1

CHAPTER - 1

INTRODUCTIO N
CHAPTER - 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction of Forming & Forging Process 1.1.1 Introduction about process Pneumatic cylinders are the devices for converting the air pressure into linear mechanical force and motion. They are basically used for single purpose applications such as clamping, tilting, bending, turning and many other applications. This is an era of automation where it is broadly defined as replacement of manual effort by mechanical power in all degree of automation. The operation remains an essential part of the system although with changing demands on physical input as the degree of mechanization is increased. 1.1.2 Need for Automation Automation can be achieved through computers, hydraulics, pneumatics, robotics.etc. Of these sources, pneumatics forms an attractive medium for low cost automation. Automation plays an important role in industries. Now days, all

3 most the entire automobile vehicle is being atomized in order to product the human being. 1.1.2.1 Reasons for Automation To achieve high safety To increased the efficiency of the process To reduce the fatigue of workers To high responsibility Less Maintenance cost 1.1.2.2 Degrees of automation are of two types (a) Full automation (b) Semi automation In semi automation a combination of manual effort and mechanical power is required where as in full automation human participation of very negligible. Pneumatic system is used to most important process of Industries and Harbor. Any work done by Pneumatic system, Ex: Lifting, Pulling, Pushing, Pressing, etc., above process can be made to easily vide by Pneumatic system. In this method of machineries work is designed through Air Pressure. So these processes are used to all kinds of work. All types of works can be successfully finished for this Air pumping pressure-creating method. Pneumatic pump and Pneumatic cylinder are used this process. Pneumatic cylinders ram is increase and decrease operation finished in this process. Generally Pneumatic cylinder operations are based on Pneumatic pump operation. Air is pumping to the Pneumatic cylinder by using Pneumatic pump system. Its the manual operation 1.2 Forming processes Forming is a broad term covering many different manufacturing processes. In general, you may think of forming as any process that changes the shape of a given raw stock without changing its phase (i.e. without melting it). In

4 general, these processes involve beating with a hammer, squeezing, bending, pulling/pushing through a hole, etc. No matter where you are standing, you can probably see some object that is made by a forming process. Some examples include: aluminum/steel frame of doors and windows, coins, springs, elevator doors, cables and wires, almost all sheet-metal, etc. 1.3 Rolling Rolling is a process in which the metal is squeezed between two hard rollers. The effect is to change the thickness (since volume as conserved, the length is increased). The figure below shows a schematic. The main use of rolling is in plants where the metal is made. For example, in Steel-making plants, liquid iron is first formed in a blast furnace by reducing the iron oxide. After further processing the liquid metal, including converting the iron to steel, it is cast by a process called continuous casting into raw stock shapes. These are very large pieces of steel (several tons each), with typical crosssections including rectangle (bloom, billet, slab), circle (rounds), or I-sections (beams). These pieces are too large to be directly used they are rolled in rolling mills that squeeze them into much smaller, but usable shapes. These usable shapes are the raw stock for almost all types of manufacturing that uses steel. Rolling mills are categorized as Hot-rolling or Cold-rolling mills, in hot rolling, the metal is heated to just below its melting point before being fed into the rollers. This is useful, for example, if the initial billet is in a brittle form, e.g. cast iron; the hot-rolled steel cools down with finer grains in the crystalline microstructure, and is stronger and less brittle (wrought iron). Rolling mills can also use a variety of roller shapes to get different cross-sections of the rolled bars. 1.4 Different types of flat- and shaped-rolling processes In each stage of rolling, the raw stock is reduced in thickness by a small percentage; therefore, typical rolling mills have several stages, where the each

5 stage successively reduces the thickness of the stock until the desired cross section is achieved (see figure below). A very important use of the rolling process is in the making of screws and bolts the threads of the screw are made by rolling a cylindrical stock between two dies that form the thread-shapes on the stock. A single rolling machine of this type can produce tens of screws per second (which is why they are so cheap). 1.5 Extrusion Extrusion is a process in which metal is forced, or squeezed, out through a hole (die). The process is similar to squeezing toothpaste out of the tube. This process is used mostly for metals that are ductile, including copper, steel, aluminum and magnesium; it is also used for some plastics and rubbers. Common examples of parts made by extrusion are the aluminum frames of white-boards, door- and window-frames, etc. Usually, long strips of the required cross-section are extruded and sold as raw-stock. Any hardware store will have between ten and hundred different cross-section bars almost all are made by extrusion. The process can be used to make hollow as well as solid cross-sections, as seen from the example parts in the figure below. Examples of parts made by extrusion (each part is cut from a long length). The extrusion press has a pressure chamber into which the raw stock is loaded , the die is made of hardened steel, with a hole that is the shape of the required cross-section. The metal is then squeezed out of the die hole by the use of a high pressure hydraulic piston. The schematic below shows the basic process, and the images show two examples of aluminum extrusion dies. 1.6 Drawing Drawing is the process most commonly used to make wires from round bars , this process is very similar to extrusion, except that instead of pressure from the back end, in drawing, the wire is pulled from the side where it emerges from the circular die.

1.7 Forming Forming is a broad term covering many different manufacturing processes. In general, you may think of forming as any process that changes the shape of a given raw stock without changing its phase (i.e. without melting it). In general, these processes involve beating with a hammer, squeezing, bending, pulling/pushing through a hole, etc. No matter where you are standing, you can probably see some object that is made by a forming process. Some examples include: aluminum/steel frame of doors and windows, coins, springs, elevator doors, cables and wires, almost all sheet-metal.

1.8 Forging Forging is the process where (heated) metal is beaten with a heavy hammer to give it the required shape. For example, ancient sword-making uses flat hammers beating on a heated strip of metal kept on a flat piece of iron called an anvil (you may have seen this action in many movies). However, forging is used to make many more complex shapes and to let the metal form into such shapes, the hammer and the supporting pieces are cut into the reverse of the required shape in other words, they form the forging dies.

Figure 1.8: Forging

A simple forging press, note the red hot bar stock in place the figure above shows an open-die forging process. If we desire to hammer down the stock to a well defined shape, then it is customary to see a closed-die forging process , in this process, the hammer-head and the anvil are basically hardened dies with the inverse of the shape we want. The figure below shows a schematic of the dies and stock in the closed-die forging process. Usually, the stock volume is a little in excess of the part volume, this ensures that the entire die cavity gets filled properly. However, the excess material flows out through the gap between the dies, this excess is called flash, and must later be machined away (this operation is called trimming). If the stock and the final part are very different in shape, then the forging is done in several stages. The figure shows an example of a common forged part a connecting rod. This part is used in almost all petrol engines. The part is made from bar stock in four stages, marked in the figure as

8 (i) Edging,

(ii) Blocking, (iii) Finishing, and (iv) Trimming. Note that only the dies for the third stage are exactly the inverse, geometrically, of the final part shape. 1. Blank (bar) 2. Edging, 3.Blocking 4. Finishing 5. Trimming Flash In some modern applications, the volume of the stock and the precision of the last-stage dies are controlled very tightly. Such applications are sometimes called precision forging. One form of precision forging is used to make coins. If you look closely at a newly manufactured coin, you can see very high quality details in the forging , usually, good quality coins may need between three and five stages of forging. This is because in coin-making, no lubricant or oil can be applied to the die surface, these may get trapped in the tiny cavities of the design and lead to poor feature definition in the forged coin.

1.9 Quality of forged parts Usually forged parts are much stronger/tougher than cast or machined parts made from the same material. This is because the hammering process arranges the micro-structure of the metal so that the crystal grains get aligned along the part profile. This leads to an increase in strength. It is therefore common to use forging to make parts that will carry very high stresses during their use, rather than casting.

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CHAPTER - 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

11 CHAPTER - 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Bending Operation A large percentage of sheet metal parts are bend along some lines to get them into the desired shape for use (for example, think of the metal case for a computer). The sheet metal part before it is bend is called a blank. Here, we shall also look at a special case of bending of wires or rods the reason this is interesting is that one of the most important mechanical components springs. Bending induces plastic deformation in the material, so the part retains its shape after the bending force is released. However, on studying the stress-strain curves for materials, you will notice that when a material is deformed into the plastic region and then released, some portion (the elastic part) of the strain is released. This phenomenon causes an action called spring back in the part that we want to bend. Thus, the bending dies must account for the spring-back. The top profile of the blank undergoes extension a thin element along the top surface will be longer after the bending than the initial length likewise, the bottom portion experiences compression. Thus, as we travel from the bottom to the top, there is some layer in the middle which retains its original length this forms the neutral axis. The location of the neutral axis, and therefore its length, determines the length of the blank we must begin with, in order to get the final part with the correct geometry.

12 2.1.1 Some issues in bending (i) Minimum bending radius and cracking When the bending radius is too small, the strain level on the outer layers is too high, and usually the top layer will undergo plastic deformation or cracking. If you keep bending, there will also be failure in buckling at the bottom. The engineering strain during bending is approximated as: Engineering strain in bending = e = 1 / (1 + 2R/T) Thus, as R/T decreases, stress increases and cracking begin. The minimum bend radius is the radius at which cracking begins it is expressed as a multiple of T i.e. a minimum bend radius = 3T for a sheet of 1mm means that the bend radius should be larger than 3mm to avoid cracking. (ii) Anisotropic properties Since most sheets used as blanks are formed by rolling, they have anisotropic properties (different yield strength along different directions). Thus, the orientation in which you cut the blank from the raw sheet may depend on the bending operations you will perform. Bending outcome is dependent on anisotropic structure In the above figure, you also see the Poisson effect. When a material is subjected to tensile stress, it elongates; however, due to the law of conservation of mass, the total volume remains the same, and therefore its cross section area decreases. This effect, called the Poisson effect, can be seen in the two ends of the bent metal piece in the figure. (iii) Spring back Recall from your stress-strain curves that when the stress is released, the all materials experience some elastic recovery. An approximate formula for spring back is given terms of the relation between the initial bending radius, R i, and the final bending radius (after spring back)

13 2.1.2 There are several methods to counter the effect of spring back (a) Compensation method here, the metal is bent by a larger angle, such that it springs back to the desired value namely, the desired angle of bending is set to Rf, and then, using the above formula, Ri is computed then the blank is bend to Ri. In most companies, some trial and error is required before the exact bending angle that gives the desired result is obtained. (b) Coining the bend: In this method, the bending is achieved by pushing with a punch, and letting the metal bend into a die at the end of the cycle, a relatively large squeezing force is exerted, which creates a permanent bend angle. Another bending operation is flanging the flange is usually a 90 bend of uniform width running along a border of a sheet. Take a look at the box covering your computer to see a practical example. 2.2 Basic Principles & Introduction of Hydraulics & Pneumatics Pneumatic cylinders are the devices for converting the air pressure into linear mechanical force and motion. They are basically used for single purpose applications such as clamping, tilting, bending, turning and many other applications. The Pneumatic power is converted to straight line reciprocating motion by pneumatic cylinders. The various industrial applications for which air cylinders are used can be divided duty wise into the groups. They are light duty, medium duty and heavy duty but according to the operating principle air cylinders can be sub divided as 1.single-acting, 2.Double- acting cylinders. Since our project is based on single acting cylinder we shall see deep about it. In a single-acting cylinder, compressed air is fed only in one side hence, this cylinder can produce work only in one direction the return movement of the piston is affected by a built in spring or by application of an external force the spring is designed to return the piston to its initial position with a sufficiently high speed.

14

Most industrial processes require substances to be transformed from one place to another. Also the final products should be shaped (or) compressed (or) held by applying a great force. Such activities are performed by using prime movers. The prime movers are operated by, (i) (ii) (iii) Electrical system Hydraulic system Pneumatic system.

In Electrical system, the rotary motion is provided by simple motors. The linear motions can be obtained by converting rotary motions with the aid of screw jack (or) Rack and pinion. In Hydraulic system, enclosed water (or) oil can be used to convey energy from one location to another. In Greek, hydra means water. In Pneumatic system, enclosed gas (normally compressed air) is used to transfer energy from one location to another. In Greek, Pneumatic means wind. 2.3 Fluid Power Fluid power technology is a means to convert, transmit, convert and apply fluid energy to perform useful work. Since a fluid can be either a liquid or a gas, fluid power in general includes and pneumatics and hydraulics. Oil hydraulics employs pressurized liquid and pneumatics employs compressed air. 2.3.1 General Application of Fluid Power Agriculture Construction Ships Aviation Defense Transportation : Farm equipment : Earth moving equipment, concrete mixing equipment : Controllable pitch propellers : Hydraulic retractable landing wheels : Missile launches system : Hydraulic elevators

15 Fabrication : Hydraulic presses for metal forming pneumatic hand tools, Injection moulding machine Fabrication Material handling : Hydraulic jacks hydraulic ram, conveyor system, Pneumatically operated packing warping and bottling Equipments Automation : Hydraulically operated machine tools, robots, Pneumatically Operated indexing holding gripping and feeding devices. 2.4 Pneumatics The word pneuma comes from Greek and means wind. The word pneumatics is the study of air movement and its phenomena is derived from the word pneuma. Today pneumatics is mainly understood to means the application of air as a working medium in industry especially the driving and controlling of machines and equipment. Pneumatics has for some considerable time between used for carrying out the simplest mechanical tasks in more recent times has Played a more important role in the development of pneumatic technology for automation. Pneumatic systems operate on a supply of compressed air which must be made available in sufficient quantity and at a pressure to suit the capacity of the system. When the pneumatic system is being adopted for the first time, however it wills indeed the necessary to deal with the question of compressed air supply. The key part of any facility for supply of compressed air is by means using reciprocating compressor. A compressor is a machine that takes in air, gas at a certain pressure and delivered the air at a high pressure. Compressor capacity is the actual quantity of air compressed and delivered and the volume expressed is that of that of the air at intake conditions namely at atmosphere pressure and normal ambient temperature.

16 The compressibility of the air was first investigated by Robot Boyle in 1962 and that found that the product of pressure and volumes of particular quantity of gas. The usual written as PV = C
(or)

P1V1 =P2V2

In this equation the pressure is the absolute pressured which for free is about 14.7 Psi and is of courage capable of maintaining a column of mercury, nearly 30 inches high in an ordinary barometer. Any gas can be used in pneumatic system but air is the mostly used system now a days. 2.4.1 Selection of Pneumatics Mechanization is broadly defined as the replacement of manual effort by mechanical power. Pneumatic is an attractive medium for low Cost mechanization particularly for sequential (or) repetitive operations. Many factories and plants already have a compressed air system, which is capable of providing the power (or) energy requirements and control system (although equally pneumatic control systems may be economic and can be advantageously applied to other forms of power. The main advantages of an all pneumatic system are usually Economic and simplicity the latter reducing maintenance to a low level. It can have out standing advantages in terms of safety. 2.4.2 Pneumatic Power Pneumatic systems use pressurized gases to transmit and control power. Pneumatic systems typically use air as the fluid medium because air is safe, low cost and readily available.

17 2.4.3 The Advantages of Pneumatics 1. Air used in pneumatic systems can be directly exhausted back in to the surrounding environment and hence the need of special reservoirs and no-leak system designs are eliminated. 2. Pneumatic systems are simple and economical 3. Control of pneumatic systems is easy 2.4.4 Production of Compressed Air Pneumatic systems operate on a supply of compressed air, which must be made available. In sufficient quantity and at a pressure to suit the capacity of the system. When pneumatic system is being adopted for the first time, however it wills indeed the necessary to deal with the question of compressed air supply. The key part of any facility for supply of compressed air is by means using reciprocating compressor. A compressor is a machine that takes in air, gas at a certain pressure and delivered the air at a high pressure. Compressor capacity is the actual quantity of air compressed and delivered and the volume expressed is that of the air at intake conditions namely at atmosphere pressure and normal ambient temperature. Clean condition of the suction air is one of the factors, which decides the life of a compressor. Warm and moist suction air will result increased precipitation of condense from the compressed air. 2.4.5 Compressor may be classified in to Two Types 1. Positive displacement compressor 2. Turbo compressor Positive displacement compressors are most frequently employed for compressed air plant and have proved highly successful and supply air for pneumatic control application.

18 Turbo compressors are employed where large of air required at low discharge pressures. They cannot attain pressure necessary for pneumatic control application unless built in multistage designs and are seldom encountered in pneumatic service. 2.4.6 The types of Positive Compressor 1. Reciprocating type compressor 2. Rotary type compressor 2.4.7 Reciprocating Compressors Built for either stationary (or) portable service the reciprocating compressor is by far the most common type. Reciprocating compressors lap be had is sizes from the smallest capacities to deliver more than 500m3/min.In single stage compressor, the air pressure may be of 6 bar machines discharge of pressure is up to 15bars. Discharge pressure in the range of 250bars can be obtained with high pressure reciprocating compressors that of three & four stages. Single stage and 1200 stage models are particularly suitable for applications, with preference going to the two stage design as soon as the discharge pressure exceeds 6 bars, because it in capable of matching the performance of single stage machine at lower costs per driving powers in the range.

19

20

CHAPTER - 3

COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION

CHAPTER - 3

COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION

3. COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION This project work, FABRICATION OF U-TYPE, V-TYPE & L-TYPE ANGLE
BENDING MACHINE we deal with the bending of U-shaped metal rod is carried

with the help of pneumatic cylinder arrangement. The project is designed by the following equipments, Pneumatic Cylinder Solenoid valve compressor Electronic control unit Fixture Mechanical model Hoses Pressure Gauge Connectors 3.1 Pneumatic Cylinder Pneumatic cylinders are the devices for converting the air pressure into linear mechanical force and motion. They are basically used for single purpose

21 applications such as clamping, tilting, bending, turning and many other applications. The Pneumatic power is converted to straight line reciprocating motion by pneumatic cylinders. The various industrial applications for which air cylinders are used can be divided duty wise into the groups. They are light duty, medium duty and heavy duty but according to the operating principle air cylinders can be sub divided as 1.single-acting, 2.Double- acting cylinders. Since our project is based on single acting cylinder we shall see deep about it. In a single-acting cylinder, compressed air is fed only in one side hence, this cylinder can produce work only in one direction the return movement of the piston is affected by a builtin spring or by application of an external force the spring is designed to return the piston to its initial position with a sufficiently high speed. 3.1.1 Selection of Pneumatics Mechanization is broadly defined as the replacement of manual effort by mechanical power. Pneumatics is an attractive medium for low cost mechanization particularly for sequential or repetitive operation. Many factories and plants already have a compressed air system, which is capable of providing both the power or energy requirements and the control system (although equally pneumatic control system may be economic and can be advantageously applied to other forms of power). The main advantages of an all- pneumatic system are usually economy and simplicity, the latter reducing maintenance to a low level. It can also have outstanding advantages in terms of safety. The single acting pneumatic cylinder consists of the following components to the requirements of complete operation of the machine. 1. Piston

22 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Cylinder An air cylinder is an operating device in which the state input energy of compressed air i.e., pneumatic power is converted into mechanical output power by reducing the pressure of air to that of atmosphere Ram It is an output device when the pressure inside the cylinder exceeds the limit the ram actuates. This actuation is used for the operation. End plate End plates are connected to both the ends of the cylinder. Pressure acts mainly on both the end plates. It is made up of ms plate. Nipple Air from the compressor is passed through the nipple in to the cylinder it is made up of mild steel Stud and nut It is used to connect two plates or some members of the setup. Here stud and nut are used to connect the plates Spring Open coil spring is used in this system. Piston Cylinder Ram End plate Return spring Nipple

23 It is the main component which is placed inside the cylinder. It is used to force the ram in and out by the action of compressed air. 3.2 Pneumatic Valves To control pneumatic actuator the air energy has to be regulated controlled and reversed with a pre determined sequence. These are done by pneumatic valve. In this project work, we have been used direction valve for getting forward and reverse action 3.2.1 Types of Pneumatic Valves 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Direction control valve Pneumatic valve Flow control valve Pneumatic shuttle valve Two pressure valve Quick return valve Time delay valve.

In this project work, we have been used direction valve for getting forward and reverse action 3.2.2 Direction Valve Direction control valves are used to direct the flow of the pressurized fluid in the desired direction. The main functions of these valves are to start, stop and regulate the direction of air flow and to help in the distribution of air in the desired line. The different types of direction control valves are spool type, pop pet type, seat type etc. 1. Two-way valve This is an on-off type of device. This valve is usually provided with two external flow ports, a supply port and an exhaust port. A normally open two-way

24 valve permits flow in its normal or in its rest position and blocks flow when actuated. The normally closed valve blocks flow in its normal position and permits flow when actuated. 2. Three-way valve In this, one flow port is connected to either of the other two ports. It may be used alternatively to pressurized one port and exhaust the other port. These valves can be used as a pilot relay to operate the other valves. These valves may be used to control single acting cylinders or in pairs to control double acting cylinders. 3. Four-way valve Four-way valves have two working ports, a supply port and an exhaust port. In one position the valve allows air to flow from the supply source to one of the working ports. Simultaneously air is allowed to flow from the other working port to the exhaust. When the valve is shifted, the flow paths are reversed. 4. Five-way valve In certain designs of direction control valves, five ports are preferred instead of four ports. This permits the use of either dual supply or dual exhaust. A fiveport version provides the same basic control of flow paths as a four-port version. In addition, dual supply ports permit the use of different pressure for the cylinder movement. Dual exhaust enables easy exhaustion of the valve. 3.2.3 Solenoid Valve (or) Cut off Valve The control valve is used to control the flow direction is called cut off valve or solenoid valve. This solenoid valve is controlled by the electronic control unit. In our project separate solenoid valve is used for flow direction of vice cylinder. It is used to flow the air from compressor to the single acting cylinder.

25 3.2.4 Flow control valve In any fluid power circuit, flow control valve is used to control the speed of actuator. The flow control can be achieved by varying the area of flow through which the air in passing. When area is increased, more quantity of air will be sent to actuator as a result its speed will increase. If the quantity of air entering into the actuator is reduced, the speed of the actuator is reduced. 3.2.5 Pressure control valve The main function of the pressure control valve is to limit (or)Control the pressure required in a pneumatic circuit. Depending upon the method of controlling they are classified as 1. Pressure relief valve 2. Pressure reducing valve 3.2.6 Solenoid Valve The directional valve is one of the important parts of a pneumatic system. Commonly known as DCV this valve is used to control the direction of air flow in the pneumatic system. The directional valve does this by changing the position of its internal movable parts. This valve was selected for speedy operation and to reduce the manual effort and also for the modification of the machine into automatic machine by means of using a solenoid valve. A solenoid is an electrical device that converts electrical energy into straight line motion and force. These are also used to operate a mechanical operation which in turn operates the valve mechanism. Solenoid is one is which the plunger is pulled when the solenoid is energized. The name of the parts of the solenoid should be learned so that they can be recognized when called upon to make repairs, to do service work or to install them.

26 3.2.7 Parts of a Solenoid Valve 1. Coil The solenoid coil is made of copper wire. The layers of wire are separated by insulating layer. The entire solenoid coil is covered with a varnish that is not affected by solvents, moisture, cutting oil or often fluids. Coils are rated in various voltages such as 115 volts AC, 230volts AC, 460volts Ac, 575 Volts AC.6Volts DC, 12Volts DC, 24 Volts DC, 115 Volts DC &230Volts DC. They are designed for such Frequencies as 50Hz to 60Hz. 2. Frame The solenoid frame serves several purposes. Since it is made of laminated sheets, it is magnetized when the current passes through the coil. The magnetized coils attract the metal plunger to move. The frame has provisions for attaching the mounting. They are usually bolted or welded to the frame. The frame has provisions for receivers, the plunger. The wear strips are mounted to the solenoid frame, and are made of materials such as metal or impregnated less Fiber cloth.

Figure 3.2.3 Solenoid Valve

3. Solenoid plunger The solenoid plunger is the mover mechanism of the solenoid. The plunger is made of steel laminations which are riveted together under high

27 pressure, so that there will be no movement of the lamination with respect to one another. At the top of the plunger a pin hole is placed for making a connection to some device. The solenoid plunger is moved by a magnetic force in one direction and is usually returned by spring action. Solenoid operated valves are usually provided with cover either the solenoid or the entire valve. This protects the solenoid from dirt and other foreign matter, and protects the actuator. In many applications it is necessary to use explosion proof solenoids. 3.2.8 Working of Solenoid Valve The solenoid valve has 5 openings. These ensure easy exhausting of 5/2Valve, the spool of the 5/2 valve slide inside the main bore according to spool position: the ports get connected and disconnected. The working principle is as follows, Position-1 When the spool is actuated towards outer direction port P gets Connected to B and S remains closed while A gets connected to R. Position-2 When the spool is pushed in the inner direction port P and A Gets connected to each other and B to S while port R remains closed. 3.3 Air Compressor

28

Figure 3.3 Types of compressors

3.3.1 Types of compressors Centrifugal compressors Diagonal or mixed-flow compressors Axial-flow compressors Reciprocating compressors Rotary screw compressors Rotary vane compressors Scroll compressors

The Main Types of Gas Compressors are, 3.3.2 Centrifugal Compressor Centrifugal compressors use a rotating disk or impeller in a shaped housing to force the gas to the rim of the impeller, increasing the velocity of the

29 gas. A diffuser (divergent duct) section converts the velocity energy to pressure energy. They are primarily used for continuous, stationary service in industries such as oil refineries, chemical and petrochemical plants and natural gas processing plants. Their application can be from 100 horsepower (75 kW) to thousands of horsepower. With multiple staging, they can achieve extremely high output pressures greater than 10,000 psi (69 MPa). Many large snow-making operations (like sky resorts) use this type of compressor. They are also used in internal combustion engines as superchargers and turbochargers. Centrifugal compressors are used in small gas turbine engines or as the final compression stage of medium sized gas turbines. 3.3.3 Mixed Flow Compressor Diagonal or mixed-flow compressors are similar to centrifugal

compressors, but have a radial and axial velocity component at the exit from the rotor. The diffuser is often used to turn diagonal flow to the axial direction. The diagonal compressor has a lower diameter diffuser than the equivalent centrifugal compressor. 3.3.4 Axial Flow Compressor Axial-flow compressors are dynamic rotating compressors that use arrays of fan-like airfoils to progressively compress the working fluid. They are used where there is a requirement for a high flow rate or a compact design. The arrays of airfoils are set in rows, usually as pairs one rotating and one stationary. The rotating airfoils, also known as blades or rotors, accelerate the fluid. The stationary airfoils, also known as a stators or vanes, decelerate and

30 redirect the flow direction of the fluid, preparing it for the rotor blades of the next stage. Axial compressors are almost always multi-staged, with the crosssectional area of the gas passage diminishing along the compressor to maintain an optimum axial Mach number. Beyond about 5 stages or a 4:1 design pressure ratio, variable geometry is normally used to improve operation. Axial compressors can have high efficiencies around 90% polytrophic at their design conditions. However, they are relatively expensive, requiring a large number of components, tight tolerances and high quality materials. Axial-flow compressors can be found in medium to large gas turbine engines, in natural gas pumping stations, and within certain chemical plants. 3.3.5 Reciprocating Compressor A motor-driven six-cylinder reciprocating compressor that can operate with two, four or six cylinders. Reciprocating compressors use pistons driven by a crankshaft. They can be either stationary or portable, can be single or multistaged, and can be driven by electric motors or internal combustion engines. Small reciprocating compressors from 5 to 30 horsepower (hp) are commonly seen in automotive applications and are typically for intermittent duty. Larger reciprocating compressors well over 1,000 hp (750 kW) are still commonly found in large industrial and petroleum applications. Discharge pressures can range from low pressure to very high pressure (>6000 psi or 41.4 MPa). In certain applications, such as air compression, multi-stage double-acting compressors are said to be the most efficient compressors available, and are typically larger, noisier, and more costly than comparable rotary units. Another type of reciprocating compressor is the swash plate compressor, which uses pistons which are moved by a swash plate mounted on a shaft.

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3.3.6 Rotary Screw Compressor Rotary screw compressors use two meshed rotating positive-displacement helical screws to force the gas into a smaller space. These are usually used for continuous operation in commercial and industrial applications and may be either stationary or portable. Their application can be from 3 horsepower (2.2 kW) to over 1,200 horsepower (890 kW) and from low pressure to very high pressure (>1200 psi or 8.3 MPa). 3.3.7 Rotary Vane Compressor Rotary vane compressors consist of a rotor with a number of blades inserted in radial slots in the rotor. The rotor is mounted offset in a larger housing which can be circular or a more complex shape. As the rotor turns, blades slide in and out of the slots keeping contact with the outer wall of the housing. Thus, a series of decreasing volumes is created by the rotating blades. Rotary Vane compressors are, with piston compressors one of the oldest of compressor technologies. With suitable port connections, the devices may be either a compressor or a vacuum pump. They can be either stationary or portable, can be single or multi-staged, and can be driven by electric motors or internal combustion engines. Dry vane machines are used at relatively low pressures (e.g., 2 bar) for bulk material movement whilst oil-injected machines have the necessary volumetric efficiency to achieve pressures up to about 13 bar in a single stage. A rotary vane compressor is well suited to electric motor drive and is significantly quieter in operation than the equivalent piston compressor.

3.3.8 Scroll Compressor Mechanism of a scroll pump

32 A scroll compressor, also known as scroll pump and scroll vacuum pump, uses two interleaved spiral-like vanes to pump or compress fluids such as liquids and gases. The vane geometry may be involutes, Archimedean spiral, or hybrid curves. They operate more smoothly, quietly, and reliably than other types of compressors in the lower volume range often, one of the scrolls is fixed, while the other orbits eccentrically without rotating, there by trapping and pumping or compressing pockets of fluid or gas between the scrolls. This type of compressor was used as the supercharger on Volkswagen G60 and G40 engines in the early 1990's.

3.4 Pressure Gauge Pressure gauges are usually fitted with the regulators. So the air Pressure adjusted in the regulator is indicated in the pressure Gauge is the line pressure of the air taken to the cylinder. 3.5 Hoses Hoses used in this pneumatic system are made up of polyurethane. These hose can with stand at a maximum pressure level of 10 x105N / m2 3.6 Connectors In our system there are two type of connectors used. One is the Hose connector and the other is the reducer. Hose connectors normally comprise an adopt hose nipple and cap nut. These types of connectors are made up of brass (or) aluminum (or) hardened pneumatic steel. 3.7 Control Unit In pneumatic punching device is an air-operated device used for many small operations. It is a portable one. Compressed air is the source of energy for this device. The compressed air is used for punching operation. Here the compressed air form the compressor firstly enters the Control unit.

33 In the control unit the pressure of the air is controlled and sent to the barrel to move the piston, which in turn moves the punching die. The gate valve controls the pressure volume of air. The control unit is control the whole unit of this project. In the controller consist of microcontroller.

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CHAPTER - 4

DESIGN ASPECTS
CHAPTER - 4

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DESIGN ASPECTS
4.1 Factors Determining the Choice of Materials The various factors which determine the choice of material are discussed below. 4.1.1 Properties The material selected must process the necessary properties for the proposed application. The various requirements to be satisfied can be weight, surface finish, rigidity, ability to withstand environmental attack from chemicals, service life, reliability etc. The following four types of principle properties of materials decisively affect their selection a. Physical b. Mechanical c. From manufacturing point of view d. Chemical The various physical properties concerned are melting point, Thermal Conductivity, Specific heat, coefficient of thermal expansion, specific gravity, electrical Conductivity, Magnetic Properties etc., The various Mechanical properties concerned are strength in tensile, compressive, shear, bending, tensional and buckling load, fatigue resistance, impact resistance, elastic limit, endurance limit, and modulus of elasticity, hardness, wear resistance and sliding properties.

36 4.1.2 The various properties concerned from the manufacturing point of view are. Cast ability, Weld ability, Bras ability, Forge ability, Merchantability, Surface properties, Shrinkage, Deep drawing etc.

4.2 Manufacturing Case Sometimes the demand for lowest possible manufacturing cost or surface qualities obtainable by the application of suitable coating substances may demand the use of special materials.

4.3 Quality Required This generally affects the manufacturing process and ultimately the material. For example, it would never be desirable to go for casting of a less number of components which can be fabricated much more economically by welding or hand forging the steel.

4.4 Availability of Material Some materials may be scarce or in short supply. It then becomes obligatory for the designer to use some other material which though may not be a

37 perfect substitute for the material designed. The delivery of materials and the delivery date of product should also be kept in mind. 4.5. Space Consideration Sometimes high strength materials have to be selected because the forces involved are high and the space limitations are there. 4.6. Cost As in any other problem, in selection of material the cost of material plays an important part and should not be ignored. in the selection of proper materials. Some times factors like scrap utilization, appearance, and non-maintenance of the designed part are involved

4.7 Technical Specification 4.7.1 Solenoid Valve Type Volts Watts Model Max Pr. : : : : : AC11A. 220V, AC 50HZ. 6 W. E12614 A. 10 N/m2.

4.7.2 Hydraulic Cylinder Stroke Length Piston Rod Diameter Pump Shaft Diameter Piston Type Media Pressure angle Pressure range : 160 mm (or) 0.16 m : 12 mm (or) 0.012 m : 6 mm (or) 0.006 m. : EN-8. : Air : 0 10oc. : 184.82 x 10-5 N/m2.

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4.7.3 Connectors Maximum Pressure Outer Diameter Inner Diameter Media Material Max.Temperture : 250 N/m2. : 13 mm (or) 0.013 m. : 10 mm (or) 0.01 m. : oil. : Polyethylene. : 0 15oc.

4.8 Process Chart

Part Name Cylinder bore Pneumatic Cylinder Ram End plate / Gas cutting Stud Guide

Machining operation Boring, hack sawing, Reaming. Turning, Grooving, Drilling, Tapping Turning, Facing, Thread forming Grinding, Shaping, grooving, Drilling Turning, Threading Facing, chamfering, and welding.

Table 4.8 Process chart

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CHAPTER - 5

40

WORKING PRINCIPLE
CHAPTER - 5

WORKING PRINCIPLE
5.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE

Figure 5 Block diagram

The working of the process is fully pneumatic operated where the air is the working medium. In this unit compressor is used to supply the compressed air at

41 certain pressure. This pressurized air is passed to the solenoid valve. The solenoid valve is controlled by control unit. This solenoid valve is used to control the direction of flow of air to the pneumatic cylinder. In this pneumatic cylinder the piston rod actuates due to the pressure. At the end of piston rod bending tool is attached. So that tool bends the rod into required U shape. Thus the work piece clamped on the frame is bending due to the reciprocating motion of the bend. The next position air enters to the other side of cylinder and pushes the piston return back, so that the releasing stroke is obtained, With the help of Pneumatic ram the object can be bend desired shape.

5.2 LIST OF MATERIALS

S.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Parts Double Acting Pneumatic Cylinder Solenoid Valve Actuating Rod Electronic control Unit Fixture Chassis (Frame) Hosses Air Compressor

Quantity 01 01 01 01 01 01 4 meter 01

Material Aluminum Aluminum Mild Steel Electronic Mild Steel Mild steel Polyurethane Mild Steel

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Connecters

06

Brass

Table 5.2 List of Materials

5.3 Cost Estimation 5.3.1 MATERIAL COST SL.NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 PARTS Double Acting Pneumatic Cylinder Solenoid Valve Actuating Rod Electronic control Unit Fixture Chassis (Frame) Hosses Air Compressor Connecters Total Cost
Table 5.3.1 Material Cost

QUANTITY 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 meter 1 6

MATERIAL Aluminum Aluminum Mild Steel Electronic Mild Steel Mild steel Polyurethane Mild Steel Brass

AMOUNT (Rs) 1,100.00 625.00 250.00 1,250.00 550.00 250.00 350.00 625.00 50.00 5,050.00

5.3.2 LABOUR COST

43 S.No 1 Process Lathe, drilling, welding, grinding, gas cutting

Table 5.3.2 Labour Cost

Amount (Rs) 100

Total cost

= = =

Material Cost + Labor Cost 5,050.00 + 100.00 Rs. 5,150.OO

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CHAPTER 6

MERITS, DEMERITS & APPLICATIONS

CHAPTER 6

MERITS, DEMERITS & APPLICATIONS

6.1 MERITS 6.2 DEMERITS While working, the compressed air produces noise therefore a silencer may be used. High torque can not be obtained. Load carrying capacity of this unit is not very high (<50 N) The pneumatic is more efficient in the technical field. Quick response is achieved. Simple in construction. Easy to maintain and repair. Cost of the unit is less when compared to other machine. No fire hazard problem due to over loading. Comparatively the operation cost is less. Continuous operation is possible without stopping.

6.3 APPLICATIONS This machine is very useful for small scale industries

45 All industrial application

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CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION
This project work has given an excellent opportunity and experience, to use our limited knowledge. We gained a lot of practical knowledge regarding, planning, purchasing, assembling and machining while doing this project work. We feel that the project work is a good solution to bridge in between institution and industries. This report deals with the design and fabrication of pneumatic Bearing press and its principle is attached with the line diagram.. The pneumatic system can be found in almost all industries fields. However some of the industrial application is punching, clamping, materials handling, hammering throughout the project period we gained knowledge on all type of machining Process and pneumatic system is controlled. We have done to our ability and skill making maximum use of available facilities. In the future, by using more techniques, the pneumatic press can be modified and developed according to the applications.

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48

BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Gupta J.K & Khurumi R.S (1981) Text Book Of Machine Design, S.Chand & Comp. Parr.Andrew (2003) Hydraulic & Pneumatics Butterworth Heimann Ltd Dr.D.K.Aggarval & Dr.P.C Sharma(2004) Machine Design Majumdar.S.R Pneumatic Systems, TATA MCGRAW-HILLS COMPANY Ltd. Srinivasan.R (2004) Hydraulic & Pneumatic Controls, Vijay Nicole Imprints Private Ltd. Strength of materials, I.B.Prasad

Web pages: www.Pdfsearchengine.com www.springerlink.com www.altavista.com

49 www.google.com/books www.scribd.com www.manuals-search-engine.com

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Photographs