CI-IAI'TE.

NINE
THE ENERGY SYSTEM IN STEADY STATETHE CONTROL PROBLEM

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I
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I

The two oreceding chapters were devoted to the problems associated with the selection ~f a normal operating state for a power system. In this chapter we concern ourselves with the problem of keeping the system in this state by means of continuous automatic closed-loop control. As the demand deviates from its normal value with an unpredictable small amount the state of the system will change. The automatic control system must detect these changes, and initiate in "real time" a set of countercontrol actions which will eliminate as quickly and effectively as possible the state deviations.

.\

9-1 BASIC GENERATOR CONTROL LOOPS

. Figure 9-1 depicts the two major control loops with which most large generators are equipped. Th~ automatic voltage regulator (AVR) loop controls the magnitude of the terminal voltage V. The latter voltage is continuously sensed, re~tified, and smoothed. This de signal, being proportional to VI, is compared he resulting "error voltage," after amplification ":'lth a de r~ference IV Irer. and signal shaping, serves as th-e Input to the exciter which finally delivers the' volta V f to the generator field winding. . ge

-r:

output and frequency

load-frequency control (ALFC) loop regulates the me awatt (speed) of the generator .The loop is not . I g . the c f h AVR . a Sing e one as 111 e case 0 t e . A relatively fast primary loop responds t f . '. . 0 w hi h as we h ave noted, IS an indirect measure of me awat a requency signal IC . speed governor and the control valves the steam (or hvd g) ft t ~alance. Via t.he - ro aw IS regulated With The automatic

~--------_/'-------------.
rTie~1ine

ALFC loops

IIVlllo()p

Secondary IILFC loop A-

VOllil!JO

unOI

Primary IILFC loop

....
:I:

-c "
mixer

>
Z

....

o " o

c:

~ o z

\dP,
To network\ Figure 9-1 The automatic load-frequency and voltage regulator control loops of a synchronous generator.

-..;-==

...

___

THE

EN ERGY

SYSTEM IN STEADY STATE-THE

F

C01?TROL

PROnLt.~ . .\ ~\ ~
~

'd

fJ
.f'l

. . the me awatt output to relatively fast load fluctuations. -, d.., the intent of matchmg t~ t take place in one to several seconds. By thus. \\ By" fast" we :nea.n changes t~ b lance this primary loop performs indirectly a ... ., tending to mamtain a megawa a ., . \ coarse speed or fre~Uen~y contra~~tains the fine adjustment of the [requency; and A slower secon ary o~p ~ . har with other pool also by "reset" action mamtams proper megawatt mterc ange b members. This -Ioop is insensi ti ve to rapid load and frequ~ncy cha~ges ut focuses instead on driftlike changes which take place over pen ods of rmnutes.

t:
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a..

9':'1-1 Cross-Coupling

Between Control Loops

!
I.

The AVR and ALFC loops are not in the truest sense noninteracting; crosscoupling does exist and can sometimes be troublesome. There is little if any coupling from the ALfC loop to the AVR lo,?p, but interactio~ exists in. the opposite direction. We understand this readily by realizing that control actions in the AVR loop affect the magnitude of the genJrator emf E. As the internal emf determines the magnitude of the real power [Eq. 4-22) it is clear that changes in the AVR loop must-be felt in the ALFC loop. I However, the AVR loop is much faster than the ALF9 loob and there is therefore a tendency for the AVR dynamics to settle down before they can make themselves felt in the slower load-frequency conttol channel. In thejdiscussions to follow we shall first study the two loops independently starting with the A VR loop. Later we shall discuss the effects of cross-coupling.

9-1-2 Small-Signal Analysis

In analysis of power system dynamics one distinguishes between large-signal and small-signal analysis. The former type of analysis is encountered (d1ap. 12) when effects of major disturbances are being studied. In such situations generator voltages and powers may undergo sudden changes of magnitudes that may approach 100 percent of normal operating values. Usually this type of analysis leads to differential equations of nonlinear type. I Small-signal analysis is used when variable excursions are relatively small, typically at most a few percent of normal opera ling values. Differential equations are now mostly linear and the powerful Laplace transform analysis methods can be employed. We distinguish between the two analysis types by means of variable symbol designations. In large-scale analysis symbols like f, 0, and I V I represent actual frequency, pO;rer angle, ,,:n? .. oltage magnitu<~(: respectively. (Compare powerv fl0w analysis I'P Chap. 7). In small-scale analysis we use the symbols Ilf, Ao, and' Vito mean the deviations of f:equency, angle, and voltage magnitude fro

61

normal operating

values.All analysis in this chapterfalls in this latter cacegor;

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RIC ENERGY SYSTEMS THE'JRY:

AN INTRODUCTION I

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9-2 THE AUTOMATIC' VOLTAGE REGULATOR

(AVR)
I

'

The exciter is the main component in the AVR loop. It delivers the de power to the generator field. It must have adequate power capacity (in the low megawatt range for large generators) and sufficient speed of response (rise times less than 0.1 s~conds). The bas.lc role of the AVR is to .provide constancy of the generator terminal voltage during normal small and slow changes in the load. However, it is com~on practice to design tile exciter with enough margin to give powerful boosts in the excitation level also during emergency situations.

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9-~-:n. Exciter

Types
I.

There exists a variety of exciter types in use, the more important ones described in Refs. 1 arid 2. . , In older' power plants, the exciter consisted of a de generator driven by the main generator shaft. This arrangement required the transfer of the de power to the generator field via slip rings and brushes. Modern exciters tend to be of either brushless or static design. A typical .brushless AVR loop is shown in Fig. 9-2, where the exciter consists of an "inverted" three-phase synchronous generator. The latter has its three-phase armature on the rbtor and its field (Ill the stator. Its ac armature voltage is rectified in diodes mounted on the rotating s.aaft, and then fed directly into the main generator field. This deisign obviously eliminates the need for slip rings and brushes.

I !
J~

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Comparator

,...---......,

Amplifier
~,-~

Wlrel

+0

~ ~r-J=hllirt sit:>
e
. '_ _
.

+ I

I G

8
~
VR

Exciter

Rectifier

Synchronous generator
8

I I I I I I I
Il

L.r-._j
I Gf I

II II

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I
Rotating components .

-'-_I

Stability compensators'

WI

Rectifier and filter

~_---:--<l------=:~IL-~
IF'~e 5Jl-2 Brushless A VR loop.

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THE

ENERGY

SYSTEM IN STEADY

STAlE-THE

CONTROL

PROULEM

303

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In a static AVR-Ioop the excitation power is obtained directly from the generator terminals or from the station service bus. The ac power is rectified in lhyristor bridges and fed into the main generator field via slip rings. Static exciters are very fast and contribute to improved "transient stability" (Chap. 12).

9-2-2 Exciter

Modeling

I.

~ !
I I

Here follows first a brief description of the AVR loop depicted in Fig. 9-2. (The role of the" stability compensators" will be discussed later.) Assume that for some reason the terminal voltage I VI would decrease. This immediately results in an increased "error voltage" e which, in turn, causes increased values of VR' i., vj',t and if' The d axis generator flux increases as a result of the boost in if' thus raising the magnitude of the internal generator emf E and terminal voltage V. . Mathematical modeling of the exciter and its controls follows. If for the moment we disregard the stability compensator (shown dashed in the figure) we have for the comparator and amplifier respectively

\.
I

61 Vlref and

~I VI

~e

(9-'1 )

where KA is the amplifier gain. Laplace transformation of these two equations

yields
:r.

~ IV Irer(s) .; ~ VI (s) = ~e(s) I

and

I~

"

G
A

~ ~VR(S) 4e(s)

_ - KA

(9-2)

where G A is the amplifier transfer function. The last equation implies instantaneous amplifier response. In reality the amplifier will have a delay that can be represented by a time constant T and its transfer function will then be of the form A ,

(9-3 )
If R, and L, represent' respectively the resistance and inductance exciter field we have for voltage equilibrium in the latter of the

(9-4 )

t IEEE (see Ref 1) uses the symbol E'd for the field voltage We d~part reasons: .
(a) Capital letter symbols are reserved for phaso . rs, (b) S b 1M" .' ym 0 e IS reserved for emf and/or "error volt age. .

from thi

IS

'. praxis lor two

3()~ ~I.EC'TIOC ESEI(t;Y

S\'STc~IS

THI;llRY:

AN INTIWDUCTION

. . d es K armature Measured across the rnain field the exciter pro u~ )'1 ampere of field current i., that is, we have the proportlona ity t:"vf = K, t:"i, Upon Laplace transformation of the 1;5.t two equations

volts per

(9-5)
and elimination of

t.ie we obtain the transfer function of the exciter

(9-6)

I.

I
I

From these equations and using accepted block symbols we assemble directly the transfer function model shown in Fig. 9-3. The time constants TA and T, have values in the ranges 0.02-0.10 and 0.5-1.0 seconds respectively. iNote: Sometimes the exciter block representation is given as
VF

VR

+ STE

We have chosen the form shown in Fig. 9-3 as it conforms with the general con trol system defini tions for" gain" and" time constant.") 9-2-3 Generator Modeling

We need to "close the loop" in Fig. 9-3 by establishing the" missing dynamic link" between the field voltageu. and the generator terminal voltage I VI. As the terminal voltage equals the internal emf minus the voltage drop across the
Comparator Amplifier Exciter

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Figure 9-3 Linear model of t;IC comparator-amplifier-exciter

portion of the AY.R loop in Fig. 9-2.

'1-

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':IV)

'VI

VI
'r

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\ THE ENERGY SYSTEMIN STEADY STATE-THE CONTROL

--:J.
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.-~
'Po

~ 0

""ell"_" .....~;>,_

Amplifier

Exciter field

Generator -----, 1

field LlIV I

<, ~

KF

+ sTdo

la)

v
u

lb)

r
j~

LlWI

->

(c)

Figure 9-4 Closing the AVR loop; (a) i~dividual bloc~ representation; (e) closed loop model.

(b) condensed

model;

internal impedance it is clear that the relationship between V f and IV I depends on the generator loading. The simplest possible relationship exists at low orzero loading in which case V equals approxir:tately the internal emf E. Kirbhhoff's voltage law applied to the field winding yields in this case: I
I1vf

= Rf

I1lf

Lff

-d (111f) = -L - Rf I1E t W fa

d..Ji

[ + Lff

dt

(I1E)
I

(9-7)

d]

The last step follows from Eq. (4-5). . I After Laplace transformation. the last equation yields the field transfer ratio
I1E(s) ~ I1vAs) =

111 VI

(s) l1iJAs)

1 + s~o

(9-B)

where K and
.

A
F -

wLfo_

-fiR~
.
to)

T;,. was

defined by Eq. (4-63).

. I

We 'can now complete the AVR loop as .hown Fig. 9-4a. In tws easy-toin
the final form shewn' in Fig. 9-4c.

follow steps we condense the diagram down

.,
t:

;0

_J!.1;ft~~Fjw.--;_"2'i:'102:.";:.'ii:-:;,j'S{"_"O=/J.::.~j;_T:'JJ.i5.,?J;;iS!f!./!i~;it!i!!fif![;!.{fi!!ifliff."

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ELECTRIC

ENERGY

SYSTE~tS

THEOR

v:

AN INTRODUCTION

// ~

_ Tl]c oven-loop

t1'(II.J.~,/C,.[unction

(;1 s) equals

G(s)
. where the open-loop

K = _._ -~~--:::-:-:-

(1

-l-

sT,.j)(l
by

+ s:z;,)(1 + sT~o)

__

(9-9)

gain K is defined

1~ KKK ,.j

(9-10)

9-2-4 Static Performance

The AVR loop must

of th.: AVR Loop

1. regulate the terminal voltage I V I to within required static accuracy limit 2. have sufficient speed of response 3. be stable
The sranc accuracy requireme-nt can be stated thusly: For a constant (subscript 0) reference input the likewise constant error l1eo must be less than some specified percentage p of the reference. We thus can write the static accuracy specification as follows: l1eo

'

= I1jV Irer.

I) -

I1jV

10 < 1~ . 111 V Irer. 0

(9-11)

For a consfant input the transfer function is obtained by setting s Fig. 9-4c we thus obtain . l1eo f I1jV

= O. From

Irer. 0 -

IV 10 = 6.1V Iref. 0 - 1 + G(O) 6.1 V Irer. 0 11

0 1 -I- K 6.jVlrer. =
1
0

G~}

1 - 1 + 0(0)

Clearly, the. static error decreases with increased loop gain. Substitution of (9~12) into (9-111) yields the minimum gain needed to obtain a specified accuracy: K> 100 - 1 p

6.jVlrcr.

(9-12)

(9-13)

For example, if: we specify that the static error should be less than one percent the open-loop gain must exceed 99.

9-2-5 Dynamic Response of

tilt!

AVR Loop
:;y:;tCI11S12

From the theory of linear control . .

it is known that the time response (9-14)

to. 1 V 1(/) of the loop in Fig. 9-4 equals

t.1V1(t):o= 2.1-'{t.I~o((s).G(~)(1'1} .

THE

ENERGY

SYSTEM

IN STEADY

STATI'.--TIIE

CUNTROL

I'IWIlLEM

3{)7

Mathematically, the- response depends upon the eigenvalues poles, which are obtained from the characteristic equation

or closcd-toon (9-15)

G(s)

+I=

In the AVR loop (Fig. 9-4) the open-loop transfer function G(s) is of third order and we thus obtain three eigenvalues, Sl' S2. and S). If these are distinct and real the transient response components are of the form
(9-10)

a jw.

If two of the eigenvalues. for example S2 and then the transient component will contain Ale'" sin (wt

SJ.

are conjugate complex. an oscillatory term of the (9-17 )

form

+ [3)

For the A VR loop to be stable the transient components must vanish with time. We thus must require that all three eigenvalues be located in the left-hand s . plane. For the loop to possess good tracking ability the transients must not only vanish but they must do so speedily. As the real parts of the eigenvalues determine the rapidity of the exponential decay, a high-speed loop must possess eigenvalues located well to the left in the s plane. The amplitude factors AI' A2, and AJ in formulas (9-16) and (9-17) express the relative size of the transient terms. If one or several of the terms are relatively large then the corresponding eigenvalues are said to be dominant. Generally the closer the eigenvalue is 'located to the jw axis the more dominant it becomes,

9-2-6 AVR Root Loci

The location in the s plane of the eigenvalues depends upon the open-loop gain K and the three time constants TA, I:, and Tdo' Of these parameters only the loop gain can be considered adjustable. It is interesting to study how the magnitude of this gain affects thes-plane locations of the three eigenvalues-and thus the transient response. A root locus plot yields valuable information in this regard. Figure 9-5 depicts the root-locus picture for the AVR loop. There are three loci, each starting from an open-loop pole (marked ), The latter are located at s = - l/T.~, - liTo and -l/T~o respectively. For low values of the loop gain the eigenvalues , (marked 0) are located close to the open-loop poles. their positions marked a. Because T~o is comparatively large the pole - IIT~o is very close to origin. The do~inating eigenvalues 52 is thus small, resulting in a very slowly decaying exponential term, givmg the loop an unacceptably sluggish response. The gain K would not satisfy the inequality {9-13} thus rendering an inaccurate static response as' well.

I
"

I I
I

By incre.as!ng the loop gai.n th~ eigenvalue 52 travels to the left and the loop response ,quIckens .. At a certain gam setting-the eigenvalues S3 arid S2 .. collide," Further increase III the loop gain results in S3 and S2 becoming conjugate

:'::'."

._-----EI.Ee'T!It(-" FSER(,\ , , ., . r'tS THFORV: ~\Sr", .

AS

INTRODUCTI0N t. .

1'(')

'"

<(' c

,/

. \ compl:Xl s plane

_j

<,
'Critical gain crossing

a
_

.,_ ~~I

..J,C:-:

__

...;_''!..

.!J.~-*------l!H)--f--{}-X;:-t--------Pole at 1 s = -TA

Pole at
s = --

1 Te

Figure 9-5 Closed-loop

rOOI loci for AYR control loop in Fig. 9-4.

complex. This dominant eigenvalue pair (b) makes the loop oscillatory, with poor damping. If the gain is increased further the eigenvalues wander into the right-hand s plane (c). The loop now becomes unstable. 9-2-7 Stability Compensation

High loop gain is needed for static accuracy but this causes undesirable dynamic response, possibly instability. By adding series and/or feedback stability compensation (Fig. 9-2) to the AVR lo"op, this conflicting situation can be resolved. As the stability problems emanate from the three cascaded time constants the compensation networks typically will contain some form of phase advancement. Consider for example the addition of a series phase lead compensator, having the transfer function G,=l+sYc The open-loop transfer function will now contain a zero

.
G(s)

K(1 s7;) + = (1 + sTA)(l + s'4)(l + sT,;o)

(9-18 )

The added network will not affect the static loop gain K, and thus the static accuracy. The dynamic response. characteristics will change to the better. Consider for example the case when we would tune the compensator time constant

",.. !.

IN STEADY STATE-THE THE ENERGY SYSTEM .

CONIROL

. T to equal the exciter time constant

. c

T
e'.

The oDen-loop

transfer

function

thea equal

K G(s)

1(9-19)

= (1 + sT )(l
A

+ sTdo)

sated system are depicted in The root loci (there are only two) of the con:pen 1 el'genvalues the dornin. )U It negative rea in '. Fig. 9-6. Low loop gam (a sn resu. s term Increasing loop gam (b) ant one of which, S2' yields a sluggIsh respo.nse f the oscillatory term will, results in oscillatory response. The ~ampmg h in the uncompensated ., . n a- was t e case 1 however, not decrease with mcreasmg gal :> system. . ..' k ensation In reality a combination of senes and feedbac cornp (Compare Prob. 9-5.)
9-2-8 Effects of Generator

is employed.

Loading

y, with Ito the

The above analysis of the AVR loop was based upon the assumption (Eq. 9-8) that E :::: I V I which holds true only for a lightly loaded generator. HO\;r. does increased loading affect the above analysis? It should be noted that the ability of the AVR loop to maintain a well regulated terminal voltage under widely shifting load conditions ("robustness") is an absolute prerequisite. . ' Added load does not change the basic features of the A VR loop as depicted in Fig. 9-4 . It will, however, affect the values of both the gain factor KF and the field time constant. High loading will make the generator work at higher magnetic saturation levels. This means smaller changes in I E I for incremental increases in if' translating into a reduction of KF The field time constant will "likewise decrease as generator loading means closing the armature current paths.

(namic
ompen:d. rstants
'b

t
1 a - Tdo

vancensator,
1
TA
0

~~~------~----~D-~~4----

--------~

(9-18) .static Con~s~ant

t
loop.

Figure' 9-G Root-loci for zero-compensated

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0
;t!
0
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s
ENERGY SYSTEMS THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION

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ELECTRIC

/7

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~1
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This circumstance permits tlu: formation of transien t " stator current the '. f hi h . ld S, e .exIstence 0 W IC yie s a lower effective" field inductance. The rotor-field time cons tan t, load can be sh a wn to 'equal
U

wyer
I

d, load -

X'

X + X exl . . Tdo +
I

(9-20) terminals. Compare

where X ext i~ the exterior also Eq. (4-64).

ext

reactance

viewed from generator

i~ .
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11;

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9-3 AUTOMATIC LOAD ..FREQUENCY CONTROL OF SINGILE-AREA SYSTEMS .

1

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~-,

I'.
~\

;'1 ~

'I l( .
~

The basic role of ALFCt is to maintain desired megawatt output of a generator unit and assist in controlling the frequency of the larger interconnection. The ALFC also Helps to keep the net interchange of power between pool members at p~ed~termin9d. values. Con~~\ should. be appl~ed in such a fashion that high!y differing response characteristics of units of vanous types (hydro, nuclear, fossil, I I. . etc.) are recognized. Also, unnecessary power output changes should be kept to a minimum in-lorder to reduce wear of control valves. The AL~C loop will maintai~ con~ol only during nor~al (small and slow) changes in load and frequency. I~ IS typically unable to provide adequate control during emergency Situations, when large megawatt imbalances occur. Then more drastic" emergency controls" must be applied {Chap. 12). In the present section we shall first study ALFC as it applies to a single generator supplying power to a local service area. We shall later extend the study to embrace several generators allpart of a single" control area."

9-3-1. Speed-Governing System

The real power in a power system is being controlled by controlling the driving torques of the individual turbines of the system. Figure 9-7 shows in a highly schernatical fashion the operating features of such a speed-governing system.t This system constitutes the" I?rim(}ry" control loop in Fig. 9-1. By controlling the position, measured by the coordinate XE, of the control valve (or gate, in the case of a hydroturbine), we can exert control over the flow of high-pressure steam (or water) through the turbine. A downward small movement of the linkage point E increases the steam (or water) flow by a small amount which, if measured in valve power, represents a

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The term" Automatic Generation Control ~ (AGe) is also commonly used. terminology used agrees wit~ the standard 'accepted by the industry. AIl systc course. not identical. We chose a representative example for demonstration. ms arc,

:t The

f
0

~'J;,)",;?-.=~~. .. .:=_. . ,

.. ... -

THE ENERGY SYSTEM IN STEADY STATE-THE

CONTROL

PROn'LE,\.1 311

Steam

.IPv

High- ~ pressure oil

Speed

governor

Hydraulic

amplifier

Figure 9-7 Simplified functional diag~am of the primary ALFC loop.

megawatt increment 6oPv. This flow increase translates into a turbine power increment 60PT in the turbine (not shown in the figure). Very large mechanical forces are needed to position the main valve (or gate) against the high steam (or water) pressure, and these forces are obtained via several stages of hydraulic amplifiers. In our simplified version we show only one stage. 'rhe input to this amplifier is the position XD of the pilot valve. The output is the position XE of the main piston. Because the high-pressure hydraulic fluid exerts only a slight differential force on the pilot valve, the force amplification isvery great. The position of the pilot valve can be affected via the linkage system in three ways: 1. Directly, by the speed changer. A small downward movement of the linkage point A corresponds to an increase 6.P ref in the reference power setting. ~. Indirectly, via feedback, due to position changes of the main piston. 3. Indirectly, via feedback. due to position changes of linkage point B resulting from speed changes. . It should prove a useful' exercise for the reader to find, qualitatioely, the workings of the mechanism. For example, give a "raise" command to the speed changer and prove that this indeed results in an increase in turbine outpwt. Prove also ..that a sm~""ci r"" U/;1I o-;,,~ th~ ~~~~ ~I'r __ n

. 3:\'2 .t,(_EC'FRIIf ENERGY

Of'Y' SYSTEMS THE'

AN INTRODUCTlON .

(ilr(>s~ntly we shall give a qual1cicaciue description

of the mecha~is_m'

. ints

.Il<lthe analysis to follow, incremental movements .of the five linkage po II .. , E in Fig. 9-7 are of particular interest. In reality these movements are
measured in millimeters but in cur analysis we shall rather express them as power increments expressed in megawatts or per-unit megawatts as the case may be. The movements are assumed positive in the directions of the arrows. The .. h (1. The governor output command 6.Py is measured by the positron c ange Xc' governor has two inputs:

I. Changes

2. Changes

6.P ref in the reference power setting tl/ in the speed of frequency of the generator,

as measured

by 6.xB

An increase in tlPg results from an increase in 6.Pref and a decrease .in 6.f.We thus can write for small increments 1 Mg = sr.; - Ii 6./ MW (9-21) The constant R has dimension hertz per megawatt, and is referred to as or droop. (For numerical values see Example 9-2 below.) Laplace transformation of Eq. (9-21) yields 6.Pg(s) = Using well-known as shown in Fig. 9-8.

regulation

6.Pref(s) -

Ii 6./(s)

(9~22)
the governor

block diagram

symbols we have represented

9-3-2 Hydraulic

Valve

Actuator

The input position 6.xD of the valve actuator increases as a result of an increased command 6.Pg but decreases due to increased valve output, 6.Pv. Equal increases in both 6.Pg and 6.Pv should result in 6.xD = O. We can thus write

tuD =

6.Pg

6.Pv

MW

. (9-23)

For small changes IlxD the oil flow into the hydraulic motor is proportional to position 6.xD of the pilot valve. Thus we obtain the following relationship for the position of the main piston: 6.Pv = kH

f 6.x

dt

(9-24 )

The positive constant kH depends upon orifice and cylinder geometries and ft:blid pressure. Upon Laplace t.ransformation of the last two. equations and upon eliminalioF} of 6.XD w~ obtain the actuator transfer function

'-'--,.

(2~.y!'~:;-a

__," '---~~--__..'------~~-----~

"

::t;;;'~jJ Z~~==-e5 -t'ci-~ arouzri Q.! s, 1t.~ b;'-~:-2.'l:t1:-{zl-;e 2.....~to.:- j;_as ceen represented G;![s):n :~~ 9-8.

by me transfer- function

9-3-3 Turbtne-Cenerator Response

Ete- ",-ec1l~aiSm described in Sec, 4-9 the turbine 'him &e e!~tromecil2illca1 air-gap Dower P G resultin a ~ zero a:;;:;e~efo~ 2":"'" a consrant speed or frequency. P~bations sr; and LPG b i::zs~ FD7,-::;:S 71'iTI ~t me above balance. If the difference power, !l:P;- - b.P /G, :s :;::-OS:"i3.-e nrr~me generator unit will accelerate; if negative it :::e ;:;~'5;Je:.~%a:-;.. 71:1:: ;:;,.;r;;rcff.,-epo,;=:- mcre-m-.~t M, de~ds entirely upon the valve power ~~ !::'P at.d !te zesponse t:..hzr-ac!eristics o~!he turbine, Different turbine r <!)l~ -i~} n~..c.el;,1:: :this regard. It .is pOSS11>le express the turbine dynamics in to ~~ cf:a t1rb:.r:~trn!!L-::(e:- ftmcuon
LO::::;:-a] S:~~': s-.z;r~ 2I.Q .... ~

fu

,!:-07~l';:.r '7 k~ P

';n!~c:e

(9-25) b. AF~' D "''-:;: ~ye Gf:T.--eo Gy for the most common turbine types. A b 'consisting of a .~~ mre cc;t~.?iPt, i.e...
~.t<tailil.e;flt;r;-Be~?at S1P..am 3J'POirE has the simples, transfer function,

iI

~bEe1'R'I~

ENERGY

SYSiFEMS TI-!EORY:

AN INTRODUCTION'

!D,e S'al,d t'h"ll[ the tU,rhine response is slow with response times ,,' nd se(\:Qn 's. .
"
lIil

. o'tm~r,ltlrbine .

types have more complex

t~ansfer functions

In I,' , .. genera it car;} d' In severa 1 . measure' .

The, gen,er.atoi". P?wet increment I:lP G depends entirely upon the changes C1Pv the l?ad Pj;) being fed from the generator, Via the transient mechanism dis~ussed 10 ~ec. 4-13 the genei'ato~ always adjusts its ,output so as to meet tne e.man?, c~anges. !1P D '. These adjustments are essentially "instantaneous," eertainly m c9mpanson With the slow changes in Pr, and we can therefore set

!1PG D = !1P

(9-28)
the turbine-genera-

In vie~ of Eqs. (9-26) al1ci (9-28) we can thus symbolize tor dynamic response as shown in Fig. 9-8.

9-3-4 Static Performance ~1 Speed Governor

i At this stage in our analysis the control loop in Fig. 9-8 is "open." We can nevertheless obtain some interesting information about the static performance of the speed governor. The relationship between static signals (subscript "0") is obtained by letting s --+ O. As GH(O) = Gr(O) = 1 we obtain directly.from Fig. 9-8 APr, 0 = !J.Pref, 0 We consider three cases.

R !1Jo

(9-29)

Case A The generator is synchronized to a network of. very large size, so large in fact, that its frequency will be essentially independent of any changes in the power output of this individual generator (" infinite" network). Since we thus have '

6.1=0
'we obtain from Eq. (9-29)
!J.PT,o = !J.Pref, 0

(~-30)

For a generator operated at a lforced) constant speed, we thus have a direct proportionality between the 'turbine power and reference power setting.
Example 9-1 A lOO-MW generator is operated onto an .. infinite" network. Hew would YO\l make this generator increase its turbine power by 5 MW?
SeW'IJ:0N

Simply by giving a "raise" signal of $ MW to the speed-changer motor,

'j,

Case B Now we consider the network "finite," i.e., its frequeney is variable. W'e do, however, keep bae speed-changer setting constant, that is, Mrcf = O. FFOIn Bq. (9-19) we obtai;l'l , 1 .
0

:;

==4FT, A/o - if.

(9-31)

.. '.:.

THE ENERGY SYSTEM IN STEADY STATE-THE

CONTROL

PROULHI

315

For a COl1stant setting of the speed chanqer the static increase ;11 turbine !'(JI\'('I' output is directiy proportional to the static [requency drop. This result points out the physical significance of the feedback parameter R. We remember that the physical unit for R is hertz per megawatt. III practice. the power is measured in per units, and in this case the unit for R will be hertz per unit megawatt. If the frequency drop is likewise measured in. per units of normal frequency (= 60 Hz), and if the power is measured in per-unit megawatts. then the unit for R will be in per units also.
Example 9-2 Consider the tOO-MW generator in (he previous example II ha, a re!?lIIalit)11 parameter R of four percent (or 0.04 pu). By how much will the turbine power increase if the frequency drops by 0.1 Hz with the reference unchanged?
SOLUTION

A 0.04-pu regulation parameter means thai the turbine power will increase I I'll. or tOO MW for a 0.04-pu, or 2.4-Hz drop in frequency. Thus we have 2.4 R = 100 = 0.024 HzjMW

According experience

to Eq. (9-3l) for a frequency change of 6.[= -0.1 a static change of I 6.Pr.o=-0.024 x(-0.1}=4.17MW

Hz the turbine power will thus

Case C In the general case, changes may occur in both reference setting and frequency in J.,hich case the more general relationship (9-29) applies. In a frequency-generation graph Eq. (9-29) represents a family of sloping lines as depicted in Fig. 9-9, each line corresponding to a specific reference power setting.

Percent of rated frequency

i
Speed changer set to give rated frequency at 100 percent Of rated output

---I>

98
96,
94.

Percent of rated output Speed changer set. to give rated frequency at 50 percent of rated output response of speed governor (Graphs correspond to R = 0.04 pu.)

Figure 9-9 Static speed-power

___

--:'

~ ...:t>::I._~_"'" .---:-

-----.-

.11'0

El.ECTRIIC

EN:ERGY

SYSTEMS

THEO

RY'

AN INTRODL;CTION" .

.. MW enerator in the previ0us example. If the frequency Example 9-3 Consider again the 100g . h ed by how much should the drops by 0.1 Hz but the turbine power must remain unc ang , referense
SOLUTIO:--:

setting

be changed?
T.

As t>.P

must be zero we obtain D.P

,r.o

from Eq. (9-29) x (-0.1)

10

=.!.. R

t>.f,
0

= 0.024 -'--

-4.17

MW

Rcsul:

We

mUSI

command

the speed changer

"Iower"

by 4.17 MW.

Th err ra t'Ings are 50 and . Example 9-4 Two generators arc supplying power to a system. , 500 M W respectively, The frequency is 60 Hz and each generato( is hulf-Ioaded. The system load increases by 110 MW and as a result the frequency drops to 59.5 Hz. What. must rhe individual regulations be if the two generators should increase their turbine powers In proportion to their ratings?
SOLUTION

The

IWO generators

should

pick

up 10 and

100 MW

respectively.

From

formula

(9-31) we thus compute

their R values:

= - --

-0.5 10

= 0.05

Hz/MW

(smaller

unit)

-O.S R = - -- =
100

0.005 Hz/MW hertz

(larger

unit)

, the R figure will be .

... ~.~-

If we express

the regulation

in per-unit

per per-unit

megawatt,

0.0417 pu (or 4.17 percent)

for both units.

This result thus teaches us that generators working in parallel on the sa~e network ought to have the same regulation (expressed in per unit of their own rating) in order to share load chanqes in proportion to size.

9-3-5 Closing the ALFC Loop

We observed earlier that the loop in Fig. 9-8 is "open.'; We proceed now to "close" it; i.e., we seek to obtain a mathematical link between !::"PT and!::"'f.As our generator is supplying power to a conglomeration of, loads in its service area, it' is necessary in our following analysis to make reasonable assumptions about the "I umped " area behavior. We make these assumptions:
1. The system is originally running in its normal state wijh complete power balance, that is, Pg = P~ + losses. The frequency is .at normal value [". All rotating equipment represents a total kinetic energy of Wkin = H1in

fTIega watt-seconds. 2, By' connecting additional load objects to the system the load demand increases by !::"P D which we shall refer to as "new'; load. (If load objects are discennected thea tJ.PD < 0, that is, the "new" load is negative.] The generator immediately increases its output !::"'Pa to match the..new load, that is, !!.PG = !::"PD,

~.

:co ~,
'~

~,I..; L PROl\L~ ~

~
.

k< zs:

.;:;

THE ENERGY SYSTEM IN STE.\I)Y

STATE-THE

CONTRO
.

n"9-

o~ \;\

3, "There will now be a power imbalance ill the ~rea that equals 6.PT - ~t ~ megawatts. As a result the speed or frequency will change. This change will b (ilssumed uniform throughout the area. As the kinetic energy is proportional t~ , the square of the speed we can thus write for the area kinetic energy Wkin =

~in

( JO J 2)

MWs

(9-32) Example

4. The" old" area load has' a frequency dependency 3-6) that we can lump into one area para neter IvI:W/Hz

ap olaJ (compare

(9-33 )

Area power balance requires that the increase in turbine power equals the, sum of "old ,; and "new" load changes plus the: rate of change of kinetic energy. We can thus express this area power balance as follows: (9-34 )

As
f=fO
and as I1f is small relative to
~in

+ /)"f
write Eq. (9-32)

r we can
~jn

~jn

fO fO I1f)2 = +

1[, 2!if - + (N)2] +: fO fO

;::::; ~In

f 1(+: 2 6. ) fO
(9-35)

By substitution takes on the form

of Eq. (9-35) into Eq. (9-34) the power-balance

equation

(9-36)

By dividing this equation per-unit inertia constant

H~ it takes
OF!

by the generator

rating P, and by introducing the "

~jn

Pr
the form 2H d

MWs/MW

(or s)

(9-37)

l '.:'

I1PT -

sr; =

fO dt (~f)

+D

~f

puMW

The ~P's are mow measured megawatt per hertz. The H para~eter

in .per unit ~ver

'Ill

(on base Pr) aHO D in per-unit

~ln

h~s the advant~~~

that

it

is essentially

iadepen.
,

deat ef system S'1~e.TYPlcalll values 'he

the f~nge 2-8 seconds.

pu M 'The eq1uation is now written in terms of AI/ any ana ysts prefer this.] Laplace transformation of Eq. (9-3&) yields

MW

(9-39)
.

I",

that is, the per-unit frequency

APr(s) - .1PD{s)
which equation

. I

= =Os

?H

lJ.f{s)

+D

lJ.f(s)

(9-40)

can be written in the form (9-41 )

where, for brevity, the following new parameters G ( )A Kp p s 1 + sT.

A

have been introduced: (9-42)

I;, K
p

IOD
D

2H

s
Hz/pu MW

(9-43)
(9-44)

~ _!_

Equation (9-41) represents the" missing' link " in the control loop of Fig. 9-8. By adding a summing ju~ction. and a transfer block we close the loop as depicted in Fig. 9-10. (Disregard at this time the dashed portion of the diagram marked" secondary loop.")

Secondary ALFC loop Primary ALFC loop

r-------------r------------------.
I

!I

I I
I

I'
I I I ... ----.,LlPr.'(s)_ I. 'K, 1_+ ..... --1. -~I
S L.._-' __ ~

df.(s)
I
/1 '

Power system lFiin!lr~9-10 Closing the ALFC

100H.

~,:',

CONTROL PROaLEI>! OY STATE- THE " THE ENERGY SYSTEMIN STEA

319

9-3-6 Concept of " Control Area" 39)

1Cy.

'-40)

.' lor feed ing lion of a single genera Our above theory was based upon the ~ssur:nP I the striClest sense the theory power to a local service area-a rare sltuatl~n. a~ arallel-working gcnerato~S does not apply to the more common case 0 m YtPms normally control their st power sys e I loops serving a larger area. However, mo . lier the individual contra . . . Imp ortaIH---t he generators . Unison. F or r easons mentiOned ear I d his is qUite . In have the same regulation parameters. If also-an t 11 onse characteristics then individual generator turbines tend to ha.ve t~e r;:gresent the whole system it is possible to let the control loop In Fig .. which then would be referred to as a control area.

s;~~

r
Example following 9-5 Determine data: Total Normal Inertia rated area capacity load the primary ALFC loop parameters or

a conlrol

area

having

the

1-41)

operating constant

P~

P, = 2000 MW = 1000 MW = 5.0 s

Regulation

R
that

= 2.40 Hz/pu

MW

(all area

generalClr' aning

)-42)
We shall load would assume the load-frequency for onc percent yields D: dependency frequency increase one percent

IS

. r Inear,

me

that

the"

old ..

increase.

i-43)
SOLUTION

The latter

load assumption

9-44}
or in per units of area capacity

iJP~ D =- = -

of

10. = 0.60

16.67 MW/H

~.9-8. )p as .gram
We then get from

D = 16.67 2000 Eqs. (9-43) and

= 8.33 x 10-3 (9-44)

pu MW/Hz

2 x 5.0 Tp= 60 x 8.33 X 10-3

= 20 s

tc, = D 9-3-7 Static Response of Primary

= 120 Hz/pu MW

ALFC

Loop

Having closed the primary ALFC loop we wish now to-study both its static and dynamic features. In this section we shall limit attention to the static characteristics. One of the basic objectives' of the loop is to maintain constant frequency in spite of changing loads. How accurately does the loop maintain the frequency? The primary ALFC loop in Fig. 9-10 has one output 6.J and two inputs 6.P rer and IlP D' From the block diagram we obtain by inspection'

{[6.P

rer -

N ]GHGr -

MD}G

=N

(9-45 )

Fcii.r a

(:,OI1SlUllt

.r ' relenmce

inp u t

(A P ,d- - 0) we thus have D.

Gp 6P (s)
D

6./(s) = - 1 + (I/R)GpGHGT
For

(9-46)

a step load

change of constant

magnitude

6.Pv = M we have

6.Po(s)=Using the final-value frequency drop 6.j~ = lim theorem,

M s
0 bta tarn

we rea dil Y I

i from Eq. (9-46) the static M D

[s 6./(s)] =
the

Kp
1 + Kp/R

M_ _
I -

+ l/R
response

Hz

(9-47)

We introduce here (AFRC) j3. defined as

so-called

area frequency

charactertistic

P=D+and obtain, then,

D.

1 R

pu MW/Hz
M f3

(9-48)

6.fo =

Hz
example

(9-49)
follow-

Example 9-6 Find the static frequency drop for the 2-GW system iri previous ing a one percent load increase. that is. 6.PD = M = 20 MW = 0.01 pu MW.
SoLUTION

For the above numerical

data I
X

we get

f3 = 8.33
.'. or 0.04 percent Example governor
50LtJT'I0N

10-3 + -

2.40

= =

0.425 pu MW/Hz

6./0

= -

0.01 0.425

-0.0235

Hz

of normal

frequency. example , have have been if the speed-

9-7 What would the frequency drop in the previous loop were nonexistent or open? Opening the loop is tantamount to setting

= co. We now would

3

P=
.and

D = 8.33 x 10-

6.( = -~
vo or fw.o: percent .: of normal value.

0.00833 -

~-

1.20, Hz

'.'

.
"

=:

.~

THE ENERGY

SYSTEM IN STEADY

STATE-THE

CONTROL

PROfiLGM

321

9-3-8 Dynamic Response of ALFC Loop

The static response of the ALFC loop yield ~d. important information about frequency accuracy. The dynamic response of tile: loop will inform about" tracking" ability and stability of .t,~e loop. Finding the dynamic response (for a step load) is quite straightforward. Equation (9-46) upon inverse Laplace transformation yields an expression for !::"f(c). However, as GH, GT, and Gp contain at least one time constant each, the denominator will be of third order, resulting in unwieldy algebra. We can simplify the analysis considera oly by making the reasonable assumption that the action of the speed governor plus the turbine generator is .. instantaneous" compared with the rest of till: power system. The latter, as demonstrated in Example 9-5 has a time constant of 20 s, and since the other two time constants are of the order of 1 s, we will perform, an approximate analysis by setting TH = TT = O. From Eq. (9-46) we then get

ic

7)
til-

48)

.s.:
!::,.f(s) ;:::; _
1 +--p-

1 + sTp 1 K

M s

R. 1 + a,

49)
tow-

=-MR:K~p(~_t::,.j(s) ;:::;-0.0235(~ s

s+~
. p

Rl+Kp)

(9-50)

If we make useof the previous numerical values, we obtain \ s

+ 2.55.
Hz (9-51 )

1_)

The approximate time response is therefore purely exponential. t::,.j(t);:::; -0.0235(1 - e-2.S5,)

peed-

Figure 9-11 shows an analog computer recording. of this response. For comparison, we also simulated the loop response with the inclusion of. the time constants TH and TT' We make the following observations in regard to our results: .' 1. The overall closed-loop system time constant iequals only .1/2.55 = 0.393 s, which is a considerable reduction from the value T" = 20 s, characterizing the " plant" itself. This speedup is a result of the feedback arrangement of the speed governor. Note that the system can be made-still faster by reducing R, that is, by increasing the static loop gain. 2. Reduction of R aliso reduces the static frequency error. 3. If we performed the above analysis by not disregarding the turbine response, then the response would net be purely exponential as above. :I.o,'Fig. 9-1i ,we

-0.01 Jfo = -0.0235 -0.02

Hz

Response if THand turbine assumed) T T =, 0.3 s TH ,~, 80 ms

T T are not neglected (non reheat

Figure 9-11 Dynamic

response of the primary ALFC loop to a step-load increase.

show the difference. Note that the added delays cause a larger transient frequency dip. Why? 4. The speed governor gives a reasonable performance with a static frequency . drop of only 2.4 Hz between zero and full load and settling time of the order of 3 s (as depicted ill Fig. 9-11). However, with the extremely severe restrictions we in reality impose on frequency constancy (see Sec. 9-3-10), the results are, in fact, entirely u.nac.ceptable. We must do much better. 5. The foregoing analysis may not have given the reader a full physical understanding of the load frequency mechanism of the' single-area system. Since . such an understanding is invaluable to appreciate fully so-called bias control in multiarea systems (see Sec. 9-3-10), we shall attempt now to shed some light on the physical mechanism.

9-3-9 Physical Inrerpretation

of Results

When the load suddenly increased by 1 percent (= 20 MW), where did this power come from? Certainly, it must hav~ come from somewhere, as can be certified by the customer who threw the switch and expected and got instantaneously the demanded 20 MW. """'-.'. In the milliseconds following the closure of the switch, the frequency has not changed a measurable amount, and therefore no power increase has had time to develop in the turbine (where the steam valve has not yet moved).
.. . In those first instants the total additionalload-demand 20 MW is obtainedfrom the stored kinetic energy, which therefore will decrease at an initial rate of 20 M W. The kinetic energy is released. by speed reduction. Since the speed is dropping (and from. Eq. (9-51) .we note that the initial deceleration is 0.0235 x 2.55 = Q.06 Hzjs), the steam valve is opened up; due to the mechanism' described ea~lier and thllis meains increased generator output. Also, and this, is important to real'iz-e' ,

THE ENERGY

SYSTEM IN STl:,\I)Y

Sl'ATIi,-THll

CONTIlOL

PROBLEM

323

since the speed is now dropping, the, "old" 10tHI llOOO rvlW in this case) decre~ses at the rate of D = 1000/60 = 16,67 rvtW/Hz, SInce the appearance 011 the scene of-thts I'c/t;oscd" power //IeallS that less power l1eeds to be qenerated. we carr in effect consider itto /)(1 (l direct cOlllributioll to the new load demand, ' - In conclusion,' as the speed is dropping, the demand increase of 20 MW is thus made up three components:
H

or

l. "Borrowed" kinetic energy from the rotating 2. Increased generation

system

machines

3. "Released"

old customer load

Initially, the last two components are zero, but as the speed is dropping, they will account for an increased contribution. Consequenlly. the kinetic energy will lie consumed at a decreased rate , and this is confirmed in Fig, 9-1 L which shows that the deceleration decreases as time goes on, Eventually (theoretically, after infinite time), the speed will level off at a new constant lower value. At this time the kinetic energy is constant (at a lower value), and the 20-MW load increase is therefore made up of the last two components only. It is interesting to see in what ratio the last two components contribute. The static speed drop being 0.02.3.5Hz, we can compute these contributions as follows: 1. The generator regulation is 4.00 percent, or 2.<.l.()Hz/pu MW,'and in generation .after the new steady state is reached will be 0~~5 the increase

= 0.0098 =

pu MW

0.0098 x 2000

19.6 MW

s
e
1-

2. Since the" old" load decreases at the rate of 16.67 MW 1Hz, the speed drop of 0'.0235 Hz will," release"

0.0235 x 16.67 = 0.4 MW

These two components evidently add up to 20 MW. Note contn ibuti ution, by c. IS f rom new generation.' tar, is that the lar t Lt ges ,

~t
LO

m'l

9-3-10 The Secondary (" Reset") ALFC Loop

.It is necessary toachieve
uch better frequency constancy than is obtained b the speed-governor system Itself, as demonstrated above T '. y must manipulate: the speed changer in aCGordance " 0 acco~phsh this we strateqy, Before we do so, it is necessary to settl r WIth some suitable control , e lor a set of control snecifir.nt.i(')P1'<

IV, :ng

n:

=
er, ze,

324

ELECT~IC

ENERGY

SYSTEMS THEORY;

AN INTRODUCTION

the stringency

of which will in the end determine

the sophistication

of the

proposed control method. A Suggested control system specifications We are presently discussing ~ singble l .. .f . . r h a system are considera y area system, and the con trol spec! catI~ns lor sue simpler than those imposed upon a multiple-area system (power pool). Here follow some realistic specifications:
1. The control loop must be characterized by a sufficient degree of sta~ilitYT' hi 2. Following a step load change, the frequency error should retur~ to ,zero. IS is referred to as isochronous control. The magnitude of the transient frequency deviation should be minimized. (This magnitude depends, of course, upon the magnitude of the load change.) ,~ 3. The integral of the frequency error should be minimized. 1 4. The individual generators of the control area should divide the total load for optimum economy (Chap. 8).

Let us comment

on each of these requirements:

1. Stability is always a problem in closed-loop control. The tighter the error specifications, the greater the risk-that the proposed loop win turn unstable. 2. The need for frequency constancy was discussed in Chap. 7. Isochronous (iso = equal, chronos = time) control gives assurance that the synchronous clocks run on time, but not without error (see point 3). 3. Isochronous control guarantees that the static frequency error following a step load change will vanish. No control system can, however, eliminate the transient frequency error (see Fig. 9-12 for a demonstration of this point.) The time error of synchronous clocks is proportional to the integral of the frequency error. This integral has the dimension of" cycles." If we divide the integral by I" we obtain an expression for time error. !:it expressed in seconds, i.e., 1 r s !:it = fO !:if dt (9-52)

fo

The particular control strategy we shall propose below does not have the ability to reduce the error integral automatically to arbitrarily small values. During the periods of heavy load, the system frequency will have a tendency to be below 60.00 Hz, during periods of the light load above. For example, ass~me that the frequency averages 59.99 Hz during a prolonged heavy-load period. In one hour we would now accumulate a time error of !:it

= 60 fo

3600

36

(-0.01) dt = - 60 = -0.60 s/h

time error (in

The customary way to handle such a slowly accumulating the U nited States) is as follows. .

1",
o ~ ~
1"l-1E ENERGY SYSTEM. IN STEJ.!}Y STATE-THE CONTROL
.).

ph '':_".

(... B~ O

f (t),

H:j

4 -

Without inte ~I'al control

(a)

-0.Q1

Without intec.r sl control

(b)

Figure 9-12 D~amic

re~ponse of the ALFC loop including the reset action of the secondary

loop.

The error is measured by comparing the "system time" with that of the National Bureau of Standards. When an error of 3 s has accumulated (and, as exemplified, this may normally take many hours), the speed changer is offset intentionally an amount of, say,.O.02 Hz for a sufficiently long time for the time error to reduce to zero. In the case of a power pool, one usually designates a pool member to keep track of the time error and inform the other pool members regularly of the need to reduce' the error by a unison effort. 4. The first three specifications' are taken care of by a control system (see below) with a response time of the order of a few seconds or half a minute. When these three control requirements are met, one attends to the fourth economic 'requirement. This is usually being done by a slower economic dispatch con-' trol scheme, having response times of the order of a minute or longer. . (Sec. 9-3-11.)

B. Integral control By using the control strategy shown dashed in Fig. ~-10, we obtain an overall system that will meet performance specifications 1 to 2 above. We have.added to the primary ALFC loop.in Fig. 9~1O.s.()~calledintegral control': i.e., we let the speed changer be commanded by a signal obtained by .first. amplifying and then integrating the frequeacy error; i.e.,
-

'.

tlPref ~

.,

K[ J t:.fdt

(9 53)
0

.:.~~

~ :?

$
.>..~

/
.'>j

t!7

~
erNfiJ,(JY

s8 ff
, ,'the

SYSTBMS TI-mOR Y: AN INTRODUCTION

[flni,t or K_I is "per-unit megawatt per hertz and second." f Fef exaI?ple, If t~e frequency drops by 1Hz (t:.J == -1 then . , salIs fer an Increase In power with the "call" . .) the Integrator -K[ pu MW/s. Note the negilti~e polarit of cthe .ll1creasmg at the init!al rate. of must be chosen so as to cause " iti ~ Integral controller. This polarity or "decrease," com~a~d ~ha P?SI ive re~uency er~or to give rise to a negative, area control error (ACE) '. e signal fed Into the Integrator is referred to as , I.e., , ' ACE ~

C
gain,

i.e. if

(9-54) then' when

conju therel

I dI:nhtcgral control will give rise to zero static frequency error following a step oa c ange, for the following physical reason. As long as an error remains, the integrator output will increase, causing the s~ed ch~nger to move. The integrator output, and thus the speed-changer position, attains a constant value Dilly when the frequency error has been reduced to

zero. The gain constant KI controls the rate of integration, and thus the speed of response of the loop. The integration is mostly performed in electronic integrators of the same type as found in analog computers. C Analysis of Loop Respons-e Here follows an analysis of'the proposed system, subject to a step load change. To avoid cumbersome numerical analysis, we shall as before neglect the turbine dynamics. In addition, we also make the assumption that the speed-changer action is instantaneous. This is not perfectly correct, since the device is electromechanical and will therefore have a nonzero response time. These approximations will make possible relatively simple analysis without distorting the essential features of the response. It is also worth mentioning that the errors we thus introduce into our analysis affect only the transient, not the static, response, (This was already demonstrated in Fig. 9-11.), From Eq, (9-53). we get, upon Laplace. transformation,

n
then'

where
t

corre

,
llP,ef(s)

K
= - _!_ 6./(s)

we il
(9-55)
SeC0,!

simu

After making use of the block diagram in Fig. 9-10 and Eq, (9-55) we get, after
some algebra,

cup", Figtl

(9~56) We obtain the time response !lJ(t) upon inverse transformation of this ex,pFessien. Since the response depends upon the poles of Eq. (9-56) we must first , turn 011f' attention to the second-order-denominator polynomial, whJ.s:hcan be w;nlttca

l.U 01
CI U: Fe

i +, Kpl'R
T"

+'K/K~
Tp'

,=

(s + 1 + Kp/R)'2
27;,

+ K/ Kp _
Tp

(1 + Kp/R)
2Tp'

2. PI. fe
s.

(9-57)

THE ENERGY SYSTEM IN STEADY STATE-THE

CONTROl. rRonLE~1

327

)r

)f ~y is ~ )
p

gam K/.

. Clearly, the nature of the poles depends upon the magni tude of the in tcgr a I

If

i.e., if
1 K/ > 4~Kp then we can write the denominator (s
2

+ RP

K)2
2

K,.

(9-58)
eril

polynomial

in the form

e o 'f If, on the contrary,

+ Q:)2 + w

where Ct. and w are both positive and real. The expression ~f t,f(s) now has a conjugate-complex pole pair in the stable s plane, and the time response t,f(t} therefbre contains damped oscillatory terms of the types e-ar sin wt and e-r cos
(VI

(" subcritical " gain setting) then we can write the polynomial in the form

(9-59)'

(s

+ P,)(s + /32)

where /31 and P2 are both positive and real. Equation (9-56) now has a real pole pair in the stable s plane, and the corresponding nonoscillatory time response t,f(t) contains terms of the types and In either of the above two cases, t,f(t) will thus approach zero, proving tha t we indeed have bolh stable and isochronous frequency control. Our first and second system requirements are thus met. In Fig. 9-12 we depict the actual simulated time responses for different values of the gain setting K/. The family of curves in Fig. 9-12a neglect. turbine dynamics, i.e., the case we just analyzed. Figure 9-12b includes the effect of turbine and hydraulic motors. We make the following general comments about integral type control: 1. If we use subcritical gain settings we obtain sluggish nonoscillatory response of the control loop, This means that the integral of 6.f(t), and thus the time error, will be relatively large. In a practical situation thi~ setting is most often used. The advantage is that the generator now will not unnecessarily" chase ,. rapid load fluctuations, causing equipment wear. 2. A careful study of the response graphs in Fig. 9-12 r~veals the following features: As the sudden 'load increase sets in, the frequency starts falling off at tile same exponential rate as for the system of Fig. 9-11. During these first instants

3./.X EI.ECTRIC

tl" EIH.;\' SYSTEMS

runon Y:

AN II"TI((lDl)C'I'lON

has not yet had time to IJO j:nto t~Cli()ll,. an,d the :r;l:.m the 1)!'!'I'II'll'y (\1 J..... loop which VIC (!Jf;r;WWC( PIC1':'(, viously in great detail. After a certain lime (lh,c short~r the _til: h,I;~)_1t;: integral gain Kil. the integral controller comes Into acuon and eventually 11ft.,
rhc inicnral controller . rcspOflse ~. IS d elermtne d by
u ,

y/(J~,
.

the frequency back to its original value.

.'

.. ,It

3. The reader must realize that in order to keep the analysis (jf thCnyW tc1h"ra1J J controller simple. we have made several simplifying assumptions. v: C 13 a
summarize these: "y n. The hydraulic and turbine dynamics were neg lcctc d (Iiu l thie v/cte included in the simulated graphs in Fig. 9-12/J). 1>. The speed-changer response was assu rued ins tan tuneous. c. All nonlinearities in the equipment, such as dead zone, ctc., have been neglected. d. It has been tacitly assumed that the turbine can change its torque as fast as It is commanded by the speed changer to do so. In reality, there is a practical limit to the rate, expressed in megawatts per second, at which a steam generator can pick up load. We have neglected this rate limitation during the few seconds we are considering. e. We have assumed that the ACE is available as a continuous signal. In reality, the measurement of the frequency deviation t..j takes place discontinuously in sampled-data fashion. If the sampling rate is relatively high (compared with the fastest changes in the response of Fig. 9-12), then the above analysis gives good results. 9-3-11 Economic Dispatch Control

The integral controller just described results in a system that meets the first three of the specified control requirements. The fourth requirement, i.e., that pertaining to economic dispatch, can be met only by application of the optimal dispatch eql:lations,\ODE's (Eq. 8-15). .' The primary ALFC loop makes the initial coarse readjustment of frequency. By its actions the various generators in the control area track the shifting load and share it in proportion to their size. The speed of response is limited only by the natural time lags of the turbine and the system itself. Depending upon turbine type the primary loop responds in 2 to 20 seconds, typically. The secondary ALFC loop takes over the fine adjustment of the frequency by resetting, through integral action, the frequency error to zero ..This loop is considerably slower and goes into action only when the primary loop has done its job. Response time may be, of the order of one minute. B-oth of the above loops base their simple control decisions upon the frequency.error that can be measured locally at the power stations. They can thus be implemented locally in the plants. Economic dispatch control can be viewed as an additional tertiary control 10OY.p. As the control decisions in this loop are based upon the solutions of the OPE's it is necessary to incorporate a digital computer as part of this control )'c:m,p. ypiea,Hy this computer is located in an .. energy control center T which is
II

\
ier

f,'

sr$

.:l'"'....

'0 :9..Q, '~,.~:::.$ /j <~, tty s:

v

'V

'Q

.W]

,~ s# /\~
~

~;,:,.q_j$~

!::. 'J)"

o ...
<,

~CtJ'tJOo~~'?

q;t;

fts

re

ttr linked to the various power plants via communication channels (micro~,~~ & ::S;s c.telephone, etc). Periodically, e.g., every five minutes, the com~uter is providtf ~ f:1'-l ~ ~"q;' with the megawatt settings in the power plants, These settings are compare\~ W ~ ~,.'f ~ with the optimal settings derived from a run of the type of "optimal dispatch\~ S:"," ~ ,'tJ <$" I ~ \",. '- .. program" discussed in Chap. 8,.lf the ~ctual settings are ofT ~i:O~ theoptimal \ R' ~ ~ ~ values the computer sends back instructions to the plants to readjust the mega~ {J.g ~t::;- !..'" . .. ,~i/r" ~ 0 ~ watt outputs accordingly. This readjustment takes ... Iace, 0 fl. p course, via th e spee d \ 1f ~. ~ changer. ' '~if. ~ & ~ ~ ~

THE ENERGY SYSTEM IN STE/my

STATE-THE

CONTROL PROBt

~ ~ :" ~

I t': $ (;~ .
G.&
(

h oe, \~.:l' 9:,. ~ ~

~ ~".; 0

J5 ~~~
O~ (
f) .

,,0 ~

:n
is
'a

9-4 ALFC OF MULTI-CONTROL-AHEA (POOL OPERATION)

SYSTEMS

a on
n
1-

h e

From a practical point of view, the problems of frequency control of interconnected areas, or power pools, are more important than those of isolated areas. Practically, all .power systems today are tie-l together with neighboring areas, and the problem of load-frequency control becomes a joint undertaking. Closely associated is the problem of controlling the power flows on the interties. Many advantages can be derived from 1'001 operation, and they can all be summarized in two words, mutual assistance We should at the outset state the following operating principles, which are basic:
1. Under normal operating conditions each pool member or control area should

strive to carry its own load, except such scheduled portions of the other members' loads as have been mutually agreed upon. 2. Each control area must agree 'upon adopting regulating and control strategies and equipment that are mutually beneficial under both normal and abnormal situations. The advantages of belonging tl) a pool are particularly evident under emergency conditions. Let us consider some of the advantages referred to in point 2. First, consider the effect of size. We have: seen in the preceding examples in this chapter how the frequency, following.a sudden load change, will sag as a result of the fact that, during the first moments following the load increase, the needed energy is being "borrowed" from the kinetic energy of the system. Clearly, the larger the system, the more kinetic energy it possesses, and therefore the. more energy can be temporarily borrowed for a 'given speed drop. For example, the large interconnected group that covers the central and eastern parts of the United States and some Canadian provinces can absorb a sudden load change of about 3000 MW and experience a frequency deviation of less than 0.1 Hz. A small system of, say, 1000-MW capacity, if it suddenly loses 300-MW capacity (which represents 30 percent), .and if operating alone, may be 1R dire trouble. Its frequency will undergo an extensive drop, and chances are that the transient power angle swings that would ensue (Chap. 12) W0u!cl tear the whele system apart, Fesulting in a complete blackout. . .

~ -~. (0 ~'" - \1 ..-\ o

<fl

~. ~ 'if ',...

c;
? ()

~
~
0 ..-l

'\
/'" -

- WhlCh IS tj..~~ an . --':~~.u~ \\ Step 3 r~ .1/

i'1.lea""'L;.,--,-_.
-

__ --,
~

-uu

mrroduction

_--=-- __ '

~~
'"

~~~<fl()<;{p
'" (.>

Jf ~ ~

(.> 0 .... 0~,e":l ,... 0 ~ :;;. S', (0) ;::::l ,i'

--z_

~--?,-''''o ... e- -0 ~,". \\ <;::. rr> ~. 8 B ~ <ft'~.

; ~ -<"'~Q.-~~

'2..---'v-.... ~

." 0
r" /

I-

w/ ,>

,..-

o,6c1f1.
t$)pi'.

/ ..

ic N

RGY SYSTEMS

Ti-IEORY;

AN

INTRODUCTION

I same system

's. ~ ~ ~ g ~ ~ /
;. ~/~ ~ ~ ~.,~/

were part of a pool of say 100 000 MW . f~lure. would repres~nt ~nly ~ 03 perce catpalcltY'Tthe (l ~ .... ?' ~ ~./ J1lf: Id b" d '1 d. ' n oss. he <fl ~ d .... ("> C<;/JP ency WOU e save, an support power to the extent 0[300 MW . --0 00 ';.> o o, frcqu 1fl . he cri '. would %.. ~ e-?' jflS!antaneous y. 0V: Into t e crippled area via the tie-lines to carry its load until normal generation IS restored.

l('l~J-MW- eneration g

System size also reduces the need for reserve power among' the pool members. A system that op~r~tes alone as a "single area" must provide power to handle not only the anticipated peaks, but also the sudden requirements due to equipment failures. The reserves are classified on the basis of their readiness. " Spinning" reserves can be called upon for instantaneous (at least as fast as the controllers can react) assistance. They are made up of fully operating but only partially loaded units. Hydroelectric-, diesel-, and gas-turbine-operated units can be called upon at a Jew minutes' notice. Steam reserves range all the-way from "low bank" (i.e., idling at pressure and heat levels below that required for service) to "cold .reserves " (operative, but not in operation): . Since peak demands occur at various hours of th~ day In vanous areas, the ratio between peak and average load for a large pool IS smaller than that of the individual systems. It is obvious, therefore, that all pool members can benefit from a reduced need of reserve capacity by a scheduled arrangement of energy interchange.

9-4-1 The Two-Area System

.' 7' . troduce the reader to the fundamental problems It was possible m Chap. to ill (on of an n-bus system by discussing, first, the associated with the ~tatlC"Qo:p'~ra th two-bus system. We shall find it equally 1 simplest of all multlbus SYSb,mcts,t e the load frequency dynamics of the n-area d ce the rca er 0 instructive to mtro u d . mics of the two-area system, system by studying first the ynatt ti on to a system consisting of t,_vocontrol . Let us therefore turn OU~. a .en 19_io interconnected via a relatively weak . , deJled U1 Fig. - of the type mo f diff rent size and charactenstlcs. areas rail)' 0 lue . h . ed b . li The areas are gene, . that a control area ISc aracterize y tIe- me, . d the 'lSsumptlon . th ad earlier ma e This' tantamount to saying that e area We h h uj,hout. IS d h fO: . the same -frequency t "'t- n o n, '. th e sin gle-area case we coul t us represent In -, 1"" fiend" or: . ;; ro J t,'. . ble Af..In the present case we assume networ ( IS 0 b the Single varia . h " k" fre uency deviatlODS .. Y, "Having interconnected them WI~ .a \~'cathe q . dividuaJly stl,oqg.. t' that the frequency deviations 111 the each area m. rhe assump IOn '. tie-line therefo~ leads us t(:d' by twO variables Ail and !J..i2 respectively. . 'be representt, two areas can 9-4-2 M[9de.11!1g h t'e-line follows from equation (3-49), i.e., . h (I\'I'(:r on tel _ I operatIOn t e.p , IN norma I0f II ~ I sin (c5~ _ c5~) (9-60) P~:: =, . X

the Tne-JLiII,e .

.'

THE ENERG

, SYSTEM 'IN STEAIDY STATE-T'HE

CO,NTReJL

PReJB,LEM

'3;31 ,

Wl'l~,ne (;/1

, 1 The order 0 . and 02 are the angles of end voltages J/1 an d V2 respective y, direction "in ()'fr tlii'e sum scripts indicates that the tie-line power is defined positive .. ...
so

the amoant

1 :-' 2: small deviations . " . For

In

, " [he angles 01 and O2 the tie -1'Ine , ower changes with p. (c5? _ (5~)(tlc51 -l'lc)l). MW ,(9-61)

6P!2

10? 1111 Icos

X

machines Analogous to the concept of "electric , su 'rr "f 0 synchronous of a line nes,s, ffici t " (compare Eq. (4-33)) we now de~ne the "synchronizing coe cien
-r<l_A 1 - "'"

-'---'-':::-::-\)(

1V? 11111

cos (c5? _ t5 0) 2

MW/rad

(9-62)

The tie-line po~er devia~n

then takes on the form MW (9-63 )

I.5.P12 = TO(nc5!_ nol)

The frequency
formula

deviation

nJ is relate d to the reference angle nc5 by the

-d (/lc5)
t

61=211:
or inversely

1 dId -W+6c5)=dt

211:
r

Hz

(9-64)

110

= 2n: J 61de

rad

By expressing tie-line power deviations in terms of Co.! -rather than Co.fJ we thus get

MW
Laplaee transformation of the,l~st formula yields
211:YO .

(9-66)

APl~(S)
'<i!lia:gram in Fi:g, 9-13,

=:=-' s-(Ml(s) _ Co.!2(S))

symbols

(9-67) yields the

Rel\)'r-esenting this equation in terms of block diagram

"(9,..4;-30 Bl~k fi'iagram ltepresentafion of TWO-Area System

. ~~~w a-Q.estae tie.o;lineF'0:w.er enter our area mOdels? Clearly wem~st g0 baek t'l . '~UF :~:~JJ1 mw.er-lDailalle elq,Ua'ti0Fi ~9-40); In writing such a'foleql1ati011 f0. area 1 w ""we: iN,ilis;t '9Iea,iIy ad~ i~Mi) 2 to t,lireright-Ran! side, SiFFlila,dy, fer aeea :2., We liFloUM 1
leit~&t, Sr;la(7raot AP~~ 0F qdd AP 2 t 1 whene :P 21 r.elDFese,ll'~s the t'ie-lilae '; ...!d1!ntet!i'0,t!\~, it. Wre Aa,ve;JF'l!ssesa-Fe aegfeetem.( 9; .
~' ,

p.Gwe-r

j,t\}

,~~ I

= :- Mi"u

.MW

If

I!v !

-:--p.. .----~,. ...... .._-.

,.:IP1?

FI1:ur~ 9-13 Linear ticlill~ ..

representation

or

We shall find it convenient when we work with multiarea systems always to consider the tie-line power positive in the direction out from the area in question. We remember that the sum of the right-hand power terms in Eq, (9-40) is represented by the right summing junction of Fig. 9-10. If we thus observe the above tie-line sign rule we can interconnect two single-area diagrams by means of the tie-line symbol in Fig. 9:13. The end result is the block diagram depicted in Fig. 9-14. In reading this diagram the following clarifying poin ts are in order:

.:1f 1 (s)

r - -. I

- - -----~------------------.

+--

r....Ll
18; 1

L~J

/'L')---+
\

+i ..J..

r--l
K/,

i
+
rof.'

+1
L1P'2(Slj

cr.,---,--l>-LS--l>-

__
.J

II P

I
I I

ACE,

= LlP'2

+ 8,.1(,
.dP,2Is)
04-

\.

~----------------------I
r..Ll

I -/ I
L.,-J

.IP
-

() 1 I
21 S ~ 1

ACE2

+J..
/"",'\~__j'

LlP21
K/2 ~

82M2
rof.2

r---,'

Ll"P

i
\ ... ,-. ...:..:...___J _

I i- f---,I- '"1" . / L _ _!_J

"'" L.. -I

+1 r..L-, I 82 I
LTJ
t ---

----O--------

Figure 9-14. Linear model or two-area system.

t
THE ENERGY SYSTEM IN STEADY STATE-THE

\u~

..... ....-~

0~
~ ,

CONTROL PROBu:.~~'
i \. ~ ~ \1)

~~? e;<>t$' '?\,~

'&...,~ (5
'!:J'<.J (

1: Th~ dashed Sec. 9-4-7.)

portions

should

be

disregarded

for

the .trrne being,

(~~

~.

r!

i$

(A~

V ~O

....,~

iP;' ~

,,0 '0.-";

eo ;S>"'<J~

'2. We r~rne~ber that .the powers i~ the single-area diagram (Fig. 9-1~) welrf~vc.,.l~f:'~O expressed in per unit of area rating. The parameters R, ~, arid H, likewise -.,Vl s; ~ were based on the same base power. When two or several areas, generally of ;It" different ratings, are involved, we must refer all powers and/parameters to the ~ one chosen base power. I 3. The added blocks of transfer function -1 follow from Eq. {9-68}.

9-4-4 Mechanical Analog of Two-Area System

Before we proceed with an analysis of the two-area system" we shall present, without proof, a mechanical system that is a perfect analog of our electrical two-area system. Consider the train in Fig. 9-15. If this traiq is traveling at a constant speed VO and ,suddenly is subjec t to incremental load changes, the velocity will change. The two car-assemblies will experience the velocity perturbations t..Vl and t..V2, respectively, and the t.ie-spring power will change with the amount t..P'ic' By writing the incremental dynamic equations for this system, one can readily confirm that they are of the identical form as our electrical system equations. This means that the systems are analogs of each other. The following variables correspond to each other :
t..Vl ~

!jfl

AV2 (-~ af2 Tie-spring power

H

tie-line power a better feel for

The train analog can thus be used as an aid in achieving the behavior of the electric system.
,

l
!

~.

9-4-5 Static Response of Two-Area System

We shall first investigate changer positions; i.e., the response of the two-area system with fixed speed

Analog of area 1
... ,::: .:if(.,':;

Analog of area 2

Relatively soft "tie-spring" analog .of weak tie-line .. .. :;;i,){; :-

~~.;"'
.
~.

~
. .

\
I . . :,;,: ~

";~:::;o.
~(~~~.~~~~~

2.
[.

~~ ~"~
.,0+.::1".1 .

~~~

!:

"O"'~U2 ---

"

"i 'Ii

Figuie 9-15 A mechaniealanaleg

of two-area system.

',-.'0

iB _

~~
al~'

o - 9 . ~
~ ~

j;' -I:v"/
6NKGY SYSTEMS THE9 RY: /'' AN

J~ "....p
~ ~

g:::,
/

~.It':[(._'

::/<
C"JQ

/"

INTRODUCTION

'~~'
,(1)

~. ~

(//~~;e

assl:H11C

that the loads in each area are suddenly

increased

by the constant

@ '::;~JcreIl1ental steps
/,(' Il

tl.PD1 = MI and 6PD2 = M2 We shall presently limit our ysis to finding the static changes that result in frequency and tie-line power. rlaJ
case is

,/

Let us call those changest 6Jo and 6P 12. 0 respectively. Since the incremental increase in turbine dynamics in this static determined by the static loop gainsj we obtain from Fig. 9-14

(9-69)

1
DPn.o= By adding the powers -

R2

t.Jo
we obtain

at the summing

junctions

(9-70) 1 - R ~fo - Mz = Dz ~fo z We solve for ~fo and ~Pu. () and obtain !'J.fo = _ Ml ~PI2.0

+ Ml 132M
I

131 + 132
131M
!'J.P12.o=-!'J.Pu.o=
where, in analogy
2 -

Hz (9-71 : pu MW

/31+/32

with Eq. (9-48), we have defined the AFRC's /31=DI+ ~ 132 Co

of each area:

1 RI 1 (9-72)

D2 + Rl

Equations ameters; i.e.,

(9-71) become particularly simple if we assume identical area parDi=D2=D RI = R2 = R

I
I

I
I I
l I

/31=fJ2=/3

.t In ~tead~"~tate the frequency dr~'ps in the two areas will be equal (compare graphs in Fig. 9-1'6'). ,~''Obtained letting s .... o.

," "

Ib~

I,

'!

THE ENERGY

SYSTEM IN STEADY STATE-THE

CONTROL

PROULDI

335

We then gel

No=
6.Pt2.0
=

Hz -6.P210
M2-M1
=

(9-73 )

pu MW

For example, if a step load change occurs only in area 2. we gel

Hz
(9-74)

pu MW These two last equations operation: tell us, in a nutshell, the advantages of pool

1. Fifty percent of the added load in area 2 will be supplied by area 1 via the tie-line. 2. The frequency drop will be only half that which would be experienced if the areas were operating alone (compare Eq. (9-49)).
Example 9-$ A 2-GW control area (I) is interconnected with a 10-GW area (2). The 2-GW area has the system parameters given in Example 9-5, i.e.. R

2~40 Hz/pu MW
X

D = 8.33

10-1 pu MW/Hz

Area 2 has the same parameters, bur in rerms of the 1O-G W base. A 20-MW load increase takes place in area 1. Find static frequency power change .. drop and tic-line

SoLUTION

I
I I
I

We will choose the generator capacity of area I, 2000 MW, as our power base. In EJtample 9-6 we had already computed PI = 0.425 Hz/pu MW in terms of this base. p, has the same numerical value based on I()"GW. Based on 2-GW it must be five times larger numerically, i.e. p, = SPI ;". 2.125 Hz/pu MW Also 20 MI = 2000 =O.QI pu MW

Equations

(9-71) yic:ld the static deviations

No
tlP
12.0

0.01 = - 0.425 + 2125 _ - 2.125 x 0.425 + 2.125

= 0.00392
= -0.00833

Hz

I I
I

om
pu MW (or -16.7 MW)

. Note that the frequency drop is now only one sixth of that experienced by area I running alone (co~pare Example 9-6). Note also that this "frequency suppcrt " is accemplished by an added delivery of 16.7 MW from the larger area.

........ v

LI.I.\..

I r..1\..

r.."'CIU .... 1 1

.y't~Il:MS

!"I-IEORY: AN lNTRODUCTION

9-4-6 Dynamic

Response of Two-Area

System

model that we have used, the two-area system be meaningless, in our text, to attempt a direct analytic approach for finding the dynamic response of :he system. We perform instead an approximate analysis based upon the following assumptions:

Even with the vry simple turbine

in Fig, 9-14 is of seventh order. It would therefore

I, Consider the case of two equal areas, } Consider the turbine controller fast relative to the inertia part of the systems. i.e .. we set Gil = GT = I. 3. Neglect the system damping, This means that we assume the load not (0 vary wi til frequency; i.e.. we set D 1 = D 2 = 0, This means, in accordance wi th Eqs. (9-42) to (9-44), that G pi (s) = G p2(S) -+ fO js2H.

Under these highly simplifying assumptions we can readily derive the following expression for the tie-line power from Fig. 9-14

nfoyo llPi2(S)
This expression 1. The denominator
=~
S2

llPD2(S)

facts:

llPD1(S)

+ (f0j2RH)s

+ 2nfoYOjH

(9-75)

tells us several important being of the form

S2

+ 20:s + w2 = (s'+

0:)2

+ w2

0:2

where 0: and w2 are both positive; we know that the system is stabieresv: damped. 2, Following a disturbance, the system will oscillate at the damped angular frequency (9-76) 3. The system damping is strongly, dependent upon the 0: parameter. Since fO and H are essentially constants, the damping will be a function of the R parameters, Low R values will give strong damping; high R values, weak damping, The system will perform undamped oscillations of frequency Wo = w if R = co, tha t is, if the speed governor is nonexistent. 4, The fact that the system _is inherently oscillatory could have been immediately predicted from the mechanical analogy in Fig. 9-15.
Example 9-9 Consider two equal areas, each having the parameters

R = 3,0 Hzjpu MW

If =
I"

5 s

= 60 Hz

THE

ENERGY

SYSTEM

IN STEAfilY

Sl'ATE~TME

GGNT;''''' . '\ . "''''''' 'P:R0BLEM ~

:,

"\

I'"

TH1 . :~ ,
I

TH2

= 0

R1
VI

R2

= 2.4 Hz/pu MW

Tn = Tn

02 = 8.33 x 10- 3 pu MWrZ

. r

Figure 9-16 Dynamic response of two-area system sublect to a step-load increase in area
I

2.

From Eq. (9-76) we thus get

COo = .j75.3To 1.0

r/s

Assume the tie-line has a capacity of 0.1 pu (10 p er cent of area capacity) and is operating at a power angle of 45. From Eq. (9-62) we thus have T" The oscillating frequency is thus
COo
= 0.1 cos 45

(.0707

= .j75.3

x 0.0107 :- 1.0 = 2.1

rls

(or 0.3314 approx.)

The graphs in Fig. 9-16 depict the tie-line power a id frequency oscillations (in both areas) for a step load increase in area 2. (The dashed pc rtions of the graphs are explained in Sec. 9-4-8.)

9-4-7 Tie-Line Bias Control

The response curves in Fig. 9-16 indicate clearly Ililat some form of reset .i:n'tegral control must be added to the two-area system, The persistent static 6req}oHemcy. error is intolerable for the same reason as was the case in the siagle-area (4Se. AIs@, a persistent static error in tie-line power flow=-se-ealled "inaQ'ver~e:m't . h I exchange "-would mean that one area wOli,}ld ave to llUp,p<l>rt t1<!,e ther on a e s-t~acl'Y-sta'te basis, A basic glJi&ing principle in [.'0,,)[ '(f)peratJi"e.n nlu.t beor:h.qt eael: area" in normal steady staoe, absorbs its o~n l(i)tUl(,~.ee Jll. 32~). .'. Vari0.l.'lS met1t0d:s of reset integrai contrel have -over t1t<?years .l:>een: trieo6 0,lllltc.,......,airlQJ', a'ba>Ad@uecl-fQf FFlu>].ti@l1~a s~steflilS. If'I@t e~~Iijflli, <i>u,t: :tw.Q~af.~a ~,S'1!em', ca.u'ld eoneejve of the a(r3ilil~eFQetit t bat at~a. -1 :be i'~~n$i.Il:[i'le flF we.

i,

iIi

';;j

It
tTl

.,j ;0'

r"e"quehCY reset and area 2 take care of the tie-line power. We would thus a-rr~nge for the following area control errors: .
U'

ACE1

Afl

(9-77)
h These AC:E's would be: fed via slow integrators on to the respective speed c angers. This arrangement would work-but not too good. Actually in the early days of pool opers.tion one area was designated to reset the system' frequenc,~ and the others would be responsible for zeroing their own" net interchanges (see also Sec. 9.4-9). The problem with this arrangement proved to be tha.t the central frequency controlling station tended to regulate for everybody trying to absorb everybod y else's errors and offsets. As a result it would swing wildly ,between its generating limits. ' As a result of the original work by Cohn" a control standard has developed that has been adopted by 100st operating systems. The control strategy is termed "tie-line bias coritrol " and is based upon the principle that all operating pool members must contribute jr.eir share to frequency control in addition Cotakinq care of their own net interchanq.:

9-4-8 Tie-Line Bias Con trol of Two-Area System In applying this reset control method to our two-area system we would ,add the dashed loops shown in Fi:~. 9-14. Th~ c~ntrol error for each area consists of a linear combination of frequency and tie-line error:
A CE ACE2
I ~ ~

ilP i2 ilP21

+ B 1 6fl + B26f2

(9-78)

The speed-changer

commands ilP,,,r,
1

will thus be of the form

= -K/1
= -KI2

I
,

"

"

ilP,ur,

I (ilP f (LlP

12

+ BINI) + B2Llf2)

dt (9-79) dt

21

' nts K and tc., are integrator gains, and the.con~tants s, and B2 are Th e cons a." r1 . '. b . 1d d . thefreql ency bias parameters. The mmu~ SIgnS must e inc u e: sl~ce.each area should ~nc~ease its. generation if either ItS frequency error or ItS tie-line power increment IS negative.

It

iI
1,

I,
.. <>

9-4-9 Static System Response '

'The chbsen strategy will eliminate the steady-state frequency a~d tie-line deviations rdr the following reasons. ' Foliiowing a step load change in either area, a new static equiiibriarn, if such

"

t ':;

I I I

THE ENERGY

SYSTEM IN STEAI)Y

STATE--THE

CONTROl.

!"WIlLEM

),39

. I . id changer commands all equilibrium exists, can be achieved only alter I ic spec - b: I . te zrands in . evidentI y rcqurrcscs uia- ot 1 111 . . thai eg ,. have reached COl1stanl values. But this Eq. (9-79) be zero; i.e., 6P'2.0 6P21.0

+ B, + B2

6/0 = 0 6/0 =0 can be met ollly if

(9-XO)

In view of Eq. (9-68). these conditions 6/0 = 6P'Z.0

6PzI.o

= II

(Y-X I)

e
y g d d

:JI
-e

le

'allies l nfact, 0/1(:' oflhe Note that this result is independent of the B ,(Ill d B 2 (,;. II t b e zero, and lVe still have a gllarantee 10 bias parameters (but 110t both ) can . Eq. (9-8I~ is satisfied. t has been The question what "best" value to choose for the B para me ers d hotly debated. Cohn has shown that choosing B = f3 (i.e., the A ~R C) pro uc~s . t d system satisfactory over-all performance of the mterconnec eo svsvern. The Irltegralor gamI constants K" and KI2 are not critical-but they must be chosen 'small :1~OUg 1 not to stimulate the area generators to "chase" load offsets of short duration. The actual effect on the frequency and tie-line power graphs of the. added tie-line bias control is shown in Fig. 9-16 (dashed parts of graphs). Following the immediate excursions which are entirely determined by the pnmary sp~edgovernor loops of each area, the secondary integrator loops of each area go mto action and reset both the frequency and tie-line power back to original values.

8)

9-4-10 Tie-Line Bias Control of Multiarea

Systems

19)

ire 'ea
fer

:1

In reality a control area is interconnected not with one tie-line to one neighboring area but with several tie-lines to neighboring control areas, all part of the overall power pool. Consider the ith control area. Its net interchange equals the sum of the megawatts on all m outgoing tie-lines. As the area control error ACE; ought to be reflective of the total exchange of power it should thus be chosen of the form ACE, =

I !

I ilPll + BI 6;;
j=1

(9-82)

'ia-

sch

Typically, the reset control is implemented by sampled-data techniques. At sampling intervals of, say, one second, all tie-line power data are fed into the central energy control center where they arc added and compared with predetermined contracted interchange megawatts. In this way is obtained the sum-error of Eq. (9-82). This error is added to the biased frequency error and the ACE results. The ACE is communicated with all area generators' that are participating in the secondary ALFC If optimum dispatch is employed, a tertiary slower "OD loop" is added of the type discussed in Sec. 9-3-11.

34(}

FIICTRW

F:-.iFRGY SYSTIiMS THEORY:

AN INTRODUCTION

',i

9-5 .. STEADY-STATE"

INSTABILITIES

The control methods outlined above-or variants thereof-are incorporated as standard in most of the interconnected power systems around the world. The operating experience has been good-exceptionally good in view. of the vast geographical spread and different generator mix characterizing many of the svstcms. . However. on occasion. u power system may experience stability problems usuull y in the f0f111of self-excited low-frequency oscillations. Power engineers arc rcfcrr ing to these as "steady-state" instabilities as they occur, mostly unexpected, as the system is running in what appears as a smooth steady state. ligure 9-17 depicts ,: graph of the frequency of the peninsular Florida grid. It is operating normally at 60 Hz with a slight unavoidable" noise" (which is always characteristic of the ALFC loop action) when, gradually, an oscillation starts to build of frequency typically less than 1 Hz. The oscillation is detected not only in the system frequency but also in the tie-line which will experience pow.er "sloshings " of increasing magnitude. This type of instability is actually caused by cross-coupling between the AVR and ALFC loops. The phenomenon has been detected in many parts of the world. It is directly associated with the so-called natural oscillatory modes of the network and it is therefore fitting that we start this section with a discussion of the latter.

:j

li
fi .~

f.

Hzj
I

Normal operation

Oscillatory

buildup

60.2

60.1

600~

I 10 Figure 9-17 Self-excited

20

I 30 in inter-connected

I 4.0

50

60

oscillations

power system.

THE ENERGY

SYSTEM IN STEADY

ST,\TI:-THI!

CO~TI1.0L

PROBLE~\

Lower natural mode

/

"-

,
\

I
I

I /

, , ,

----
5

Higher natural mode

,te) . I '11 tory system' (a) identical masses andshaft Figure 9-1S Torslona OSCI a . mode; (c) higher natural mode. elasticities;

(b) lower natura

9-5-1 Natural Torsional Oscillatory, Mode. in a Power System

In Fig. 9-18a are shown three rotational masses interconnected with elastic shafts. The masses can perform torsional dyn arnics, describable in terms of the three angular coordinates 151> 2, and 153, 15 The three masses possess two torsional na :Llral modes, each characterized by the natural (or eigen) frequencies 11 and 12 respe ctively. If we assume the masses to have equal inertia and the shafts equal elasticity coefficients the natural modes become particu.arly simple. In the" lower mode (Fig. 9-18b) masses 1 and 3 swing against each other with mass 2 nonparticipating. In the" higher mode" masses,.1 and 3' swj~i; against mass 2, (Fig. 9-18c). ' The natural modes can be excited in oneol' three ways: ' ,

rrr.~ ..

,;' ~

_' _ -::_ ...,~ S .

..

'~.?te'flil IS ~~e
.<,

':n~'~:f1G):p'~rcId" 11.., oft so hoice initial

.:'; I...

so

1,

a o1

!il:J!JQr}

release:

position setti 0 mgs. For exa"'" I 'r'" = - f>3 and f>o == 0, '. . "'~~' I InItially the 2 , It WIll oscIlJat In the lower mode

"

"

.9... 5

i:

2. By some oscillatory Source that is " '" will arise if the SOUlce frequency pu~pmg. the system. Natural Qscillatiofls ~'. Sudden major fault ..induced to ,col~clbels with one of the natural frequl'Icies rque irn a ances. . . The natural oscillations can tak Rig. 9-18, or around a reference l e place around a fixed reference, as in case is analogous to what h sy~tem rotating at a constant speed. The latter here the enerator+ r a~pens a power system. The individual masses are "shaft" g h I ('t.or~ (I~c)udmg the fixed turbine rotors). The elastic s zle t e transnussior, lines of the grid. The position coordinates are the power ang es 15 [compare Example 9-9). If the system conla ins N generators then there exists, in the strictest sense, N - 1 natur~l modes. However, many subgroups of generators, particularly those belon~m~ ~o th.I,~ same power stations, are swinging as coherent groups ra ther than individually. Their close proximity makes their connecting "electric shafts" very stiff. These natural frequencies typically lie in the range 0.1-5 Hz. When one of them IS b eing excited the power system is said to perform intermachine oscillations. Every individual generator rotor including its directly coupled turbine rotors ,:and excitor rotor, if present) participate in the oscillations as one unit. The o scillations shown in Fig. 9-17 are of this type. For a turbogenera tor unit of very large rating the shaft is very long and generator rotor, exciter rotor, and the often three to four different turbine rotorst constitute a rotational system which by itself possesses maybe half a dozen natural modes. 'I he eigenfrequencies of these modes typically lie in the freq)J~ncy range .20-50 Hz. ?ne of these mo~es can on occ~sio~ ~lso b~ excited, partidul'arly when the.f.:lfc~nc network con-tams very ~ong lines WIth series capacitors! Such an instalinitt:1 IS referred to as subharmonic resonance. is important to realize that both the low-frequency" interrnachine " and the high-frequency "subharm.oni~" oscillations ~re po~rly .dampe~. This means that a\ relatively weak" pumpmg source can excite oscillations which may grew . to amplitudes of destructive magnitudes causing the" elastic shafts" to break . . .tnl the" subharmonic" phenomenon the elastic shaft consists of the genera.1>0r'shrf,t itself. In a elasslc accident this shaft broke causing lOO-millioN-dollar

Qp
It i1
SySI

sels gen
Thi

I?

ben
the det

J
j

ger pel
(E!

~ ~

foli 1. 2.

p~

be

Itl

.~

~..

da'ma9~' ' Itl:\the "iNtefmachine" phenomenon th~ "~lasti~ shafts". are the transmission lk.J.es of,the ~itl. They "~r.eak" when the tle~lme power swings become S0 large that '1'h6p.e:we.l1 ang.le 0 g'1e.s beyond. 90 electrical degrees cal!sing loss of synchro~""In,ism a~fd"island" feFIDit10n.:J; .
t, ,r.l.i:g!\, low" and' rntermec d I~t.! pressure sec t' rons.
~: WOfn, periinsill,ar' flor.ida e~pe.r.ienCes the s~ihgs. depicted in Fi.g. ~-17, and if the oscillation 'lfi.oi'I{luB 'Gannet DC steppe<\; the .e.nd.result usually IS a, ~reakup of-the tie-hiles .to -Georgia, The wJiele .~tlinSU'11 gnq ',wHl th"eFetip-en;Am isolated, One talks- In sueh cases .apont "'int~rar.ca" esciJ.Iat,ion's.

I."

i. .

", ,I,'
,

THE ENERGY SYSTEM IN STEADY STATE-THE

CONTROL PIWBLI;M

343

9-5-2

Operating s

Natural Mode of a Single onto Infinite Bus

Generator

It is instructive

e
c

y s c

to study the factors that determine the natural modes in a power system. Because the interrnachine oscillation is the most common one we shall select it for our study. As our" textbook case" we shall choose the simplest of all ge~er.ator configurations-a single machine operating onto an .. infinite" bus. This IS analogous to the case of two rotational masses (Fig. 9-18) one of which being of infinite size. With N = 2 the system possesses only nllC' natural mode. the characteristics of which we now explore. The single-generator case was extensively studied in Sec. 4-12 where we derived static characteristics. In Sec. 4-13 we derived formulas for the cransienr generator power which will now prove useful. In the study of .. area" frequency dynamics in Sec. 9-3-5 we derived the pertinent differential equation (Eq. 9-38) from a .power-balance" expression (Eq. 9-34). We use the same approach now but need to slightly modify it in the following regard: 1. We study the power balance of one rotating unit-not an entire "lumped" area. 2. As we shall later use our derived equations for large-scale dynamics (Chap. 12) we do not limit.our derivations to incremental excursions. As the differences between the turbine power PT and the generator bus power P G is used for increasing the kinetic energy of the unit we obtain the power balance equation .

PT

PG

di(Wkin)

MW

(9-83 )
that

Note that the last term in Eq, (9-34) is nonexistent here, as we assume no local load is served from the generator.r Following the same steps as in Sec. 9-3-5 we transform Eq. (9-83) Co PT-PG=-

2H df

fO

dt

pu MW

(9-84)

We shall find it more useful to let power angle, lJ, rather than frequency.j, be our independent variable. In view of Eq. (9-65) we thus get

pu MW

(9-85)

t Lale~ w~ shall add a term corresponding damper winding (Sec. 9-5-3).

to the (relatively small) power loss in the generator

SM'

ELECTRIC

E1'l'ERGY SYSTEMS' THEORY:

AN INTRODUCTION

This is the famous genera tor swing equation (GSE) that plays an extremely irnportant role in all types of studies of power-system dynamic phenomena, Ifwe want to use the GSE to study incremental dynamics around an operatingpoint (P~, Pg, bO) then we readily prove it to be of the form . H I1P T
-

.'0

I1P G = 1[/0

d2 dt2 (116)

(9-86)

This is the form we find useful in the present case.

Example 9-10 Write the GSE in form (9-86) for study of incremental generator being operated as specified in Example 4-3. The generator Find natural frequency. W~ approach the problem in the following steps: dynamics of the 15-MVA has H = 5 s.]" = 60 Hz.

SoLUTION

Seep

1 Find the steady-state operating point. This was done in Example 4-3 for the power level P~ = P~ = 0.667 pu, an excitation level EO = 1.22 pu and with the network voltage held at I I = 1.0 pu. It was found that the steady-state power angle equals

v:,

15~ = 25.7 electrical degrees

Seep 2 Find the transient generator power valid for transient deviations around the above operating point. This was done in Example 4-13. The transient generator power was found to be of the form (4-83). Seep 3 Find 6P G' For small angular deviations around 15,,_= 15~ we can write (9-87)

(9-88) or pu MW where S' is the" transient stiffness" of the generator. Compare component (Eq. 9-89) is referred to as synchronizing power. From Eq. (4-83) we obtain (9-89) also Eq. (4-33). The-power

dP ) 0 S = ( = 2.398 cos

dO;

o~-

2 x 0.478 cos 2J~

rad

=
Step 4 Write the incremental (9-86) yields

2.161 - 0.596 = 1.565 pu .MWjelcctric

. (9-90)
of (9-89) into

GSE. We set for simplicity

t!.Pr = O. Substitution

(9-91)
or shorter

(992),

THE ENERGY SYSTEM IN STEADY STATE-THE

CONTROL

PROBLEM:'

where Step 5 Solve the GSE. The solution of the second-order of the form

linear, constant-parameter

differential

equation

(9-92) is

(9-94)
The integration constants the oscillations are started, In Our numerical case A and", depend upon the initial conditions, i.e., upon how

WI

J11

60 x 1.565 5 = 7.68 rad/s

of 1.22 Hz,

corresponding

to

a .. natural"

frequency

It is interesring to note that increased inertia lowers the natural frequency. Increased stiffness (caused by lower generator and line reactances) will increase the synchronizing power and thus the frequency.

9-5-3 Effect of Damper Winding

I .

Equation (9-94) implies that the inertial oscillations are undamped. In actuality, the oscillations in all probability would be damped and would ~ctually vanish after some time. The system evidently possesses positive damping.' This damping originates mainly in the rotor "damper" winding (Sec. 4-1). As the rotor performs incremental dynamics relative to the synchronously running "infinite" system its damper windings will no longe~ be stationary relative to the armature reaction flux wave. The relative rnotidn' will in fact induce currents in the damper bars and according to Lenz' lawl these 'current~ will have a direction such as to try to stop the relative motion. . The damper winding will in fact dissipate power and the dissipation rate is . ,. almost proportional to the relative velocity, d(~o)/dt. The presence of. the damper winding thus .adds a positive term on the right-hand sid~ of the power balance equation (9-85). The incremental form of the GSE will change from (9-B2) to

I
I

(9-95) The general solution of this equation is !iON = Ae-br where Typically,
COl

sin (co; r + if;)

(9-96)

(9-n)
p b, and therefore

f
",

:l

;j

-<

e
ENERGY SYSTEI~'S THEORY: AN INTRODUCTION

!2
'l7
:>;j ~P

cr;</c

6riN <I-POIt

Stiffness

1. 1

di
3
Natural dampi~g

(tlbN) 1
S

66N
--l>

2. { 3. 1

---l>

iF

(dr)N) '-q-

9-5 1ft!
9 AVB

10

sta1: Cle: ism Eq. In t ose

i.e.,

pre I
Figure 9-1~ A linearized AVR coupl,ing effects.
I

dynamic

model of the single generator-Infinite

bus system including

the

In conclusion:' Under the influence of the damper winding, the generator is '" oscillat6rilY 'stable," meaning that if subject to any small disturbance it will return to its stebdy-state equilibrium by a damped' oscillation. This i" natural" damping of the system is further enhanced by the resistances of the network, which we have neglected in our analysis. It is instructive to vishalize the rotor dynamics by means of the boldface portiont of the block dia~am in Fig. 9-19. The blocks 1 through 4, plus the summing junction model the basic undamped." inertia dynamics of Eq. (9-92). The damper loop (block 5) takes into effect the natural damping of the system, as expressed by Eq. (9-95).

~ Ii ~ \\ ~ ~ ~ r,
I~

tive wil th~

tiv
an in~ en gi

~ ~)

Ii
\

Ll,

9Ir.
SI.

a:
Qi

9-5-4 Extension to Large-Scale System

It is possible to extend the above theory to the N-generator case. An "inertial" angular. reference is chosen (Chap. 12) relative to which all N machine rotors are measured. A swing equation is then written for every generator. These GSE's will be mathematically coupled via the line powers. , t The remaining part of the-diagram
will be commented on in Sec. 9-5-5.

, III

performing a

ULlJ0 nf (Iii; int;(!;rm;nlaI y

dynamic:;

around

some operating

point

one can cOllcludt;

Llla~:

1. The response cClIwil;tl! flat of fine radian natural frequency (1)1' as in the above case, but N - I natural Ircqucncien (/)1> .,,' (I)/:_!, 2. Under the influence or damper windiJl&l and line resistances all N - I natural modes arc positively damped. 3. The system would thus: at; "o;;cillat0rily stable."

9-5-5 Negative

Damping

If the" natural" tendency for the Interconnected machines is to be " oscilla~orily stable" how then can phenomena of the type depicted in Fig. 9-17 be explained? Clearly, our above analysis must have neglected some important system ~echanism that will be present in real life. To understand this let us return for a minute to Eq. (9-95). Assume tha.t somehow the damping coefficient b becomes negative. In that case the factor e"!" will qrow with time rather than decay, and the inertial oscillations will be of the type in Fig. 9-17. Furthermore, the system will self-excite. i.e., the oscillations will be initiated by any infinitesimal disturbance that is always present. The damper winding and line resistances will, of course, never yield a negative b. It is entirely possible, however, that signals emanating from other sources will enter the loop at the summlnq junction in Fig. ~-19. These signals may, like the damper signal, be proportional to d(Llojjdt. If they, like the latter, are positive they will further help damp the inertial oscillations. If, on the contrary, the v are negative they will reduce the natural damping, possibly to the paine of eliminating it altogether. . It. is instructive t(: sh?w ho"~ sue? signals may be generated and how they enter into the dynamic prcture. r or trns reason we will in the next few sectio s giv~ a qualitative, step-by-step presentation of these added effects. n

2:1

f
,f

9-5-6 Effect of Changing '

In deriving the formula (9-159) for LlP G we made use of t . sion that was derived from Eq, (4-77). It is im or" a ransl.ent power expresassumed VII and IE'I tho h p .lant to realize that we tacitl o )(1 constant t us rnakinq P fi . . angle ON only, i.e. G a unction of the power

IS

(9-98 )
This Yi.clded the C'xpre;wion (9-89). In reality the emf ' will chance and thi
r., IS

's

.means that Eq. (9-9~) changes

to

Po = PG(O/l,. E') (9-99)

I I I"

1'\'\

l .. '

1''''\.1

., 1 .... 11:.'1:'1

IIII:UK'I

. ,\:"

I;'\;

11(.JLHJCTIO:"i

Thus

we have for the incremental

transient

power

output

(9-100)
or shorter

sr; =
as rhc new input via block 6. 9-5-7 Factors
Causing Changes

S' t:.b,.,. + K,

t:.E'

(9-101)

where K I has the unit" per-unit megawatt per per-unit kilovolt." The added term will clearly be represented in our block diagram

in Fig. 9-19

in

E'

Why will E' change?

There

are two reasons:

I. Manipulation (via AVR) of the field voltage 2. Changes in relative rotor position b,.,. .

"r
(

An increase in vf will clearly tend to ill crease E'. Not so clearly, an increase ill rot or angle tends to decrease E'. The latter statement is, however, easily confirmed from Fig. 4-25. As 0 increases, the voltage X~ Id and thus I d will increase. But since Id is demagnetizing (Fig. 4-25b) the end result is a decrease in the emf. The relationship between increments of t:.oN, tlvf, and t:.E' will thus read t:.E' = K2tlvf - K3M,v

(9-102)

The transfer blocks 8 and 9 plus the summing juncton account for the effects stated in Eq. (9-102). Equation (9-102) expresses the steady-state changes in E resulting from the changes in t:.vf and t:.oN.', Dynamical/y, the change in E' can take place only after S f and t:.o,~. have overcome the field winding time constant, the value of which (under load) was given by formula (9-20). The added delay transfer block 7 takes this field delay into consideration.

2::2

2
;

9-5-8 Inclusion

of the A V 1{ Loop 4.

At this stage the increment t:.v f in Eq. (9-102) must be accounted for. Returning to the A VR block diagram in Fig. 9-4 we obtain AUf directly as the output from the exciter. This results in the addition of block 10 plus the third summing' junction to the growing diagram of Fig. 9-19. . We finally are left with only t:.1 VI, the incremental change in the generator terminal voltage. t:.1 V consists (see Fig. 4-25) of the two components t:. V and tl Vd The former increases as E' increases, the latter as {J increases. Thus we \ave the incremental relationship:

2::3

5.

(9-103 )

6.

_,..".w_-" .... ~~<

----~
1
349 .

.
THE ENERGY SYSTEM IN STEADY STATE-THE CONTROL PROBLEM

l)

In Fig. 9-19, we symbolize this equation with the summing junction 2:...and the transfer blocks 11 and 12. The block diagram is now complete with alLsignal branches, except .6.1 V Iref' fully accounted for. 9-5-9 Discussion of Results

The boldface portion of the diagram in Fig. 9-19 is readily understood. Under the influence of the synchronizing power the ~enerator rotor when disturbed tends to perform undamped natural oscillations. much like the spring-mass system of an auto when hitting a bump. The damping power emanating from the damper winding serves as the system "shock absorber." Note that the synchronizing power is in negative phase with the swing amplitude .6.bN, whereas the damping power is 90 out of phase. What can we make out of the lower portion of the diagram in Fig. 919? Without getting involved _in analytical details we summarize these observations:
1. The swing amplitude /:1tJN is fed back via a dual-path system, i.e., directly via blocks 6, 7, and 9 and indirectly via the AVR. This feedback can result in

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

" parasitic" power components in phase with either the synchronizing power or the damping power. The actual phase is determined by the frequencydependent blocks 7 and 10. DeMello and' Concordia analyzed the actual nature of these parasitic power components in a classic papers and contributed quantitative data. Andersson and Fouad" applied Routh's stability criterion to find conditions for stability. The resulting formulas are too complex tobe included here. The parameters S', K!, ... , [(5 are partial-derivative expressions (compare Eq. (9-100)) and are therefore depending UPOIl the loading. DeM~llo and Concordia made the following comment: "It is important-to recognize that ... the parameters change with loading. Since they change- in 'rather complex manner, it is difficult to reach general conclusions based on parameter values for one operating point only." I \ . In some systems the combination of long lines, fast AVR's, and heavy loading can result in a situation where the parasitic feedback power arinuls the. natural damping thus making the system "'oscillatorily Jnstable" as demonstrated in Fig. 9-17. It should be realized that Fig. 9-19 in its complexity models only a single generator operating onto an infinite network. The results obtained from this diagram either by analysis or simulation are useful but may nbt be directly applicable to the conditions existing in an interconnected netw9rk. A recent EPRI sponsored project? has resulted in a computer program for simulation of intermachine oscillations in large systems. I When .a system experiences self-excited oscillations addition of so-called

'.

.,

j'W: EI:;ECTRIC

ENERGY

SYSTI!MS.THEORV:

AN INTRODUCTION

"powt'!r system stabiliz ers " (PSS) will quench the oscillations.V" A PSS injects stabilizing "supp: ernentary " signals to the summing junction in rig. 9-19. These signah typically are derived from the generator shaft speed and shaped in special networks.!? See also Prob. 9-14.

L3

I 9-6 AGe DESIGN

L~;XNG KALMAN METHODS

Th~.rJder must realize by now that design of generator controllers as we know them tbday has followed "classical" lines. Root-locus methods, block-diagram representation, intuition, trial and error, empiricism are but a few of the "classi~al" design tools'. The high degree of reliability and general excellent functioning of today's power systems is proof of the soundness of design. In view of this fact is there really any room for improvements? , Tpb phenomenon of intermachine oscillations discussed in the previous section ddmonstrates that our present power systems are not immune to instabilities. also accentuates an inherent weakness of classical design-its inability fully tO .anticipate and adequately to cope with all dynamic features in systems of I high dimensionality. ' A inodem gigawatt generator with its multistage reheat turbine, including its ALFCjand AVR controllers, is characterized byan impressive complexity. When all its nonnegligible dynamics are taken into account, including cross-coupling I I ' between control channels, the overall dynamic model may be of 20th order. Th~s "dimensionality barrier" can be nicely overcome by means of computer-aided optimal control design methods originated by Kalman.Uv'? Yu; Fosha, and Elgerd1314 ,made ear~y attempts to apply these methods to power systems. A recent surveyl~ classifies the many contributions that have later followed. "Optimal I 'conho1" covers today a widening spectrum of computer, oriented techniques of which the so-called optimum linear regulator (OLR) design has proven particularly useful. Compactly stated, the OLR design results in a controller that minimizes both transient variable excursions and control efforts. In practical power systems terms , tbis means optimally damped oscillations with minimum wear and tear of CORtrol valves. OLR design proceeds as follows:

Itl

Stefl 1 Casting, the system dynamic model in state variable form and introduction of appropriate central forces ' , ' , Step 2 Choosing: ai:! }ntegi'al-squared-error control index, the minimization of which is the control goal Step 3 Hnding, the structure of the optimal controller that wiU minimize the chosen control index " We clemonstr~te

brie~y ~e use of QLR clesi~

depicted

. '~X'ea ;ALF-,C sy,stem

by applying ',i,t to the siaglein Fig'. ~-lQ. We propose to fiAIil a eon;tF@i felice I\(

THE ENERGY

SYSTEM IN STEADY

STATE-THr:

CONTROL

I'ROIlI.EM

351

Figure 9-20 OLR control of primary ALFC loop.

(depicted in Fig. 9-20) which in an "optima}" manner steers or controls the system. We define "optimal" later; presently we develop an appropriate model for the system.

,
v
" ii
rl

~
II

~-6-1 Putting the Dynamic Model in State Variable Form

OLR design is based entirely upon the availability of a dynamic system model in so-called state-variable form. We demonstrate how this form can be obtained from the block diagram model in Fig. 9-20. For.this system we have the transform equations: LlPv(s)
= _1_

."f If .s n

~
t1

1+ STH
I

(u(s) LlPv(s) (LlPT(s)

- _!_ Llf(S))
R

g LlPT(s) = -1 -Llf(s)

+ sTT
K
P

(9-104)

:r ;r
r-

= -1

+ sT P

LlPD(s))

Or, if expressed in the time domain, tlPv IlPT

.n
:h ~s
n-

+ TH -d

(IlPv) = u - -

III
(9-105)

+ TT dt (LlPT) = sr;
Llf

+ Tp dt (Llf) = Kp IlPT - Kp IlP D

Xl, X2,

.0f

At this juncture we introduce the three state variables state vector

x

and

X3

forming the

ble

= [ ~: .

XI]

[LlPvl

~;T

(9-106)

!e.U

We also define the disturbance force:

p tlPD

(9-107)