compressed air is a very fast working medium. This enables high working speeds t o be attained. Overload safe Pneumatic tools and operating components can be loaded to the point of stopping and are therefore overload safe. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 4

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 1.3 Structure and signal flow of pneumatic systems Pneumatic systems consist of an interconnection of different groups of elements. 1.1 Signal flow in pneumatic systems This group of elements forms a control path for signal flow, starting from the s ignal section (input) through to the actuating section (output). Control element s control the actuating elements in accordance with the signals received from th e processing elements. The primary levels in a pneumatic system are: Energy supp ly Input elements (sensors) Processing elements (processors) Control elements Po wer components (actuators) The elements in the system are represented by symbols which indicate the functio n of the element. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 5

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 1.2 Signal flow and the elements that help Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 6

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Chapter 02 2. Components of Pneumatic systems 2.1 Air compressors, air treatment and pressure regulation The vast majority of pneumatic systems use compressed atmospheric air as the operating medium (a smal l number of systems use nitrogen obtained commercially from liquid gas suppliers ). Unlike hydraulic systems, a pneumatic system is 'open'; the fluid is obtained free, used and then vented back to atmosphere. Pneumatic systems use a compress ible gas; hydraulic systems an incompressible liquid, and this leads to some sig nificant differences. The pressure of a liquid may be raised to a high level alm ost instantaneously, whereas pressure rise in a gas can be distinctly leisurely. Pressure in a hydraulic system can be quickly and easily controlled by devices such as unloading and pressure regulating valves. Fluid is thus stored at atmosp heric pressure and compressed to the required pressure as needed. The slow respo nse of an air compressor, however, precludes such an approach in a pneumatic sys tem and necessitates storage of compressed air at the required pressure in a rec eiver vessel. The volume of this vessel is chosen so there are minimal deviation s in pressure arising from flow changes in loads and the compressor is then empl oyed to replace the air used, averaged over an extended period of time (e.g. a f ew minutes). Deviations in air pressure are smaller, and compressor control is e asier if a large receiver feeds many loads. A large number of loads statisticall y results in a more even flow of air from the receiver, also helping to maintain a steady pressure. On many sites, therefore, compressed air is produced as a ce ntral service which is distributed around the site in a similar manner to electr icity, gas and water. Behavior of a gas subjected to changes in pressure, volume and temperature is governed by the general gas equation. PV = nRT (2.1) Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 7

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems A compressor increases air pressure by reducing its volume, and expression 2.1 p redicts a resultant rise in temperature. A pneumatic system must therefore incor porate some method of removing this excess heat. For small systems, simple fins on the compressor (similar in construction to an air-cooled internal combustion engine) will suffice. For larger systems, a separate cooler (usually employing w ater as the heat-removing medium) is needed. Atmospheric air contains water vapo r, the actual amount varying from day to day according to humidity. The maximum amount of water vapor held in a given volume of air is determined by temperature , and any excess condenses out as liquid droplets (commonly experienced as conde nsation on cold windows). A similar effect occurs as compressed air is cooled, a nd if left the resultant water droplets would cause valves to jam and corrosion to form in pipes. An aftercooler must therefore be followed by a water separator . Often after coolers and separators are called, collectively, primary air treat ment units. Dry cool air is stored in the receiver, with a pressure switch used to start and stop the compressor motor, maintaining the required pressure. Ideal ly, air in a system has a light oil mist to reduce chances of corrosion and to l ubricate moving parts in valves, cylinders and so on. This oil mist cannot be ad ded before the receiver as the mist would form oil droplets in the receiver's re latively still air, so the exit air from the receiver passes through a unit whic h provides the lubricating mist along with further filtration and water removal. This process is commonly called secondary air treatment. Often, air in the rece iver is held at a slightly higher pressure than needed to allow for pressure dro ps in the pipe lines. A local pressure regulation unit is then employed with the secondary air treatment close to the device using air. Composite devices called service units comprising water separation, lubricator and pressure regulation a re available for direct line monitoring close to the valves and actuators of a p neumatic system. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 8

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Figure 2.1 thus represents the components used in the production of a reliable s ource of compressed air. 2.1 Components in an air generation and distribution set-up 2.2 Compressor types Like hydraulic pumps, air compressors can be split into pos itive displacement devices (where a fixed volume of air is delivered on each rot ation of the compressor shaft) and dynamic devices such as centrifugal or axial blowers. The vast majority of air compressors are of the positive displacement t ype. A compressor is selected by the pressure it is required to work at and the volume of gas it is required to deliver. As explained in the previous section, p ressure in the receiver is generally higher than that required at the operating position, with local pressure regulation being used. Pressure at the compressor outlet (which for practical purposes will be the same as that in the receiver) i s called the working pressure and is used to specify the compressor. Pressure at the operating point is called, not surprisingly, the operating pressure and is used to specify valves, actuators and other operating devices. Care should be ta ken in specifying the volume of gas a compressor is required to deliver. Express ion 2.2 shows the volume of a given mass of gas to be highly dependent on pressu re and temperature. Delivery volume of a compressor is defined in terms of gas a t normal atmospheric conditions. Two standards known as standard temperature and pressures (STP) are commonly used, although differences between them are small for industrial users. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 9

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems The technical normal condition is The physical normal condition is : P = 0.98 ba r absolute, T = 200 C : P = 1.01 bar absolute, T = 00 C (2.2) The term normal temperature and pressure (NTP) is also used. Required delivery v olume of a compressor (in m3min-1 or ft3min-1, according to the units used) may be calculated for the actuators at the various operating positions (with healthy safety margins to allow for leakage) but care must be taken to ensure this tota l volume is converted to STP condition before specifying the required compressor delivery volume. A compressor delivery volume can be specified in terms of its theoretical volume (swept volume multiplied by rotational speed) or effective vo lume which includes losses. The ratio of these two volumes is the efficiency. Ob viously the effective volume should be used in choosing a compressor (with, agai n, a safety margin for leakage). Required power of the motor driving the compres sor is dependent on working pressure and delivery volume, and may be determined from expressions 2.2 and 2.5. Allowance must be made for the cyclic on/off opera tion of the compressor with the motor being sized for on load operation and not averaged over a period of time. 2.2.1 Piston compressors Piston compressors are by far the most common type of compressor, and a basic single cylinder form is s hown in Figure 2.2. As the piston descends during the inlet stroke (Figure 2.2a) , the inlet valve opens and air is drawn into the cylinder. As the piston passes the bottom of the stroke, the inlet valve closes and the exhaust valve opens al lowing air to be expelled as the piston rises (Figure 2.2b) Figure 2.2 implies t hat the valves are similar to valves in an internal combustion engine. In practi ce, spring-loaded valves are used, which open and close under the action of air pressure across them. One common type uses a 'feather' of spring steel which mov es above the inlet or output port, as shown in Figure 2.2c. A single cylinder co mpressor gives significant pressure pulses at the outlet port. This can be overc ome to some extent by the use of a large receiver, but more often a multi-cylind er compressor is used. These are usually classified as vertical or horizontal in -line arrangements and the more compact V, Y or W constructions. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 10

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 2.2 Schematic of a piston compressor (single acting) A compressor which produces one pulse of air per piston stoke (of which the example of Figure 2.2 is typica l) is called a single acting compressor. A more even air supply can be obtained by the double acting action of the compressor in Figure 2.3, which uses two sets of valves and a crosshead to keep the piston rod square at all times. Double-ac ting compressors can be found in all configurations described earlier. 2.3 Piston compressor (Double acting) Piston compressors described so far go direct from atmospheric to required press ure in a single operation. This is known as a single stage compressor. The gener al gas law (expression 2.1) showed compression of a gas to be accompanied by a s ignificant rise in gas temperature. If the Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 11

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems exit pressure is above about 5 bar in a single-acting compressor, the compressed air temperature can rise to over 200oC and the motor power needed to drive the compressor rises accordingly. For pressures over a few bar it is far more econom ical to use a multistage compressor with cooling between stages. Figure 2.4 show s an example. As cooling (undertaken by a device called an intercooler) reduces the volume of the gas to be compressed at the second stage there is a large ener gy saving. Normally two stages are used for pneumatic pressures of 10 to 15 bar, but multistage compressors are available for pressures up to around 50 bar. Mul tistage compressors can be manufactured with multi-cylinders as shown in Figure 2.4 or, more compactly, with a single cylinder and a double diameter piston as s hown in Figure 2.5. There is contact between pistons and air, in standard piston compressors, which may introduce small amounts of lubrication oil from the pist on walls into the air. This very small contamination may be undesirable in food and chemical industries. Figure 2.6 shows a common way of giving a totally clean supply by incorporating a flexible diaphragm between piston and air. 2.4 Multistage compressor with intercooler Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 12

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 2.5 Multistage compressor (Compact model) 2.6 Flexible diaphragm compressor 2.2.2 Screw compressors Piston compressors are used where high pressures (> 20 b ar) and relatively low volumes (< 10,000 m3 hr-1) are needed, but are mechanical ly relatively complex with many moving parts. Many applications require only med ium pressure (< 10 bar) and medium flows (around 10,000 m3hr-1). For these appli cations, rotary compressors have the advantage of simplicity, with fewer moving parts rotating at a constant speed, and a steady delivery of air without pressur e pulses. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 13

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems One rotary compressor, known as the dry rotary screw compressor, is shown in Fig ure 2.7 and consists of two intermeshing rotating screws with minimal (around 0. 05 mm) clearance. As the screws rotate, air is drawn into the housing, trapped b etween the screws and carried along to the discharge port, where it is delivered in a constant pulse-free stream. Screws in this compressor can be synchronized by external timing gears. Alternat ively one screw can be driven, the second screw rotated by contact with the driv e screw. This approach requires oil lubrication to be sprayed into the inlet air to reduce friction between screws, and is consequently known as a wet rotary sc rew compressor. Wet screw construction though, obviously introduces oil contamin ation into the air which has to be removed by later oil separation units. 2.7 Screw compressor 2.2.3 Rotary compressors The vane compressor, shown in Figure 2.8 operates on si milar principles to the hydraulic vane pump described in the chapter on hydrauli cs, although air compressors tend to be physically larger than hydraulic pumps. An unbalanced design is shown; balanced versions can also be constructed. Vanes can be forced out by springs or, more commonly, by centrifugal force. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 14

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 2.8 Vane compressor The lobe compressor of Figure 2.9 (often called a Roots blower) is often used wh en a positive displacement compressor is needed with high delivery volume but lo w pressure (typically 1-2 bar). Operating pressure is mainly limited by leakage between rotors and housing. To operate efficiently, clearances must be very smal l, and wear leads to a rapid fall in efficiency. 2.9 Lobe compressor (Roots blower) Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 15

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 2.3 Air receivers and compressor control An air receiver is used to store high p ressure air from the compressor. Its volume reduces pressure fluctuations arisin g from changes in load and from compressor switching. Air coming from the compre ssor will be warm (if not actually hot!) and the large surface area of the recei ver dissipates this heat to the surrounding atmosphere. Any moisture left in the air from the compressor will condense out in the receiver, so outgoing air shou ld be taken from the receiver top. 2.10 Air receiver Figure 2.10 shows essential features of a receiver. They are usually of cylindri cal construction for strength, and have a safety relief valve to guard against h igh pressures arising from failure of the pressure control scheme. Pressure indi cation and, usually, temperature indication are provided, with pressure switches for control of pressure and high temperature switches for remote alarms. A drain cock allows removal of condensed water, and access via a manhole allows cleaning. Obviously, removal of a manhole cover is hazardous with a pressurized receiver, and safety routines must be defined and followed to prevent accidents. Control of the compressor is necessary to maintain pressure in the receiver. Th e simplest method of achieving this is to start the compressor when receiver pre ssure falls to some minimum pressure, and stop the compressor when pressure rise s to a satisfactory level again, as illustrated in Figure 2.11. In Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 16

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems theory two pressure switches are required (with the motor start pressure lower t han the motor stop pressure) but, in practice, internal hysteresis in a typical switch allows one pressure switch to be used. The pressure in the receiver cycle s between the start and stop pressure settings. 2.11 Compressor control system 2.4 Air treatment Atmospheric air contains moisture in the form of water vapor. We perceive the amount of moisture in a given volume of air as the humidity and refer to days with a high amount of water vapor as 'humid' or 'sticky', and days with low amounts of water vapor as 'good drying days'. The amount of water vapo r which can be held in a given volume depends on temperature but does not depend on pressure of air in that volume. One cubic meter at 20oC for example, can hol d 17 grams of water vapor. 2.4.1 Stages of air treatment Air in a pneumatic syst em must be clean and dry to reduce wear and extend maintenance periods. Atmosphe ric air contains many harmful impurities (smoke, dust, water vapor) and needs tr eatment before it can be used. In general, this treatment falls into three disti nct stages, shown in Figure 2.12. First, inlet filtering removes particles which can damage the air compressor. Next, there is the need to dry the air to reduce humidity and lower the dew point. This is normally performed between the compre ssor and the receiver and is termed primary air treatment. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 17

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 2.12 Stages of air treatment The final treatment is performed local to the dutie s to be performed, and consists of further steps to remove moisture and dirt and the introduction of a fine oil mist to aid lubrication. Not surprisingly this i s generally termed secondary air treatment. 2.4.1.1 Filters Inlet filters are used to remove dirt and smoke particles before they can cause damage to the air compressor, and are classified as dry filters with replaceable cartridges (similar to those found in motor car air filters) or wet filters where the incoming air is bubbled through an oil bath then passed t hrough a wire mesh filter. Dirt particles became attached to oil droplets during the bubbling process and are consequently removed by the wire mesh. Both types of filter require regular servicing: replacement of the cartridge element for th e dry type; cleaning for the wet type. If a filter is to be cleaned, it is essen tial the correct detergent is used. Use of petrol or similar petrochemicals can turn an air compressor into an effective diesel engine- with severe consequences . Filters are classified according to size of particles they will stop. Particle size is measured in SI units of micrometers (the older metric term microns is s till common) one micrometer (1 m) being 10-6 meter or 0.001 millimeter. Dust part icles are generally larger than 10 m, whereas smoke and oil particles are around 1 m . A filter can have a nominal rating (where it will block 98% of particles of th e specified size) or an absolute rating (where it blocks 100% of particles of th e specified size). Micro-filters with removable cartridges passing air from the centre to the outside of the cartridge case will remove 99.9% of particles down to 0.01 m, the limit of normal filtration. Coarse filters, constructed out of Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 18

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems wire mesh and called strainers, are often used as inlet filters. These are usual ly specified in terms of the mesh size which approximates to particle size in mi crometers as follows: 2.4.1.2 Air dryers When pneumatic components wear or become corroded as a result of moisture, they consume more compressed air - and lose energy efficiency. Whe n this wear or corrosion becomes great enough, components must be repaired or re placed - increasing operating expense. The cost of replacement parts, labor, sta ndby inventory, and downtime can have a devastating effect on the plant's bottom line. Eliminating even one of them by drying a system's compressed air will off set the cost of installing and operating the equipment to do the job. An earlier section described how air humidity can vary with temperature. Before air can be used, this excess moisture has to be removed to bring air humidity to reasonabl e levels. In bulk air systems all that may be required is a simple after cooler similar to the intercoolers described earlier, followed by a separator unit wher e the condensed water collects and can be drained off. Figure 2.13a shows a typi cal water trap and separator. Air flow through the unit undergoes a sudden rever sal of direction and a deflector cone swirls the air (Figure 2.13b). Both of the se cause heavier water particles to be flung out to the walls of the separator a nd to collect in the trap bottom from where they can be drained. Water traps are usually represented on circuit diagrams by the symbol of Figure 2.13c. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 19

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 2.13 Air drying mechanisms 2.4.1.3 Lubricators Many pneumatic system components and almost all pneumatic to ols perform better when lubricated with oil. Injecting an oil mist into the airstream which powers them can continuously lubricate valves, cylinders, and air m otors for proper operation and long service life. Locating the lubricator proper ly in the pipeline is important to ensure that the correct amount of lubrication reaches each device. Too little oil can allow excessive wear and cause prematur e failure. Excessive oil in the pipeline is wasteful and can become a contaminan t in the ambient area as it is carried out of tools and valves by the air exhaus t. Intermittent lubrication may be the worst condition of all because the oil fi lm can dry out and form sludge or varnish on the internal surfaces of the equipm ent. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 20

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems A carefully controlled amount of oil is often added to air immediately prior to use to lubricate moving parts (process control pneumatics are the exception as t hey usually require dry unlubricated air). This oil is introduced as a fine mist , but can only be added to thoroughly clean and dry air or a troublesome sticky emulsion forms. It is also difficult to keep the oil mist-laden air in a predict able state in an air receiver, so oil addition is generally performed as part of the secondary air treatment. The construction of a typical lubricator is shown with its symbol in Figure 2.14. The operation is similar to the principle of the petrol air mixing in a motor car carburetor. As air enters the lubricator its v elocity is increased by a venturi ring causing a local reduction in pressure in th e upper chamber. The pressure differential between lower and upper chambers caus es oil to be drawn up a riser tube, emerging as a spray to mix with the air. The needle valve adjusts the pressure differential across the oil jet and hence the oil flow rate. The air-oil mixture is forced to swirl as it leaves the central cylinder causing excessively large oil particles to be flung out of the air stre am. 2.14 Air Lubricator Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 21

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 2.4.1.4 Pressure regulation Pneumatic pressure controls fall in the category of pressure reducing valves, commonly referred to as air line regulators. It is als o essential, once a system pressure has been selected to perform a task, that ai r be supplied at constant pressure to the actuator, regardless of variations in flow and upstream pressure. Thus, it is important to add to a pneumatic system a pressure regulator that: Supplies air at constant pressure regardless of flow v ariation or upstream pressure. Helps operate the system more economically by min imizing the amount of pressurized air that is wasted. (This happens when the sys tem operates at pressures higher than needed for the job) Helps promote safety b y operating the actuator at reduced pressure Extends component life because oper ating at higher-than-recommended pressures increases wear rate and reduces equip ment life Produces readily controlled variable air pressures where needed, and I ncreases operating efficiency Unbalanced poppet, non-pilot operated - Figure 2.1 5 shows the simplest type of unbalanced poppet regulator. Normally, supply press ure enters the regulator and flows around the poppet, which is seated, blocking flow. Turning the adjustment screw to compress the adjustment spring forces the diaphr agm down. It pushes the stem down and the poppet uncovers the orifice. As downst ream pressure rises, pressure air acts on the underside of the diaphragm, balanc ing the force exerted by the adjustment spring. The poppet throttles the orifice to restrict flow and produce the desired pressure. As downstream flow demand va ries, the regulator automatically repositions the poppet in relation to the orif ice. The spring under the poppet ensures that the regulator will close at no-flo w. This regulator is non-relieving. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 22

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 2.15 Pressure regulator 2.4.2 Cylinders Pneumatic cylinders offer a straight rectilinear motion to mecha nical elements. Cylinders are classified as light. Medium and heavy duty with re spect to their application. Selections of materials for cylinder component depen d greatly on this factor. Functionally, cylinders may be single acting and doubl e acting. They may be further classified as diaphragm cylinder, duplex cylinder, through rod cylinder etc. End position cushioning of cylinders at certain times may be of utmost importance. However, if the cylinders do not travel up to the end of stroke, designers need not go for cushioned cylinders. The piston rods of cylinders are given special treatment as it is the highly stressed part. 2.4.2. 1 Types of cylinders The pneumatic power is converted to straight line reciproca ting motions by pneumatic cylinders. The various industrial applications for whi ch air cylinders are used can be divided duty wise into three groups-light duty, medium duty and heavy duty. But according to the operating principle, air cylin ders' can be sub-divided as (i) (ii) Single acting Double acting cylinders Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 23

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Single Acting Cylinder In a single acting cylinder, the compressed air is fed on ly in one side. Hence, this cylinder can produce work only in one direction. The return movement of the piston is effected by a built-in spring or by applicatio n of an external force. The spring is designed to return the piston to its initi al position with a sufficiently high speed. A single acting cylinder is illustra ted in Figure 2.16. 2.16 Single acting cylinder Construction of Single Acting Cylinder Generally, a single acting cylinder is ma de of the following elements: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) The cyli nder body (tube) Two end covers (one may be an integral part of the cylinder tub e) A piston Piston rod V-cup seal O-ring Bush at bearing to guide the piston rod Built-in spring. The end covers are fitted to the body by four cover screws or tie rod. An explod ed view of a single acting cylinder is shown in Figure 2.17. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 24

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 2.17 Exploded view of a single acting cylinder Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 25

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems In a single acting cylinder with spring, the stroke is limited by the compressed length of the spring. While the piston moves forward, there is possibility of t he spring to bulge out and scratch the finely finished piston-rod surface, there by damaging it. The air has to first overcome the pressure of the spring and hen ce some power is lost before actual stroke of the piston starts. The spring retu rns the piston back to its initial position. The size of the spring will depend on the diameter and stroke length of the cylinder which means, for a bigger size of single acting cylinder, a heavier section of spring is to be used and hence more power is required to overcome the spring-pressure and also for a longer spr ing, the compressed length of the spring will also be bigger which means more lo ss of stroke length. Sometimes, for bigger size single acting cylinders, two con centric springs one above the other may be used. But considering the above point s, it has been found that using a bigger single acting (SA) cylinder is quite un economical and, therefore, such a cylinder should not be used for a stroke lengt h of more than 100 mm in general. At some cases, a single acting cylinder is des igned in such a way that the forward movement is imparted by the spring and the return movement by the air-application of which may be found in braking action-a ir brake in trucks, rail-coaches etc. Figure 2.18 (i) shows the symbol of a sing le acting cylinder where piston is inside at initial position whereas Figure 2.1 8 (ii) shows the symbol of a single acting cylinder with piston outside at initi al position. 2.18 Various configurations of a spring loaded single acting cylinder Double Acting Cylinder A double acting cylinder is shown in Figure 2.19. The for ce exerted by the compressed air moves the piston in two directions in a double acting cylinder. They are used particularly when the piston is required to perfo rm work not only on the advance movement but also on the return. In principle, t he stroke length is unlimited, although buckling and bending must be considered before we select a particular size of piston diameter, rod length and stroke len gth. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 26

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Construction In Figure 2.19 different design of double acting cylinder (DA) is s hown. A DA cylinder consists of: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) (ix) Cylinder tube Piston unit Piston rod Double cup packing on piston, rod packing o f '0' rings End covers Bronze rod guide Port connection Cushion-assembly (in the case of cushion cylinder) Tie rods The construction of DA cylinder is quite simple and varies according to the use and application of the cylinder. The materials used for the various parts will d iffer for different types of cylinders depending on application. 2.19 Double acting cylinder Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 27

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Cushion Assembly Cushioning of cylinders means gradual deceleration of the pisto n near the end of its stroke. It is especially helpful when the piston rod is co nnected to a heavy load and the piston is at a high speed. It reduces the shock or the impact load on the end covers of the cylinder. Diagrammatic view of a cus hion assembly is shown in Figure 2.20 (a). The cushion bore is controlled by a c ushioning screw as illustrated in Figure 2.20 (b). 2.20 Cushion assembly A cushion is a chamber of relatively small diameter into w hich a cushion nose or collar enters as the piston nears the end of its stroke s o that air is trapped in the cylinder tube between the piston and cylinder cover and is bled-off slowly, reducing the rate of piston travel. Cushions are not a speed controlling device but only a shock alleviator. Cushions on standard cylin ders are nearly 25 mm long. Cushions are of little value if the complete stroke is not used. Effect of cushioning is very much dependent on the amount of cushio n opening in the cushion bore. The cycle time of the cylinder travel is greatly influenced by the cushion bore opening. Two parts of the cylinder are involved i n the cushioning arrangement-the covers (depending on whether the Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 28

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems cylinder is to be cushioned on one end or both ends) and the piston rod. Cushion ing devices may be of either metal to metal fit or metal to synthetic material f it. The cushioned cylinder cover contains either a cushion bushing or a machined cus hion bore in CI cover finished to close limits. The cover usually contains a cus hion needle which has a passage to it from the inside face of the cover and also contains a ball check valve which has a passage between the inside face of the cover and the air inlet port. When the cushion nose or collar approaches the cov er and enters the cushion bore, the air is trapped between the piston and the co ver which is being approached. The cushion needle is set so that the air is bled -off to the port connection at the proper rate to slow down the piston and reduc e the shock. The end of the cushion nose is tapered, chamfered or rounded, in or der to allow it to more easily enter the cushion bushing or bore. For the return stroke, if the air is fed via the cushion chamber itself, initial motion would be extremely slow until the cushion nose had cleared the cushion bore; also sinc e the air would be acting only on the cushion nose section, the force available would be low, and possibly not enough to move the piston. The use of a ball-chec k valve will overcome this difficulty by allowing air to flow freely to the pist on face for moving the piston away from the cushion bore on the return stroke. An important point to appreciate with all cushioned cylinders is that the actual cushioning effect takes place only over a limited portion of the stroke, i.e., a portion of the final movement and if external stops are to be used for arresti ng the piston movement, most commonly they are placed before the cushion has had a chance to be effective, in which case, the cylinder is working as a non-cushi oned type only. Pneumatic Valves The pneumatic energy is regulated and controlled by pneumatic v alves. Functionally, valves are divided into four major groups, viz., direction control, flow control, pressure control, non-return and special type valves. As per construction, valves are sub-grouped as seat valves and sliding or spool val ves. Both these types of constructions are frequently used in pneumatic valves. However, spool valves are easier to manufacture. Direction control valves are cl assified functionally as 2/2, 3/2, 4/2, 5/2, 4/3, 5/3, etc. depending upon the n umber of port openings and valve positions. Valves are actuated in various metho ds, viz., manually, mechanically, electrically, pneumatically and by various com bined mode of actuation. Specially designed Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 29

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems valves like quick exhaust, time delay, shuttle and twin pressure valves are used to impart various special functions to pneumatic circuits. Pneumatic Controls T o control the to and fro motion of a pneumatic cylinder, the air energy has to b e regulated, controlled, and reversed with a predetermined sequence in a pneumat ic system. Similarly, one may have to control the quantity of pressure and flow rate to generate the desired level of force and speed of actuators. To achieve t hese functions, valves are used. Valves are fluid power elements used for contro lling and regulating the working medium, i.e., the compressed air in the case of a pneumatic system. Broadly valves are used to (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Start and st op pneumatic energy Control the direction of flow of compressed air Control the flow rate of the compressed air Control the pressure rating of the compressed ai r There are various types of valves available in the family of compressed air syst em but according to their main function, they may be divided into four broad gro ups: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Direction control valves Direction control check valves or non-return valves Flow control valves Pressure control valves Directional Control Valves (D.C. Valves) Direction control valves are used mainl y to direct the flow of the pressure fluid in the desired directions. The main f unctions of these valves are to start, stop and regulate the direction of air fl ow and help distribution of air in the desired line. They can be actuated to ass ume different positions by various actuating mediums, viz. electrical, mechanica l, pneumatic, or other modes of control. This results in corresponding connectio n or disruption of flow between various port Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 30

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems openings. Direction control valve has generally two, three, four or five ports o r openings. The openings are termed ways or ports. The ways are designated by le tters or alphabets such as: P =compressor line port (pump in the case of hydraul ics) R =exhaust port (T in the case of hydraulics) A, B} =working ports to cylin ders or motors Valve Position A direction control valve has two or three working positions gene rally. They are: (i) (ii) Normal or zero position (natural) or neutral position Working position (the working position can be two or more) The positions are mostly numbered as 0, 1, 2. Direction control valves are desig nated to indicate both the number of the ways as well as the number of working p ositions such as 4/2,3/2 direction control valve etc., (This means a 4 ways/ 2 p osition valve, 3 ways/ 2position valve etc. It is necessary to differentiate between neutral and operating ection control valves with spring return, the neutral position position to which the valve returns after the actuating force n. In all fluid power control systems, the neutral position is positions. In dir is defined as the has been withdraw indicated as "0".

Direction control valves without a spring or a neutral position retain their alr eady attained position after the actuating force has been removed (impulse valve ). The starting position or initial position is defined as the position taken up by the valve (due to spring in-case of spring actuated D.C. valve) after instal lation. The valve attains the working positions when actuated. For representing valves in circuit diagram, symbols are used. Each position in the symbol is deno ted by squares. Two positions are represented by two adjacent squares. It should be kept in mind that symbols show only the functional aspect of the valve and n ot its principle of design or constructional details. For symbols, the following terminology is to be noted (see Figure 2.21 (a), (b), (c) and (d) for valve sym bols). Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 31

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems (i) (ii) A valve position is represented by a square [Figure 2.21(a)]. The number of squa res is equal to the number of distinct positions that the valve .can take up [Fi gure 2.21 (b)]. (iii) Inside a square, the lines indicate the flow and the arrows, the directions of f low [Figure 2.21 (c)]. (iv) Cut-offs of air flow is shown by short traverse lines inside the square [Figure 2.21 (c)]. (v) Connections to inlet and outlet ports are drawn only to a connecting position, i .e. initial position or neutral. (vi) The other positions are obtained by shifting the set of squares until the connec tions match the corresponding lines in the square. (vii) (viii) (ix) The connections are denoted by English Capital Letters (alphabets) [Figure 2.21 (d)]. The working line connections are indicated by A, B, C. The compressor line connection (the pressure source) is indicated by P, and return lines by R, S an d T. (x) The pilot lines are indicated by Z, Y, X. Direction control valve opens and clos es, respectively, for an air flow and determines its flow direction. In symbols like 4/2 etc., the first symbol indicates the number of functional co nnections or openings, such as four openings. The second symbol in the .designat ion indicates the number of distinct positions. (Such as two positions).When one talks about a 2/2 direction control valve, it means that it has 2 functional co nnections and 2 distinct positions. A 2/2 directional control valve is functiona lly an on-off valve. For example, the valve one finds in a domestic water tap. A similar pneumatic valve can be used as impulse generating or signaling valves f or 'impulse valves' in pneumatic controls and also as shut off valves in main li ne or in any other part of the pneumatic circuit. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 32

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Application of 2/2 Valve A 2/2 directional control valve may be used to exhaust main valves, e.g., 4/2 pilot operated direction control valves controlled by pre ssure-release as shown in Figure 2.22. 2.22 2/2 Valve In the initial position, the passage of air is shut off. When pressure is exerte d on the operating pin, the pilot port of the valve is opened and the control li ne gets exhausted. For operating each pilot line, one 2/2 D.C. valve is used. Fi gure 2.23. shows the internal construction of a 2/2 direction control valve (spo ol type). 2.23 Spool type DC The valve consists of a spool sliding in a finely finished bore when actuated a push button. When the push button is not actuated, no air moves from P to A. Thi s is the neutral or initial Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 33

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems position of the valve. As the spool is moved against the spring, the spool shift s and port P connects to port A and air passes from P to A. This is the working position of the valve. Basic Construction of Valves As already seen, direction control valves may be ba sically classified, as per construction into two groups: (i) Seat or poppet valv es (ii) Spool or sliding valves Their relative merit and demerits are discussed below: From the schematic diagram of Figure 2.23 and Figure 2.24, the inside constructi on of both the types are clear. The sliding valves are now-a-days frequently use d in large numbers in pneumatic control systems. At low cost and small working v olume, a high efficiency in controlling the flow of pressure is achieved. But if we want a leak-proof arrangement, a seat valve is better. Due to the functional and operational requirement, the sliding piston is fitted with a definite play inside the valve-housing. In Figure 2.23, a schematic diagram of a 3/2 seat type direction control valve i s shown. The valve element shown in the illustration of Figure 2.23 is a schemat ic only. As shown in the diagram, 'P' is closed to 'A' and 'A' is open to 'R'. T he valve seat connecting 'P' to 'A' is closed by a cone shape valve element. Gen erally, a poppet or ball or even a plate may be used. The seating and unseating of the valve element from the seat are done mostly by a tappet or plunger spring actuated for return movement (not shown in the diagram here). When the port 'P' is made open to 'A', 'R' gets closed. Hence the valve lakes two positions and i t has three openings or ports. Hence it is termed a seat type 3/2 direction cont rol valve. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 34

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 2.23 Seat type valve Figure 2.24 (a and b) shows two different designs of spool type 3/2 direction control valve. The construction of this valve may be compared to that of the valve in Figure 2.24, both of which are 3/2 direction control va lves. As in Figure 2.24, this valve too has three ports (opening) P, A and R. Th e valve element is a spool actuated by a push button tappet and a spring. The sp ool slides over the valve bore (finely finished) inside the valve housing. As it is shown in the figure, 'P' is closed and 'A' opens to R. This is the neutral or initial position of the valve. As the spool is actuated, it shifts and 'A' gets connected to 'P' and 'R' closes. Due to the movement of the spool, the spring ge ts compressed and when the actuating force on the push button is released, the v alve returns to its original position connecting' A' to 'R' and effecting the cl osure of P. 2.24 Spool type valve Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 35

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Figure 2.25 shows a cross sectional schematic view of a seat type 4/2 direction control valve. Inside the valve housing, a number of bores are engraved and are interconnected through a number of valve elements. The ports 'P', 'R', 'A', and 'B' shown in the diagram are designated as: 'P pressure port, 'A' and 'B'-cylind er port and 'R'-exhaust port. In the position shown in the sketch, it is found t hat 'P' connects to 'A' and 'B' to 'R', When the valve elements are actuated by means of the push button, they are unseated and 'P' connects to 'B' and 'A' to ' R'. 2.25 4/2 DC valve The rated size of the valve depends on the cross-section of th e valve port. Through proper shaping of the fluid ports or canals, the loss of p ressure may be minimized. The actuating elements of the spool in zero position a re spring controlled and for accurate controlling may be designed as pressure co mpensated. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 36

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems A 5/2 Direction Control Valve In certain designs of direction control valves 5 o penings are preferred instead of 4 openings. This ensures easy exhausting of the valve. Figure 2.26 shows a 5/2 direction control valve-spool type design. The s pool here slides inside the main bore and according to spool position; the ports get connected or disconnected. The working principle is as follows: (i) Positio n 1. When the spool is actuated towards outer direction, port P gets connected t o 'B' and 'S' remains closed while A gets connected to 'R' (ii) Position 2. When the spool is pushed in the inner direction, port 'P and 'A' get connected to eac h other and 'B' to 'S' while port 'R' remains closed. 2.26 5/2 DC Valve Overlap in Sliding Spool Valves Overlap in sliding spool valve s is understood as that length of valve-housing between the individual pressure chambers, which is sealed by contact with the spool land. However, one must diff erentiate between overlap in the un-operated condition and overlap during operat ion. (i) Overlap in the un-operated condition Here the leakage quantity between two pressure chambers is dependent on the accuracy of the spool fit in the housi ng and specially on the overlap in the un-operated condition. (ii) Overlap durin g operation this gives information about what takes place during operation. Ther e may be two types of overlap: (i) Negative overlap, e.g., during operation all passages are momentarily connected to each other developing pressure collapse. ( ii) Positive overlap e.g. during operation all passages are momentarily closed t o each other ensuring no pressure collapse during operation. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 37

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Control Technique The control technique of direct control valves may be classifi ed into two groups: (i) (ii) Direct controlled units In-direct controlled units Direct controlling means that the actuation is carried on directly on the valve spool. The actuating medium may vary as desired. The indirect controlling mechan ism unit contains two parts: (i) (ii) One pressure-air controlled direction cont rol valve. One direct controlled D.C. valve generally termed as pilot valve. The pilot valve is necessary to control large valves as the size of the solenoid in relation to the actual valve would be relatively large. In the case of exter nal pilot fluid supply, the required fluid for moving the main spool must be int roduced from an external pressure source through ports 'Y' and 'Z'. This is done by means of group selector valves as in the case of cascade design of pneumatic circuits. In the case of internal supply, this can be taken from the pressure p ort 'P' of the main valve. The pilot fluid can either be drained externally thro ugh port 'Y' or internally through port 'R' or 'S' of the main valve, as desired . Speed Regulators Speed control in pneumatic system is affected by means of a flo w control valve. This is done by constricting or throttling a flow passage so th at part of the air supply is obstructed in the area of constriction. Both fixed and variable type flow control valves are used in pneumatic systems just as done in the case of hydraulic system. In most cases of pneumatic system, the flow co ntrol valve is constructed with an inbuilt check valve so that the controlled fl ow is directed only in one direction and the reverse flow through the valve is f ree. This means that whenever one uses such a valve in pneumatic system, one get s flow control and thereby speed control of air cylinder or motor only in one di rection. The reverse of the cylinder will be at "normal speed determined by the rated port capacity of the valve. Flow control valves are available in two modes (i) (ii) Fixed flow control variable flow control Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 38

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems In fixed flow controlling, the control passage is not adjustable. A valve of thi s type is shown in Figure 2.27. But in variable control valve, an adjustable con trol needle is positioned at any place of the flow passage to regulate the flow as per need of flow quantity. This is done by screwing a taper needle inside the control passage. In Figure 2.27 (a), the internal construction of a nonreturn t ype pneumatic flow control valve with the inbuilt check valve is shown. Mostly a ball and spring type check valve is used, but there are many other varieties of design available from various manufacturers of such valves. Figure 2.27 (b) sho ws the internal construction of a check valve where flow of air is permitted onl y in one direction as indicated by the arrow. It should be kept in mind that whe never a flow control valve is used in a pneumatic circuit, it will provide undes ired amount of pressure loss and other resistances, which may hamper the proper functioning of the system. 2.27 Flow control valve Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 39

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Hence, judicious choice of flow controlling device of such a valve is most impor tant as otherwise one may have to incur good amount of energy loss resulting in loss of impact force, speed, etc. Moreover, the position of flow control valve i n the circuit diagram may .also play an important role in minimizing the flow lo sses. Generally, the air is to be exhaust throttled from a cylinder in lieu of ' in-feed' throttling of air to cylinder. As a thumb rule, in-feed throttling, i.e ., supply air throttling is done for smaller diameter, cylinder (say, up to 25 m m dia.). For bigger size cylinder, exhaust throttling is most effective. In a variable type flow control valve, it is better to lock the needle position by a lock nut in order to ensure the desired flow quantity to pass through that position. Otherwise, the needle position may change subjecting the valve to allo w either less or more energy than needed. It should be remembered that the air-e nergy passing through a particular passage per unit time will depend on the diam eter of the restricted area which may be increased or decreased by changing the position of the controlling needle. If the diameter of the flow passage is enlar ged due to unwanted pulling out of the needle, the amount of air passing out per unit time will increase, thus increasing the speed of the actuator which may no t be desirable for that particular design of the circuit diagram. Application of this valve for speed regulation of forward and inward stroke in a double acting cylinder is shown in Figure 2.28. 2.28 Application of variable type flow control valve Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 40

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Quick Exhaust Valve With the use of flow control valve in a pneumatic circuit, t he actuator speed is controlled, which means that the speed of the actuator may be reduced over its normal speed to suit a particular need of the system design. But is it possible to increase the speed of a pneumatic cylinder over its norma l speed? In a normal pneumatic system, the actuator speed will be determined by the rating of the direction control valve (D.C.) and hence, it may be difficult under normal condition to feed more air-energy to an actuator than what is permi ssible through the D.C. valve. Sometimes, special cylinders can be designed with an in-built air chamber which may induce higher speed. But the cost of such cyl inders may be more. Figure 2.29 2.29 Quick exhaust valve But it may be possible to induce higher speed in a cyli nder by avoiding the exhaust air to pass through the direction control valve fro m the cylinder so that the air energy can act quickly. When the air is fed to th e piston side of the cylinder, the air in the rod-end side of the cylinder can b e exhausted to the atmosphere quickly by using a special valve. This valve is ca lled a quickexhaust valve (shown in Figure 2.29). Here, the air flowing to the c ylinder from the direction control valve will pass to 'P' port of the quick exha ust valve and from the 'P' port, it will pass to Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 41

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems the 'A' port of the quick exhaust valve and then to the cylinder. But the return air from the cylinder will exhaust through 'A' and 'R' to the atmosphere withou t travelling through the 'P' port and thus avoids the direction control valve as it normally happens. Thus the resistance to piston movement is eliminated to so me extent and the speed of the cylinder is accelerated proportionately by that a mount of less resistance. Time Delay Valve The time delay valve shown in Figure 2.30 consists of an in-bui lt air reservoir, an in-built nonreturn flow control valve and a pilot controlle d spring return 3 way 2 position direction control valve. This valve is used in the pneumatic system to initiate a delayed signal. When the compressed air is su pplied to the port 'P' of the valve, it is prevented from flowing to port 'A' fr om 'P', as this is blocked by the spring actuated spool. Air is accumulated in a n in-built reservoir of the valve from the pilot control port 'Z', the control p assage of the same being controlled by the needle of the in-built throttle valve . Pressure starts building up here. When the pressure needed to push the spool is built-up in the reservoir, the pil ot spool of the 3/2 direction control valve shifts, thus opening port 'P of the m ain valve to. A' and closing 'R'. The time required to build-up the pressure in t he reservoir, is the amount of delay time offered by the time delay valve. With further increase of pressure, the inbuilt check valve opens; the air from the re servoir gets exhausted and the valve spool returns to its original position. 2.30 Time delay valve Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 42

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Logic Functions Pneumatic valves are capable of providing systematic control of motion and time with predetermined logical sequence of complete function of the system. Because of the logic characteristics of the pneumatic elements, they are very often used in the design of logic circuit diagrams. Pneumatic logic contro l is the brain which can start, keep in order, bold in check, release instructio ns or stop machine function or even terminate a process operation. As one's mind tells one's arms and legs to move, stop or do any other function, logic control s do the same for the machine. The basic logic functions have been termed NOT, O R, AND and MEMORY. These functions alone or in combination will perform certain amount of brain work for the machine. Two important elements in the family of pn eumatic valves used for logic control, are discussed here. These are: (i) (ii) T win-pressure valve Shuttle valve. Twin pressure valves are associated with AND-logic and shuttle valve with OR-log ic. Brief description of both are given below Shuttle Valve A shuttle valve is shown in Figure 2.31. The valve consists of a v alve body and a synthetic ball or a cuboid valve element moving inside the bore in the valve housing. There are three openings P1, P2 and A. If an air signal is fed to port P1 the ball moves, closing port P2 and air passes to 'A'. If the ai r is fed to port P2, port P1 is closed and air moves to 'A'. If air is fed simul taneously to port P1 and P2 then air moves to 'A' either from P1 or P2 or from b oth. This element is also called an OR GATE. Figure 2.31(b) shows the symbol. 2.31 Shuttle valve Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 43

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Twin Pressure Valve In Figure 2.32 (a), a schematic sketch of a twin pressure va lve is shown. This valve is also called an AND GATE. Here an output is produced if both the input signals are fed. This has three ports-two signal receiving por ts 'A' and 'B' (input) and .an outlet port 'Y'. When signal is fed to 'A' first, the valve spool moves towards 'B', closing the air passage from 'A' to 'Y' and hence the air from 'B' moves to 'Y'. The reverse takes place if air is fed first to 'B'. Then air moves from 'A' to 'Y'. If air is fed simultaneously to both 'A ' and 'B', then the spool remains in its already acquired position and air may p ass to 'Y' from both 'A' and 'B' or from any of these two depending on the air p ressure and spool position. Application of this AND GATE is shown in Figure 2.32 (b). 2.32 AND valve Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 44

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 3. Manual Pneumatics 3.1 Symbols and descriptions of components Chapter 03 The development of pneumatic systems is assisted by a uniform approach to the re presentation of the elements and the circuits. The symbols used for the individu al elements must display the following characteristics: Actuation and return act uation methods Number of connections (all labeled for identification) Number of switching positions General operating principle Simplified representation of the flow path The symbols for the energy supply system can be represented as individual elemen ts or as combined elements. If a standard and common air supply is used for all components, then the simplified symbols can be used Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 45

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 3.1 Direction control valves Symbol development Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 46

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems The directional control valve is represented by the number of controlled connect ions, the number of positions and the flow path. In order to avoid faulty connec tions, all the inputs and outputs of a valve are identified. 3.2 Directional control valves ports and positions (ways) The control valves are actuated by various actuating mechanisms depending on the ir usage. The following figure shows various methods of actuation that are gener ally used in a pneumatic circuit. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 47

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 3.3 Methods of actuation The non-return valve (check valve) is the basis for the development of many comb ined components. There are two main configurations for non-return valves, with a nd without the spring return. In order to release flow, the pressure force on th e spring return design must be greater than the spring force. 3.4 Non-return valves and derivatives Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 48

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Most flow control valves are adjustable and permit flow control in both directio ns. The arrow shows that the component is adjustable but does not refer to the d irection of flow; it is diagrammatic only. In the case of the one-way flow contr ol valve, a non-return valve is switched in parallel with the flow control valve . Flow control is affected in one direction only. 3.5 Flow control valves The linear actuators or cylinders are described by their type of construction and method of operation. The single-acting cylinder, the d ouble-acting cylinder and the rod-less cylinder form the basis for design variat ions. The use of cushioning to reduce loads on the end caps and mountings during deceleration of the piston is important for long-life and smooth operation. The cushioning piston is shown on the exhaust air side of the piston. The arrow ind icates adjustable cushioning and not the direction of cushioned motion. 3.6 Linear actuators Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 49

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Rotary actuators are divided into continuous motion and limited angle of rotatio n. The air motor is normally a high speed device with either fixed or adjustable speed control. Units with limited angle of rotation are fixed or adjustable in angular displacement. The rotary actuator may be cushioned depending upon the lo ad and speed of operation. 3.7 Rotary actuators Auxiliary symbols: There are a number of important symbols for accessories which are utilized in conjunction with pneumatics. 3.8 Auxiliary symbols Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 50

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 3.2 Development of pneumatic systems The solution to a control problem is worked out according to a system with documentation playing an important role in commu nicating the final result. The circuit diagram should be drawn using standard sy mbols and labeling. Comprehensive documentation is required including most of th e following: Function diagram Circuit diagram Description of the operation of th e system Technical data on the components Supplementary documentation comprising Parts list of all components in the syste m Maintenance and fault-finding information Spare parts list There are two primary methods for constructing circuit diagrams: The so-called i ntuitive methods The methodical design of a circuit diagram in accordance with p rescribed rules and instructions Whereas much experience and intuition is requir ed in the first case and above all, a great deal of time where complicated circu its are concerned; designing circuit diagrams of the second category requires me thodical working and a certain amount of basic theoretical knowledge. Regardless of which method is used in developing the circuit diagram, the aim is to end up with a properly functioning and reliably operating control. Whereas previously emphasis was placed on the least expensive hardware solution, more importance is now attached to operational reliability and ease of maintenance by a clear layo ut and documentation. This inevitably leads to increased usage of methodical des ign processes. In such cases, the control is always constructed in accordance wi th the given procedure and is less dependent upon personal influences from the d esigner. In many cases, however, more components will be required for the method ical solution than in a circuit devised by the intuitive method. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 51

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 3.3 Direct control of a pneumatic cylinder The simplest level of control for the single or double-acting cylinder involves direct control signals. With this, th e cylinder is actuated directly via a manually or mechanically actuated valve, w ithout any intermediate switching of additional directional control valves. If t he port sizes and the flow values of the valve are too large, the operating forc es required may be too great for direct manual operation. Reference values for limits of direct cylinder control: Cylinder with piston dia meter smaller than 40 mm Valves with connection sizes smaller than 1/4" 3.3.1 Example 1: Direct control of a single-acting cylinder A single-acting cyli nder of 25 mm diameter is to clamp a component when a push button is pressed. As long as the push button is activated, the cylinder is to remain in the clamped position. If the push button is released, the clamp is to retract. Solution: The control valve used for the single-acting cylinder is the 3/2-way v alve. In this case, since the cylinder is of small capacity, the operation can b e directly controlled by a push button 3/2-way directional control valve with sp ring return. On operating the push button the air passes through the valve from port 1to 2 vi a the valve 1S into the piston chamber of the cylinder 1A. The pressure builds u p and advances the piston rod against the force of the cylinder return spring. O n release of the button, the valve spring returns The 3/2 way valve to its initial position and the cylinder retracts. The air ret urns from the cylinder via the exhaust port 3. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 52

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems In this and the following circuit diagrams, the service unit (02) and the startup valve (OS) have also been drawn in. 3.3.2 Exercise 2: In-direct control of a single-acting cylinder A single-acting cylinder with a large piston diameter is to clamp a work-piece following actuati on of a push button. The cylinder is to retract once the push button is released . Solution: In the initial position, the single-acting cylinder 1A is retracted. A spring return 3/2 way pneumatic valve is used to actuate the cylinder. Connecti on1 of the valve 1V is closed; connection 2 is exhausted to atmosphere via conne ction 3. The valve 1S is actuated when the push button is activated and pressure is appli ed to the control port 12 of the control valve 1V. The control valve 1V is actua ted against spring force and is thus switched to flow. The pressure building up at the cylinder piston causes the cylinder piston rod of the single-acting cylin der to extend. The signal at the control port 12 remains as Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 53

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems long as the push button is operated. Once the piston rod has reached end positio n, it returns only after the push button has been released. When the push button is released, the valve 1S returns to its initial position. Control port 12 of the control valve 1V exhausts to atmosphere and the signal is reset. The control valve also returns to initial position. The return spring ca uses the cylinder to retract. The air from the cylinder chamber is exhausted to atmosphere via the control valve. Assignment questions: Direct and indirect control of double acting cylinders Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 54

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 3.3.3 Example 3: The logic AND function The piston rod of a double-acting cylind er is to advance when the 3/2 way roller lever valve is actuated and the push bu tton of the 3/2-way valve is actuated. If either of these is released, then the cylinder is to return to the initial position. Solution: The inputs 1 and 1(3) of the dual-pressure valve 1V1 are connected to the working ports 2 of the valves 181 and 182. The 3/2-way roller lever valve 18 2 is actuated by the insertion of a work-piece and then creates a signal at one input of the dual-pressure valve. 8ince only one input is actuated, the AND cond ition has not been fulfilled and the output of the dual-pressure valve remains c losed. If the push button of the 3/2-way valve 1S1 is now also actuated, a signa l will also be applied at the second input. The AND condition is now fulfilled a nd a signal is Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 55

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems generated at the output 2 of the dual-pressure valve. The 5/2 way pneumatic valv e 1V2 switches, the piston side of the cylinder is pressurized and the piston ro d advances. If one of the two valves 1S1 or 1S2 is no longer actuated, then the AND condition will no longer be fulfilled and the signal at the output of the du al pressure valve will be reset. The signal pressure at the control port 14 of t he control element 1V2 is exhausted to atmosphere via the reset valve 1S1 or 1S2 . The control element 1V2 switches back. The pressure building up on the piston rod side ensures the retraction of the piston rod. An alternative solution to using the dual pressure valve is to use two 3/2 way v alves in series. Here the signal is passed from push-button valve 1S1 to the rol ler lever valve 1S2 and then on to the control element 1V2 but only if both valv es 1S1 and 1S2 are operated, i.e. when the AND condition is met. When a valve is released, the signal at the control element is reset and the piston rod retract s. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 56

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 3.3.4 Example 4: The logic OR function A double-acting cylinder is to advance if one of two push buttons is operated. If the push button is then released, the c ylinder is to retract. Solution: The inputs 1 and 1(3) of the shuttle valve 1V1 are connected to the wo rking connections of the valves 1S1 and 1S2. Upon operation of one of the push b uttons, the corresponding valve 1S1 or 1S2 is actuated and a signal is generated at the 1 or 1(3) side of the shuttle valve. The OR condition is fulfilled and t he signal passes through the shuttle valve and is emitted at port 2. The signal pressure is prevented from escaping via the exhaust of the unactuated valve by c losing the line in the shuttle valve. The signal effects the switching of the co ntrol element 1V2. The piston side of the cylinder is pressurized and the piston rod advances. When the actuated push button is released, the signal pressure is relieved via the valves 1S1 and 1S2 and the control element is switched back to its initial position. The pressure now building up on the piston rod side ensur es the retraction of the piston rod. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 57

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Extended problem definition 1 A double pilot valve should be fitted for the cont rol of the cylinder. If the cylinder is to retract on reaching its fully extende d position, roller lever valves should be used as limit valves to confirm that t his position has been reached. Extended problem definition 2 One of the push buttons need only be operated for a short duration and the cylinder will fully extend, since the effect of the sig nal at input 14 of the 5/2-way double pilot valve 1V2 is maintained until a sign al is applied at input 12. As soon as the piston rod has reached the forward end position, the limit switch 183 generates a signal at input 12, and the valve 1V 2 is reversed. The retracted end position of the piston rod can also be sensed. This requires an additional limit switch. Solution: The addition of the dual pressure valve 1V2 and the roller limit switc h 1S4 ensures that the cylinder is fully retracted before the cylinder can be ex tended again. The condition for a renewed advancing of the piston rod is the act uation of one of the valves 1S1 or 1S2 and the limit switch 1S4. When the cylind er is advanced at position 1S3, the cylinder retracts even if the valves 1S1 and 1S2 are still operated since the limit switch 1S4 is inactive. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 58

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 3.3.5 Example 5: Memory circuit and speed control of a cylinder The piston rod o f a double-acting cylinder is to advance when a 3/2-way push button valve is act uated manually. The cylinder is to remain advanced until a second valve is actua ted. The signal of the second valve can only take effect after the first valve h as been released. The cylinder is to then return to the initial position. The cy linder is to remain in the initial position until a new start signal is given. T he speed of the cylinder is to be adjustable in both directions. Solution: Upon operation of the push-button, the valve 1S1 is actuated, so that a signal is generated at the pilot port 14 of the control element 1V1. The contr ol element 1V1 switches, the piston side of the cylinder is pressurized and the piston rod advances. Whilst the supply air flows unrestricted through the one-wa y flow control valve 1V2, the air displaced via the one-way flow control valve 1 V3 on the piston rod side is restricted. The advancing speed of the piston rod i s therefore reduced. The switching status of the valve 1V1 is maintained, if the valve 1S1 is released, since this is a memory valve. If the valve 1S2 is actuat ed, a signal is generated at the control port 12 of the control element. The val ve switches, pressure is applied at the piston rod side of the cylinder and the piston rod retracts. Exhaust air flow control is effected via the one way flow c ontrol valve 1V2. If the valve 1S2 is released, the switching position of the co ntrol element 1V1 is maintained due to its memory function. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 59

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems The supply air is transferred through the by-pass check valve of the flow contro l valves, giving unrestricted supply to the cylinder. The flow control influence s the volumetric flow rate of the exhaust air and as such the piston speed. Due to the different volumes of air to be displaced on the piston side and on the pi ston rod side, the restrictors must be set at different levels to obtain the sam e retracting and advancing speed. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 60

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 3.3.6 Example 6: Pressure dependent control A plastic component is embossed usin g a die driven by a double-acting cylinder. The die is to advance and emboss the plastic when a push button is operated. The return of the die is to be effected when a preset pressure is reached. The embossing pressure is to be adjustable. Solution: If the piston rod is not in its initial position, the circuit must be reset by operating the manual override on the 5/2-way double pilot valve. All va lves are un-actuated in the initial position, pressure is applied at the piston rod side of the cylinder and the piston rod remains in the retracted state. Actuation of the push button switches the valve 1S to flow and a signal is appli ed at the control port 14 of the double pilot valve 1V2. The valve 1V2 switches, pressure is applied at the piston side of the cylinder and the piston rod advan ces. The switching status of the double pilot valve 1V2 remains intact if the pu sh button 1S is released. When the piston rod reaches the workpiece, travel is s topped and pressure starts to build up on the piston side. The increasing pressu re causes the force of the die to increase. The control port 12 of the pressure sequence valve 1V1 is connected to the press ure line on the piston side of the cylinder 1A. When the pressure in the cylinde r reaches the value set on the pressure sequence valve, the 3/2-way valve switch es. A signal is now applied at the control port 12 of the valve 1V2. The valve 1 V2 switches, pressure is applied at the piston rod side of the cylinder and the piston rod retracts. During retraction, the response pressure set on the Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 61

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems pressure sequence valve is not met and the pressure sequence valve returns to it s initial position. The response pressure set on the pressure sequence valve must be lower than the system pressure in order to ensure reliable switching. Should the advancing pist on rod meet an obstacle, then it will retract again before reaching the embossin g position. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 62

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 3.3.7 Example 7: The time delay valve A double-acting cylinder is used to press together glued components. Upon operation of a push button, the clamping cylinde r extends. Once the fully advanced position is reached, the cylinder is to remai n for a time of T= 6 seconds and then immediately retract to the initial positio n. The cylinder retraction is to be adjustable. A new start cycle is only possib le after the cylinder has fully retracted. Solution: If the piston rod is not in its initial position, the circuit must be reset by operating the manual override on the 5/2-way double pilot valve. In the initial position, all valves with the exception of the roller lever valve 182 ( limit switch) are un-actuated. Pressure is applied at the piston rod side of the cylinder and the piston rod remains in the retracted state. Valve 1S1 and the limit switch 1S2 must be 'actuated as a start condition. The l imit switch 1S2 is not actuated unless the piston rod is in its initial position . If the start condition is fulfilled, the dual-pressure valve 1V1 is switched t o flow and a signal is applied at the control port 14 of the double pilot valve 1V3. The valve 1V3 reverses, pressure is applied at the piston side of the cylin der and the piston rod advances. The advancing speed is dependent on the setting of the one-way flow control valve 1V5 (exhaust air control). After a short adva ncing travel, the piston rod releases the limit switch 1S2. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 63

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 3.4 Control of multiple actuators In the case of multiple cylinder circuits, a c lear definition of the problem is important. The representation of the desired m otion of all actuators is described using the displacement-step diagram. The spe cial conditions for the start of the sequence must also be defined. If the motio n diagram and auxiliary conditions have been clearly defined, drawing of the cir cuit diagram can commence. The circuit diagram should be designed. In order for a circuit to operate, it is essential to avoid overlapping signals. By an overlapping signal, we understand signals applied simultaneously at the t wo control ports of a double pilot valve. The following valves can be used to el iminate signal overlap: roller lever valves with idle return or toggle lever val ves, time delay valves, reversing valves or sequencers. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 64

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems To provide a better understanding of the methods, some examples are given for th e use of roller lever valves with idle return and reversing valves. 3.4.1 Example 1: Co-ordinated motion Two cylinders are used to transfer parts fr om a magazine onto a chute. When a push button is pressed, the first cylinder ex tends, pushing the part from the magazine and positions it in preparation for tr ansfer by the second cylinder onto the out-feed chute. Once the part is transfer red, the first cylinder retracts, followed by the second. Confirmation of all ex tended and retracted positions are required. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 65

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Displacement Step diagram Roller lever valves with idle return are to be used as limit switches to detect the return and advance positions of the piston rod. The manual signal input is e ffected via a 3/2-way valve. In the initial position, both cylinders are in the retracted state, the limit switches 2S1 and 1S2 are actuated. The start condition for a cycle is that the limit switch 2S1 and push button 1S1 must be actuated. The motion cycle can be determined from. the displacement-ste p diagram and is subdivided into the following steps: Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 66

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 1S1 & 2S1 actuated 1S3 actuated 2S2 actuated 1S2 actuated 2S1 actuated => => => => => Cylinder 1A advances Cylinder 2A advanc es Cylinder 1A retracts Cylinder 2A retracts Initial position If push button 1S1 is actuated, the 5/2 way double pilot valve 1V2 switches, and the piston rod of the cylinder 1A advances. The part is ejected from the magazi ne. When cylinder 1A reaches the forward end position, the limit switch. 1S3 is actuated. The 5/2-way double-pilot valve 2V then switches and the piston rod of the cylinder 2A advances. The part is moved onto a chute. When cylinder 2A reach es its forward end position, the limit switch 2S2 switches. This causes the cont rol element 1V2 to switch and the piston rod of the cylinder 1A retracts. When t he retracted end position of the cylinder 1A has been reached, the limit switch 182 switches and the control element 2V switches. The piston rod of the cylinder 2A retracts and actuates the limit switch 2S1 upon reaching its retracted end p osition. The initial position of the system has now been reached again. A new cy cle can be started by actuating the push button 1S1. 3.4.2 Example 2: Signal overlap In co-ordinated motion control, the 5/2-way memo ry valve can only switch positions when a single pilot signal is present. If two signals are operated simultaneously, i.e. both pilot signals on the 5/2 way val ve are active, a signal overlap problem occurs. Several possibilities are availa ble for the solution of this problem. However, first the signal overlap points m ust be established. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 67

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Where does signal overlapping occur? Signal overlapping occurs in steps 1 and 3. In the initial position, a signal is applied at the control port 12 of the double pilot valve 1V2 via the actuated l imit switch 2S1. If push button 1S1 is actuated, a signal is applied at the cont rol port 14 of the double pilot valve 1V2. This signal overlapping can be elimin ated by the use of roller lever valves with idle return. These valves are actuat ed in one direction of movement only by the piston rod and are configured in suc h a way that actuation is triggered just shortly before reaching the respective initial and end position. In step 3, a signal overlap occurs at the double pilot valve 2V. The advancing p iston rod of the cylinder 1A actuates the limit switch 1S3. The piston rod of th e cylinder 2A advances and actuates the limit switch 2S2, which triggers the sig nal for the immediate retracting of the piston rod. If the limit switch 1S3 is s till switched at this point two signals are applied simultaneously at the double pilot valve 2V and the valve cannot switch. Here too, signal overlapping can be eliminated, if the limit switch 1S3 is a rol ler lever valve with idle return. In the circuit diagram, an arrow is drawn on t he line of the limit switches 2S1 and 1S3. The direction of the arrow indicates in which direction the over travel of the roller lever valve with idle return le ads to actuation. No actuation takes place in the case of over travel in the opp osite direction. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 68

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems The use of roller lever valves with idle return to eliminate signal overlapping has the following disadvantages: The end position cannot be sensed accurately. F unction may be impaired as a result of contamination. Fast control systems are n ot possible. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 69

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 3.4.3 Example 3: Signal elimination by reversing valves Signal elimination by me ans of a reversing valve is a frequently used solution. This basic idea is to al low the signal to be active only for as long as is required. This is achieved by blocking the signal downstream of the signal element by means of a reversing va lve, or by supplying energy to the signal element only when the signal is requir ed. A double pilot valve is used to effect the reversal. A reversing valve is to be used instead of roller lever valves with idle return to eliminate signal overlap. It is necessary to remove the signals at the 5/2-wa y double solenoid valves 1V and 2V in good time in order to cancel the signal ov erlaps. To achieve this, the pressure supply lines of the limit switches 2S1 and 1S3 must be exhausted quickly before the counter signal is applied, i.e. no opp osing signals at the memory valves 1V and 2V. Solution: The reversing valve 0V supplies the lines P1 and P2 with compressed ai r or exhausts these to atmosphere. In the initial position, both piston rods are retracted, the limit switches 2S1 and 1S2 are actuated and pressure is applied at the control ports 12 of the 5/2 way double pilot valves1Vand2V. Following actuation of the push button 1S1, the reversing valve 0V switches. The line P1 is supplied with compressed air and line P2 is exhausted. The limit swi tch 2S1 remains actuated, but the control port 12 of the valve 1V is unpressuris ed. Pressure is applied at the control port 14 of the valve 1V and the valve rev erses. The piston rod of the cylinder 1A advances, whereby the limit switch 1S2 is reset and the control port 14 of the reversing valve 0V exhausted. The limit switch 1S3 is actuated when the end position is reached and the valve 2V reverse s. The piston rod of the cylinder 2A advances. After the piston rod has left the initial position, the limit switch 2S1 is reset. Upon reaching the end position , the limit switch 2S2 is actuated. The reversing valve 0V switches, line P2 is supplied with system pressure and line P1 become unpressurised. The valve 2V swi tches and the piston rod of the cylinder 2A retracts. When the initial position is reached, the limit switch 2S1 is actuated, the valve 1V switches and the pist on rod of the cylinder 1A retracts. When the piston rod reaches its initial posi tion, the limit switch 1S2 is actuated and the system is in the initial state ag ain. A new cycle can now be started by pressing push button 1S1. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 70

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 71

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 3.4.4 Example 4: Reversing valves Using a transfer station, parts are to be tran sferred from a vertical magazine onto a chute. The parts are pushed out of the m agazine by cylinder 1A and then transferred onto the chute by cylinder 2A. The p iston rod of the cylinder 1A may only extend once the cylinder 2A has retracted. The cycle is to start when a start button is pressed. Limit switches are used t o confirm cylinder positions. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 72

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Solution: In the circuit diagram, all signal input elements are connected in the active state. This means that the input elements are directly supplied with com pressed air. In this way, the compressed air does not have to flow through all t he linked valves before a control process is triggered. Pressure drop is reduced and control is faster. The input elements are connected to the reversing valves via dual-pressure valves. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 73

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems The sequence has three steps and signal overlap is potentially a problem at two positions. The first step is the advance of cylinder 1A, followed by step 2, the immediate retraction of cylinder 1A. Therefore it is possible that overlap occu rs on the valve 1V1 at ports 14 and 12, unless the reversing valve technique is used. The valve 2S1 is held operated initially by cylinder 2A, but the push butt on valve 1S1 is a momentary push button, and in most cases, it would not be expe cted that the start button be operated for an extended period. Therefore the val ve 1S1 may be used as the means of cancelling the, first overlap signal. The second overlap problem occurs with cylinder 2A and valve 2V1. Here the probl em occurs in step 3, when the cylinder is to retract immediately after the exten sion is completed. The first of the two signals on the control valve 2V1 must be short in duration. To remove the overlap the reversing valve circuit is developed with three lines feeding three steps. The lines P1 to P3 represent the individual steps 1 to 3. In step 1 the cylinder 1A extends, therefore the pilot signal 1V1 at port 14 is fed via line P1. Two movements occur in step 2: cylinder 1A retracts and cylinde r 2A extends. Therefore line P2 feeds the pilot signals 1V1 at port 12 and 2V1 a t port 14. In the third step, the piston rod of cylinder 2A is to retract due to the pilot signal 2V1 at port 12 which is fed from line P3. The input side of the circuit shows that the valves 1S1 and 2S1 have to be opera ted to start the cycle. The valve 183 operates next and is fed to port 12 of rev ersing valve OV6.This switches to activate line P2 and exhausts line P1. The nex t movements are cylinders 1A back and 2A out, confirmed by valves 2S2 and 1S2 wh ich are series connected to the 12 port of the reversing valve 0V5. The valve 0V 5 switches, the line P2 is exhausted and line P3 activated. The cycle is now pre pared for a start condition, once valve 2S1 is initiated by cylinder 2A retracti ng. Actuation of the start button 1S1 causes the cycle to restart. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 74

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Chapter 04 4. Electro Pneumatics 4.1 Introduction Electro Pneumatic control integrates pneumatic and electrical t echnologies, is more widely used for large applications. In Electro Pneumatics, the signal medium is the electrical signal either AC or DC source is used. Worki ng medium is compressed air. Operating voltages from around 12 V to 220 Volts ar e often used. The final control valve is activated [setting] by solenoid actuati on. The resetting of the valve is either by spring [single Solenoid] or using an other solenoid [Double solenoid Valve]. More often the valve actuation/reset is achieved by pilot assisted solenoid actuation to reduce the size and cost of the valve. Control of Electro Pneumatic system is carried out either using combinat ion of Relays and Contactors or with the help of Programmable Logic Controllers [PLC]. A Relay is often is used to convert signal input from sensors and switche s to number of output signals [either normally closed or normally open]. Signal processing can be easily achieved using relay and contactor combinations. A Programmable Logic Controller can be conveniently used to obtain the out puts as per the required logic, time delay and sequential operation. Finally the out put signals are supplied to the solenoids activating the final control valves which control the movement of various cylinders. The greatest advantage of electro pneumatics is the integrati on of various types of proximity sensors [electrical] and PLC for very effective control. As the signal speed with electrical signal, can be much higher, cycle time can be reduced and signal can be conveyed over long distances. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 75

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems In Electro pneumatic controls, mainly three important steps are involved: Signal input devices -Signal generation such as switches and contactor, various types of contact and proximity sensors Signal Processing Use of combination of C ontactors of Relay or using Programmable Logic Controllers Signal Out puts Out p uts obtained after processing are used for activation of solenoids, indicators o r audible alarms 4.1 Signal processing steps Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 76

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 4.2 Symbols and descriptions of components The development of electro-pneumatic systems is assisted by a uniform approach to the representation of the elements and the circuits. The symbols used for the individual elements must display the following characteristics: Actuation and return actuation methods Number of conn ections (all labeled for identification) Number of switching positions General o perating principle Simplified representation of the flow path Symbols of Switches - Contactors Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 77

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Symbol- Single solenoid Valve 2 Single Solenoid Valve- Pilot assisted 1 3 4 2 Double Solenoid Valve- Pilot assisted 5 1 3 Symbolic Representation for Solenoids and Relays Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 78

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Types of Relays Signal flow in Electro Pneumatic Circuit Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 79

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 4.3 Control of Double Acting Cylinder 4.3.1 Indirect Action of Double Acting Cyl inder Using a Relay +24V F=0 S1 1 2 K1 4 2 K1 Y1 Y1 5 1 3 0V 2 4.3.2 Indirect Actuation of Double Acting Cylinder for Forward and Return Motion Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 80

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 4.3.3 Logic Circuits OR Logic Circuit AND Logic Circuit 4.3.4 Use of Proximate Sensor to Interrogate the End Positions of Piston S1 F= 0 S2 +24V 12 3 4 56 7 Start Sw itch Sensor 2 4 Y1 5 1 3 0V 2 Y2 K1 Y1 K2 Y2 K2 Sensor 1 S1 S2 7 Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 81

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 4.3.5 Exercise A Double acting cylinder is to be controlled using by a final con trol valve with single solenoid and spring reset The piston is required to advan ce on actuation of a manual detent push button switch and should continuously re ciprocate from home to forward end position. The operation should stop after rel ease the detent push button. Holding circuit can be used for this purpose +24V S1 F=0 K1 K1 S2 1 2 3 4 2 S1 S2 Y1 Y1 5 1 3 0V K1 2 3 Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 82

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 5. Sensors in pneumatic systems 5.1 Sensors 5.1.1 Push button and control switches Chapter 05 Switches are installed in circuits to apply a current to a load or to interrupt the circuit. These switches are divided into pushbuttons and control switches. C ontrol switches are mechanically detented in the selected position. The switch p osition remains unchanged until a new switch position is selected. Example: Ligh t switches in the home. Push button switches only maintain the selected position as long as the switch is actuated (pressed). Example: Bell push. In the case of a normally open contact Figure 5.1, the circuit is open if the sw itch is in its initial position (not actuated). The circuit is closed by pressin g the pushbutton - current flows to the load. When the plunger is released, the spring returns the switch to its initial position, interrupting the circuit. 5.1 Normally open contact Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 83

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 5.2 Normally closed contact In this case, the circuit is closed when the switch is in its initial position. The circuit is interrupted by pressing the pushbutto n. Figure 5.2 5.1.2 Change-over contact The change-over contact combines the functions of the normally open and normally closed contacts in one device. Change-over contacts a re used to close one circuit and open another in one switching operation. The ci rcuits are momentarily interrupted during change-over. Figure 5.3 5.3 Change-over contact Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 84

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 5.1.3 Sensors for measuring displacement and pressure Sensors have the task of m easuring information and passing this on to the signal processing part in a form that can easily be processed. In electro-pneumatic controllers, sensors are pri marily used for the following purposes: To detect the advanced and retracted end position of the piston rod in cylinder drives To detect the presence and positi on of work-pieces To measure and monitor pressure 5.2 Limit switches A limit swi tch is actuated when a machine part or work-piece is in a certain position. Norm ally, actuation is effected by a cam. Limit switches are normally changeover con tacts. They can then be connected As required As a normally open contact, normal ly closed contact or change over contact. 5.4 Limit switches Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 85

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 5.3 Proximity switches Proximity switches In contrast to limit switches, proximi ty switches operated contactless (noncontact switching) and without an external mechanical actuating force. As a result, proximity switches have a long service life and high switching reliability. The following types of proximity switch are differentiated: Reed switch Inductive proximity switch Capacitive proximity swi tch Optical proximity switch 5.3.1 Reed switch Reed switches are magnetically actuated proximity switches. Th ey consist of two contact reeds in a glass tube filled with inert gas. The field of a magnet causes the two reeds to close, allowing current to flow. In reed sw itches that act as normally closed contacts, the contact reeds are closed by sma ll magnets. This magnetic field is overcome by the considerably stronger magneti c field of the switching magnets. Reed switches have a long service life and a v ery short switching time (approx. 0.2 ms). They are maintenance-free, but must n ot be used in environments subject to strong magnetic fields (for example in the vicinity of resistance welders). 5.5 Reed switches Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 86

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Electronic sensors: Inductive, optical and capacitive proximity switches are ele ctronic sensors. They normally have three electrical contacts. Contact for suppl y voltage Contact for ground Contact for output signal 5.3.2 Inductive proximity sensors An inductive proximity sensor consists of an e lectrical oscillator (1), a flip-flop (2) and an amplifier (3). When a voltage i s applied, the oscillator generates a high-frequency alternating magnetic field that is emitted from the front of the sensor. If an electrical circuit is introd uced into this field, the oscillator is attenuated. The downstream circuitry, co nsisting of a flip-flop and an amplifier, evaluates the behavior of the oscillat or and actuates the output. Inductive proximity sensors can be used for the dete ction of all good electrical conductors (materials). In addition to metals, thes e include, for example, graphite. 5.6 Inductive proximity sensors Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 87

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 5.3.3 Capacitive proximity sensors A capacitive proximity sensor consists of a c apacitor and an electrical resistance that together forms an RC oscillator, and a circuit for evaluation of the frequency. An electrostatic field is generated b etween the anode and the cathode of the capacitor. A stray field forms at the fr ont of the sensor. If an object is introduced into this stray field, the capacit ance of the capacitor changes. The oscillator is attenuated. The circuitry switc hes the output. Capacitive proximity sensors not only react to highly conductive materials (such as metals) but also to insulators of high dielectric strength ( such as plastics, glass, ceramics, fluids and wood). 5.7 Capacitive proximity sensor 5.3.4 Optical proximity sensor Optical proximity sensors use optical and electro nic means for object detection. Red or infrared light is used. Semiconductor lig ht-emitting diodes (LEOs) are particularly reliable sources of red or infrared l ight. They are small and rugged, have a long service life and can be simply modu lated. Photodiodes or phototransistors are used as a receiver. Red light has the advantage that the light beam can Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 88

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems be seen during adjustment of the optical axes of the proximity switch. Polymer o ptical fibres can also be used because of their low attenuation of light of this wavelength. Three different types of optical proximity switch are differentiate d: One-way light barrier Reflective light barrier Diffuse reflective optical sen sor 5.3.4.1 One-way light barrier The one-way light barrier has spatially separa te transmitter and receiver units. The parts are mounted in such a way that the transmitter beam is directed at the receiver. The output is switched if the beam is interrupted. 5.8 One-way light barrier 5.3.4.2 Reflective light barrier In the reflective light barrier, the transmitte r and receiver are mounted together in one housing. The reflector is mounted in such a way that the light beam transmitted by the transmitter is practically com pletely reflected to the receiver. The output is switched if the beam is interru pted Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 89

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 5.9 Reflective light barrier 5.3.4.2 Diffuse reflective optical sensor In the di ffuse reflective optical sensor, the transmitter and receiver are mounted togeth er in one unit. If the light hits a reflective object, it is redirected to the r eceiver and causes the output of the sensor to switch. Because of the functional principle, the diffuse reflective optical sensor can only be used if the materi al or machine part to be detected is highly reflective (For example, polished me tal surfaces, bright paint) 5.10 Diffusive reflective optical sensor Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 90

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 5.3.5 Ultrasonic proximity sensors In the ultrasonic proximity sensor, the trans mitter and receiver are mounted together in one unit like that in a diffuse refl ective optical sensor. If the Ultrasonic wave hits a reflective object, it is re directed to the receiver and causes the output of the sensor to switch. 5.11 Ultra-sonic proximity sensors 5.3.6 Pneumatic proximity sensors Pneumatic proximity sensors make use of pneumatic air for sensing the objects th at are within a range of the sensors. They are classified as: Reflex sensor Inte rruptible jet sensor 5.3.6.1 Reflex sensors The reflex sensor uses an annular no zzle jet of air the action of which removes air from the centre bore to give a l ight vacuum at the signal output X. If an object is placed in front of the senso r, flow is restricted and a significant pressure rise is seen at X. 5.3.6.2 Inte rruptible jet sensors Interruptible jet sensor is simple in operation but uses m ore air. A typical application could be sensing the presence of a drill bit to i ndicate 'drill complete' in a pneumatically controlled machine tool. With no obj ect present, the jet produces a pressure rise at signal output X. An object bloc king this flow causes X to fall to atmospheric pressure. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 91

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 5.12 Reflex sensors 5.13 Interruptible jet sensors With both types of sensor, air consumption can be a problem. To reduce air usage, low pressure and low flow rates are used. Both of these results in a low pressure signal at X which requires pressure amplifica tion or low pressure pilot valves before it can be used to control full pressure lines. 5.4 Pressure sensors There are various types of pressure-sensitive sensors: Pres sure switch with mechanical contact (binary output signal) Pressure switch with electronic switching ( binary output signal) Electronic pressure sensor with ana logue output signal In the mechanically actuated pressure switch, the pressure acts on a cylinder su rface. If the pressure exerted exceeds the spring force of the return spring, th e piston moves and operates the contact set. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 92

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 5.14 Pressure sensor 5.5 Relays and contactors A relay is an electro-magnetically actuated switch. Wh en a voltage is applied to the solenoid coil, an electro-magnet field results. T his causes the armature to be attracted to the coil core. The armature actuates the relay contacts, either closing or opening them, depending on the design. A r eturn spring returns the armature to its initial position when the current to th e coil is interrupted. 5.15 Relay contactor Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 93

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems A relay coil can switch one or more contacts. In addition to the type of relay d escribed above, there are other types of electro-magnetically actuated switch, s uch as the retentive relay, the time relay, and the contactor. 5.5.1 Applications of relays In electro-pneumatic control systems, relays are us ed for the following functions: Signal multiplication Delaying and conversion of signals Association of information Isolation of control circuit from main circu it In purely electrical controllers, the relay is also used for isolation of DC and AC circuits. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 94

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Chapter 06 6. Hydraulics 6.1 Introduction Hydraulic Systems are used in industrial applications such as s tamping presses, steel mills, and general manufacturing, agricultural machines, mining industry, aviation, space technology, deep-sea exploration, transportatio n, marine technology, and offshore gas and petroleum exploration. In short, very few people get through a day of their lives without somehow benefiting from the technology of hydraulics. The impressive and ongoing growth of this versatile a nd exciting technology continues to create numerous job opportunities for proper ly trained and accredited people in all areas of Fluid Power: engineers, technic ians. Mechanics, sales and service personnel are badly needed, whilst there is a lso a shortage of trained teachers of Fluid Power subjects in post-secondary voc ational and tertiary education. 6.1.1 The basic concept of a hydraulic system Hydraulics is the engineering scie nce of liquid pressure and liquid flow. Hydraulic power transmission systems are concerned with the generation, modulation, and control of pressure and flow, an d in general such systems include: Pumps which convert available power from the prime mover to hydraulic power at the actuator. Valves which control the directi on of pump-flow, the level of power produced, and the amount of fluid-flow to th e actuators. The power level is determined by controlling both the flow and pres sure level. Actuators which convert hydraulic power to usable mechanical power o utput at the point required. The medium, which is a liquid, provides rigid trans mission and control as well as lubrication of components, sealing in valves, and cooling of the system. Connectors which link the various system components prov ide power conductors for the fluid under pressure, and .fluid flow return to tan k (reservoir). Fluid storage and conditioning equipment which ensure sufficient quality and quantity as well as cooling of the fluid. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 95

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 6.1 Basic hydraulic system 6.2 Advantages and limitations 6.2.1 Advantages High force and power density Low installation space requirements Simple closed-loop controllability Excellent dy namic response, low mass moment of inertia Simple power storage, branching and l imitation High ruggedness, even in exacting conditions 6.2.2 Limitations High initial costs Maintenance- and repair-friendliness Leakag e problems Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 96

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 6.3 Physical properties of oil hydraulics 6.3.1 Mass and force Pneumatic and hyd raulic systems generally rely on pressure in a fluid. Before we can discuss defi nitions of pressure, though, we must first be clear what is meant by everyday te rms such as weight, mass and force. We all are used to the idea of weight, which is a force arising from gravitational attraction between the mass of an object and the earth. A body weighs 75 kg on the surface of the earth; this is equivale nt to saying there is 75 kg force between the base of the body and the ground. Weight therefore depends on the force of gravity. On the moon, where gravity is about one sixth that on earth, the weight of the body would be about 12.5 kg; in free fall the weight would be zero. In all cases, though, the bodys mass is cons tant. If a force is applied to a mass, acceleration (or deceleration) will result as g iven by the well known formula: F = ma (6.1) Care must be taken with units when a force F is defined in lbs f or kg f and mas s is defined in lbs or kg, because resulting accelerations are in units of g; ac celeration due to gravity The SI unit of force, the newton (N), is defined not from earth's gravity, but d irectly from expression 1.1. A newton is defined as the force which produces an acceleration of 1 ms-2 when applied to a mass of 1 kg. One kgf produces an acceleration of 1 g (9.81 ms-2) when applied to a mass of 1 kg. One newton produces an acceleration of 1 ms-2 when applied to mass of 1 kg. 6.3.2 Pressure Pressure occurs in a fluid when it is subjected to a force. In Fi gure 1.4 a force F is applied to an enclosed fluid via a piston of area A. This results in a pressure P in the fluid. Obviously increasing the force increases t he pressure in direct proportion. Less obviously, though, decreasing piston area also increases pressure. Pressure in the fluid can therefore be defined as the force acting per unit area, or: Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 97

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems P = F/ A (6.2) 6.3.3 Work, energy and power Work is done (or energy is transferred) when an obj ect is moved against a force, and is defined as: Work = force x distance moved. (6.3) In the Imperial fps system expression 1.5 gives a unit of ft lb f. For metric sy stems the unit is cm kg f. The SI unit of work is the joule, Power is the rate at which work is performed: Power = Work / time (6.4) The SI unit of power is the watt, defined as 1 Js-1. This is by far the most com mon unit of power, as it is almost universally used for the measurement of elect rical power. 6.3.4 Torque The term torque is used to define a rotary force, and is simply the product of the force and the effective radius. We thus have: T=Fxd In the Imper ial system the unit is lbf ft, in metric systems the unit is kgf m or kgf cm, an d in SI the unit is N m. (6.5) Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 98

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 6.3.5 Pascal's law Pressure in an enclosed fluid can be considered uniform throu ghout a practical system. There may be small differences arising from head press ures at different heights, but these will generally be negligible compared with the system operating pressure. This equality of pressure is known as Pascal's la w, and is illustrated in Figure 6.2 where a force of 5 kgf is applied to a pisto n of area 2 cm 2. This produces a pressure of 2.5 kgf cm -2 at every point withi n the fluid, which acts with equal force per unit area on the walls of the syste m. 6.2 Pascals law Suppose the base of the left hand tank is 0.1 x 0.1 m to give a t otal area of 100cm 2. The total force acting on the base will be 250 kgf. If the top of the fight hand tank is 1 m x 1.5 m, a Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 99

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems surprisingly large upwards force of 37,500 kgf is developed. Note, the size of t he connecting pipe has no effect. 6.4 Hydraulic power pack The hydraulic fluid r eservoir, when correctly designed and constructed, has a considerable effect on the function and economical performance of the hydraulic system. The reservoir ( also called tank) serves a number of important functions: It stores the fluid as it returns from the hydraulic system, and acts as a buffer for fluid fluctuatio ns resulting from unequal flow displacement in the actuators. It dissipates flui d heat generated by power losses in the actuators and the control valves. It all ows un-dispersed air (foam or bubbles) to separate out of the hydraulic fluid. I t permits fluid contaminants to sink, and settle on the bottom of the reservoir out of the fluid. 6.4.1 Reservoir construction To perform these functions, certain design features are common to most reservoirs for industrial (stationary) applications. The res ervoir is constructed of welded steel plate, with legs to raise the tank above g round level. This permits cooling by air circulation around all the walls and th e bottom of the tank, to give optimum heat transfer. For stationary applications , the reservoir is usually also designed to serve as a mounting platform for the pump, the motor, and related pressure and directional control valves. This dema nds that the reservoir construction be quite rigid and strong with a flat top. T he bottom of this reservoir is sloped or dished to dram to drain to the drain pl ug. Large cleanout plates or lids are fitted on the side of the tank to permit a ccess for cleaning and maintenance. Some smaller reservoirs are made of aluminiu m castings with cooling fins. Such reservoirs are marketed as complete power uni ts including the prime mover, the pump and a system relief valve. Most modern sm all power units (up to 150 L) have the pump mounted vertically on the end of bel l housing, immersed in the hydraulic fluid. A coupling permits the removal of th e electric motor without having to disturb the pump. Also mounted on the top pla te for easy access and cleaning is the return line filter. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 100

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 6.3 Resorvoir 6.4.2 Purposes served by a reservoir 6.4.2.1 Elimination of contam inants Even with adequate filtration, dirt particles such as fibers, abrasions, oxide scale, plastic elastomers, airborne dirt, and silica sand can accumulate i n the system. The particles which are not filtered out should be allowed to sett le on the reservoir bottom. A baffle plate, which is a metal divider extending l engthwise through the middle of the reservoir is used to circulate the fluid ret urning from the system, and to separate the pump suction line from the return li ne. The slow motion of the circulating fluid allows the heavier dirt particles t o settle out. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 101

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 6.4.2.2 Elimination of air Air bubbles, sometimes created by entrained air or by the intermittent flow of low pressure return lines and drains, will have a chan ce to work their way to the fluid surface in the reservoir. This process is furt her stimulated by an air diffuser (a perforated plate or a sieve, and by the flu id circulation caused by the baffle. 6.4.2.3 Breather-filler The fluctuating fluid volume in the reservoir (caused by variations in the flow demand and flow return by the actuators) produces a cons tant airflow in and out of the reservoir. This airflow passes through a speciall y designed breather-filler, which is built for a threefold purpose. It filters t he air flowing into the reservoir, it is used as a strainer when the reservoir i s replenished, and it provides a passage for constant air exchange to and from t he reservoir. It is important to use a breather large enough to cope with the ai rflow caused by the fluid fluctuations, as the air volume in the reservoir must always be at atmospheric pressure to prime the pump. In order to ensure that the reservoir is filled only with absolutely clean fluid , an increasing number of systems are fitted with a separate filling point in th e fluid return line, and the breather is sealed. Thus, fluid is pumped (by hand or power pump) through the return line filter into the reservoir. A check valve above the filter prevents fluid from going up the return line. 6.4.2.4 Elimination of fluid heat Power losses in the hydraulic system are conve rted into heat. The bulk of this heat is absorbed by the hydraulic fluid, the co ntrol elements, the actuators, and the reservoir. The heat level in the system w ill therefore increase, until heat creation and heat dissipation (or heat transf er) are in balance The temperature at this point is called the inertia temperatu re, To operate the hydraulic system without separate cooling, this inertia tempe rature must be equal, or preferably less, than the maximum tolerable system temp erature. The amount of heat that can be dissipated by the reservoir depends dire ctly on: The size of the outside surface of the tank through which heat transfer can take place. The amount of hydraulic fluid in the reservoir and therefore it s flow rate through the tank. The difference between hydraulic fluid temperature and the ambient air temperature around the reservoir. The air circulation aroun d the hot reservoir. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 102

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 6.5 Hydraulic fluids 6.5.1 Purposes of the Fluid The hydraulic fluid has four pr imary purposes: to transmit power, to lubricate moving parts, to seal clearances between parts, and to cool or dissipate heat. 6.5.1.1 Power Transmission As a power transmitting medium, a fluid must flow eas ily through lines and component passages. The fluid also must be as incompressib le as possible. 6.5.1.2 Lubrication In most hydraulic components, internal lubrication is provid ed by the fluid. Pump elements and other wearing parts slide against each other on a film of fluid. For long component life the oil must contain the necessary a dditives to ensure high anti wear characteristics. Not all hydraulic oils contai n these additives. 6.5.1.3 Sealing In many instances, the fluid is the only seal against pressure i nside a hydraulic component. There is no seal ring between the valve spool and b ody to minimize leakage from the highpressure passage to the low-pressure passag es. The close mechanical fit and oil viscosity determines leakage rate. 6.5.1.4 Cooling Circulation of the oil through lines and round the walls of the reservoir gives up heat that is generated in the system. 6.5.2 Quality Requirements In addition to these primary functions, the hydraulic fluid may have a number of other quality requirements. Some of these are: Preve nt rust Prevent formation of sludge, gum and varnish Depress foaming Maintain it s own stability and thereby reduce fluid replacement cost Maintain relatively st able body over a wide temperature range Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 103

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Prevent corrosion and pitting Separate out water Compatibility with seals and ga skets These quality requirements often are the result of special compounding and may not be present in every fluid. 6.5.3 Fluid Properties Let us now consider the properties of hydraulic fluids wh ich enable it to carry out its primary functions and fulfill some or all of its quality requirements. 6.5.3.1 Viscosity Viscosity is the measure of the fluid's resistance to flow; or an inverse measure of fluidity. If a fluid flows easily, its viscosity is low. You also can say that the fluid is thin or has a low body. A fluid that flows wi th difficulty has a high viscosity. It is thick or high in body. Viscosity a Compromise: For any hydraulic machine, the actual fluid viscosity mu st be a compromise. A high viscosity is desirable for maintaining sealing betwee n mating surfaces. However, too high a viscosity increases friction, resulting i n: High resistance to flow Increased power consumption due to frictional loss Hi gh temperature caused by friction Increased pressure drop because of the resista nce Possibility of sluggish or slow operation Difficulty in separating air from oil in reservoir and should the viscosity be too low. Internal leakage increases Excessive wear or even seizure under heavy load may occur due to breakdown of t he oil film between moving parts. Pump efficiency may decrease, causing slower o peration of the actuator. Increased temperatures result from leakage losses. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 104

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 6.5.3.2 SUS Viscosity For most practical purposes, it will serve to know ative viscosity of the fluid. Relative viscosity is determined by timing w of a given quantity of the fluid through a standard orifice at a given ture. There are several methods in use. The most accepted method in this is the Saybolt Viscometer

the rel the flo tempera country

6.5.3.3 Pour Point Pour point is the lowest temperature at which a fluid will fl ow. It is a very important specification if the hydraulic system will be exposed to extremely low temperature. For a thumb rule, the pour point should be 20 deg rees F below the lowest temperature to be encountered. 6.5.3.4 Lubricating Ability It is desirable for hydraulic system moving parts to have enough clearance to run together on a substantial film of fluid. This cond ition is called full-film lubrication. So long as the fluid has adequate viscosi ty the minute imperfections in the surfaces of the parts do not touch. However in certain high performance equipment, increased speeds and pressure, co upled with lower clearances, because the film of fluid to be squeezed very thin and a condition called boundary lubrication occurs. Here, there may be metal-tometal contact between the tips of the two mating part surfaces and some chemical lubricating ability is needed. 6.5.3.5 Oxidation Resistance Oxidation or chemical union with oxygen is a seriou s reducer of the service life of a fluid. Petroleum oils are particularly suscep tible with oxidation, since oxygen readily combines with both carbon and hydroge n in the oils makeup. Most take ucts the ums, of the oxidation products are soluble in the oil, and additional reactions place in the products to form gum, sludge and varnish. The first stage prod which stay in the oil are acid in nature and can cause corrosion throughout system, in addition to increasing the viscosity of the oil. The insoluble g sludge and varnish plug orifices, increase wear and cause valves to stick.

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Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 6.5.3.6 Catalysts There are always a number of oxidation catalysts or helpers in a hydraulic system. Heat, pressure contaminants water, metal surfaces and agita tion all accelerate oxidation once it starts. Temperature is particularly import ant. Tests have shown that below 135 F, oil oxidizes very slowly. But the rate o f oxidation (or any other chemical reaction) approximately doubles for every 18 F increase in temperature. Oil refiners incorporate additives in hydraulic oils to resist oxidation, since many systems operate at considerably higher temperature. Their additives are eit her: Stop oxidation from continuing immediately after it starts (chain breaker t ype) Reduce the effect of oxidation catalysts (metal deactivator type). 6.5.3.7 Rust and Corrosion Prevention Rust is the chemical union of iron (or ste el) with oxygen. Corrosion is a chemical reaction between a metal and a chemical usually an acid. Acids result from the chemical union of water with certain ele ments. Since it is usually not possible to keep air and atmosphere-borne moisture out o f the hydraulic system there will always be opportunities for rust and corrosion to occur. During corrosion, particles of metal are dissolved and washed away. B oth rust and corrosion contaminate the system and promote wear. They also allow excessive leakage past the affected parts and may cause components to seize. Rust and corrosion can be inhibited by incorporating additives that plate on the m etal surfaces to prevent their being attacked chemically. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 106

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 6.5.3.8 Demulsibility Small quantities of water can be tolerated in most systems . In fact, some anti-rust compounds promote a degree of emulsification or mixtur e with any water that gets into the system. This prevents the water from settlin g and breaking through the anti-rust film. However, very much water in the oil w ill promote the collection of contaminants and can cause sticky valves and accel erated wear. With proper refining hydraulic oil can have a high degree of demuls ibility or ability to separate out water. 6.5.3.9 Additives Since most of the desirable properties of a fluid are atleast partly traceable to additives, commercial additives can be incorporated in any o il to make it more suitable for hydraulic system. 6.6 Filters Filtration of the hydraulic fluid is of the greatest importance for maintaining the function and reliability of the hydraulic system. Fluid contamin ation occurs through a variety of sources: Contaminants left in the system durin g original assembly or subsequent maintenance work like welding scale and weldin g beads, silicone tape shreds, bits of pipe threads and seal materials tubing bu rrs and grinding chips. Contaminants generated when running the system may inclu de wear particles, sludge and varnish due to fluid oxidation, and rust and water due to condensation on the reservoir's interior. Contaminants introduced into t he system from outside. These include using the wrong fluid when topping up, and dirt particles introduced by contaminated tools or repaired components. The lar ge quantities of highly pressurized fluid carry these contaminants endlessly thr ough the system or deposit them in the small clearances of pumps, valves, actuat ors, and motors. Thus, if they are not filtered out, the systems will soon eithe r ceases to function altogether, or the lapping action of the metal particles ma y pre-maturely wear pumps, motors, and valves, causing high internal leakage and power losses. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 107

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 6.6.1 Filter types and materials In "depth type" filters the hydraulic fluid is forced through multiple layers of material. The contaminants are retained and em bedded in the filter material because of the tortuous path the fluid must take. These filters are also called absorbent filters. Filter material used for depth type filters are: Porous and permeable paper (treated and resin coated). Synthet ic fibers in long strands matted and pressed. Metal fibers woven, or matted and pressed. Glass fibers woven, or matted and pressed. Sintered granular metals (ca rtridge and disc-type elements). 6.4 Depth filter In "surface type" filters the hydraulic fluid flows straight through a layer of woven mesh, and deposits the dirt particles on the surface of the mesh. To incre ase the filter surface, the mesh is often star shape folded. Filter materials us ed for surface type filters are: Steel wire cloth (woven) Nylon monofilament clo th (woven) Cellulose fiber cloth (woven) Series of metal discs separated by thin spacers Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 108

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 6.5 Surface filter Paper filters cannot be cleaned, and must be discarded when f illed with contaminants. Metal, glass, and synthetic fibre filters can be disman tled and cleaned. Some filters may have a provision for an electrical or mechani cal indicator which signals dirt saturation. As a rule a filter should never be used without an indicator, and pressure line and return line filters should alwa ys have a by-pass. Return Iine filters are low pressure elements which filter the returning fluid pri or to its entry into the reservoir. Return line filters are inexpensive, cause f ew problems during usage and maintenance, and filter the entire fluid volume. Ho wever; they have the disadvantage that only the returning fluid, and not the flu id entering into the system is cleaned. Thus, contaminants can enter the pump th e valves, and the actuators. Pressure line filters Pressure line filters must withstand maximum system pressure and are therefore strong and expensive. Pressure line filters are used upstream of motors and valves to protect them from dirt particles. They are usually moun ted directly into the component they must protect. Provided a high-strength elem ent is used, these filters can be used without a bypass in order to shut down th e system if clogged. They are used in this way to protect expensive servo valves against particle damage. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 109

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 6.6 Filter schematic 6.6.2 Filter arrangement in Hydraulic System 6.7 Filter arrangement Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 110

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 6.8 Hydraulic pumps A hydraulic pump takes oil from a tank and delivers it to th e rest of the hydraulic circuit. In doing so it raises oil pressure to the requi red level. The operation of such a pump is illustrated below. On hydraulic circu it diagrams a pump is represented by the symbol of Figure 6.7, with the arrowhea d showing the direction of flow. Hydraulic pumps are generally driven at constant speed by a three phase AC induc tion motor rotating at 1500 rpm in the UK (with a 50 Hz supply) and at 1200 or 1 800 rpm in the USA (with a 60 Hz supply). Often pump and motor are supplied as o ne combined unit. As an AC motor requires some form of starter, the complete arr angement is shown below. 6.7 Hydraulic circuit diagrams Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 111

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 6.8.1 Types of hydraulic pump 6.8.1.1 Gear pumps The simplest and most robust positive displacement pump, havi ng just two moving parts, is the gear pump. Its parts are non-reciprocating, mov e at constant speed and experience a uniform force. Internal construction, shown in Figure 6.8, consists of just two close meshing gear wheels which rotate as s hown. The direction of rotation of the gears should be carefully noted; it is th e opposite of that intuitively expected by most people. As the teeth come out of mesh at the centre, a partial vacuum is formed which draws fluid into the inlet chamber. Fluid is trapped between the outer teeth and the pump housing, causing a continual transfer of fluid from inlet chamber to outlet chamber where it is discharged to the system. 6.8 Gear pump Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 112

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 6.8.1.2 Lobe pumps There are some variations of the basic gear pump. In Figure 6 .9, gears have been replaced by lobes giving a pump called, a lobe pump. 6.9 Lobe pump 6.8.1.3 Vane pumps The major source of leakage in a gear pump aris es from the small gaps between teeth, and also between teeth and pump housing. T he vane pump reduces this leakage by using spring (or hydraulic) loaded vanes sl otted into a driven rotor, as illustrated in the two examples of Figure 6.10. In the pump shown in Figure 6.10a, the rotor is offset within the housing, and t he vanes constrained by a cam ring as they cross inlet and outlet ports. Because the vane tips are held against the housing there is little leakage and the vane s compensate to a large degree for wear Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 113

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems at vane tips or in the housing itself. There is still, however, leakage between rotors faces and body sides. Pump capacity is determined by vane throw, vane cro ss sectional area and speed of rotation. The difference in pressure between outl et and inlet ports creates a severe load on the vanes and a large side load on t he rotor shaft which can lead to bearing failure. The pump in Figure 6.10a is co nsequently known as an unbalanced vane pump. Figure 6.10b shows a balanced vane pump. This features an elliptical cam ring together with two inlet and two outle t ports. Pressure loading still occurs in the vanes but the two identical pump h alves create equal but opposite forces on the rotor, leading to zero net force i n the shaft and bearings. Balanced vane pumps have much improved service lives o ver simpler unbalanced vane pumps. 6.10 Vane pumps Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 114

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 6.8.1.4 Piston pumps A piston pump is superficially similar to a motor car engin e, and a simple single cylinder arrangement was shown earlier in Figure 6.11. Su ch a simple pump, however, delivering a single pulse of fluid per revolution, ge nerates unacceptably large pressure pulses into the system. Practical piston pum ps therefore employ multiple cylinders and pistons to smooth out fluid delivery, and much ingenuity goes into designing multi-cylinder pumps which are surprisin gly compact. 6.11 Piston pump Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 115

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 7. Hydraulic actuators and accessories 7.1 Linear actuators Chapter 07 Hydraulic linear actuators are used to convert hydraulic power into linear mecha nical force or motion. Although the actuator itself produces linear motion, a va riety of mechanical linkages and devices may be attached to it to produce a fina l output which is rotary, semi-rotary, or a combination of linear and rotary. Le vers and linkages may also be attached to achieve force multiplication or force reduction, as well as an increase or reduction of motion speed as shown in the f igure below. 7.1 Linear Actuators Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 116

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems The main parts of a hydraulic linear actuator are shown in Figure 7.2. A variety of refinements, additions, and options can be added to this basic actuator. The generation of linear thrust force is very simple, the fluid under pressure, whe n delivered to one end of the actuator, acts against the piston area. The piston with the attached piston rod starts to move in linear direction as long as the reaction force is smaller. The developed force is used to move a load which may be attached either to the piston rod or to the actuator housing Figure 7.2. The distance through which the piston travels is known as the stroke. 7.2 Parts of a hydraulic linear actuator 7.1.1 Actuator types Single-acting actu ators permit the application of hydraulic force in one direction only. These act uators are normally mounted in vertical direction, thus permitting the load to r eturn the piston to its initial position. Where the actuator must be mounted hor izontally, an inbuilt spring is used to cause retraction Figure 7.3. Double-acting actuators permit the application of hydraulic force in both direct ions. However, the retraction stroke develops a smaller force than the extension stroke, since the pressurized fluid acts on a smaller area, known as the annulu s area Figure 7.3. Double-ended actuators with rods on both actuator ends are us ed where the developed force must be equal for both directions (extension and re traction). Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 117

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Since the voids to be filled with hydraulic fluid are equal for extension and re traction, the resulting piston speeds are also equal for both strokes. (Piston s peed equals actuator volume divided by the flow rate of the pump.) Telescopic actuators may be double or single acting. Their collapsed length is o nly little more than their longest segment. The developed pressure varies with t he load and the effective piston area. Thus, the piston segment with the largest piston area extends first. The required pressure increases with each extended s egment, since the piston area decreases while the load remains constant. When re tracting the sequence is reversed, i.e. the smallest piston retracts first. 7.3 Actuator types 7.1.2 End-position cushioning Cushioning, or end-position cus hioning, refers to braking and deceleration of the final stroke portion until st andstill occurs. Cushioning becomes essential above a certain stroke speed. The kinetic energy released on impact at the stroke end must be absorbed by the stro ke limit-stops, which are built into the end caps. Their capacity to absorb this energy depends on the elasticity of their material. An hydraulic braking functi on (end-position cushioning) must therefore be applied where piston speeds (v) e xceed 0.1 m/sec. Figure 7.4 shows a cross-section of the end-position cushioning mechanism of the end cap. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 118

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems The cushioning of the rod end cap is similar. The piston is fitted with a tapere d cushioning bush. When this bush enters into the bore of the end cap during the final part of the stroke the main fluid exit begins to shut until it finally cl oses off completely. This first stage of exit-flow throttling causes an initial speed deceleration. The remaining fluid must now exhaust through the cushioning valve. The degree of cushioning and second stage speed control can be regulated at the cushioning valve (flow control valve). A check valve is fitted to achieve fast and full force break-away from the end position. A bleed screw may also be built into the check valve Figure 7.4. Some manufacturers have separate bleed s crews available as an option. The bleed screw must always be mounted uppermost. 7.4 Cushioning Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 119

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 7.2 Rotary actuators Hydraulic motors convert hydraulic energy into torque and c onsequently into power. Motors very closely resemble hydraulic pumps in their co nstruction. In-fact, many pumps can also be used as motors Instead of pushing fl uid into the system as pumps do motors are being pushed by the fluid through whi ch they develop torque and continuous rotary motion. They are also called as LSH T motors Low-speed/high-torque (LSHT) motors are one of the more cost-effective and depen dable parts of a hydraulic system. They offer a designer many advantages over a system comprised of a high-speed motor and a gearbox speed reducer. Foremost is the fact that LSHT motors transmit a large amount of power from a comparatively small drive envelope. Low noise and vibration and high energy efficiency can be additional benefits. Rapid reversal of direction may be achieved simply by rever sing the direction of hydraulic fluid flow. LSHT motors also exhibit smooth star ting torque. Maximum shaft speed for LSHT motors can range up to 1,000 rpm, and some motors operate smoothly at speeds as low as 0.1 rpm with suitable closed-lo op electronic control. These motors generally exhibit good starting efficiencies and fairly constant torque over their entire speed range. LSHT motors come in such a wide variety of designs that direct comparison of per formance between two types is virtually impossible. Instead, here are some impor tant points about four of the main LSHT motor styles: 7.2.1 Vane motors: These motors resemble traditional hydraulic vane motors, in w hich pressure (assisted by springs) pushes against a series of vanes. These vane s ride a ring cam and slide in and out of rotor slots. The vanes form sealed cha mbers, which carry fluid from an inlet to an outlet. LSHT vane motors run most e fficiently at lower pressures and are radially balanced, which extends their ope rating life. Because of a fairly large number of leakage paths, they tend to hav e lower volumetric efficiency at slow speeds. Displacements of up to 650 in3/rev are available. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 120

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 7.2.2 Piston motors: There are several different designs that fall under this ca tegory. Generally, radial-piston motors have a large displacement range. Leakage -resistant characteristics - and hence, good volumetric efficiency through the e ntire speed range characterize eccentric drum radial piston motors. This style o f motor has a high starting torque and is very efficient in the medium- to highdisplacement range. Motors known as cam-type radial-piston motors, Figure 7.5, a re slightly less efficient because of their concentric configuration. On both of these types, the manufacturers speed recommendations must be followed closely. Low speed may bring about torque ripple or speed flutter. These motors use pisto ns in several cylinders to push down on an off-center throw of a crankshaft drum . At the same time, other cylinders allow oil to escape through their valves to the tank drain port. The cylinders work slightly out of phase so that no dead sp ots are created at top dead center. 7.2.3 Gear motors: Gear motors are very economical, but often have lower volumet ric efficiencies due to higher leakage rates. These motors are best suited for l ow-pressure applications. External-gear motors consist of one gear connected to an output shaft, and a matched idling gear. Fluid entering the housing forces th e gears to rotate, and exits through the opposite side of the motor. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 121

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 7.5 Hydraulic actuators 7.3 Accumulators Hydraulic systems it is sometimes desirable to store hydraulic fluid under pressure for release during peak demand. Unlike gases, such liquids cannot be compressed sufficiently to result in self-propelling release. The hydr aulic accumulator solves this problem by storing the noncompressible fluid under external pressure. Various means are applied to pressurize and drive the fluid from the accumulator into the hydraulic system and finally to the actuators. Weight loaded accumulat ors make use of gravitation, spring loaded accumulators use the elasticity of st eel springs and gas charged accumulators use the compressibility of nitrogen gas to exert a force onto the hydraulic fluid Figure 7.6 Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 122

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Gas charged accumulators are more commonly used than spring or weight loaded acc umulators, but the weight loaded accumulator has the advantage that the force ex erted onto the fluid is always constant, no matter how full the fluid chamber is . Many current hydraulic systems are equipped with one or more accumulators. In hydraulic systems, the storage of hydraulic fluid under pressure serves a number of purposes. The more common of these are: Supplement pump delivery Maintain sy stem pressure Emergency power source Shock absorption, noise elimination Absorpt ion of thermal expansion 7.3.1 Gas charged accumulators Bladder type accumulators are pre-charged with dr y nitrogen gas. The pre-charge pressure will cause the bladder (bag) to fill the inside of the steel shell completely, and close the pressure fluid valve. As so on as the rising pressure within the hydraulic system reaches the gas precharge pressure p1 of the bladder, the fluid valve will open and the rising system pres sure starts to force fluid into the accumulator. Further increases in system pre ssure will cause the bladder to be further compressed and even more hydraulic fl uid is being forced into the steel shell. Remember, that the bladder is filled with gas which is compressible, while the h ydraulic fluid is not compressible. As the gas is compressed, the gas pressure w ill increase, equaling the system pressure. Thus, flow of fluid into the accumul ator takes place only when the system pressure exceeds the gas pressure. Convers ely, flow of fluid out of the accumulator takes place only when the system press ure sinks below the gas pressure. When the system flow demand is low or static t he accumulator will be charged or filled. When the system demand is high or dyna mic, the accumulator will release stored fluid to help the pump meet system flow demand. Other gas-charged accumulators use a piston or a diaphragm to separate the gas f rom the hydraulic fluid Figure 7.7. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 123

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 7.6 Accumulator Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 124

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 7.7 Gas charged accumulator Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 125

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 8. Hydraulic valves Chapter 08 One of the most important functions in any fluid power system is control. If con trol components are not properly selected, the entire system will fail to delive r the required output. Elements for the control of energy and other control in f luid power system are generally called Valves. It is important to know the primary function and operation of the various types of control components. This type of knowledge is not only required for a good functioning system, but it also leads to the discovery of innovative ways to improve a fluid power system for a given application. The selection of these control components not only involves the type, but also t he size, the actuating method and remote control capability. There are 3 basic t ypes of valves. Directional control valves Pressure control valves Flow control valves. Directional control valves are essentially used for distribution of energy in a fluid power system. They establish the path through which a fluid traverses a gi ven circuit. For example they control the direction of motion of a hydraulic cyl inder or motor. These valves are used to control the start, stop and change in d irection of flow of pressurized fluid. Pressure may gradually buildup due to decrease in fluid demand or due to sudden surge as valves opens or closes. Pressure control valves protect the system agai nst such over pressure. Pressure relief valve, pressure reducing, sequence, unlo ading and counterbalance valve are different types of pressure control valves. In addition, fluid flow rate must be controlled in various lines of a hydraulic circuit. For example, the control of actuator speeds depends on flow rates. This type of control is accomplished through the use of flow control valves. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 126

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 8.1 Directional control valves As the name implies directional control valves ar e used to control the direction of flow in a hydraulic circuit. They are used to extend, retract, position or reciprocate hydraulic cylinder and other component s for linear motion. Valves contains ports that are external openings for fluid to enter and leave via connecting pipelines, The number of ports on a directiona l control valve (DCV ) is usually identified by the term way. For example, a valv e with four ports is named as four-way valve. Directional control valves can be classified in a number of ways: 1. According to type of construction: Poppet val ves Spool valves 2. According to number of working ports: Two- way valves Three way valves Four- way valves. 3. According to number of switching positions: Two position Three - position 4. According to actuating mechanism: Manual actuation Mechanical actuation Solenoid ( Electrical ) actuation Hydraulic ( Pilot ) actua tion Pneumatic actuation Indirect actuation The designation of the directional c ontrol valve refers to the number of working ports and the number of switching p ositions. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 127

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Thus a valve with 2 service ports and 2 switching positions is designated as 2 / 2 way valve. A valve with 3 service ports and 2 positions is designated as 2 / 3 way valve. A valve with 4 service ports and 2 positions is designated as 2 / 4 valve. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 128

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems A valve with 4 Service ports and 3 switching positions is designated as 3 / 4 wa y valve. Figure below shows an example of open centered position. Spool positions as well as their corresponding actuating elements are labeled wi th numbers 1, 2 as shown in figure below. A valve with 2 spool position is shown and also a valve with 3 spool positions. In directional control valves with 3 s pool position, the central position is the neutral position (or mid position or zero or null position). The neutral position is the position in which the moving parts are assumed to be inactive, but affected by a force (e.g. spring) The por ts are designated as follows: P = Pressure Port (Pump Port) T = Tank Port A, B = User Ports Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 129

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Observe that the graphical symbol shows only one tank port T even though the phy sical design may have two since it is only concerned with the function of a comp onent and not its internal design. The tank port is the port of the valve that i s piped back to the hydraulic oil tank. Therefore, each tank port provides the s ame function. The spool valve working ports are inlet from the pump, outlets to the cylinder, and exhaust to tank. 8.1.1 Poppet Valves: Directional poppet valve s consists of a housing bore in which one or more suitably formed seating elemen ts ( moveable ) in the form of balls, cones are situated. When the operating pre ssure increases the valve becomes more tightly seated in this design. The main a dvantages of poppet valves are: No Leakage as it provides absolute sealing. Long useful life, as there are no leakages of oil flows. May be used with even the h ighest pressures, as no hydraulic sticking (pressure dependent deformation) and leakages occurs in the valve. The disadvantages of these valves are: Large press ure losses due to short strokes Pressure collapse during switching phase due to negative overlap (connection of pump, actuator and tank at the same time). 8.1.1.1: 2 / 2 DCV (Poppet design) 8.1 2/2 Direction Control Valve Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 130

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Figure 8.1, shows a ball poppet type 2 / 2 DCV. It is essentially a check valve as it allows free flow of fluid only in one direction (P to A) as the valve is o pened hydraulically and hence the pump Port P is connected to port A as shown in fig b. In the other direction the valve is closed by the ball poppet (note the fluid pressure from A pushes the ball to its seat) and hence the flow from the p ort A is blocked (fig a.). The symbol for this type of design is same as that of check valve. 8.1.2 Spool valves: The spool valve consists of a spool which is a cylindrical m ember that has large- diameter lands machined to slide in a very close- fitting bore of the valve body. The spool valves are sealed along the clearance between the moving spool and the housing. The degree of sealing depends on the size of t he gap, the viscosity of the fluid and especially on the level of pressure. Espe cially at high pressures (up to 350 bar) leakage occurs to such a extent that it must be taken into account when determining the system efficiency. The amount o f leakage is primarily dependent on the gap between spool and housing. Hence as the operating pressure increases the gap must be reduced or the length of overla p increased. The radial clearance is usually less than 20 . The grooves between t he lands provide the flow passage between ports. 8.1.2.1 Two-way valve (2/ 2 DCV ) The simplest type of directional control valve is a check valve which is a two way valve because it contains two ports. These valves are also called as on-off valves because they allow the fluid flow in only in one direction and the valve is normally closed. Two way valves is usually the spool or poppet design with t he poppet design more common and are available as normally opened or normally cl osed valves. They are usually actuated by pilot (Hydraulic actuation) but manual , mechanical, solenoid actuated design are also available. Figure 8.2 above show s Spool type 2 / 2 DCV manually actuated. In Figure 8.2 a, the port P is blocked by the action of spring as the valve is un-actuated (absence of hand force). He nce the flow from port P to A is blocked. When actuated (Presence of hand force) the valve is opened, thereby connecting port P to A. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 131

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 8.2 Two way valve 8.1.2.2 Three way valve (2/ 3 DCV) A directional control valve primary function is alternatively to pressurize and exhaust one working port is called three-way valve. Generally, these valves are used to operate single- act ing cylinders. Three-way directional valves are available for manual, mechanical , pilot, solenoid actuation. These valves may be two-position, or three -positio n. Most commonly they have only two positions, but in some cases a neutral posit ion may be needed. These valves are normally closed valves (i.e. the pump port i s blocked when the valve is not operating). The three-way valve ports are inlet from the pump, working ports, and exhaust to tank. These ports are generally ide ntified as follows: Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 132

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems P= pressure (Pump) port; A or B = working port T = tank port. Figure 8.3 (a) and (b) shows the two positions of the three way valve actuated manually by a push button. Spool position 1: When the valve is actuated, the spool moves towards le ft. In this position flow from pump enters the valve port P and flows out throug h the port A as shown by the straight- through line and arrow (fig a). In this p osition, port T is blocked by the spool. Spool position 0: when the valve is unactuated by the absence of hand force, the valve assumes this position by the ac tion of spring in this position, port P is blocked by the spool. Flow from the a ctuator can go to the tank from A to T as shown by straight through line and arr ow (Fig a). 8.3 a Position of a 3 way valve 8.3 b Symbol Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 133

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 8.1.2.3 Four - way DCV: These valves are generally used to operate cylinders and fluid motors in both directions hydraulically. The four ways are Port P that is connected to pump, tank port T, and two working ports A and B connected to the actuator. The primary function of a four way valve is to alternately pressurize and exhaust two working ports A & B. These valves are available with a choice of actuation, manual, mechanical, solenoid, pilot & pneumatic. Four-way valve come s with two or three position. One should note that the graphical symbol of the v alve shows only one tank port even though the physical design may have two as it is only concerned with the function. 8.1.2.3.1 Three positions, four way valve: This type of DCV consists of three sw itching position. Most three- position valves have a variety of possible flow pa th configurations, but has identical flow path configuration in the actuated pos ition (position 1 and position 2) and different spring centered flow paths. When left end of the valve is actuated, the valve will assume 1 position. In this po sition the port P to connected to working port A and working port B is connected to T (in some design P is connected to B, and A to T when left end is actuated ). Similarly when the right end is actuated, the valve will assume 2 positions. In this position port P is connected to B and working port A to T. When the valv e is un-actuated, the valve will assume its center position due to the balancing opposing spring forces. It should be noted that a threeposition valve is used w henever it is necessary to stop or hold a actuator at some intermediate position within its stroke range, or when multiple circuit or functions must be accompli shed from one hydraulic power source. Three- position, four- way DCV have different variety of center configurations. The common varieties are the open center, closed center, tandem center, floating center, & regenerative center with open, closed and tandem are the three basic types A variety of center configurations provides greater flexibility for circui t design. Open center 3 / 4 DCV: In open- center circuit, all ports are open to each other in the center position. When the valve is in open center position, th e pump flow is directed to the tank at atmospheric pressure. At the same time th e actuator can be moved freely by applying an external force. Open center valve help to prevent heat buildup and no work can be done by any part of the system, as long as the valve remains in the center position, since the fluid always foll ows the path of least resistance. This means that other auxiliary devices in the system using pressure energy cannot function. Figure 8.4 a,b,c. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 134

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems shows the three positions of 3 / 4 DCV. Figure 8.4 a, shows the valve is mid pos ition i.e. when the valve is de-actuated. In Figure 8.4 b, since the left end of the valve is actuated, the valve assumes 1 position. Here port P is connected t o A and B is connected to T. In Figure 8.4 c, since the right end of the valve i s actuated, the valve assumes 2 positions. Here port P is connected to B and A i s connected to T. 8.4 Direction Control valve Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 135

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 8.5: Open centered DCV Symbol 8.6: Direction Control valve Closed center DCV 8.7: Closed centered DCV Symbol Figure 8.7 shows a closed center 3- position, 4 Way DCV in its center position. The working of the valve is similar to open cent er DCV and in actuated position the port connection is identical. In closed cent er DCV all ports are closed to each other. Hence the actuator connected to ports A and B is hydraulically locked and cannot be moved by an external force In thi s position the pump flow must go over the relief valve when flow is not being us ed for any other parts of the circuit. This forces the pump to produce flow at t he high pressure setting of the pressure relief valve. This not only waste pump design Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 136

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems power but promotes wear and shortens pump life. Also the temperature of oil is r aised due to heat buildup in the system. This promotes oil oxidation, viscosity drop, which further raises the wear of parts and increased leakage. With this ty pe of center in DCV, when the valve actuates to switching position 1 or 2, two t hings may happen. If pressure port (P to working port A or B) opens first pressu re in the system raises which is not desirable, and if tank port open first pres sure drops. Closed center versions are used only when multiple circuit or functio ns must be accomplished in the system from one power source. Tandem centered 3 /4 DCV: Figure 8.8 shows a tandem center 3-position, 4-way DCV . In the center configuration, the working ports A and B are blocked, and the pu mp port P is connected to tank port T. The tandem center also results in a locke d actuator. However, it also unloads the pump at atmospheric pressure. The appli cation of this design may be to hold a cylinder or fluid motor under load or to permit the pump flow to be connected to a series of valves for multiple circuitr ies. 8.8 Tandem centered DCV Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 137

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 8.2 Pressure control valves Pressure control valves are used in hydraulic system s to control actuator force (force = pressure x area), and to determine and (pre ) select pressure levels at which certain machine operations must occur. Pressur e controls are in the main used to perform the following system functions: To li mit maximum system pressure in a hydraulic circuit or sub-circuit, and thus prov ide overload protection. To provide re-direction of pump flow to tank, while sys tem pressure must be maintained (system unloading). To provide re-direction of p ump flow to tank while system pressure is not maintained (system offloading). To offer resistance to fluid flow at selectable pressure levels (counterbalance fo rce). To provide an alternative flow path for the fluid at selected pressure lev els (pressure sequencing). To reduce (or step down) pressure levels from the mai n circuit to a lower pressure in a sub-circuit. Pressure control valves are ofte n difficult to identify, mainly because of the many descriptive names applied to them. The function of the valve in the circuit usually becomes the basis for it s name. The valves used to accomplish the abovementioned system functions are th erefore given the following names, respectively: Relief valves (direct-acting or compound). Unloading relief valve (accumulator, charging valve). Offloading val ve. Counterbalance valve and brake valve. Pressure-sequence valves. Pressure-red ucing valves. 8.2.1 Direct-acting relief valve The load which has to be moved by the hydraulic actuator creates a certain resistance to the fluid flow from the hydraulic pump; as this resistance increases, the system pressure increases prop ortionally. If the actuator reaches a stalling point. Then the system pressure w ill rise almost instantly to such a hazardous level, that damage to the hydrauli c system is inevitable. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 138

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems For this very reason, most hydraulic systems are protected by a pressure-relief valve, which limits the maximum permissible system pressure, and diverts some or all of the pump's flow to tank when the pressure setting of the relief valve is reached. Valve operation A direct-acting relief valve as shown in Figure 8.9 may consist of a ball or poppet held firmly onto the valve seat by the spring. The system pr essure acts against the pressure-exposed area of the poppet. When the force of t he fluid becomes greater (pressure x valve-seat area) than the opposing force of the spring, the poppet is forced off its seat; the relief valve opens, and flui d is released to tank at low pressure. The pressure at which the valve starts to divert flow to tank is called "cracking pressure". As flow to tank increases, t he poppet is forced off its seat even more, causing a further compression of the spring. Thus, when the valve diverts all the pump-flow, the measured system pre ssure - which is called "full flow pressure" - may be considerably higher than t he "cracking pressure". The difference between "full flow pressure" and the "cra cking pressure" is called "pressure override". 8.9 Relief valve Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 139

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 8.2.2 Compound-relief valve (pilot operated relief valve) The "pressure override " caused by the direct-acting relief valve may in some applications be acceptabl e However, in others it can result in considerable input power losses due to flu id lost through the valve during the wide "pressure override" band Figure 8.10. Due to the inertia of the valve poppet and the spring, sudden pressure increases on the valve inlet side give rise to pressure peaks beyond the adjusted "full f low pressure" and may well exceed the maximum permissible pressure rating of oth er components within the circuit. The compound-relief valve minimizes the "press ure override" to approximately 100-150 kPa and eliminates pressure peaks almost completely. Valve operation The relief valve setting pressure is adjusted with a djustment screw 9. As long as the pressure in the hydraulic system remains below the setting of the relief valve, the static pressure in chambers 2, 4, and 6 re mains equal (Pascal's Law). When the system pressure increases sufficiently to f orce pilot poppet 7 off its seat ("cracking pressure"), fluid starts to flow to tank via internal drain 12 at a very low pressure. The resulting pressure imbala nce, due to the pressure drop (p) across orifice 3, forces valve piston 11 upward s. This action compresses piston spring 10 and opens tank port T. thus preventin g a further rise in pressure. Increased flow through the valve causes the piston to lift further off its seat, but as this only compress a very light spring ver y little "pressure override" is encountered. As soon as the system pressure sink s below the opening pressure of the relief valve poppet 7, the flow past the pil ot relief valve and the orifice 3 stops, and the pressure differential (p) disapp ears. Thus, spring 10 re-seats piston 11 and relief flow from P to T stops Figur e 8.10 Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 140

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 8.10 Compound relief valve 8.2.3 Venting the compound-relief valve The compoundrelief valve requires pressure build-up during the relief function to keep the p ilot relief-valve spring compressed; thus, work is performed by the pump. If the relief valve is required to release flow over a prolonged period, the work perf ormed during that time may lead to considerable pump input power wastage and - w orst of all- heat build-up in the hydraulic fluid, which eventually leads to flu id deterioration. The vented compound-relief valve renders the ideal solution to these problems. Valve operation Venting-port plug 5 is removed and port V is co nnected to the venting valve Figure8.11. The fluid under pressure can, after the venting valve is opened, flow to tank. This flow creates the required pressure drop across orifice 3, which unbalances piston 11 and opens the flow path for th e pump flow to be diverted to tank. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 141

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Since the pressure developed during "venting" is only the pressure drop across o rifice 3 (approximately 150-500 kPa), the power used during this time is minimal and the heat build-up negligible. The venting function is used to offload the p ump during non-action stages of the circuit sequence. The venting valve can be c ontrolled either by an electric or a pneumatic signal, and is with some manufact urers' brands mounted directly onto the compound relief valve to reduce unnecess ary plumbing and minimize installation cost. 8.11 Venting the compound-relief valve Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 142

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 8.2.4 Unloading valve (accumulator charging valve) The unloading valve (also cal led accumulator charging valve or differential unloading valve) IS in its design closely related to the compound-relief valve. This valve is used to accomplish the following switching and pressure control functions: Limit maximum system pre ssure Charge the accumulator to maximum system pressure and maintain a working v olume and pressure in the accumulator Unload the pump when the desired accumulat or pressure is reached (e.g. maintain system pressure to actuators). Valve operation Figure 8.12 depicts the flow condition when the accumulator is b eing charged and the pump flow is directed into the system. As soon as the adjus ted maximum system pressure in the accumulator and in the actuators is reached, the pilot relief valve poppet and the main valve piston open, and pump flow is d iverted to tank at very low pressure. (For a detailed explanation of valve opera tion, see the compound-relief valve.) Due to the much higher pressure in the acc umulator circuit the check valve closes, and the charged accumulator maintains p ressure to the actuators. While the valve is unloading the pump flow the pressur e in front of the pilot poppet is practically zero. The pilot valve and the main valve piston would therefore immediately re-seat, but for the system pressure f rom the accumulator, which is now acting via the check valve by pass onto the di fferential piston Figure 8.12. This pressurized piston forces the pilot poppet c ompletely off its seat and holds it open until the accumulator pressure diminish es to approximately 85% of the maximum system pressure (accumulator charging pre ssure) as adjusted on the unloading valve. The accumulator pressure diminishes d ue to volume losses caused by system leakage actuator movements, or internal lea kage of valve spools and seals. The left-hand side of the differential plunger h as approximately 15% more circular area than the pressure-exposed area of the pi lot poppet (see the diameter indication in the magnified section of Figure 8.12. Thus, if the system pressure drops below 85% of the initial maximum system pres sure, the pilot poppet will re-seat and the main valve piston interrupts pump fl ow from port P to port T The Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 143

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems pump flow now being redirected to port A opens the check valve and streams back into the system and into the accumulator Thus, the charging cycle is repeated. A lthough system pressure to the actuators is maintained while pump flow IS re-cir culated to tank (with minimum power wastage) the fluctuating system pressure (be tween 100% and 85% approximately) may prove disadvantageous in certain industria l applications Thus other forms of system unloading may have to be selected. Unl oading valves may also be used in so-called high-low circuits to cut-in and cutout the low pressure pump. 8.12 Unloading valve Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 144

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 8.2.5 Offloading valve The offloading valve is generally used in conjunction wit h double pump circuits Figure 8.13. The flow from the two pumps is combined to g ain more speed while the actuator is traversing. When the high speed is no longe r required, or when system pressure rises to the point where the combined pump f low would exceed the input power of the prime mover, the pump with the larger fl ow is offloaded to tank. Low pressure operation The offloading valve is closed u nder this condition. Flow from the large volume pump passes over the check valve and joins the flow from the low volume pump (the left-hand pump). This conditio n continues as long as the pressure within the system is below the pressure sett ing of the offloading valve. High pressure operation Figure 8.13 shows the offlo ading valve in the open condition, with the large-volume pump recirculating its flow to tank. The check valve is closed, thus the flow from the low volume pump is prevented from also being offloaded to tank. In this configuration, much less power is used than if both pumps had to be driven at high pressure (power= pres sure x flow rate). When the motion of the actuator stops, the high-pressure low volume pump discharges its flow over the system relief valve. Valve operation Th e offloading valve is a direct-acting, remotely controlled pool valve where the spool is held in the closed position by the adjustable spring. When pilot pressu re at port X exceeds the pressure setting, the spool is raised and flow from the primary to the secondary port occurs Figure 8.13. The hollow spool permits inte rnal leakage (past the spool lands) to drain into the spring chamber, and subseq uently to the secondary outlet, and thus to tank. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 145

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 8.13 Offloading valve 8.2.6 Counterbalance valve (back pressure valve) The count erbalance valve is applied to create a back pressure or cushioning pressure on t he underside of a vertically-moving piston, to prevent the suspended load from " free falling" because of gravity whilst it is being lowered Figure 8.14. This co unteracting or counterbalancing function has given the valve its name. Valve operation (lowering) The pressure setting on the counterbalance valve is s lightly higher than the pressure required supporting the load from free falling. Due to this back pressure in line A, the actuator piston must be forced down wh en the load is being lowered. This causes the pressure in line A to increase, wh ich raises the spring-opposed spool, thus providing a flow path to discharge the exhaust flow from line A to the directional-control valve and then to tank. The spring-controlled discharge orifice maintains back pressure in line A during th e entire downward piston stroke (Figure 8.14 shows the load being lowered). Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 146

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems Valve operation (lifting) Since the valve is normally closed, flow in the revers e direction (from port B to port A) could not occur without a reverse free-flow check valve. When the load is raised again, the internal check valve opens to pe rmit flow for the retraction of the actuator. Valve operation (suspension) While the load is held in suspension the valve remains closed. Therefore, its pressur e setting must be slightly higher than the pressure caused by the load. Spool va lves tend to leak internally under pressure. This makes it advisable to use a pi lot-operated check valve in addition to the counterbalance valve, if a load must be held in suspension for a prolonged time Figure 8.14. 8.14 Counter-balance valve Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 147

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 8.2.7 Sequence valve (single stage) The sequence valve is closely related to the relief valve in its design and function. It permits hydraulic fluid to flow int o a sub-circuit, when the pressure in the main circuit has reached the setting o f the sequence valve. A typical application would be a clamp and spot-weld circu it Figure 8.15. The clamp actuator must be extended first, and as soon as the wo rk-piece is clamped, the spot-weld head actuator must extend. Both actuators are permitted to retract simultaneously. An optional reverse flow check valve is no rmally incorporated when the valve is required to operate between a directional control valve and an actuator. Valve operation The single-stage, spool-operated sequence valve is a normally cl osed valve. When pilot pressure at point X exceeds the pressure setting, the spo ol is raised against the spring, and fluid flows from primary port P to secondar y port A. The valve requires an external drain, to permit internal fluid leakage past the spool land to drain back to tank Figure 8.15. It must be noted that se quence valves require a reverse flow check valve if return flow is required. Sin glestage relief valves may also be remote controlled and all sequence valves are external, drained because the secondary line leads to a pressurized sub-circuit . Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 148

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 8.15 Sequence valve 8.2.8 Pressure reducing valve (pilot-operated) In some fluid power systems it IS desirable (and often necessary) to operate a sub-circuit at a lower pressure th an the main system. Pressure reducing valves are used for this purpose. In contr ast to the "normally closed' pressure control valves discussed so far, the press ure reducing valve is normally open". The main function of this valve is to limit and maintain a constant downstream pressure (subcircuit pressure), regardless o f pressure fluctuations in the main circuit upstream Figure 8.16. Valve operatio n The required downstream pressure (sub-circuit pressure) is adjusted and set on the pilot relief valve. Below the valve operating pressure, the valve spool is held wide open by the light spring and fluid passes from port P to port A with v irtually no restriction. Static pressure equal to the Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 149

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems pressure in the sub-circuit exists below the valve spool inside the valve spool and in front of the pilot relief valve. When the sub-circuit pressure increases and reaches the level of the valve setting, the pilot valve will open and reliev e flow to tank. This causes a pressure drop across the internal orifice (p) insid e the valve spool, so that the higher pressure below the orifice forces the spoo l upwards against the spring. The spool will therefore remain balanced between t he higher pressures below the orifice acting upwards and the lower pressure abov e the orifice, plus the light spring acting downwards. In this way the spool red uces or opens the flow passage from port P to port A and limits and maintains a constant pressure in the sub-circuit. When no flow is required in the sub-circui t, the valve will stay partially open and a fluid flow of some 0.6 -1.2 l/min wi ll continuously flow past the pilot valve to tank. Reverse free flow through the valve is only possible if the pressure in the sub-circuit is below the valve pr essure setting. If the pressure exceeds the valve setting, the valve will close thus making reverse flow impossible. Therefore pressure reducing valves are ofte n equipped with a check valve for reverse free flow. External forces acting onto a linear actuator will increase the pressure between the pressure reducing valv e and the actuator. In some systems it is therefore desirable to relieve excess fluid from the secondary system to tank In order to maintain a constant downstre am pressure, regardless of such external forces. The pressure reducing valve dep icted in Figure 8.16 fulfils this function but only for a limited flow rate (0.6 -1.2 L/min) The control circuit in Figure 8.17 shows the detailed symbol for th is valve and the compound symbol is shown next to the valve. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 150

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 8.16 Pressure reducing valve 8.17 Application of pressure reducing valve Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 151

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 8.3 Flow control valves Flow-control valves are used in hydraulic systems to con trol the rate of flow from one part of the system to another. Flow-control devic es (Figure 8.18) accomplish one or more of the following control functions: Limi t the maximum speed of linear actuators and flow rate hydraulic motors. Limit th e maximum power available to sub-circuits by controlling the flow to them (power = flow-rate x pressure ) Proportionally divide or regulate the pump flow to vari ous branches of the circuit. A partly closed orifice or flow control valve in a hydraulic pressure line causes resistance to pump flow. This resistance raises t he pressure upstream of the orifice to the level of the relief valve setting and any excess pump flow must pass via the relief valve to tank. 8.18 Application of flow control valve Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 152

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 8.3.1 Simple restrictor valve (variable throttle valve) Variable restrictor type flow controls are used in control circuits where the controlled speed of the ac tuator is not critical and thus may vary if the actuator load fluctuates or the viscosity of the fluid undergoes changes. These valves usually consist of a valv e body and a throttling screw for fine adjustment. Where speed control for only one actuator direction is required, a check valve for free flow in the reverse d irection is essential. Some restrictor type flow controls have Inbuilt free-flow check valves (Figure 8.19). 8.19 Variable restrictor type flow controls 8.3.2 Flow control valve with pressure compensation Where accurate and consisten t flow-rate control is required regardless of changes in the pressure differenti al (p), a pressure-compensated flow control should be used. Pressure compensation ensures that the flow rate (Q) through the valve is precisely maintained even i f the upstream or downstream pressure should vary. Valve operation Flow passes f rom, port P through the pressure compensator orifice and then through the contro l orifice and leaves the valve at port A. Pressure compensation is based on the use of a pressure-positioned variable orifice (compensator orifice) upstream in a series arrangement with the control orifice (Figure 8.20) Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 153

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems The ends of the compensator spool (hydrostatic switch) have precisely equal area s are hydraulically connected to the inlet and outlet of the control orifice. He nce in a static condition, the hydraulic forces will hold the compensator spool in balance but the bias spring will force it to the far right is holding the com pensator orifice fully open. In the flow condition any pressure drop (p) less tha n the bias-spring force will not affect the fully open compensator orifice; but any pressure drop greater than the bias-spring force will reduce the compensator orifice. Any change in pressure on either side of the control orifice without a corresponding pressure change on the opposite side of the control orifice moves the compensator spool. Thus, a fixed pressure differential (p) across the contro l orifice is maintained at all times. By this means the valve holds the pre-set flow-rate across the control orifice constant. 8.20 Flow control valve with pressure compensation Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 154

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 9. Hydraulic circuits 9.1 Regenerative circuits Chapter 09 The figure below shows a regenerative circuit that is used to speed up the exten ding speed of a double-acting hydraulic cylinder. Here the pipelines to both end s of the hydraulic cylinder are connected to pump, one end (A) through the 2 / 3 way DCV and the other end (B) directly. The operation of the cylinder during th e retraction stroke is the same as that of a regular doubleacting cylinder. Flui d flows through the DCV zero position from the actuator A side during retraction . In this position, fluid from the pump directly enters the rod end of the cylin der (direct connection). Fluid in the blank end drains back to the tank through the DCV as the cylinder retracts. When the DCV is shifted to 1 position due to m anual actuation, the cylinder extends. The speed of extension is greater than th at for a regular double-acting cylinder because flow from the rod end (QR) regen erates with the pump flow (QP) to provide a total flow rate (QT), which is great er than the pump flow rate to the A side of the cylinder. (Area of blank end is more than rod end, thereby blank end provide least resistance) Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 155

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems C = Double acting cylinder P = Pump E = Electric Motor T = Tank F = Filter R = R elief Valve D = 2-position, 3 way, manually operated and spring return DCV 9.1.1 Application in Drilling Machine Here a 3-position, 4-way, regenerative cen ter directional control valve is used. When the DCV is in the spring-centered po sition, port P is connected to A and B and tank port T is blocked. In this posit ion pump flow goes to A and flow from rod end of the cylinder also joins the pum p flow to gives rapid spindle advance (no work is done during this period). Why does the spring-centered position give rapid extension of the cylinder (dril l spindle)? The reason is simple. Oil from the rod end regenerates with the pump flow going to the blank end. This effectively increases pump flow to the blank end of the cylinder during the spring-centered mode of operation. Once again we have a regenerative cylinder. It should be noted that the cylinder used in a reg enerative circuit is actually a regular double-acting cylinder. What makes it a regenerative cylinder is the way it is hooked up in the circuit. The blank and r od ends are connected in parallel during the extending stroke of a regenerative center. When the DCV shifts to 1st position, P is connected to A and B to T gives slow f eed (extension) when the drill starts to cut into the work piece. Similarly when the DCV shifts to 2nd position, P is connected to B and A is connected to T, si nce the ring area is less the cylinder will have fast return motion. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 156

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 9.2 Speed control of Hydraulic Cylinder Speed control of a hydraulic cylinder is accomplished using a flow control valve. A flow control valve regulates the spe ed of the cylinder by controlling the flow rate to and of the actuator. There ar e 3 types of speed control: Meter- in circuit (Primary control) Meter-out circui t (Secondary control) Bleed - off circuit (By pass control) Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 157

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 9.2.1 Meter in circuit In this type of speed control, the flow control valve is placed between the pump and the actuator. Thereby, it controls the amount of flu id going into the actuator. Fig 5.16 shows meterin circuit. C = Double acting cylinder P = Pump T = Tank F = Filter R = Relief Valve CV = Ch eck Valve FCV = Flow control Valve D =3-position, 4 way, Tandem center, manually operated, Spring Centered DCV Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 158

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems When the directional control valve is actuated to the 1st position, oil flows th rough the flow control valve to extend the cylinder. The extending speed of the cylinder depends on the setting (percent of full opening position) of the flow c ontrol valve. When the directional control valve is actuated to the 2nd position , the cylinder retracts as oil flows from the cylinder to the oil tank through t he check valve as well as the flow control valve. 9.2.2 Meter-out circuit In this type of speed control, the flow control valve is placed between the actu ator and the tank thereby; it controls the amount of fluid going out of the actu ator. Figure below shows a meter-out circuit. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 159

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems C = Double acting cylinder P = Pump T = Tank F = Filter R = Relief Valve CV = Ch eck Valve FCV = Flow control Valve D =3-position, 4 way, Tandem center, manually operated and Spring Centered DCV Meter-in systems are used primarily when the e xternal load opposes the direction of motion of the hydraulic cylinder. An examp le of the opposite situation is the case of a weight pulling downward on the pis ton rod of a vertical cylinder. In this case the weight would suddenly drop by p ulling the piston rod down if a meter-in system is used even if the flow control valve is completely closed. Thus, the meter-out system is generally preferred o ver the meter-in type. One drawback of a meter-out system is the possibility of excessive pressure buildup in the rod end of the cylinder while it is extending. This is due to the magnitude of back pressure that the flow control valve can c reate depending on its nearness to being fully closed as well as the size of the external load and the piston-to-rod area ratio of the cylinder. In addition an excessive pressure buildup in the rod end of the cylinder results in a large pre ssure drop across the flow control valve. This produces the undesirable effect o f a high heat generation rate with a resulting increase in oil temperature. 9.2. 3 Bleed off Circuit In this type of speed control, the flow control valve is placed between the pres sure line and return line. Thereby, it controls the fluid by bleeding off the ex cess not needed by the working cylinder. Figure below shows the bleed-off circui t. This type of flow control is much more efficient than the inlet restricting type for meter-in, because the bypass feature allows fluid to be exhausted to the ta nk at just slightly higher pressure than that necessary to do the work. With the meter-in type, pump delivery not used would discharge over the main relief valv e at maximum pressure. Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 160

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems C = Double acting cylinder P = Pump T = Tank F = Filter R = Relief Valve CV = Ch eck Valve FCV = Flow control Valve D =3-position, 4 way, Tandem center, manually operated and Spring Centered DCV Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 161

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 9.2.4 Hydraulic Cylinder sequencing circuit The sequence valve is closely related to the relief valve in its design and func tion. It permits hydraulic fluid to flow into a sub-circuit, when the pressure i n the main circuit has reached the setting of the sequence valve. A typical appl ication would be a clamp and spot weld circuit as shown in the figure below. The clamp actuator must be extended first, and as soon as the work-piece is clamped , the spot weld head actuator must extend. Both actuators are permitted to retra ct simultaneously. An optional reverse flow check valve is normally incorporated when the valve is required to operate between a directional control valve and a n actuator. Valve operation The single-stage, spool-operated sequence valve is a normally closed valve. When pilot pressure at point X exceeds the pressure sett ing, the spool is raised against the spring, and fluid flows from primary port P to secondary port A. The valve requires an external drain, to permit internal f luid leakage past the spool land to drain back to tank. It must be noted that se quence valves require a reverse-flow check valve if return flow is required. Sin gle-stage relief valves may also be remote controlled and all sequence valves ar e external drained because the secondary line leads to a pressurized sub-circuit . Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 162

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 9.2.4.1 Automatic Cylinder Reciprocating System Figure below shows a circuit tha t produces continuous automatic reciprocation of a hydraulic cylinder. This is a ccomplished by using two sequence valves, each of which senses a stroke completi on by the corresponding buildup of pressure. Each check valve and corresponding pilot line prevents shifting of the four-way valve until the particular stroke o f the cylinder has been completed. The check valves are needed to allow pilot oi l to leave either end of the DCV while pilot pressure is applied to the opposite end. This permits the spool of the DCV to shift as required. An alternative cir cuit diagram is shown in the Figure below. In the circuit as the cylinder recipr ocates, the pilot directional valve is operated by solenoid DCV to supply fluid to either end of the main four way directional valve. This causes the machine to reciprocate automatically, and it will not stop until pump is shut off. C = Double acting cylinder P = Pump SV = Sequence Valve CV = Check Valve R = Rel ief Valve T = Tank F = Filter D =2-position, 4 way, pilot operated DCV Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 163

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems 9.2.5 Pressure reducing circuits The required downstream pressure (sub-circuit pressure) is adjusted and set on t he pilot relief valve. Below the valve operating pressure, the valve spool is he ld wide open by the light spring and fluid passes from port P to port A with vir tually no restriction. Static pressure equal to the pressure in the sub-circuit exists below the valve spool inside the valve spool and in front of the pilot re lief valve. When the sub-circuit pressure increases and reaches the level of the valve setting, the pilot valve will-open and relieves flow to tank. This cause a pressure drop across the internal orifice (p) inside the valve spool, so that t he higher pressure below the orifice forces the spool upwards against the spring . The spool will therefore remain balanced between the higher Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 164

Hydraulics & Pneumatic Systems pressure below the orifice acting upwards and the lower pressure above the orifi ce, plus the light spring acting downwards. In this way the spool reduces or ope ns the flow passage from port P to port A and limits and maintains a constant pr essure in the sub-circuit. When no flow is required in the sub-circuit, the valv e will stay partially open and a fluid flow of some 0.6-1.2 l/min will continuou sly flow past the pilot valve to tank. Reverse free flow through the valve is on ly possible if the pressure in the sub-circuit is below the valve pressure setti ng. If the pressure exceeds the valve setting, the valve will close thus making reverse flow impossible. Therefore pressure reducing valves are often equipped w ith a check valve for reverse free flow. External forces acting onto a linear ac tuator will increase the pressure between the pressure reducing valve and the ac tuator. In some systems it is therefore desirable to relieve excess fluid from t he secondary system to tank In order to maintain a constant downstream pressure, regardless of such external forces. The pressure reducing valve depicted in Fig ure below fulfils this function but only for a limited flow-rate (0.6-1.2 L/min) The control circuit In the Figure below shows the detailed symbol for this valv e and the compound symbol is shown next to the valve Department of Mech. & Mfg. Engg. M.I.T Manipal Page 165

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