Section 1.

1 Complex Numbers 1
Solutions to Exercises 1.1
1. We have
i = 0 + (1)i.
So a = 0 and b = 1.
5. We have
(2 i)
2
= (2 + i)
2
(because 2 i = 2 (i) = 2 + i)
= 4 + 4i +
=1
..
(i)
2
= 3 + 4i.
So a = 3 and b = 4.
9. We have
_
1
2
+
i
7
__
3
2
i
_
=
1
2
3
2
+ i
_
3
14

1
2
_
=
1
7
..
i
i
7
=
25
28
i
2
7
So a =
25
28
and b =
2
7
.
13. Multiplying and dividing by the conjugate of the denominator, i.e. by 2 i = 2 +i we
get
14 + 13i
2 i
=
(14 + 13i)(2 + i)
(2 i)(2 + i)
=
14 2 + 14 i + 13i 2 + 13i
2
4 + 1
=
28 + 14i + 26i 13
5
=
15
5
+
40
5
i = 3 + 8i
So a = 3 and b = 8.
17. Applying the quadratic formula we get
x =
0

24
2
= 0

24
2
= 0 i

6
21. Put u = x
2
. Then we get
u
2
+ 2u + 1 = 0.
By the quadratic formula
u =
2

4 4
2
= 1.
Therefore we get 1 = x
2
and the solution is x = i.
2 Chapter 1 A Preview of Applications and Techniques
25. Suppose w can be written in the form w = c + id. Then from the identity z + w = 0
we have a + ib + c + id = 0, or
(a + c) + i(b + d) = 0.
It follows that a + c = 0 and b + d = 0. Hence c = a and d = b. And, this means
w = a ib.
(b) Let e
s
represent a complex number such that z + e
s
= z for all complex z. Show that
e
s
= 0; that is, Re (e
s
) = 0 and Im(e
s
) = 0. Thus e
s
= 0 is the unique additive identity
for complex numbers.
Solution. Let us put z = 0 into z + e
s
= z. This gives 0 + e
s
= 0, or if e
s
= a + ib we
get a + ib = 0 + i0. Since two numbers are equal if and only if their real and imaginary
parts are the same we have a = 0 and b = 0. So, e
s
= 0.
29. (a) We have
a
n
z
n
+ a
n1
z
n1
+ + a
1
z + a
0
= a
n
z
n
+ a
n1
z
n1
+ + a
1
z + a
0
= a
n
z
n
+ a
n1
z
n1
+ + a
1
z + a
0
[Since a
0
, a
1
, , a
n1
, a
n
are all real]
= a
n
z
n
+ a
n1
z
n1
+ + a
1
z + a
0
[by using the property that z
n
= (z)
n
]
= a
n
(z)
n
+ a
n1
(z)
n1
+ + a
1
(z) + a
0
(b) Suppose that z
0
is a root of the polynomial p(z) = a
n
z
n
+ a
n1
z
n1
+ + a
1
z + a
0
.
This means that
a
n
z
n
0
+ a
n1
z
n1
0
+ + a
1
z
0
+ a
0
= 0.
By using the part (a) we have
a
n
(z
0
)
n
+ a
n1
(z
0
)
n1
+ + a
1
z
0
+ a
0
= a
n
z
n
0
+ a
n1
z
n1
0
+ + a
1
z
0
+ a
0
= 0.
Hence, the number z
0
is also a root of the same polynomial.
33. Project Problem: The cubic equation. (a) Using the given change of variables
x = y
a
3
we get
x
3
+ ax
2
+ bx + c =
_
y
a
3
_
3
+ a
_
y
a
3
_
2
+ b
_
y
a
3
_
+ c
= y
3
3y
2
a
3
+ 3y
_
a
3
_
2

_
a
3
_
3
+ ay
2
2ay
a
3
+ a
_
a
3
_
2
+by b
a
3
+ c
= y
3
+ y
2
(a + a) + y(
a
2
3

2a
2
3
+ b) + (
a
3
27
+
a
3
9

ab
3
+ c)
= y
3
+ y(b
a
2
3
) + (
2a
3
27

ab
3
+ c)
= y
3
+ py + q = 0
Section 1.1 Complex Numbers 3
if we put p = b
a
2
3
and q =
2a
3
27

ab
3
+ c.
(b) Now we substitute y = u + v into the equation we received in the previous step:
y
3
+ py + q = (u + v)
3
+ p(u + v) + q
= u
3
+ 3u
2
v + 3uv
2
+ v
3
+ p(u + v) + q
= u
3
+ v
3
+ 3uv(u + v) + p(u + v) + q
= u
3
+ v
3
+ (3uv + p)(u + v) + q = 0.
(c) We suppose that u and v satisfy the desired property 3uv + p = 0. Then we have
uv = p/3 and if we cube both sides we get u
3
v
3
= (p/3)
3
. And, also using the property
that 3uv + p = 0 and the equation from the part (b) we have
u
3
+ v
3
+ (3uv + p)(u + v) + q = u
3
+ v
3
+ q = 0.
So, it immediately follows that u
3
+ v
3
= q.
(d) Let us show that U is a solutions of this quadratic equation. (Because of the symmetry
then V is also a solution!) Using the equation U+V = we get V = U. We substitute
it into the equation UV = . We get
0 = UV = U( U) = U
2
U ,
or if we rewrite it and multiply both sides by 1 we have U
2
+ U + = 0. And, this
means that U is a solution of the given quadratic equation.
(e) Straightforward we can put = q and =
p
3
27
and use the part (d) to conclude that
u
3
and v
3
are the solutions of the quadratic equation X
2
+ qx
p
3
27
= 0. By the quadratic
formula we get that
u
3
=
q +
_
q
2
+ 4p
3
/27
2
and v
3
=
q
_
q
2
+ 4p
3
/27
2
,
or u
3
=
q
2
+
_
q
2
2
+
p
3
and v
3
=
q
2

_
q
2
2
+
p
3
.
Now if we get the cubic roots of both sides of the equations we get that
u =
3

q
2
+
_
_
q
2
_
2
+
_
p
3
_
3
and v =
3

q
2

_
_
q
2
_
2
+
_
p
3
_
3
.
(f) Substituting back the found values we have
x = y
a
3
= u + v
a
3
=
3

q
2
+
_
_
q
2
_
2
+
_
p
3
_
3
+
3

q
2

_
_
q
2
_
2
+
_
p
3
_
3

a
3
.
4 Chapter 1 Complex Numbers and Functions
Solutions to Exercises 1.2
1. z has coordinates (1, 1), (z) has coordinates (1, 1), and z has coordinates (1, 1).
5. Since z = 1 i = 1 i = 1 + i we have that z has coordinates (1, 1), (z) has coordinates
(1, 1), and z has coordinates (1, 1).
9. We use the property that |ab| = |a||b| twice below:
|(1 +i)(1 i)(1 + 3i)| = |1 + i||(1 i)(1 + 3i)| =

2
..
|1 + i|

2
..
|1 i|

10
..
|1 + 3i| = 2

10.
13. Using the properties

z1
z2

=
|z1|
|z2|
and |z| = |z| we have

i
2 i

=
|i|
|2 i|
=
|i|
|2 i|
=
1

5
=

5
5
.
17. The equation |z i| = 1 does not have any solution because |z| is a distance from the point z
to the origin. And clearly a distance is always non-negative.
21. Let z = x+iy satises the equation |2z|+|2z1| = 4. Since 2z = 2x+i2y and 2z1 = 2x1+i2y
we have
_
(2x)
2
+ (2y)
2
+
_
(2x 1)
2
+ (2y)
2
= 4, or
_
(2x)
2
+ (2y)
2
= 4
_
(2x 1)
2
+ (2y)
2
.
If we square both sides of the equation we get
(2x)
2
+ (2y)
2
= 16 8
_
(2x 1)
2
+ (2y)
2
+ (2x 1)
2
+ (2y)
2
, or
(2x)
2
+ (2y)
2
= 16 8
_
(2x 1)
2
+ (2y)
2
+ (2x)
2
4x + 1 + (2y)
2
.
And if we subtract (2x)
2
+ (2y)
2
from both sides of the equation and add 8
_
(2x 1)
2
+ (2y)
2
we
get
8
_
(2x 1)
2
+ (2y)
2
= 17 4x.
If we square both sides of the equation one more time we get the equation of the ellipse we are
looking for:
64((2x 1)
2
+ (2y)
2
) = (17 4x)
2
, or
64(2x 1)
2
+ 176y
2
= (17 4x)
2
.
25. (a) Let us recall that |a b| is the distance between a and b. So, |z i 1| is the distance
between z and 1 + i. Also Re(z) is the distance between z and 1 + i. Also Re(z) + 1 is the signed
distance from z to the line Re(z) = 1. Hence, if z satises the equation |z 1 i| = Re(z) + 1 it
follows that the distances from the line Re(z) = 1 to z and from (1 + i) to z are equal. So, this
equation is a parabola equation which directrix is the line Re(z) = 1 and the focus is (1 + i).
Section 1.2 The Complex Plane 5
(b) Similar |z z
0
| is the distance from z to z
0
, and Re(z) a is the distance from z to the
line whose equation is Re(z) = a. So, it is also a parabola with the directrix whose equation is
Re(z) = a and the focus is z
0
.
29. Let us concentrate on the circle which center is the origin and the radius is r = ||z
1
| |z
2
||.
Obviously the absolute value of any complex number lying outside of the disc bounded by this circle
will be greater than r. Therefore, since from the picture it follows that the number z
1
z
2
which
is the tip of the vector z
2
on the picture lies outside (or on the circle of) the disc described above
then the absolute value which is |z
1
z
2
| is greater than (or equal to ) r. And, if we write this
algebraically we get the needed inequality:
|z
1
z
2
| ||z
1
| |z
2
||.
33. We get the estimate
| cos + i sin | | cos | + |i sin |
simply by the triangle inequality. Now we notice that
|i sin| = |i| | sin| = 1| sin| = | sin|.
So,
| cos | +|i sin | = | cos | +| sin |.
We know from algebra that | sin | 1, and | cos | 1 Therefore we have
| cos | +| sin| 1 + 1 = 2,
and this justies the last step of the estimation above.
(b) By denition of the absolute value we know that if z = x + iy then |z| =
_
x
2
+ y
2
.
Therefore if z = cos +i sin then |z| =
_
(cos )
2
+ (sin )
2
. But from trigonometry we know the
formula
(cos )
2
+ (sin )
2
= 1
is true for any number . Therefore we have
| cos + i sin | =
_
(cos )
2
+ (sin )
2
= 1.
37. We want to know something about |
1
z4
| given some information about |z 1|. Notice that an
upper bound of the quantity |
1
z4
| is given by the reciprocal of any lower bound for |z 4|. So, rst
we can nd some information about |z 4|. For this we use some ideas from the example 8 in this
section. We notice that z 4 = (z 1) 3. Therefore by the inequality |z
1
z
2
| ||z
1
| |z
2
|| we
have
|z 4| = |(z 1) 3| ||z 1| 3|
Now since we know |z 1| 1 we get that ||z 1| 3| |1 3| = 2. Hence |z 4| 2. Finally
taking reciprocals of the sides of the inequality we will reverse the sign of the inequality and get the
needed upper estimate:
1
|z 4|

1
2
.
41. (a) By triangle inequality we have

j=1
v
j
w
j

j=1
|v
j
w
j
|.
6 Chapter 1 Complex Numbers and Functions
And now we use the properties |z
1
z
2
| = |z
1
||z
2
| and |z| = |z| and get
|v
j
w
j
| = |v
j
||w
j
| = |v
j
||w
j
|.
Using this identity in the triangle inequality above and recalling the assumption that we already
proved (??) we have

j=1
v
j
w
j

j=1
|v
j
w
j
|
=
n

j=1
|v
j
||w
j
|

_
n

j=1
|v
j
|
2

_
n

j=1
|w
j
|
2
.
(b) Using the hint we start from the obvious inequality
0
n

j=1
_
|v
j
| |w
j
|
_
2
.
Expanding the right hand side of this inequality we have
0
n

j=1
_
|v
j
| |w
j
|
_
2
=
n

j=1
_
|v
j
|
2
2|v
j
||w
j
| +|w
j
|
2
_
=
n

j=1
_
|v
j
|
2
+ |w
j
|
2
_
2
n

j=1
|v
j
||w
j
|.
Therefore
n

j=1
|v
j
||w
j
|
1
2
n

j=1
_
|v
j
|
2
+ |w
j
|
2
_
=
1
2
_
n

j=1
|v
j
|
2
+
n

j=1
|w
j
|
2
_
=
1
2
(1 + 1) = 1 =

1 =

_
n

j=1
|v
j
|
2

_
n

j=1
|w
j
|
2
.
(c) Using the hint we can consider v = (v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
n
) and w = (w
1
, w
2
, . . . , w
n
) and look at
them as at vectors. If we dene v =
_

n
j=1
|v
j
|
2
and w =
_

n
j=1
|w
j
|
2
. Then it turns out we
need to prove the following inequality:
n

j=1
|v
j
| |w
j
| vw.
In order to do so we dene new vectors U =
1
u
u and W =
1
w
w. So, the coordinates of these
vectors are correspondingly U
j
=
uj
u
and W
j
=
wj
w
. Then we have
n

j=1
|U
j
|
2
=
n

j=1

u
j
u

2
=
1
u
2
n

j=1
|u
j
|
2
=
1
u
2
u
2
= 1,
and similar we get

n
j=1
|W
j
|
2
= 1. Therefore we can apply part (b) to the vectors V and W. We
have
n

j=1
|V
j
| |W
j
|

_
n

j=1
|V
j
|
2

_
n

j=1
|W
j
|
2
.
Section 1.2 The Complex Plane 7
The left side is equal to
n

j=1
|v
j
|
v
|w
j
|
w
=
1
vw
n

j=1
|v
j
||w
j
|.
The right side is equal to

_
n

j=1
|v
j
|
2
v
2

_
n

j=1
|w
j
|
2
w
2
=

_
1
v
2
n

j=1
|v
j
|
2

_
1
w
2
n

j=1
|w
j
|
2
=
1
vw

_
n

j=1
|v
j
|
2

_
n

j=1
|w
j
|
2
=
1
vw
uv = 1.
Hence we can rewrite the inequality we received in the form:
1
vw
n

j=1
|v
j
||w
j
| 1.
So, if we multiply both sides by vw we get the needed inequality.
8 Chapter 1 Complex Numbers and Functions
Solutions to Exercises 1.3
1. We need to present the number given in its polar form in the form with the real and imaginary
parts z = x +iy. We have
z = 3
_
cos
7
12
+ i sin
7
12
_
= 3 cos
7
12
+i 3 sin
7
12
So, the number can be presented in the Cartesian coordinates as the point (3 cos
7
12
, 3 sin
7
12
).
5. Let z = 3 3 i. Then we have r =
_
(3)
2
+ (3)
2
=

9 2 = 3

2. Also, we can nd the

argument by evaluating
cos =
x
r
=
3
3

2
=

2
2
and sin =
y
r
=
3
3

2
=

2
2
.
From the Table 1 in the Section 1.3 we see that =
5
4
. Thus, arg z =
5
4
+ 2k. Since
5
4
is not
from the interval (, ] we can subtract 2 and get that Arg z =
5
4
2 =
3
4
. So, the polar
representation is
3 3 i = 3

2
_
cos
_

3
4
_
+i sin
_

3
4
__
.
9. Again we can denote z =
i
2
. Then we have r =
_
(
1
2
)
2
=
1
2
. We can evaluate
cos =
x
r
=
0
1/2
= 0 and sin =
y
r
=
1/2
1/2
= 1.
And, from the Table 1 in the Section 1.3 we nd =
3
2
. (Also we could plot the complex number
(
i
2
) as a point in the complex plane and nd the angle from the picture.) Therefore arg z =
3
2
+
2k. Since
3
2
is not from the interval (, ] we can subtract 2 and get that Arg z =
3
2
2 =

2
.
So, the polar representation is

i
2
=
1
2
_
cos
_

2
_
+i sin
_

2
__
.
13. We have z = x + i y = 13 +i 2. Since x > 0 we compute
Arg z = tan
1
(
y
x
) = tan
1
(
2
13
) 0.153.
Hence we express arg z 0.153 + 2k for all integer k.
17. First, we need to express the number z =

3+i in the polar form. We compute r =

3 + 1 =
2. And since

3 < 0, and 1 > 0 we see that Arg z = tan

1
_
1

3
_
= tan
1
_

3
3
_
=
5
6
. Since
we need to nd the cube of the number z we can use the De Moivres Identity to get the polar
representation:
(

3 + i)
3
=
_
2
_
cos
_
5
6
_
+i sin
_
5
6
___
3
= 2
3
_
cos
_
5
6
_
+i sin
_
5
6
__
3
= 8
_
cos
_
15
6
_
+i sin
_
15
6
__
= 8
_
cos
_
3
6
_
+ i sin
_
3
6
__
.
Section 1.3 Polar form 9
Where in the last identity we used the fact that Arg (

3 + i)
3
=
15
6
2 =
3
6
should be in the
interval (, ].
21. First, we nd the modulus and the argument of the number z = 1+i. We have r =

1
2
+ 1
2
=

2. And, since for z = x +iy = 1 +i1 we get x > 0 we compute Arg z = tan
1
_
y
x
_
= tan
1
_
1
1
_
=
tan
1
(1) =

4
. Hence z can be expressed in the polar form
1 + i =

2
_
cos
_

4
_
+ i sin
_

4
__
.
After this we can use De Moivres identity to get
(1 +i)
30
=
_

2
_
cos
_

4
_
+ i sin
_

4
___
30
= (

2)
30
_
cos
_
30
4
_
+i sin
_
30
4
__
= 2
15
(0 i 1) = 2
15
i.
Thus Re
_
(1 +i)
30
_
= 0, and Im
_
(1 +i)
30
_
= 2
15
.
25. By De Moivres Identity we have
i
n
= (cos(/2) +i sin(/2))
n
= cos(n/2) + i sin(n/2).
Now since the functions cos(), and sin() both have period 2 we notice that the values cos(n/2),
and sin(n/2) depend only on what remainder gives n when is divided by 4. Therefore, we conclude
that
i
n
=
_

_
1, if n = 4k, for some integer k,
i, if n = 4k + 1, for some integer k,
1, if n = 4k + 2, for some integer k,
i, if n = 4k + 3, for some integer k.
29. We know that for any complex numbers z
1
= r
1
(cos
1
+i sin
1
), and z
2
= r
2
(cos
2
+i sin
2
)
we have
z
1
z
2
= r
1
[cos(
1
) + i sin(
1
)]r
2
[cos(
2
) + i sin(
2
)]
= r
1
r
2
[cos(
1
+
2
) +i sin(
1
+
2
)].
We can use this property several times to get the identity above step by step.
z
1
z
2
z
n
= (z
1
z
2
)z
3
z
n
= (r
1
(cos(
1
) + i sin(
1
)) r
2
(cos(
2
) + i sin(
2
)))z
3
z
n
= (r
1
r
2
)(cos(
1
+
2
) +i sin(
1
+
2
))z
3
z
4
z
n
= (r
1
r
2
)(cos(
1
+
2
) +i sin(
1
+
2
))r
3
(cos(
3
) + i sin(
3
))z
4
z
n
= (r
1
r
2
r
3
)(cos(
1
+
2
+
3
) +i sin(
1
+
2
+
3
))z
4
z
5
z
n
=
= (r
1
r
2
r
n1
)(cos(
1
+
2
+ +
n1
) + i sin(
1
+
2
+ +
n1
))z
n
= (r
1
r
2
r
n1
)(cos(
1
+
2
+ +
n1
) + i sin(
1
+
2
+ +
n1
))
r
n
(cos(
n
) +i sin(
n
))
= (r
1
r
2
r
n1
r
n
)
(cos(
1
+
2
+ +
n1
+
n
) +i sin(
1
+
2
+ +
n1
+
n
))
10 Chapter 1 Complex Numbers and Functions
33. First, we express the number i in the polar form:
i = 1(cos(/2) + i sin(/2)).
Now the solutions of the equation z
4
= i are the 4th roots of i. So, by the formula for the nth roots
with n = 4 we nd the solutions
z
1
= (cos(/8) +i sin(/8)), z
2
= (cos(5/8) + i sin(5/8)),
z
3
= (cos(9/8) +i sin(9/8)), and z
4
= (cos(13/8) + i sin(13/8)).
37. In order to solve this equation we need to nd the 7-th root of (1). Thus we express (1) in
the polar form. 1 = cos() +i sin(). Hence by the formula for the n-th root with n = 7 we have
that the solutions are
z
1
= cos(/7) +i sin(/7), z
2
= cos(3/7) + i sin(3/7),
z
3
= cos(5/7) + i sin(5/7), z
4
= cos() + i sin(/7),
z
5
= cos(9/7) + i sin(9/7), z
6
= cos(11/7) + i sin(11/7), and
z
7
= cos(13/7) + i sin(13/7).
41. First, we can make a substitution and put w = z 5. Then we need to solve the equation
w
3
= 125 = 125(cos() + i sin()).
The solution set is given by the n-th root formula:
w
1
=
3

125(cos(/3) +i sin(/3)) = 5(1/2 + i

3/2),
w
2
=
3

125(cos() +i sin()) = 5(1 + i 0), and

w
3
=
3

125(cos(5/3) +i sin(5/3)) = 5(1/2 i

3/2).
Recalling that z = w + 5 we conclude that the solutions for the original problem are
z
1
= 5 + w
1
=
15
2
+ i
5

3
2
, z
2
= 5 + w
2
= 0, and z
3
= 5 +w
3
=
15
2
i
5

3
2
.
45. We can use the formula for the solution of the quadratic equation az
2
+bz + c = 0 given by
z =
b

b
2
4ac
2a
.
We have in our problem a = 1, b = 1, and c =
i
4
. Therefore the solution is
z =
1

1 i
2
.
Therefore we need to nd all possible square roots of (1 i). So, we express (1 i) in the polar
form:
1 i = 2
1/2
_
cos
_

4
_
+ i sin
_

4
__
.
Hence two square roots of this number are
w
1
= 2
1/4
_
cos
_

8
_
+i sin
_

8
__
, and w
2
= 2
1/4
_
cos
_
7
8
_
+i sin
_
7
8
__
.
Section 1.3 Polar form 11
And, of course w
1
= w
2
. Thus the solution for the original problem is
z
1
=
1 +w
1
2
, and z
2
=
1 w
1
2
.
Also since /2 <

8
< 0 by the half-angle formulas we nd
cos
_

8
_
=
_
1 + cos(/4)
2
=

1
2
+

2
4
and
sin
_

8
_
=
_
1 + sin(/4)
2
=

1
2
+

2
4
.
Finally we can write down the solutions for the original equation in the form with radicals:
z
1
=
1
2
+
2
1/4
2

1
2
+

2
4
i
2
1/4
2

1
2
+

2
4
, and
z
2
=
1
2

2
1/4
2

1
2
+

2
4
+i
2
1/4
2

1
2
+

2
4
.
49. By De Moivres Identity with n = 4 we have
(cos + i sin)
4
= cos 4 +i sin 4.
Therefore the real part of the number z = (cos + i sin)
4
is equal to cos 4. So, we can directly
evaluate the number z:
(cos + i sin)
4
=
_
(cos +i sin)
2
_
2
= (cos
2
+ 2i cos sin +i
2
sin
2
)
2
= (cos
2
+ 2i cos sin sin
2
)
2
= (cos
2
)
2
+ (2i cos sin )
2
+ (sin
2
)
2
+ 2(cos
2
)(2i cos sin)
+2(2i cos sin )(sin
2
) + 2(sin
2
) cos
2

(In the last equality we used the formula (a +b +c)

2
= a
2
+b
2
+c
2
+2ab +2bc + 2ca which is easy
to verify by direct computation similar to (a + b)
2
= a
2
+ 2ab +b
2
.)
= cos
4
4 cos
2
sin
2
+ sin
4
+ 4i cos
3
sin 4i cos sin
3
2 sin
2
cos
2

=
_
cos
4
6 cos
2
sin
2
+ sin
4

_
+i
_
cos
3
sin 4 cos sin
3

_
.
Finally, we see that the real part of the number z is equal to
_
cos
4
6 cos
2
sin
2
+ sin
4

_
and is
equal to cos 4 by De Moivres Identity. That is why these two trigonometric expressions are equal
to each other.
53. (a) We compute
(
0

j
)
n
=
n
0

n
j
= 1 1 = 1,
since both numbers
0
and
j
are nth roots of unity. This veries that z =
0

j
satises z
n
= 1
and thus is an nth root of 1.
(b) We see that
0

j

0

k
=
0
(
j

k
) = 0 because
0
= 0 and
j
=
k
since they are
dierent nth roots of unity. This veries that
0

j
=
0

k
.
12 Chapter 1 Complex Numbers and Functions
Also since all the complex numbers
0

j
for 1 j n are dierent, are nth roots of unity by
the part (a), and there are exactly n nth roots of unity we conclude that the set (
0

j
)
n
j=1
is the
same as the set of all n roots of unity.
(c) First, we choose some nth root of unity
0
which is dierent from 1 (such one exists because all
roots are dierent and there are at least 2 of them since n 2). Since by the part (b) the set of all
nth roots of unity (
j
)
n
j=1
is the same as the set (
0

j
)
n
j=1
we see that the sum of all the numbers
from the rst set will be the same as the sum of all the numbers from the second one. That is

1
+
2
+ +
n
=
0

1
+
0

2
+ +
0

n
, or

1
+
2
+ +
n
=
0
(
1
+
2
+ +
n
).
Now if we subtract the right hand side of the equation from both sides of it and factor out the sum
of all nth roots of unity we nd that
(1
0
)(
1
+
2
+ +
n
) = 0.
This means that either 1
0
= 0, or
1
+
2
+ +
n
= 0. But the rst equation cannot be true
because
0
is dierent from 1. Therefore we conclude that

1
+
2
+ +
n
= 0.
(d) Let us call z = 1 +
0
+
2
0
+ +
n1
0
. If z is not zero then the number z(1
0
) is also not
zero because 1
0
= 0 (we remember that
0
is dierent from 1). So, we evaluate
z(1
0
) = (1 +
0
+
2
0
+ +
n1
0
)(1
0
)
= 1(1
0
) +
0
(1
0
) + +
n2
0
(1
0
) +
n1
0
(1
0
)
= 1
=0
..

0
+
0
=0
..

2
0
+
2
0

3
0
+ +
n2
0
=0
..

n1
0
+
n1
0

n
0
= 1
n
0
= 0,
since
0
is an nth root of unity. Hence we have
z(1
0
) = 0,
and we divide by (1
0
) = 0 to show that z = 0.
57. (a) We can use a formula from the problem 56. For n = 1, 2, . . .,
cos n =
[
n
2
]

k=0
_
n
2k
_
(cos )
n2k
(1)
k
(sin )
2k
Since for the trigonometric functions there is an identity sin
2
= 1 cos
2
we can use it in the
formula above to get
cos n =
[
n
2
]

k=0
_
n
2k
_
(cos )
n2k
(1)
k
(sin
2
)
k
=
[
n
2
]

k=0
_
n
2k
_
(cos )
n2k
(1)
k
(1 cos
2
)
k
Section 1.3 Polar form 13
Now if we substitute x = cos into the formula above we nd
T
n
(x) = T
n
(cos ) = cos n =
[
n
2
]

k=0
_
n
2k
_
(cos )
n2k
(1)
k
(1 cos
2
)
k
=
[
n
2
]

k=0
_
n
2k
_
x
n2k
(1)
k
(1 x
2
)
k
.
(b) We can use the general formula for Chebyshev polynomials proved above for particular n. We
have
T
0
(x) =
[
0
2
]

k=0
_
0
2k
_
(1)
k
x
02k
(1 x
2
)
k
=
0!
0!0!
x
0
(1 x
2
)
0
=
1 1
1
1 1 = 1.
For n = 1 we have
T
1
(x) =
[
1
2
]

k=0
_
1
2k
_
(1)
k
x
12k
(1 x
2
)
k
=
1!
0!1!
x
120
(1 x
2
)
0
=
1 1
1
x 1 = x.
For n = 2 we have
T
2
(x) =
[
2
2
]

k=0
_
2
2k
_
(1)
k
x
22k
(1 x
2
)
k
=
2!
2!0!
x
220
(1 x
2
)
0
+ (1)
1
2!
0!2!
x
221
(1 x
2
)
= x
2
(1 x
2
) = 2x
2
1.
For n = 3 we get
T
3
(x) =
[
3
2
]

k=0
_
3
2k
_
(1)
k
x
32k
(1 x
2
)
k
=
3!
3!0!
x
3
(1 x
2
)
0

3!
1!2!
x
1
(1 x
2
)
1
= x
3
3x(1 x
2
) = 4x
3
3x.
For n = 4 we get
T
4
(x) =
[
4
2
]

k=0
_
4
2k
_
(1)
k
x
42k
(1 x
2
)
k
=
4!
4!0!
x
4
(1 x
2
)
0

4!
2!2!
x
2
(1 x
2
)
1
+
4!
0!4!
x
0
(1 x
2
)
2
= x
4
6x
2
(1 x
2
) + (1 2x
2
+x
4
) = 8x
4
8x
2
+ 1.
Finally for n = 5 we have
T
5
(x) =
[
5
2
]

k=0
_
5
2k
_
(1)
k
x
52k
(1 x
2
)
k
=
5!
5!0!
x
5
(1 x
2
)
0

5!
3!2!
x
3
(1 x
2
)
1
+
5!
1!4!
x
1
(1 x
2
)
2
= x
5
10x
3
(1 x
2
) + x(1 2x
2
+x
4
) = 16x
5
20x
3
+ 5x.
14 Chapter 1 Complex Numbers and Functions
Solutions to Exercises 1.4
1. We compute
f(3 + 4i) = (3 + 4i) +i = 3 + 5i.
5. In order to nd the principal root we need to express the value of the expression (z
2
+ 2) for
z = i + 1 in the polar form
z
2
+ 2 = (i + 1)
2
+ 2 = i
2
+ 2i + 1
2
+ 2 = 2i + 2 =

8
_
cos
_

4
_
+i sin
_

4
__
.
Then using the formula for the principal root, that is
(r(cos + i sin )
1/2
= r
1/2
(cos(/2) + i sin(/2))
we nd the needed value:
f(1 + i) =
_

8
_
cos
_

4
_
+i sin
_

4
___
1/2
= (

8)
1/2
_
cos
_

8
_
+ i sin
_

8
__
.
The values of cos
_

8
_
and sin
_

8
_
can be found by the half-angle formulas:
cos
2

2
=
1 + cos
2
and sin
2

2
=
1 cos
2
.
We can use them for = /4.
cos
2

8
=
1 +

2
2
2
and sin
2

2
=
1

2
2
2
.
Finally we substitute these values to the expression found above to get
f(1 +i) = 8
1/4
_
1
2
+

2
4
+i
_
1
2

2
4
__
.
9. We compute for z = x + iy
f(z) = z
3
= (x +iy)
3
= x
3
+ 3x
2
i y + 3x(iy)
2
+ (iy)
3
= x
3
3xy
2
+ i(3x
2
y y
3
).
Hence we nd u(x, y) = x
3
3xy
2
and v(x, y) = 3x
2
y y
3
.
13. We know that for z = r(cos +i sin ) = 0, we have
1
z
=
1
r
(cos() +i sin()).
So, we see that the formula makes sense for any complex number z except when z = 0. Hence the
largest subset of C where this function makes is all complex plane C except z = 0.
17. We again use the formula for the principal root. For the complex number z = r(cos +i sin )
we have
z
1
2
= r
1
2
_
cos
_

2
_
+i sin
_

2
__
.
Since r 0 and the trigonometric functions cos and sin make sense for any we see that the
principal root is dened for any z. And it follows that f(z) is dened for all complex numbers z.
Section 1.4 Complex Functions 15
21. We see that S is the disc of radius 1 with center at the origin. Now if we multiply any
number z from S by 4 we get a point inside the disc of radius 4 centered at the origin which is
S
1
= {z : |z| < 4}. This means that the image f(S) is contained in S
1
. On the other hand if z
1
is
in S
1
then
z1
4
is in the original disc S and f
_
z1
4
_
= 4
z
4
= z. And this means that S
1
is in the image
f(S). So, S
1
is contained in f(S) and contains f(S). This is only possible if
f(S) = S
1
= {z : |z| < 4}.
25. (a) We compute
f(g(z)) = ag(z) +b = a(cz +d) + b = acz + ad +b = (ac)z + (ad + b).
This means that f(g(z)) is also linear.
(b) First, we express the number a in the polar form a = r(cos + i sin ). If we substitute this
value to the function f(z) we obtain
f(z) = r(cos + i sin )z +b = ((cos + i sin )(rz)) + b.
So, if we take g
1
(z) = z + b, g
2
(z) = (cos + i sin )z, and g
3
(z) = rz we can nd a representation
for f(z):
f(z) = g
1
((cos + i sin )(rz)) = g
1
(g
2
(rz)) = g
1
(g
2
(g
3
(z))).
And we notice that g
1
is a translation, g
2
is a rotation, and g
3
is a dilation.
29. If a real number z is positive then we can express it in the polar form z = r = r(cos(0)+i sin(0))
for r > 0. And it follows that Argz = 0. If a real number z is negative then we can express it in
the polar form z = r = r(cos() +i sin()) for r > 0. And it follows that Argz = . So, it follows
that the image of the set S is two numbers 0 and .
33. If we write z = r(cos + i sin ), then f(z) =
1
z
=
1
r
(cos() + i sin()). Hence the polar
coordinates of w = f(z) = (cos +i sin ) are
1
3
< < , and
2
3
Arg w

3
. As r increases
from 0 to 3, decreases from to
1
3
; and as goes from

3
up to
2
3
, decreases from (

3
) to
(
2
3
).
37. (a) From the equation for f(z) we get f(z) z = 1. So, since z = 0 and 1 = 0 it follows that
f(z) = 0 (otherwise the product of f(z) and z would be 0, not 1).
(b) We know from the part (a) that for any z from S we have f(z) = 0. Since f[S] is simply the
union of all possible values of f(z) when z is from S it follows that f[S] cannot include zero.
(c) We compute
f(f(z)) =
1
f(z)
=
1
1
z
=
1 z
1
z
z
=
z
1
= z.
(d) We know that f[f[S]] is the set of all complex numbers w such that w = f(u) when u is from
f[S]. But then u = f(z) for some complex number z from S. And, if we use the identity from the
part (c) we get w = f(u) = f(f(z)) = z. So, it follows that f[f[S]] is contained in S. On the other
hand if z is in S then f(z) is in f[S] and f(f(z)) is in f[f[S]]. So, it follows that S is contained in
f[f[S]]. Combining these two facts we conclude that f[f[S]] = S.
41. We need to solve the equation
1
z
= z which is equivalent to z
2
= 1. The solutions of the last
equation are the square roots of 1 which are +1 and 1. Hence the xed points are 1.
45. (a) We know that w is in f[L]. This means that there is z = m + i n with integers m and n
such that z
2
= w. By the way we can compute
w = z
2
= (m +i n)
2
= m
2
+ 2i mn + (i n)
2
= m
2
n
2
+ 2i mn
16 Chapter 1 Complex Numbers and Functions
Now take m
1
= n and n
1
= m. Then for z
1
= m
1
+ i n
1
we compute
z
2
1
= (m
1
+ i n
1
)
2
= m
2
1
n
2
1
+ 2i m
1
n
1
= (n)
2
m
2
+ 2i (m)n
= (m
2
n
2
+ 2i mn) = w.
Hence w is also from f[L].
If we take z
2
= z = mi n then we nd
z
2
2
= (z)
2
= z
2
= w.
Hence w is from f[L].
Finally, we can compute Re w + i Imw = ( Re w i Imw) = w. Since we already proved
u = w is from f[L]. And, for u from f[L] we have (u) is from f[L] as well. We can conclude that
Re w + i Imw = u is from f[L].
(b) This part follows from the formula given in the proof of the part (a). That is for z = m +i n
w = z
2
= (m +i n)
2
= m
2
+ 2i mn + (i n)
2
= (m
2
n
2
) +i(2 mn).
We notice that (m
2
n
2
) is integer and (2mn) is integer. So, w = z
2
is also from L.
(c) By the part (b) it follows that w is in L. Hence the function f maps the number w to f(w)
which is already in f[L]. And this is what we needed to prove.
Section 1.5 The Complex Exponential 17
Solutions to Exercises 1.5
1. We compute
e
i
= e
0+i
= e
0
(cos + i sin ) = 1(1 +i 0) = 1.
5. We compute
e
i
3
4
= e
0+i
3
4
= e
0
_
cos
3
4
+i sin
3
4
_
= 1
_

2
2
+i

2
2
_
=

2
2
+i

2
2
.
9. We evaluate
3e
3+i

2
= 3e
3
_
cos

2
+ i sin

2
_
= 3e
3
(0 +i 1) = 3e
3
i.
13. For z = 1

3i we have that the radius

r = |z| =
_
(1)
2
+ (

3)
2
=

4 = 2.
Since z is in the third quadrant, we have Arg z = tan
1
_

3
1
_
+ =
4
3
.
17. First, we can nd the standard representation for the number z =
1+i
1i
by dividing and multi-
plying by the conjugate of the denominator
1 + i
1 i
=
(1 +i)(1 +i)
(1 i)(1
i
)
=
1 + 2 i +i
2
1
2
+ 1
2
=
2i
2
= i.
Then we nd |z| =

0
2
+ 1
2
= 1. And, since the number z = i is pure imaginary we nd that
Arg z =

2
. Therefore
z = i = 1
_
cos

2
+ i sin

2
_
= 1 e

2
.
21. We can notice that we need to nd only the radius of the given complex number z = e
i

12
.
And, if we write it in the polar form we have
z = e
i

12
= e
0i

12
= 1
_
cos

12
i sin

12
_
.
From this it follows that

e
i

12

= |z| = 1.
25. (a) For z = x +i y we have
Re e
3z
= Re e
3(x+i y)
= Re
_
e
3x
(cos 3y + i sin 3y)
_
= e
3x
cos 3y.
Similar we have
Ime
3z
= Im
_
e
3x
(cos 3y + i sin 3y)
_
= e
3x
sin 3y.
18 Chapter 1 Complex Numbers and Functions
(b) For z = x + i y we rst compute z
2
= (x + i y)
2
= x
2
+ 2i xy + (i y)
2
= x
2
y
2
+ 2xy i. Then
we nd
Re e
z
2
= Re e
x
2
y
2
+2xy i
= Re
_
e
x
2
y
2
(cos 2xy +i sin 2xy)
_
= e
x
2
y
2
cos 2xy.
Similar we have
Ime
z
2
= Im
_
e
x
2
y
2
(cos 2xy + i sin 2xy)
_
= e
x
2
y
2
sin 2xy.
(c) For z = x + i y we compute
Re e
z
= Re e
xi y
= Re e
x
(cos(y) +i sin(y))
= e
x
cos(y).
Similar we compute
Ime
z
= Ime
xi y
= Ime
x
(cos(y) +i sin(y))
= e
x
sin(y).
(d) For z = x +i y we compute
Re e
iz
= Re e
i xy
= Re e
y
(cos(x) + i sin(x))
= e
y
cos(x).
Similar we compute
Ime
iz
= Ime
i xy
= Ime
y
(cos(x) +i sin(x))
= e
y
sin(x).
29. Any complex number z inside the square S can be expressed in the form z = x + i y where
x
1
< x < x
2
and
1
< y <
2
. We can compute
f(z) = e
z
= e
x+i y
= e
x
(cos(y) +i sin(y))
This means that in the polar form the radius of the number f(z) is e
x
. And, since x is a real number
between x
1
and x
2
then e
x
is any number between e
x1
and e
x2
. The argument of the complex
number f(z) is equal to y. And, y is any number between
1
and
2
. Therefore, f[S] is a sector
of all complex numbers having in the polar form the radius between e
x1
and e
x2
and the argument
between
1
and
2
.
33.(a) Since we know that
sin =
e
i
e
i
2i
Section 1.5 The Complex Exponential 19
we compute
sin
4
=
_
e
i
e
i
2i
_
4
=
1
16
_
e
4i
4e
3i
e
i
+ 6e
2i
e
2i
4e
i
e
3i
+e
4i
_
=
1
8
_
e
4i
+e
4i
2
4
e
2i
+e
2i
2
+ 6
_
=
1
8
(cos 4 4 cos 2 + 6) .
(b) We compute the integral using the linearization we received in (a).
_
sin
4
d =
_
1
8
(cos 4 4 cos 2 + 6) d =
1
32
sin 4
1
4
sin 2 +
3
4
+ C.
37. For a complex number z = x +i y we can compute |e
z
| and e
|z|
separately. We have
|e
z
| = |e
x+i y
| = |e
x
e
iy
| = |e
x
| = e
x
.
Also we have
e
|z|
= e
|x+i y|
= e

x
2
+y
2
Then we use a property of the exponential function. For real numbers x
1
x
2
we have e
x1
e
x2
.
Now combining with the fact that x

x
2

_
x
2
+ y
2
we conclude
|e
z
| = e
x
e

x
2
+y
2
= e
|z|
and the equality happens only if x =
_
x
2
+y
2
. And this is true only if y = 0 and x 0. Or in
other words when z is a non-negative real number.
Complex Numbers and Functions
Solutions to Exercises 1.6
1. We have z = i. Then we evaluate using the denition of cos(z) and sin(z)
cos(z) =
e
iz
+ e
iz
2
=
e
i
2
+e
i
2
2
=
e
1
+ e
1
2
=
1
2e
+
e
2
= cosh 1,
which veries (2) and (15); and
sin(z) =
e
iz
e
iz
2i
=
e
i
2
e
i
2
2i
=
e
1
e
1
2i
=
_
e
1
e
_
(i)
2i(i)
=
i e
2

i
2e
i sinh 1,
which veries (3) and (16).
5. (a) For z = 1 + i we evaluate using the denition of cos(z)
cos(z) =
e
iz
+ e
iz
2
=
e
i(1+i)
+e
i(1+i)
2
=
e
i1
+ e
1i
2
=
e
1
(cos(1) +i sin(1)) +e
1
(cos(1) + i sin(1))
2
=
e
1
(cos(1) +i sin(1)) +e
1
(cos(1) i sin(1))
2
= cos(1)
e
1
+e
1
2
i sin(1)
e
1
e
1
2
= cos(1) cosh(1) i sin(1) sinh(1).
Similar we evaluate sin(z)
sin(z) =
e
iz
e
iz
2i
=
e
i(1+i)
e
i(1+i)
2i
=
e
i1
e
1i
2i
=
e
1
(cos(1) + i sin(1)) e
1
(cos(1) + i sin(1))
2i
=
1
i

e
1
(cos(1) + i sin(1)) e
1
(cos(1) i sin(1))
2
= (i)
_
cos(1)
e
1
e
1
2i
+ i sin(1)
e
1
+ e
1
2
_
= sin(1) sinh(1) +i cos(1) cosh(1),
and tan(z)
tan(1 +i) = tan(z) =
sin(z)
cos(z)
=
sin(1) sinh(1) + i cos(1) cosh(1)
cos(1) cosh(1) i sin(1) sinh(1)
=
(sin(1) sinh(1) + i cos(1) cosh(1)) (cos(1) cosh(1) +i sin(1) sinh(1))
(cos(1) cosh(1) i sin(1) sinh(1)) (cos(1) cosh(1) +i sin(1) sinh(1))
= i
cos
2
(1) cosh
2
(1) + sin
2
(1) sinh
2
(1)
cos
2
(1) cosh
2
(1) + sin
2
(1) sinh
2
(1)
Section 1.6 Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions 21
Where we used the computed values of cos(1 + i) and sin(1 +i) for evaluating tan(1 +i).
(b) In this part we use the formulas REF(17) and (18) for the values of | cos z| and | sinz|. We
have for z = x +i y with x = 1 and y = 1
| cos(1 +i)| = | cos z| =
_
cos
2
x + sinh
2
y =
_
cos
2
(1) + sinh
2
(1),
and
| sin(1 + i)| = | cos z| =
_
sin
2
x + sinh
2
y =
_
sin
2
(1) + sinh
2
(1).
(c) From the part (a) we see that cos(1 + i) is represented by the point with the coordinates
(cos(1) cosh(1), sin(1) sinh(1)), sin(1+i) is represented by the point with the coordinates (sin(1) sinh(1), cos(1) sinh(1)),
and tan(1 +i) has coordinates
_
0,
cos
2
(1) cosh
2
(1) + sin
2
(1) sinh
2
(1)
cos
2
(1) cosh
2
(1) + sin
2
(1) sinh
2
(1)
_
.
9. We use the denition of sin z. We have for z = x + i y
sin(2z) =
e
i2z
e
i2z
2i
=
e
i2(x+i y)
e
i2(x+i y)
2i
now we use polar representation
=
e
2y
(cos(2x) + i sin(2x)) e
2y
(cos(2x) +i sin(2x))
2i
=
(e
2y
cos(2x) e
2y
cos(2x)) +i (e
2y
sin(2x) e
2y
sin(2x))
2i
(i)
(i)
= i cos(2x)
e
2y
e
2y
2
+ sin(2x)
e
2y
+e
2y
2
Therefore we have sin(2z) = u(x, y)+i v(x, y) for u(x, y) = sin(2x) cosh(2y) and v(x, y) = cos(2x) sinh(2y).
13. For z = x +i y we evaluate using the formulas REF(15)-(16) for sin z and cos z as well as the
formula REF(17) for | cos z|
tan z =
sin z
cos z
=
sin zcos z
cos zcos z
=
sinzcos z
| cos z|
2
[by formulas REF(15)-(17)]
=
(sin xcosh y + i cos xsinh y)(cos xcosh y +i sinxsinh y)
cos
2
x + sinh
2
y
=
cos xsinx(cosh
2
y sinh
2
y) + i sinh y cosh y(cos
2
x + sin
2
x)
cos
2
x + sinh
2
y
[by properties REF(8) and (27)]
=
cos xsinx + i sinh y cosh y
cos
2
x + sinh
2
y
Therefore we have tan z = u(x, y)+i v(x, y) where u(x, y) =
cos x sin x
cos
2
x+sinh
2
y
and v(x, y) =
sinh y coshy
cos
2
x+sinh
2
y
.
17. As in the Example 4, we will rst nd the image under f of a simple curve in the domain of
denition, often a line segment or line. Then we will sweep the domain of denition with this curve
and keep track of the area that is swept by the image. Fix < y
0
< and consider the horizontal
Complex Numbers and Functions
line segment EF dened by: y = y
0
,

2
x

2
. Let u+i v denote the image of a point z = x+i y
0
on EF. Using (??), we get
u +i v = sin(x +i y
0
) = sin x cosh y
0
+i cos x sinh y
0
.
Hence
u = sin x cosh y
0
and v = cos x sinh y
0
.
Therefore
(1)
u
cosh y
0
= sin x and
v
sinh y
0
= cos x.
Note that v 0 because cos x 0 for

2
x

2
. Squaring both equations in (1) then adding
them, we get
_
u
cosh y
0
_
2
+
_
v
sinh y
0
_
2
= sin
2
x + cos
2
x = 1.
Hence as x varies in the interval

2
x

2
, the point (u, v) traces the upper semi-ellipse
_
u
cosh y
0
_
2
+
_
v
sinh y
0
_
2
= 1, v 0.
The u-intercepts of the ellipse are at u = cosh y
0
and the v-intercept is at v = sinh y
0
. As y
0
varies
from to the upper semi-ellipses will vary between two upper semi-ellipse given by y
0
= and
y
0
= whose u- and v-intercepts are at u = cosh , v = sinh and u = cosh , v = sinh .
When y
0
changes from to continously the corresponding upper semi-ellipses will continously
change from the ellipse corresponding to y
0
= to the ellipse corresponding to y
0
= and thus
ll-in the shadowed area on Figure 4.
21. To prove (??), we appeal to (??) and (??)(??) and write
sin z = sin(x + i y)
= sin xcos(iy) + cos xsin(iy)
= sin xcosh y + i cos xsinhy.
To prove (??), we use (??) and the denition of the modulus of a complex number ((??), Section
1.2). We also use the identity cosh
2
y sinh
2
y = 1 for real hyperbolic functions. We get
| sin z|
2
= sin
2
xcosh
2
y + cos
2
xsinh
2
y
= sin
2
x(1 + sinh
2
y) + cos
2
xsinh
2
y
= sin
2
x + sinh
2
y(cos
2
x + sin
2
x)
= sin
2
x + sinh
2
y.
Computing the square roots of both sides of the received identity we get (??) proved.
25. To establish the identity we use the denition of sin z.
sin(z) =
e
iz
e
iz
2i
=
e
iz
e
iz
2i
= sin z.
29. sin(z
1
+z
2
) = sin z
1
cos z
2
+ cos z
1
sin z
2
. Expanding the right-hand side of the identity above
Section 1.6 Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions 23
we have
(e
iz1
e
iz1
)(e
iz2
+e
iz2
)
4i
+
(e
iz1
+e
iz1
)(e
iz2
e
iz2
)
(4i
[expanding the numerators we have]
=
e
i(z1+z2)
+ e
i(z1z2)
e
i(z1+z2)
e
i(z1+z2)
4i
+
e
i(z1+z2)
+e
i(z2z1)
e
i(z1z2)
e
i(z1+z2)
4i
[adding the fractions and canceling the middle terms we receive]
=
2e
i(z1+z2)
2e
i(z1+z2)
4i
=
e
i(z1+z2)
e
i(z1+z2)
2i
= sin(z
1
+ z
2
).
33. Using already proved properties (??) and (??) of cos z we expand the right-hand side of the
identity above
(cos z
1
cos z
2
sin z
1
sin z
2
) (cos z
1
cos z
2
sin z
1
sinz
2
)
= cos z
1
cos z
2
+ sin z
1
sin z
2
cos z
1
cos z
2
+ sin z
1
sinz
2
= 2 sinz
1
sin z
2
.
37. We use the denitions of cosh z and sinh z to get
cosh(z + i) =
e
z+i
+ e
zi
2
=
e
z
e
i
+e
z
e
i
2
=
e
z
(1) +e
z
(1)
2
=
e
z
+ e
z
2
= cosh z, and
sinh(z + i) =
e
z+i
e
zi
2
=
e
z
e
i
e
z
e
i
2
=
e
z
(1) e
z
(1)
2
=
e
z
e
z
2
= sinh z.
41. First, we use the property (??) or the problem 40 twice to show that the second, the third,
and the fourth sides of the formula are equal to each other. We have
cosh
2
z + sinh
2
z = cosh
2
z + (cosh
2
z 1) = 2 cosh
2
z 1
= 2(1 + sinh
2
z) 1 = 1 + 2 sinh
2
z.
Finally, we show that cosh
2
z + sinh
2
z is equal to the left-hand side. We have
cosh
2
z + sinh
2
z =
(e
z
+ e
z
)
2
4
+
(e
z
e
z
)
2
4
[adding the fractions]
=
(e
2z
+ 2 + e
2z
) + (e
2z
2 + e
2z
)
4
=
e
2z
+ e
2z
2
= cosh 2z.
Complex Numbers and Functions
45. We use the denitions of the hyperbolic functions to prove this identity. We start from the
right-hand side to show it is equal to the left-hand side.
cosh z
1
cosh z
2
+ sinh z
1
sinh z
2
=
e
z1
+e
z1
2
e
z2
+e
z2
2
+
e
z1
e
z1
2
e
z2
e
z2
2
[expanding the numerators we get]
=
e
z1+z2
+ e
z1z2
+e
z1+z2
+ e
z1z2
4
+
e
z1+z2
e
z1z2
e
z1+z2
+ e
z1z2
4
[adding the fractions and simplifying we get]
=
2e
z1+z2
+ 2e
z1z2
4
=
e
z1+z2
+ e
z1z2
2
= cosh(z
1
+ z
2
).
49. We show that the left-hand side is equal to the right-hand side by using the result of the
problem 46 and the facts that sinh(z) = sinh z and cosh(z) = cosh z which can proved by
direct computation (see the solution of a similar problem 25). By problem 46 the right-hand side is
equal to
(sinh z
1
cosh z
2
+ cosh z
1
sinh z
2
) + (sinh z
1
cosh(z
2
) + cosh z
1
sinh(z
2
))
= (sinh z
1
cosh z
2
+ cosh z
1
sinh z
2
) + (sinh z
1
cosh(z
2
) cosh z
1
sinh z
2
)
= 2 sinh z
1
cosh z
2
.
53. If tan z = i had a solution then this would have meant that sin z = i cos z. Now we use (??)
and (??) to show that the assumption leads to a contradiction. Really, we would have for z = x+i y
sin xcosh y +i cos xsinh y = i cosxcosh y + sin xsinh y,
or equivalently
sin x(cosh y sinh y) = i cos x(cosh y sinh y).
We have a real number in the left-hand side and an imaginary number in the right-hand side. They
can be equal only if they are both zeroes. Now we use the fact that the expressions in parenthesis
never are equal to zero. Really, we compute
cosh y sinh y =
e
y
+e
y
2

e
y
e
y
2
=
e
y
+e
y
e
y
+e
y
2
= e
y
= 0
because the exponential function is never equal to zero.
At the same time it is impossible that sin x and cos x are both equal to 0 because of the trigono-
metric identity cos
2
x + sin
2
x = 1. Therefore, we conclude that our assumption was wrong and
tan z = i does not have any solutions.
Similar we show that the equation tan z = i does not have solutions. We use again (??) and
(??) to show that if tan z = i for some z = x +i y then
sin xcosh y + i cos xsinh y = i cosxcosh y sin xsinh y,
Section 1.6 Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions 25
or equivalently
sin x(cosh y + sinh y) = i cos x(cosh y + sinh y)
which leads us to
(sin x + i cos x)(cosh y + sinh y) = 0.
Now by direct computation we show that cosh y + sinh y = e
y
= 0 and sin x + i cos x = 0 since
we always have sin
2
x + cos
2
x = 1. Thus, the assumption tan z = i is wrong and the equation
tan z = i also does not have any solutions.
26 Chapter 1 Complex Numbers and Functions
Solutions to Exercises 1.7
1. We will use the formula (??) for evaluating log(2 i). We have
log(2 i) = ln|2 i| +i arg (2 i) = ln 2 +i (

2
+ 2k)
where k is an integer. We remember that log z is a multiple-valued function.
5. Now we will use the formula (??) for evaluating Log (3 + i

3). We have
Log (3 +i

3) = ln|3 +i

3| + i Arg (3 +i

3)
Since for the number z = 3 + i

3 = x + i y we have x > 0 we compute

Arg (3 + i

3) = Arg z = tan
1
(
y
x
) = tan
1
(

3
3
) =

6
.
Now we can substitute the found value to the formula (1) to nd
Log(3 +i

3) = ln
_
3
2
+ 3 + i

6
=
ln 12
2
+i

6
= .
9. We will use the formula (??) to evaluate log

1. We have
log

1 = ln |1| +i arg

1.
So, we need to compute arg

1. Since arg 1 = 2k for all integer k we have < arg

1 = 2 < +2.
We substitute the found value to the formula (1) to get
log

1 = 0 + i 2 = i 2.
13. We know that
e
z
= 3 z = log 3.
Therefore the solutions of the equations are
z = log3 = ln |3| +i 2k = ln3 + i 2k
for all integer k.
17. The equation is equivalent to e
2z
= 5. We know that
e
2z
= 5 2z = log(5).
Therefore the solutions of the equations are
z =
1
2
log(5) =
1
2
(ln | 5| +i (2k + 1)) =
1
2
ln 5 +i
(2k + 1)
2
,
for all integer k.
21. We will use the formula (??) for evaluating all three numbers
Log1 = ln|1| + i Arg (1) = ln1 + i 0 = 0,
Section 1.7 Logarithms and Powers 27
Log(i) = ln |i| + i Arg (i) = ln1 + i

2
= i

2
, and
Log (i) = ln| i| +i Arg (i) = ln 1 +i
3
2
= i
3
2
.
We see that for z
1
= i and z
2
= i we have
Log z
1
+ Log z
2
= i

2
+ i
3
2
= i 2.
On the other hand Log (z
1
z
2
) = Log (1) = 0. So, in general we see Log (z
1
z
2
) is not equal to
Log z
1
+ Log z
2
.
25. We use the formula (9) for computing the principal value of z

. We have
(5)
1i
= e
(1i) Log(5)
.
To evaluate this expression we need to compute the principal value of the logarithm of (5). We
get
Log (5) = ln | 5| + i Arg (5) = ln 5 +i .
Therefore, we conclude using the properties
(5)
1i
= e
(1i)(ln 5+i )
= e
ln 5++i (ln 5+))
= e
ln 5+
(cos(ln 5 +) +i sin(ln 5 + ))
[since cos(x +) = cos(x) and sin(x + ) = sin(x)]
= e
ln 5
e

(cos(ln 5) i sin(ln5))
= 5e

(cos(ln5) + i sin(ln 5))

[since cos(x) = cos(x) and sin(x) = sin(x)]
= 5e

(cos(ln5) i sin(ln 5)).

29. We use the denition of the complex power (??)to nd
i
i
= e
i logi
= e
i(ln |i|+i argi)
= e
i(0+i (

2
+2k))
= e

2
2k
for integer k. So, we see that i
i
has innitely-many values and all of them are real numbers.
33. (a) Using the denition (??) in Section 1.6 we evaluate
1 +i tan w = 1 + i
sin w
cos w
= 1 +i
e
iw
e
iw
2i
e
iw
+e
iw
2
= 1 +
e
iw
e
iw
e
iw
+ e
iw
=
e
iw
+e
iw
e
iw
+e
iw
+
e
iw
e
iw
e
iw
+ e
iw
[adding two fractions and simplifying we get]
=
2e
iw
e
iw
+e
iw
.
28 Chapter 1 Complex Numbers and Functions
(b) Acting similar to the solution of the part (a) we evaluate
1 i tan w = 1 i
sin w
cos w
= 1 i
e
iw
e
iw
2i
e
iw
+e
iw
2
= 1
e
iw
e
iw
e
iw
+ e
iw
=
e
iw
+ e
iw
e
iw
+ e
iw

e
iw
e
iw
e
iw
+ e
iw
[subtracting two fractions and simplifying we get]
=
2e
iw
e
iw
+e
iw
.
(c) In order to prove this formula for nding the yet unknown value w of tan
1
z we will use the
denition
tan
1
z = w z = tan w.
To nd the value of w we will explore the following expression
1 i z
1 +i z
=
1 i tanw
1 +i tanw
[now we use the formula from part (a) and (b)]
=
2e
iw
e
iw
+e
iw
2e
iw
e
iw
+e
iw
=
e
iw
e
iw
= e
2iw
.
So, we see that
1 i z
1 + i z
= e
2iw
and this equation is equivalent to
2iw = log
1 i z
1 + i z
,
or if we divide both sides of the equation by (2i) =
2
i
we get an equivalent equation
w =
i
2
log
1 i z
1 + i z
,
and since w = tan
1
z we have proved the needed formula.
37. (a) We use the denition of logz. We have
log(z
1
) =
_
w : w = Log z
1
+ 2ki for some integer k
_
=
_
w : w = ln |z|
1
+i Arg
1
z
+ 2ki for some integer k
_
=
_
w : w = ln |z| +i Arg
1
z
+ 2ki for some integer k
_
.
Now we only need to notice that the principal value of the argument of z
1
is equal to the negative
principal argument of z in the case if Arg z = . Really, if z = re
i
then z
1
=
1
r
e
i
for real r > 0
and . So, if < < then also < < . And, if Arg z = then similar we compute
Arg z
1
= . In either case we have that either Arg z
1
= Arg z or Arg z
1
= Arg z +2. And
if follows that
log z
1
= {w : w = ln z i Arg z 2ki for some integer k}
= {w : w = ln z + i Arg z + 2ki for some integer k}
Section 1.7 Logarithms and Powers 29
because if we add or subtract 2 from any number from the set above it is still in the same set.
(b) We proceed similar to the solution of the part (a). We have
log
z
1
z
2
=
_
w : w = Log
z
1
z
2
+ 2ki for some integer k
_
=
_
w : w = ln

z
1
z
2

+ i Arg
z
1
z
2
+ 2ki for some integer k
_
=
_
w : w = ln |z
1
| ln |z
2
| + i Arg
z
1
z
2
+ 2ki for some integer k
_
.
Now we notice that the dierence between two numbers Arg
z1
z2
and ( Arg z
1
Arg z
2
) is an integer
multiple of 2. Really, if z
1
= r
1
e
i1
and z
2
= r
2
e
i2
for r
1
> 0, r
2
> 0, <
1
, and
<
2
then we also have
z1
z2
=
r1
r2
e
i(12)
. And, since the exponential function is 2i-periodic
we see that
1

2
diers from Arg
z1
z2
by only an integer multiple of 2. Thus,
log
z
1
z
2
= {w : w = ln |z
1
| ln|z
2
| + i Arg z
1
i Arg z
2
+ 2ki for some integer k}.
(c) To show that it is not true that log(z
2
) = 2 logz we choose z = 1. Then we evaluate
2 logz = 2 log1 = 2 {w : w = 2ki for some integer k}
= {w : w = 4ki for some integer k} .
On the other hand
log(z
2
) = log(1
2
) = log1
= {w : w = 2ki for some integer k}.
In particular, we see that 2i is log(z
2
) but not in 2 logz since 2 is not an integer multiple of 4.
To show that log(z
2
) 2 log z we choose some complex number w from the set 2 logz. By
denition of the multiple-valued function f(z) = log z it follows that
e
w
2
= z.
If we square this identity we get
e
2
w
2
= z
2
,
or equivalently
e
w
= z
2
.
And this means that w is from the set log(z
2
).