Topic 5- on the wild Side

1. Carry out calculations of net primary productivity and explain the relationship between gross primary productivity (GPP), net primary productivity (NPP) and plant respiration.
The Gross Primary Productivity is the amount of energy produced by a plant while the Net Primary Productivity is the potential energy the plant has stored. The energy difference between the two is the energy spent by the plant to respire as the plant can't photosynthesise properly 24hrs a day. We can therefore summits that the Heat lost due to Respiration (thermal energy) = GPP - NPP.

2. Calculate the efficiency of energy transfers between trophic levels.

When calculating the energy transfer between tropic levels we focus on the NPP of the organisms. First subtract the respiration from the GPP to get the NPP of say a plant. Then you may be given either the energy gained by the (let's say it's a) antelope (they're pretty coo') or you could be given the efficiency of the animal. Using the efficiency as a percentage you can calculate how much of the NPP is stored by the antelope as opposed to how much is excreted or wasted. If you know the amount stored then you can now work out the efficiency by taking the Energy Stored / NPP of Plant x 100 = Efficiency (%).

3. Discuss how understanding the carbon cycle can lead to methods to reduce atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide (including the use of bio fuels and reforestation).
The diagram below shows how the carbon compounds in the atmosphere and dissolved in water bodies is absorbed and is incorporated into the food chain by photosynthesis. The carbon dioxide is then returned to the atmosphere when the plants and animals respire or they die and the decay by microorganisms releases more carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere. Left to itself the carbon cycle is self regulating as the amount of carbon dioxide released by respiration and other natural processes is the same as the amount absorbed by photosynthesis. What are the Human influences? In the past humans were probably fairly carbon-neutral however the increase in carbon dioxide produced by people since the industrial resolution joined with the manufacture of the car engine is threatening the balance of the carbon cycle. Carbon sinks Reservoirs where carbon is removed from the atmosphere and 'locked up' in organic or inorganic compounds.

Carbon is stored in the bodies of organisms whilst they are alive. The soil also contains humus (dead organic matter). Rocks such as limestone and chalk and fossil fuels hold vast stores of carbon.

Oceans contain around 50 times more dissolved inorganic carbon than is present in the atmosphere. This carbon dioxide is continually being exchanged at the air-water surface. Carbon dioxide in the water is taken up by photosynthesising organisms. A large amount of carbon is also stored in the shells as calcium carbonate of marine organisms. By lowering the amount of carbon dioxide in the water they make it possible for more carbon dioxide from the air to be dissolved in the water.

4. Explain that the numbers and distribution of organisms in a habitat are controlled by biotic and abiotic factors.
An ecosystem is the result of an infinitely complex series of interactions between the abiotic environment and the biotic community. The abiotic environment includes the microclimate, relief, aspect and geology of an area. The biotic community encompasses the range of organisms living in a given area and all their interactions with other organisms be that interor intra-specific competition and their environment.

5. Explain how the concept of niche accounts for distribution and abundance of organisms in a habitat.
Niche is a fancy way of saying an animals specialisation. For example a cow will not be found in the forest or in a cave. A cow is a grass eater and there its distribution is mainly on grasslands. A bat is a nocturnal animal and needs shelter in a dark room for the day. Now abundance again an apex predator like lions have a very broad distribution in a habitat more so then cows and bats. But if there would be more tigers then prey then ecosystem would collapse so abundance is low. An insect has also a very large habitat if you count them as species that is. Because they rely on rotting organic matter as substance there abundance is great.

6. Describe the concept of succession to a climax community.

Ecological succession is defined as a series of transitions in species composition over ecological time. The process of succession is termed primary succession when it involves establishment of a community in a newly-formed habitat where even soil does not exist, such as on a volcanic island or on the rubble left behind by a retreating glacier - imagine Long Island just after the last glaciers receded - the process of a community of organisms becoming established on the pile of bare rock that formed the island would be an example of primary succession. Secondary succession occurs when an existing community has been cleared by some disturbance that leaves the soil intact and a new community gradually develops in the area opened by the disturbance. The re-growth of plant communities following forest fires is one example of secondary succession. The development of a community of species following human disturbances like construction or logging would be another good example. A climax community is a late succession stage that is far more stable than its predecessors. This means that the community observed at this stage will persist for longer and have less of a tendency to alter its environment in a manner injurious to itself. Climax communities are expected to persist so long as climate, geography, and other major environmental factors go unchanged and so long as it remains undisturbed by humans or other "unnatural" influences.

Suggest why the type of plant community growing on a bing changes over time.
Succession described: 1. Reference to lichens and mosses as pioneer community 2. Able to grow in {little / no} soil 3. That breaks up (rock) fragments / forms thin / shallow soil 4. Reference to plants with small / short roots 5. Able to grow in thin soil 6. Idea that changes in soil structure enables trees / shrubs to grow General points: 7. Reference to soil able to {hold / retain / contain / water / minerals 8. As plants lose leaves / die / decay 9. Reference to {organic matter / humus increases / released 10. Reference to competition effects After 100 years, the community on a bing becomes stable. State the term used to describe this type of community and explain why it is stable 1. Climax community Any three from: 2. Includes both animals and plants / has many species / has high biodiversity 3. Reference to interaction between species 4. Idea of balanced equilibrium of species 5. Reference to dominant / co-dominant plant or animal species 6. Reference to stable if no {change to environment / human influence

7. Describe the structure of chloroplasts in relation to their role in photosynthesis.

Thylakoid: LDR (Light-dependent reaction) takes place, contains chlorophyll and other photosynthetic pigments, electron carriers Granum: A stack of thylakoids joined to one another - provides site for LDR. Large surface area. Stroma: Fluid surrounding thylakoids, site of the LIR (Light-independent reaction) + contains all enzymes for LIR (including RuBisCO) Thylakoid space: Fluid within the thylakoid membrane sacs, contains enzymes for photolysis of water Outer Membrane: Smooth, freely permeable to molecules like Carbon Dioxide and Water, many open channel proteins Inner Membrane: Contain transporter molecules e.g. sugars and protein. Permeable to many substances which need to enter or leave the cell.

Explain how oxygen is produced during the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis

Usage of photolysis - splitting of water using the energy from light

8. Describe the overall reaction of photosynthesis as requiring energy from light to split apart the strong bonds in water molecules, storing the hydrogen in a fuel (glucose) by combining it with carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen into the atmosphere. 6 CO2 + 6 H2O ----light---> C6 H12 O6 + 6 O2

9. Describe the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis including how light energy is trapped by exciting electrons in chlorophyll and the role of these electrons in generating ATP, and reducing NADP in photophosphorylation (production of ATP using light) and producing oxygen through photolysis of water.
Takes place in the thylakoid membrane. The light energy is absorbed by pigment used to excite electrons which leaves the ps2 down the electron transport chain converting that energy to ATP. It is used to add inorganic phosphate to ADP to form ATP. Reduce NADP to form reduced NADP. The ATP transfer energy and reduced NADP transfer hydrogen to light independent stage. Water get oxidised to oxygen. 2 types: cyclic PS1, non-cyclic: PS1 and 2. Non-cyclic: light hitting PS2 Cyclic photophosphorylation involves only Photosystem I and generates ATP but not NADPH. As the electrons from the reaction centre of Photosystem I are picked up by the electron transport chain, they are transported back to the reaction centre chlorophyll. As the electrons are transported down the electron transport chain, some of the energy released is used to pump protons across the

thylakoid membrane from the stroma of the chloroplast to the thylakoid interior space producing a proton gradient or proton motive force. As the accumulating protons in the thylakoid interior space pass back across the thylakoid membrane to the stroma through ATP synthase, this energy is used to generate ATP from ADP and Pi. During cyclic photophosphorylation, electrons from photosystem - I are not passed to NADP from the electron acceptor. Instead the electrons are transferred back to P700. This downhill movement of electrons from an electron acceptor to P700 results in the formation of ATP and this is termed as cyclic photophosphorylation. It is very important to note that oxygen and NADPH2 are not formed during cycle photophosphorylation.

Non - Cyclic Photophosphorylation

The electrons lost by P680 (PS-II) are taken up by P700 (PS-I) and do not get back to P680. The electrons pass through the electron transport chain and finally to P700.The electrons given out by P700 are taken up by primary acceptor and are ultimately passed on to NADP. The electrons combine with H+ and reduce NADP to NADPH2. The hydrogen ions also called protons are made available by splitting up of water (Photolysis). Non-cyclic photophosphorylation needs a constant supply of water molecules. The net result of non-cyclic phosphorylation is the formation of oxygen, NADPH and ATP molecules. Oxygen is produced as a waste product of photosynthesis

Comparison of Non-cyclic Photophosphorylation and Cyclic Photophosphorylation

10. Describe how phosphorylation of ADP requires energy and how hydrolysis of ATP provides an immediate supply of energy for biological processes.
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) consists of adenine (an organic base), ribose (a 5 carbon sugar) and 3 phosphate groups. The third phosphate group is only loosely bonded to the second phosphate group and so is easily removed. When this phosphate group is removed adenosine diphosphate (ADP) is formed. Once removed the phosphate group becomes hydrated and forms bonds with the surrounding water molecules. Energy is released as these bonds form energy is released and used to drive some of the reactions within the cell. ATPase catalyses the breakdown of ATP to ADP. ATP in water --> ADP + hydrated P + energy. (P = inorganic phosphate) ATP is created from ADP by the addition of an inorganic phosphate. This is known as phosphorylation. To make ATP the phosphate must be removed from the water which takes energy. ATP in water is higher in energy than ADP and phosphate ions in water. This means that ATP is a way of storing chemical potential energy. Formation of ATP separates the phosphate and water. The phosphate and water can then be brought together in an energy-yielding reaction each time the energy is needed for reactions within the cell. In this way ATP transfers energy around the cell.

11. Describe the light-independent reactions as reduction of carbon dioxide using the products of the light-dependent reactions (carbon fixation in the Calvin cycle, the role of GP, GALP, RuBP and RUBISCO) and describe the products as simple sugars that are used by plants, animals and other organisms in respiration and the synthesis of new biological molecules (including polysaccharides, amino acids, lipids and nucleic acids). 3 Stages:
Carbonation (carbon fixation) using rubp in co2 enter leaves into stomata Reduction Regeneration http://preuniversity.grkraj.org/html/7_PHOTOSYNTHESIS.htm

The Calvin Cycle takes place in the stroma is the process by which plants fix carbon to enable the conversion of 5 Carbon molecules (RuBP) and CO2 to become 6C molecules like Glucose. The first stage in the cycle is the fixing of CO2 and RuBP using the enzyme RuBisCo. This means there is now an unstable 6C molecule. This splits into two 3C molecules of Glycerate-3Phosphate that both become reduced by two. Reduced NADP (the product of the LDR). The energy required to do this is funded by 2 ATP molecules (also from LDR) and the new sugars are Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate (3C still). The final part of the cycle is very important to remember as it has 2 branches, the finished 6C Glucose and the original 5C Ribulose Bisphosphate which is used to repeat the cycle. Without recycling the RuBP the cycle can't continue and the Photosynthesis will stop. Every 3 cycles produces a profit of 1 Triose Phosphate for use in photosynthesis 1 Carbon dioxide combines with a 5-carbon compound called RuBP. This reaction is catalysed by the enzyme RuBISCO, the most abundant enzyme in the world. 2 The 6-carbon compound formed is unstable and immediately breaks down into two 3carbon molecules, glycerate 3-phosphate (GP). 3 This 3-carbon compound is reduced to form a 3-carbon sugar phosphate called GALP. The hydrogen for the reduction comes from the reduced NADP from the light dependent reactions. ATP from the light-dependent reactions provides the energy required for the reaction. 4 Two out of every 12 GALPs formed are involved in the creation of a 6-carbon sugar (hexose) which can be converted to other organic compounds, for example amino acids or lipids 5 Ten out of every 12 GALPs are involved in the recreation of RuBP. The ten GALP molecules rearrange to form six 5-carbon compounds; then phosphorylation using ATP forms RuBP. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)

Used in respiration to produce carbon dioxide, water and energy

Glucose from Calvin cycle

Amino acids (to make proteins)

Starch (storage), cellulose (wall) Lipids (waterproofing and storage Proteins (enzymes, and in membranes)

12. Describe how to carry out a study on the ecology of a habitat to produce valid and reliable data (including the use of quadrats and transects to assess abundance and distribution of organisms and the measurement of abiotic factors, eg solar energy input, climate, topography, oxygen availability and edaphic factors).

13. Outline the causes of global warming including the role of greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide and methane, CH4) in the greenhouse effect.
Global warming is caused by human activities: like burning fossil fuels, farming and deforestation. The greenhouse effect is essential to keep the planet warm but too much greenhouse gas in the atmosphere means the planet warms up. Main greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide and methane: Atmospheric CO2 conc. has increased as more fossil fuels like coal, oil; natural gas and petrol are burnt. Also by the destruction of natural sinks (things that keep CO2 out of the atmosphere by storing carbon). E.g. trees are a big CO sink they store carbon as organic compounds. CO2 is released when trees are burnt or when decomposers break down the organic compound and respire them. Atmospheric methane conc. Has increased because more methane is bring released into the atmosphere because more fossils fuels are being extracted, there is more decaying waste and there are more cattle which give off methane as a waste gas. Also it can be released from natural stores. E.g. frozen ground (permafrost). As temperatures increase it is thought these stores will thaw and release large amounts of methane into the atmosphere.

Greenhouse Effect

1. Radiation from the Sun reaches the Earth; some is reflected back into space by the
atmosphere and by the Earth and some is absorbed by the atmosphere. 2. Infrared radiation is felt as heat, when this reaches the Earth's surface it is absorbed by the Earth and reradiated at a longer wavelength. 3. Some of the reradiated radiation is absorbed and again reradiated back to Earth's surface by the greenhouse gas molecules in the atmosphere. 4. This maintains the surface temperature of the Earth at a higher level suitable for life. However the problem becomes when extra greenhouse gas molecules reflect more radiation back to the Earth which heats the surface up even more that the current temperatures. Greenhouse gases - Carbon dioxide, methane, water vapour Methane: Has a 72 times greater effect on warming than carbon dioxide. Main sources:

Decay of organic material-bacteria in waterlogged paddy field soil- levels of rice production has been increasing so more bacteria releasing methane. Digestion of ruminant herbivores- Human population is growing so more food is required from herbivores. Especially cattle. Therefore more methane from extra ruminants.

Naturally breaks down high in the atmosphere through a series of reactions in carbon dioxide and water.

Many scientists think there is a link between global warming and increased levels of carbon dioxide and methane in the upper atmosphere. Most organisms

are found in regions where the temperature range is between 0 C and 40 C at the Earths surface. (a) (i) Suggest why temperatures below 0 C or above 40 C would be unsuitable for most organisms
1. Metabolism / named example stops / is slow (Below 0oC) 2. Enzymes are inactive / cells disrupted 3. Reference to cause of {inactivity / cell disruption e.g. water freezes, lower kinetic energy (Above 40oC) 4. Enzymes {denature / change 3D shape 5. Reference to consequences of denaturation e.g. fewer enzyme-substrate complexes possible, change in active site, change in bonding

(ii) Explain how this range of temperatures has been maintained by the presence of carbon dioxide and methane in the upper atmosphere
1. Carbon dioxide and / or methane) are greenhouse gases 2. Which {absorb / trap heat / infra red radiation 3. Reflected / (re)radiated from the Earths surface 4. Prevent heat / infra red radiation escaping 5. Idea of temperatures maintained higher (than they would be

Suggest why these scientists do not agree that a reduction in the use of fossil fuels will prevent further global warming
1. Carbon dioxide produced {by using / in production of fossil fuels 2. No (direct) evidence that increased carbon dioxide leads to global warming 3. Reference to carbon dioxide released from other processes / named process 4. Idea of removal of {carbon sinks / named example also) leads to increase in carbon dioxide 5. Stated example of any other greenhouse gas released from another source e.g. CFC, water vapour, methane 6. Description of source e.g. ruminant animals, paddy fields, melting ice, clearance of peat land 7. Idea of natural {cycles / events / phenomena / may be involved (in global warming) e.g. solar, volcanoes 8. Idea of evidence from past is being used 9. Idea of {(past evidence) is not in indicator of future events / limitations of (climatic) models 10. Idea that scientists may be biased 11. Description of bias e.g. employed by {company country} with vested interest, self promotion 12. Specific example of problem with / disadvantage of} alternative source of energy

14. Describe the effects of global warming (rising temperature, changing rainfall patterns and changes in seasonal cycles) on plants and animals (distribution of species, development and life cycles).

Rising Temperature: This would affect the metabolism of all organisms. Normally
an increase in temperature causes an increase in enzyme activity which speeds up metabolic reactions Enzymes have a specific optimum temperature in which they are most active at this temperature. Rate of growth will increase so they will progress through their life cycle faster.

When temperature increases above the optimum temperature enzyme activity decreases which slows down metabolic reactions. When the temperature gets too high, their metabolic reactions will slow down, so their rate of growth will decrease. This also means they will progress through their cycle slower. This would also affect their distribution as different species exist where their ideal conditions (ideal temperature) for survivals are. When these conditions change, they will have to move to a new area where the conditions are better. If they cant move out, they will die.

Changing rainfall patterns: global warming would change global rainfall patterns
some areas will get more rain while others will get less rain. It will also affect life cycles of organism. Increased rainfall can allow the growth of new leaves and making them active but reduced rainfall will cause plants to remain dormant for longer periods. It would also affect distribution of some species as deserts could increase if there was a decrease in rainfall and species that arent adapted to live in deserts will have to move to new areas or they will die out. Seasonal Cycles: it is also said to change the timing of seasons. E.g. when winter changes to spring. Organisms are adapted to the timing of the seasons and the changes that happen. Changes in temp rainfall and availability of food. Seasonal cycles change would affect distribution of some species. E.g.: swallows live in South Africa over the winter and fly to different parts of Europe to breed at the start of spring when more food is available. An early British spring will produce flowers and insects earlier than usual, so the swallows that migrate to British at the normal time will arrive when there isnt as much food available fewer insects because the flowers will have disappeared earlier. Reduced number of swallows born in British so could eventually the number migrating will die out. So the distribution will be changed.

15. Explain the effect of increasing temperature on the rate of enzyme activity in plants, animals and micro-organisms. 16. Describe how to investigate the effects of temperature on the development of organisms (e.g. seedling growth rate, brine shrimp hatch rates).
Risk of flooding Antarctic temperatures have increased by an average of 2.5 degrees in the past 50 yearsfaster than anywhere else on Earth. Many scientists believe that the thinning of the ice is a clear indication of global warming. As the Antarctic ice melts the volume of water in the seas and oceans of the world will increase, causing sea levels to rise. As the water gets warmer its volume increases resulting in an even bigger impact on sea levels. The implications for human life as sea levels rise are immense- around 100 million people live less than 1 metre above current sea levels. Climate change Rising temperatures affect weather and rainfall patterns. It is impossible to link any one weather event with global warming but statistical evidence suggests that there is an increase in extreme weather events linked to the rise in global temperatures. Rainfall patterns are complex but they also seem to be changing. e.g. If the current trend of low rainfall continues in Africa it has been predicted that by the year 2020 between 75 and 250 million people will be short of water for their crops and to drink. In contrast, in some areas rainfall has been higher leading to flooding which causes

devastation and carries away the vital topsoil. Effect on organisms Temperature effects enzyme activity which in turn affects the whole organism. A 10 degree increase in temperature wills double the rate of an enzyme controlled reaction. There is an optimum temperature for an enzyme controlled reaction and if the temperature increases past that point the enzymes denature and the reaction rate starts to fall. As a result an increase in temperature could have different effects on processes including the rate of growth and reproduction. If plants grow faster they will take up more carbon dioxide up to a certain temperature after which the enzymes will start to denature and the organism may die. Global warming appears to be affecting the onset of season which affects both life cycles and the distribution of species. Insects may get through their life cycle more quickly and be ready to feed before the plants they feed on mature. For some animal species they may breed earlier in the year so they can fit in more than one breeding cycle per year which would increase the population. Another problem would be within reptile species as the temperature affects the sex of the embryos. Warming could cause a change in sex ratios in these species which could ultimately be the end of the species. A change in climate could affect the range of many different organisms. As animals can move more easily than plants they can often survive changed more easily. So as areas become warmer some animals may be able to extend their ranges northwards while becoming extinct at the southern end. Also species which cannot live in these areas now may move in (alien species) and out-compete native species rendering them extinct in the area. Additionally if organisms involved in disease are affected patterns of world health could change as well. The WHO (world health organization) has warned that global warming could be responsible for a major increase in insect-borne diseases in Europe.

17. Analyse and interpret different types of evidence for global warming and its causes (including records of carbon dioxide levels, temperature records, pollen in peat bogs and dendrochronology) recognising correlations and causal relationships.
We only have recorded data of temperature from the mid-1800s so we look at temperature proxies such as tree rings, corals, ice cores and peat bog data to get a clearer idea of the temperature before records began. Frozen Isotopes

Ice cores: from Antarctica and Greenland scientists drill deep down into the ice. The air that is trapped in different layers is analysed which provides a good record that goes back thousands of years. Records of the oxygen isotopes in melted ice reflect the air temperature as the layer was laid down. Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels can also be measured.

Dendrochronology - The dating of past events using tree ring growth.

Trees increase in width as they get older by cell division of one particular layer in their trunks.

When conditions are good - plenty of moisture, warmer temperature - the new cells laid down are larger than when conditions are tough. It is the contrast between the small cells at the end of one year and the large ones produced the next spring which gives the appearance of rings.

Problems:

If conditions vary a lot within one year more than one ring may be produced. Tree growth depends on many factors- amount of sunshine, temperature, carbon dioxide levels and the amount of rainfall so it is hard to say what led to the large cells being laid down. Was it one of the above factors or was it a combination of several of them?

Coral reefs Data from coral reefs can be used to confirm the evidence of tree rings as the proportions of different isotopes taken up by the coral vary as the sea temperatures change and this gives another proxy for the climate. Peat Bogs Peat growth rate depends on prevailing conditions and varies widely. Therefore evidence from undisturbed peat body can give a clear and unbroken record of the climate and has resulted in a continuous record from about 7500 BC which give clear evidence of periods of warming and cooling.

Made: partly decomposed plant material, mainly Sphagnum mosses. The peat is very acidic, cool and anaerobic which prevents bacteria from decomposing organic material. As a result, pollen grains, moss spores and even plant tissues are preserved in the peat. By sampling: we can look back in time at the plants and mosses growing in and around that area from hundreds of years ago. How helpful: As the types of plants that can grow in an area are affected by climate, the pollen/moss record can give a clear reflection of how the climate has changed with time.

Increasing data reliability

Wiggle matching - Data from dendrochronology and peat bog dating are used to confirm radiocarbon dating in a process known as wiggle matching. For example data from wood of a known age and peat bog samples where the age is known are dated from radiocarbon measurements and the results are compared to give a form of calibration. This gives scientists clear reference points which they can use to determine the accuracy of their estimates.

Evidence for increasing carbon dioxide levels Mauna Loa curve: a series of reading taken regularly at Mauna Loa observatory on Hawaii. Air is continuously sampled and the carbon dioxide concentrations along with other readings are taken. The air in the area is relatively free from local pollutants and scientists believe it is representative of the air in the northern hemisphere. The records that began in 1958 show that the level of atmospheric carbon dioxide has increased from 315.98 ppmv (parts per million by volume of dry air) in 1959 to

381.74 in 2006. The annual fluctuations are the result of seasonal differences in the fixation of carbon dioxide by plants as in temperate regions plants lose their leaves in winter so take up less carbon dioxide.

18. Describe that data can be extrapolated to make predictions, that these are used in models of future global warming, and that these models have limitations.
The Debate A lot of evidence suggests a clear correlation between an increase in temperature and an increase in carbon dioxide levels. However, as the correlation is so close it is difficult to know if the increases in greenhouse gases are causing the increase in temperature or if the increase in greenhouse gases is the result of rising temperatures. To say that there is a casual relationship we need a mechanism that explains how one factor changes the other. From our understanding of the greenhouse effect and from the timing of the industrial revolution, since when more carbon dioxide has been produced, it is logical to consider that humans are responsible for increasing carbon dioxide levels. However, some scientists have also proposed a mechanism where solar activity affects cloud formation and therefore surface temperature but the IPCC (intergovernmental panel on climate change) have reached the conclusion that the sum of these activities over the past 50 years would have resulted in cooling rather than warming. All these arguments are based on data that require detailed interpretation and the use of computer modelling to model a very complex system so proving a casual link is almost impossible. The IPCC now believe that there is sufficient evidence to state there is a casual link between anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions and global warming. However it will probably turn out that global warming is multifactorial with many different inputs, not just carbon dioxide levels. Computer models: Factors to consider:

rates of photosynthesis across the world rates of carbon dioxide production by natural causes the exchange of carbon dioxide between the atmosphere and the oceans the effect of changing temperature on all of these

Predicting the future; We can extrapolate the data on greenhouse gases and use them in models to make predictions about what will happen to temperature in the future. These extrapolations can be used in other models to predict long term effects of increased temperature on the environment. These models are very helpful and can be used to plan international responses to the problems of rising carbon dioxide levels and global warming. Limitations:

It is impossible to tell the exact impact of global warming on particular aspect of the world climate Extrapolations form past data cannot take into account unknown factors in the future including how current trends in the use of resources and technologies may change.

19. Discuss the way in which scientific conclusions about controversial issues, such as what actions should be taken to reduce global warming or the degree to which

humans are affecting global warming, can sometimes depend on who is reaching the conclusions.

20. Describe how evolution (a change in the allele frequency) can come about through gene mutation and natural selection.

NATURAL SELECTION: Individuals within a population vary because they have different alleles. Different alleles due to gene mutations.

This means some individuals are better adapted to their environment than others Individuals that have an allele that increase their chance of survival are more likely to survive, reproduce and pass on their genes than individuals with different alleles This means that a greater proportion of the next generation inherit the beneficial allele which would in turn more likely to survive, reproduce and pass on their genes This would then increase from generation to generation increasing in allele frequency. The theory of evolution is about how and why organisms have changed over time. What actually changes is allele frequency (the relative frequency of a particular allele in the population). Gene mutations are changes in the structure of DNA and these changes can increase the gene pool of a population by increasing the number of different alleles available, depending on the impact of the change. If a mutation results in an advantageous feature, the frequency of that allele in that population will increase in frequency due to natural selection. If the change is disadvantageous, natural selection will usually result in its removal from the gene pool.

21. Describe the role of the scientific community in validating new evidence (including molecular biology, e.g. DNA, proteomics) supporting the accepted scientific theory of evolution (scientific journals, the peer review process, scientific conferences).
Description: When a new scientific idea is created it must be submitted to a system called peer review which for more than a hundred years has been the systematic method scientists use to validate a claim made. It's always seen as important that the Scientist in question isn't overly criticised or supported so it is fair on the investigation. Conferences and discussions are held to peer review a new hypothesis before deciding whether it stands as a potential case. If it is a strong case then it can be publicised by the media and press with the supervision of scientists to ensure the public information is accurate. Peer Review: Began in 18th Century, a paper of new ideas is submitted to a neutral journal editor who then forwards it to an expert in the field the idea is related to. The paper is reviewed for quality then revised and published as an article. Once published the community will take it more seriously and begin evaluating how useful it is and maybe use it in their own research to help with an ongoing investigation. Some questions asked during peer review: - Is the paper valid? - Is the paper significant? (The paper must make a useful addition to the existing body of scientific knowledge) - Is the paper original? (ie. has someone else already done the same work) Validation:

As the Peer Review system is only the first stage in making a concept proven and known there has to be some hard evidence backing it up and many neutral scientists will work to prove or disprove the theory. Many theories in the microbiology field will be a lot harder to prove due to their size and difficulty for control. There are thousands of scientific journals published worldwide and any research carried out and approved by other scientists is published in at least one of these so it can be read by other scientists worldwide. NB - (From spec) Genomics = study of DNA Proteomics = study of proteins. The study of DNA and amino acids and comparing them in different species can show how closely related species are in evolutionary terms. The more similar the sequence, the more closely related the species

22. Explain how reproductive isolation can lead to speciation.

Speciation is the development of a new species. A species is defined as a group of similar organisms that can reproduce to give fertile offspring. Speciation occurs when populations of the same species become reproductively isolated changes in allele frequencies cause changes in phenotype that mean they can no longer breed together to produce fertile offspring. Reproductive isolation occurs in many ways: Prezygotic reproductive isolation: Habitat isolation: they select different habitats in the same area sp they do not come in contact during reproductive seasons Temporal isolation: different mating or flowering periods for many organisms which are brief so therefore if 2 populations get out of synchronisation they can not mate with each other. Speciation is the process by which new species arise. In order for a new species to form, part of an existing population needs to be reproductively isolated from the rest. At AS Level, allopatric speciation, when populations are separated by geographical isolation, was mentioned. However, speciation also occurs when there is no geographical barrier to interbreeding. This is sympatric isolation. Populations that have been isolated for millions of years can remain the same species, however. Species can be thousands of miles apart yet still be able to interbreed and produce viable offspring. Nevertheless, there are examples of populations that live quite close to each other that have become of two different species such as the Rhagoletis pomonella. Reproductive isolation is a type of sympatric isolation and occurs when fertilization is prevented or when the zygote is unable to breed. Types of isolation: Presyzgotic reproductive barriers:

Habitat isolation - populations occupy different habitats in the same area so do not meet to breed Temporal isolation - species exist in the same area but are active for reproduction at different times Mechanical isolation - the reproductive organs don't fit together Behavioral isolation - populations do not respond to each other's reproductive displays or signals

Gametes isolation - male and female gametes from two populations are simply incompatible with each other. In some plants for example, the pollen of one species cannot form an effective pollen tube on the stigma of another species.

Postzygotic reproductive barriers:

Hybrid sterility - healthy individuals produced from the mating of two different species cannot themselves reproduce (e.g. a mule is the infertile offspring of a horse and a donkey) Hybrid inviability - individuals produced from the mating of two different species are not healthy and do not survive Low hybrid zygote vigour - zygotes fail to develop properly, and die during the embryonic development or result in offspring with severe abnormalities so they cannot reproduce successfully.

http://hgbiology.wikispaces.com/A2+Topic+5+Ecology

Topic 6: Infection, immunity and forensics

1. Explain the nature of the genetic code (triplet code, non-overlapping and degenerate).
Three bases are needed to code for one amino acid. A triplet code of three bases gives 4 x 4 x 4 = 64 possible combinations, more than enough for all the possible amino acids. Three-base sequence of DNA or RNA is known as a codon. Genetic code is non-overlapping. During translation, the codons are read one after another, in a sequence. One base of a codon is not used by the other codons. Therefore, if there are six bases, they will code for two amino acids only. e.g.; in case of non-overlapping, a gene sequence of UUUCCC only two amino acids will be coded, phenylalanine (UUU) and proline (CCC), whereas for an overlapping code, more than two amino acids could be coded, phenylalanine (UUU), serine (UCC) and proline (CCC). Further, non-overlapping reduces the effects caused by mutation. If a base is altered due to mutation, it will only affect one codon, to which it belong and thus, only one amino acid will be affected. However, if we presume the genetic code to be overlapping, alteration of one base will affect at least two codons and thus, two amino acids will be changed in the particular protein. Genetic code is degenerate. It is also known as redundant meaning containing more information than it needs. Since there are more codons than the amino acids, more than one codon may specify the same amino acid. e.g., UUU = UUC = phenylalanine.

2. Explain the process of protein synthesis (transcription, translation messenger RNA, transfer RNA, ribosomes and the role of start and stop codons) and explain the roles of the template (antisense) DNA strand in transcription, codons on messenger RNA, anticodons on transfer RNA. Protein synthesis requires two steps: transcription and translation.

Transcription Transcription is the synthesis of RNA from a DNA template. Only one strand of DNA is copied. A single gene may be transcribed thousands of times. After transcription, the DNA strands rejoin. Some of the RNA produced by transcription is not used for protein synthesis. These RNA molecules have other functions in the cell.
Steps involved in transcription

RNA polymerase is responsible for creating RNA by copying the template strand of DNA. Hydrogen bonds between the bases break up making 2 strands of DNA. The template strand is the strand that is transcribed to give a single strand of mRNA. Transcription factors must bind to a region of the DNA called the start codon. The start codon identifies the start of a gene, which strand is to be copied, and the direction that it is to be copied. RNA polymerase binds to the transcription factors and the start codon. RNA polymerase unwinds the DNA. RNA polymerase arranges nucleotides that are complimentary to the DNA strand being copied. RNA contains uracil instead of thymine. The direction of synthesis is 5' to 3'. Transcription stops shortly after a sequence of bases called the stop codon. The strand of RNA that is initially produced by transcription is called a primary transcript.

The sense strand (non-template) has the same base sequence as the transcribed mRNA except that the base thymine is replaced by the base uracil. The anti-sense strand acts as the template for the transcription of mRNA. The RNA nucleotides are polymerised along the sugar phosphate backbone by RNA polymerase.

Processing the mRNA Transcript In eukaryotic cells, primary transcripts that are to be translated into protein are modified. These transcripts are called pre-mRNA.

Eukaryotic genes contain regions that are not translated into proteins. These regions of DNA are called introns (intervening sequences) and must be removed from mRNA by a process called RNA splicing. The remaining portions of DNA that are translated into protein are called exons (expressed). After intron-derived regions are removed from mRNA, the remaining fragments- derived from exons- are spliced together to form a mature mRNA transcript.

The process of RNA splicing is carried out by complexes of proteins and small RNA molecules called spliceosomes. Transcription and mRNA processing occur in the nucleus.

Translation
Translation is the process where ribosomes synthesize proteins using the mature mRNA transcript produced during transcription. This diagram below shows a ribosome attaches to mRNA, and then move along the mRNA adding amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain.

Each three-letter code in the mRNA is a codon. The tRNA molecules have anticodons that are complimentary to the codons in RNA. Before translation begins, a ribosome will be assembled from two ribosomal subunits. A ribosome attaches to the 5' end of the mRNA transcript. The small ribosomal subunit binds to the first tRNA (carrying methionine) and then to the 5' cap of the mRNA. The ribosome moves along the mRNA until it reaches the start codon (AUG). At this point, the tRNA becomes attached to the mRNA and the large ribosomal subunit attaches. A tRNA molecule transports the next amino acid to the ribosome. Notice that the 3-letter anticodon on the tRNA molecule matches the 3-letter code (called a codon) in the mRNA. The tRNA with the anticodon "ACC" bonds with tryptophan. It always transports tryptophan. Transfer RNA molecules with different anticodons transport other amino acids. A peptide bond forms between the amino acid in the P site and the amino acid in the A site. The growing polypeptide chain is not attached to the tRNA in the A site. The ribosome moves along the mRNA to expose another codon (GAU) for another tRNA molecule. When the tRNA in the P site moves into the A site, it is released. This tRNA can now become attached to another amino acid. The mRNA codon in the A site is able to bind with the corresponding tRNA (CUA). The tRNA with the CUA anticodon always transports asparagine. A release factor binds to a stop codon causing the polypeptide chain to be released and causing the ribosomal subunits and mRNA to dissociate.

4. Explain how one gene can give rise to more than one protein through posttranscriptional changes to messenger RNA.
Alternative splicing is a process which allows the production of a variety of different proteins from one gene only. Most genes in eukaryotic genomes consist of exons and introns. After transcription, introns need to be removed from the pre-mRNA by a step called splicing. Sometimes an exon can be either included or excluded from the final transcripts, or there can be two splice sites at one end of an exon that are recognized by the spliceosome (the complex which carries the splicing reaction).This makes it possible to produce multiple transcripts by alternative splicing. The joining of different splice sites allows individual genes to express multiple mRNAs that encode proteins with diverse and even antagonistic functions. Through this mechanism, the information stored in the genes of complex organisms can be edited in a variety of ways, making it possible for a single gene to specify two or more

5. Describe how DNA profiling is used for identification and determining genetic relationships between organisms (plants and animals).
Codes for protein exons useful bit joined together and the other are intron used in DNA profiling. Minisatellites or microsatellites. Shared common introns

6. Describe how DNA can be amplified using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
PCR is used to make millions of copies of specific regions of the DNA in just a few hours:

Reaction mixture containing DNA sample, free nucleotides, primers and the DNA polymerase. Primers are short pieces of DNA that are complementary to the bases at the start of the fragment while DNA polymerase is an enzyme that creates new DNA strands. The DNA mixture is heated to 95Oc to break the hydrogen bonds between the two strands of DNA. The mixture is then cooled to between 50 and 65 so that the primers can bind to the strands. The mixture is then heated to 72 so DNA polymerase can work. The DNA polymerase lines up free DNA nucleotides alongside each template strand. Complementary base pairing means new complementary strands are formed. Two new copies of the fragment of DNA are formed and one cycle of PCR complete. They cycle starts again with mixture heated to 95 an all 4 strands are used as template, therefore making more and more DNA strands.

7. Describe how gel electrophoresis can be used to separate DNA fragments of different length.
This is used to separate out the DNA fragments according to their lengths: DNA is placed into a slab of gel and covered in a buffer solution that conducts electricity. An electric current is passed through the gel DNA fragments are negatively charged, so they move towards the positive electrode at the far end of the gel. Short DNA fragments move faster and travel further through the gel, so the DNA fragments separate according to lengths. The DNA fragments appear as bands under uv light this is the DNA profile. Two DNA profiles compared a match could help identify a person or determine a genetic relationship.

8. Distinguish between the structure of bacteria and viruses. Bacteria cell They cell wall prevents the cell swelling and bursting. It also maintains the shape of the bacterium, and gives support and protection to the contents of the cell The cell surface membrane is the site of the respiratory enzymes since bacteria has no mitochondria Bacteria has a capsule (or slime layer) around their cell walls. This may be formed from starch, gelatin, protein or glycolipid. It protects the bacterium from phagocytosis by WBCs. It also covers the cell markers on the cell membrane which identify the cell. This helps a bacterium to be pathogenic i.e. to cause disease as it isnt identified by the hosts immune system.

9. Describe the role of microorganisms in the decomposition of organic matter and the recycling of carbon. Micro-organisms secrete enzymes to help decompose dead organic matter. This allows digestion of organic matter, meaning that products released from this is used for aerobic respiration, releasing CO2. CO2 released into the atmosphere to be taken up by plants for photosynthesis. Microorganisms release enzymes.....outside their body onto the dead organic matter (what is this organic matter anyway?).....and the enzymes break down this organic matter (what are the products of this breakdown?).....and then how are these products used for respiration while they are outside the microorganisms' bodies? And then after they are used in respiration.....carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere.....which is then used by plants in photosynthesis? Microorganisms that function for decomposition are called 'decomposers' or 'detritivores' specifically. These detritivores consume 'detritus' or the decaying plant and animal matter for their nutrition. They are essential for recycling of nutrients: without them dead plant material would not be returned to the soil for new growth. The earth might be covered by deep layers old vegetation and lots of animal carcasses only slowly breaking down by physical and chemical processes. Detritivorous animals and fungi speed up this process. They also provide food for many predators. 10. Describe the major routes pathogens may take when entering the body and

explain the role of barriers in protecting the body from infection, including the roles of skin, stomach acid, gut and skin flora.
The Skin The skin is the main barrier against pathogens. It is covered by the hard protein keratin, and so pathogens can only enter by a break in this layer, for example a wound. At wounds, blood clots to prevent too many pathogens entering the body. There are also billions of bacteria crawling over our skin called Skin Flora, and these are harmless. They out-compete any other bacteria attempting to colonise the skin, so that they do not grow on us.

Mucus Our noses, mouths and eyes are all natural breaks in the skin, so it is logical that these are the best entry points for any pathogens. Our airways and guts are moist, and so provide ideal breeding grounds for pathogens. However, mucus is secreted by the cells lining the airway, and pathogens get stuck in this mucus. Tiny hair-like protrusions called cilia move the mucus up to the throat, where it can be swallowed. The tears in our eyes produce an enzyme called lysozyme, which breaks down most bacterial cell walls, killing the bacteria. Secretions in the mouth and nose also contain lysozyme. Digestive Systems Our stomach contains concentrated Hydrochloric Acid lower than pH 2 (which is extremely acidic and is why vomit burns the throat). Most bacteria cannot survive these conditions and so are digested into simple sugars and proteins. In the guts are more bacteria like on the skin, and these are called Gut Flora. These also out-compete bacteria so they do not colonise our guts. The gut floras are harmless, and some even aid digestion or produce chemicals such as lactic acid, which help us defend against other pathogens.

11. Explain how bacterial and viral infectious diseases have a sequence of symptoms that may result in death, including the diseases caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (TB) and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). HIV

HIV begins its life cycle when it binds to a CD4 receptor and one of two co-receptors on the surface of a CD4+ T- lymphocyte. The virus then fuses with the host cell. After fusion, the virus releases RNA, its genetic material, into the host cell. An HIV enzyme called reverse transcriptase converts the single-stranded HIV RNA to double-stranded HIV DNA. The newly formed HIV DNA enters the host cell's nucleus, where an HIV enzyme called integrase "hides" the HIV DNA within the host cell's own DNA. The

integrated HIV DNA is called provirus. The provirus may remain inactive for several years, producing few or no new copies of HIV. When the host cell receives a signal to become active, the provirus uses a host enzyme called RNA polymerase to create copies of the HIV genomic material, as well as shorter strands of RNA called messenger RNA (mRNA). The mRNA is used as a blueprint to make long chains of HIV proteins. An HIV enzyme called protease cuts the long chains of HIV proteins into smaller individual proteins. As the smaller HIV proteins come together with copies of HIV's RNA genetic material, a new virus particle is assembled. The newly assembled virus pushes out ("buds") from the host cell. During budding, the new virus steals part of the cell's outer envelope. This envelope, which acts as a covering, is studded with protein/sugar combinations called HIV glycoproteins. These HIV glycoproteins are necessary for the virus to bind CD4 and co- receptors. The new copies of HIV can now move on to infect other cells. http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/HIVLifeCycle_FS_en.pdf

TB

12. Describe the non-specific responses of the body to infection, including inflammation, lysozyme action, interferon and phagocytosis.

13. Explain the roles of antigens and antibodies in the bodys immune response including the involvement of plasma cells, macrophages and antigen-presenting cells.
The humoral Response:

Consists of two main stages: T helper activation and effector stage.

T Helper activation stage occurs when pathogen enters body; the non-specific immune response will bring it in contact with macrophages. The following process then occurs:

1. Bacterium with antigens on its surface is engulfed by a macrophage through phagocytosis 2. The vesicle containing the bacterium combines with a lysosome, and enzymes from the lysosome break down the bacterium releasing the antigens. This process is known as ANTIGEN PROCESSING. 3. These Antigens then combine with major histocompatibility complexes (MHCs) forming complexes (antigen/MHC protein complexes). These complexes are displayed on the cell surface and the cell is now a antigen presenting cell (APC), and is also referred as a CD4 macrophage APC in step 4). 4. A CD4 macrophage APC binds to a T-helper cell

14. Distinguish between the roles of B cells (including B memory and B effector cells) and T cells (T helper, T killer and T memory cells) in the bodys immune response.

15. Explain how individuals may develop immunity (natural, artificial, active, and passive).

16. Discuss how the theory of an evolutionary race between pathogens and their hosts is supported by the evasion mechanisms as shown by Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (TB).

17. Distinguish between Bacteriostatic and bactericidal antibiotics.

Bacteriostatic: the type of antibiotic or dose used completely inhibits the growth of the microorganism Bactericidal: the type of antibiotic or dose used destroys all the microorganisms present (useful in more severe infections or when the immune system is suppressed such as HIV and transplant patients). Bactericidal drugs only kill cells which are actively growing. Broad spectrum antibiotic: destroys a wide range of pathogens. Narrow spectrum antibiotic: targets a few specific pathogens.

Different types of antibiotics 1. Antimetabolites - interrupt metabolic pathways (e.g. sulphonamides) BACTERIOSTATIC 2. Prevent peptide cross-linking between the polysaccharide chains in peptidoglycan molecules so affect the formation of bacterial cell walls (e.g. penicillin, glycopeptides) BACTERIOCIDAL 3. Cell membrane agents damage the cell membrane so metabolites leak out or more water moves in and kills bacteria by lysis. (E.g. some penicillins, cephalosporins) BACTERIOCIDAL 4. Protein synthesis inhibitors prevent transcription or translation (e.g. tetracylines, chloramphenicol) - BACTERIOSTATIC 5. DNA gyrase inhibitors stop bacterial DNA coiling so it doesn't fit within the bacterial cell anymore (quinolone) - BACTERIOCIDAL

18. Describe how to investigate the effect of different antibiotics on bacteria.

Investigating the effect of different antibiotics on bacteria using standard microbiological techniques 1. An agar plate is prepared with a known bacterial culture (lawn of bacteria) 2. Filter paper discs soaked in different antibiotics or different concentrations of antibiotics are placed on the agar. Another method would be to create wells in the agar and antibiotic solutions can be poured into them. 3. The plate should be sealed and aseptic techniques should be employed to minimise the exposure of the agar plate to air-borne microorganisms. 4. A control agar plate with the same microorganism with known sensitivity to a particular antibiotic can be grown as well as a comparison. 5. By measuring the inhibition zone around the filter paper discs (measure radius or trace the zone on graph paper so area can be calculated), the antibacterial effect of different types of antibiotics or different concentrations can be seen. 6. For each type of antibiotic or concentration, the experiment should be repeated three times so an average of the three inhibition zone sizes can be calculated. This increases reliability. 7. Variables to be controlled include temperature, volume of antibiotic solution, area of filter paper discs, distribution of bacterial lawn, pH and time kept in the incubator. Conclusion: The susceptibility of a pathogen to a particular antibiotic is determined through dosage. If the standard dose (prescribed by a doctor) destroys pathogens successfully, the pathogen is sensitive to the antibiotic. However, if the pathogen is only affected by a higher dose, then it is moderately sensitive. In some cases, the pathogen will not be affected at all and is resistant to the antibiotic.

19. Describe how an understanding of the contributory causes of hospital acquired infections have led to codes of practice relating to antibiotic prescription and hospital practice relating to infection prevention and control.
Healthcare-acquired infections: arise from drug-resistant bacteria (superbugs). Through natural selection, the bacteria with mutations that prevent antibiotics from binding to them are likely to survive and the bacteria with the useful mutations divide to produce more bacteria which are resistant to the drug. Over time, the bacterial population becomes increasingly resistant to antibiotics. 'Superbugs' are commonly found in places where antibiotic use is highest and during surgery where the protective layer of the skin is breached (like hospitals) and are known as hospital-acquired infections. MRSA and C. difficile are two of the most common hospital-acquired infections in the UK.

Infection Prevention and Control Guidelines. 1. To prevent resistant bacteria from evolving, antibiotics should be used carefully and every course of antibiotics should be finished. Multi-drug therapy with antibiotics can also lead to faster evolution of some bacteria so doctors should prescribe treatments with care. 2. Hygiene measures: Simples hygiene measures like washing hands, using alcohol-based gels between patients and not wearing long ties or white coats can prevent cross-infection. The NHS website outlines some hygiene measures that can be taken by doctors, patients and visitors to minimise infections 3. Isolation of patients: patients with signs or symptoms of the infection should be isolated as quickly as possible from the other patients and they should only be transferred around the hospital if it is absolutely necessary. 4. Prevention of infection coming into the hospital: all patients coming in to the hospital for any procedure should be tested for common infections so they can be immediately isolated and treated. 5. Monitoring levels of healthcare-acquired infections: hospitals should keep records of all infections so more targets can be set for the following years.

20. Describe how to determine the time of death of a mammal by examining the extent of decomposition, stage of succession, forensic entomology, body temperature and degree of muscle contraction.
INVESTIGATING TIME OF DEATH Rigor Mortis: - Happens after death when ATP begins to run out. ATP is created by respiration, this requires oxygen. When the person dies to oxygen is taken into the body so no more ATP can be made, therefore it runs out. -ATP is required to keep the muscles relaxed so when it does get low the body's muscles contract and the body becomes stiff - Begins about 2-4 hours after death, full effect is at about 6-8 hours. It passes at about 3648hours after death - The bodies stage in rigor mortis can give a rough outline of the time of death. Body temperature: - Core temperature used, from either rectal or more commonly liver temperature - Body cools slowly to room temperature with time. If the temperature of the room the body was killed in is known it is possible to create a cooling curve with time ant therefore discover the time of death. - This only works for a freshly killed person, as the body reaches room temperature at about 18hours Forensic entomology: -This is insects in the body; there are 2 main ways that forensic entomologists can discover time of death

1. Succession:

A dead body is a newly exposed habitat First anaerobic bacteria thrive in the oxygen less and acidic (due to lactic acid) conditions in the body Then certain flies, such as blowflies, arrive, they are attracted to the moisture and smell around the natural orifices as well as open wounds. These flies then lay eggs on the carcass The eggs hatch and maggots eat the skin and tissue of the body, this liquidises certain parts which then the adult flies feed on. Beetles then are attracted to the carcass, they lay eggs and the grub that hatch eat the maggots mainly. Parasitic wasps then lay eggs in the beetle and fly larvae Eventually the body dries out and species such as cheese flies and coffin flies are more prevalent. Dehydration continues and maggots cant survive any longer, beetles with strong mandibles, such as carcass and ham beetles, move in and eat the remaining muscles and connecting tissues. Finally ,mites and moth larvae digest feed on the hair

-Forensic entomologists can see what species are living in the body and therefore know how long down the line of succession of insects the body is. Using this they can estimate a time of death. 2. Insect lifecycles

fly lifecycle

Insects go from eggs, which hatch to larvae, these go through 3 stages, they then turn into a pupa and back to an adult

When a forensic entomologist finds a body, they collect eggs and larvae and pupa and let them grow into adults. From the stage the insect was found and the fact that insects have different life cycles for each stage the forensic entomologist can tell how long the insects have been in the body. This linked with the insect succession can give a much more accurate time of death. -Using forensic entomology the date of death can be confirmed to a few days or theorised to a few months, however it is mostly used for bodies that are 4-14 days old.

GENETIC IDENTIFICATION -Find DNA at the crime scene -Amplify it using PCR: 1. Place a mixture of enzymes, primers, the DNA and other reactants in a vial 2. Place vial in a PCR machine 3. They will be heated to 90-95 degrees Celsius for about 30s, this separates strands of DNA What happens in PCR machine 4. heated to 50-60 degrees Celsius for about 20s, this binds primers to DNA strands 5. heated to 75 degrees Celsius for at least a minute, DNA build complementary DNA strand 6. Repeat steps 3-5 as much as wanted