46 47

H
ong Kong hIms have come lo be gIobaI lexls in a comIex dislribulion of commodilies and
meanings. Yel as a cilizen of Hong Kong and lhe Iniled Slales, I am equaIIy conscious
of lhe gIobaI dimensions of audience lhal meel and read lhese hIms, vhelher in Queen's
Cinema in CenlraI, a muIliIex in Mongkok or a video casselle in homes and coIIege cIassrooms
across lhe Iniled Slales. Hence in lhis essay I viII focus on hov Hong Kong hIms and videos, as
lransnalionaI roducls, are read and used lhrough lhe changing gIobaI reIalions of Hong Kong
ilseIf, bolh in lhe lerrilory1SAR and in a muIlicuIluraI Iniled Slales. To do so, il is nol enough
lo osil an "elhnic" or "lransnalionaI" reading of elhnic roducls. Hong Kong hIms have
muIliIe audiences in lhe Iniled Slales, vhiIe Hong Kong residenls (and hImmakers) Iong have
been inuenced by HoIIyvood. nIy lhrough a recognilion of Hong Kong cinema's differenl
consumlion allerns do ve undersland hov Iace, grou and meaning are reconhgured around
lhe screen, casselle1disc and saleIIile images.
y comaring muIliIe audiences for Hong Kong hIms, I aIso seek lo iIIuminale more generaI
rocesses merging and lransforming "Lasl" and "Wesl" (Shohal and Slam). Here ve aIso recognize
lhal vhiIe roducls may be lransnalionaI, nol aII gIobaI enlilies, nor lheir cilizens, nor lheir
roducls, are equaI. There has been no risline "Lasl" and "Wesl" for cenluries. SliII, ercelions
of differences belveen "Lasl" and "Wesl" are Iayed oul in diverse forums. These incIude lhe
slock markel and currency lrading, vhere lhe 1997 roIIer coasler of Hong Kong's Hang Seng
Index and lhe Dov }ones average surred muluaI recriminalions, Iresidenl CIinlon's 1998 visil
lo ei|ing and Hong Kong, during vhich lhe oIilics of human righls and seIf delerminalion vere
rediclabIy cenlraI, and lhe 1999 rolesls in China and Hong Kong afler NAT bombing of lhe
Chinese embassy in eIgrade. LmbIemalic aIso are lhe slalus of Hong Kong residenls before lhe
I.S. Immigralion and NaluraIizalion Services and lhe Iimils imosed on Hong Kong goods vilhin
American lariff agreemenls. Some lransnalionaI roducls never become lruIy gIobaI, in a vague
sense measured by hegemony as veII as dislribulion, vhiIe olhers are absorbed inlo lhe dominanl
gIobaI markels, cenlered in lhe Wesl and erhas }aan.
MeanvhiIe, lhe Chinese eoIe I knov and sludy do nol conform lo rienlaIisl images of an
olher, eilher in Hong Kong or lhe I.S., even if many non-Chinese Weslern audiences for Hong
46 47
Kong hIms sliII seek a dislinclIy Asian commodily. Al lhe same lime "Weslerners", Iike "Asians,"
are aIso vagueIy avare lhal some characlerislics of Asian movies aIso invoIve lhe reroduclion,
lransosilion and imrovemenl on fealures of oIder HoIIyvood genres Iike lhe gangsler hIm.
In lurn, lhis fascinalion vilh Hong Kong hIms highIighls eIemenls lhal HoIIyvood can re-
aroriale lo exlend ils gIobaI emire for Hong Kong audiences as veII as diverse American
ones. Yel al lhe same lime, Hong Kong immigranls lo lhe I.S. and aslronauls vho move belveen
Norlh America and lhe SAR (SeciaI Adminislralive Region) are aIso lransforming olher asecls of
American sociely and cuIlure, incIuding lhe diversily of resonses lo Hong Kong cinema al home
and abroad.
In lhis essay, I drav uon communicalions, anlhrooIogy and cuIluraI sludies lo shov hov
Hong Kong hIms and cuIlure, as lransnalionaI commodilies, are differenlIy markeled lo and used
by a range of audiences. My research dravs on my formalion as a lransnalionaI cilizen as veII as
dala from my heIdvork and exeriences in IIorida, CaIifornia, IhiIadeIhia and Hong Kong (1989,
1991a, 1991b, 1997, McDonogh and Wong 2OO1b). I hrsl consider lhe cuIlures and audiences of
Hong Kong hIm in lheir Iace of origin. Then, I move across lhe gIobe lo examine hov immigranls
and olher American audiences read lhese movies, redehning urban cuIlures as lhey engage in a
diaIeclic of gIobaIizalion.
Hnng Knng and Hn!!ywnnd: 5nmc Prc!ImInary RccctInns nn MnvIcs

bviousIy, movies have aIvays been lransnalionaI roducls. The success of lhe I.S. hIm
induslry in facl, lurned sludio era HoIIyvood from a nalionaI or IocaI henomenon inlo a
ucr|! cinema. HoIIyvood's cuIluraI imIicalions are even more didaclic: HoIIyvood, a hclionaI
cily, has naluraIized a reaIisl cinemalic Ianguage and narralive convenlions mosl eoIe in lhe
vorId comrehend and aroriale, incIuding lhe eoIe (and hImmakers) of Hong Kong.
WhiIe HoIIyvood cinema is gIobaI, ve aIso recognize lhal hIms made oulside of
HoIIyvood and Weslern Luroe, excel for some "arl" hIms, generaIIy have gained IillIe exosure
in lhe Wesl. Desile lhe uid lechnoIogy of cinema, vilh ils abiIily for inhnile reroduclion and
orlabiIily, in raclice made-in-America roducl dominales nol onIy a "IocaI" I.S. markel bul
aIso lhe vorId, IocaI markels conslilule differenl bul subordinale vorIds. In clober 1996, for
examIe, of aII nalionaI cinemas vhose lo len hIms vere surveyed in Vcriciq, onIy in Hong Kong
and India did IocaI hIms comele successfuIIy vilh HoIIyvood bIockbuslers.
2
NonelheIess, vilh
lhe increasing gIobaI movemenl of eoIe and lhe advenl of video lechnoIogy and saleIIile1cabIe
relransmission, olher cinemas and leIevision roduclions are moving beyond lheir IocaI lhealricaI
markels, connecling scallered ouIalions and communicalion channeIs in a helerogeneous,
muIlicuIluraI America and vorId (Nahcy).
To undersland lhe imIicalions of Hong Kong hIm, ve musl begin vilh lhe ecuIiar
silualion of Hong Kong ilseIf. As a coIoniaI crealion from 1841 lo 1997, lhe cily ilseIf aIvays has
been hybrid bolh in cuIlure and oIilics (Abbas, Sinn). Yel Hong Kong vas nol lhe vorId cily il is
loday unliI afler lhe Communisl lakeover of MainIand China in 1949, vhen vaves of migralion
from China lo Hong Kong broughl nev ideas and nev cailaI for economic deveIomenl. Some
argue, in facl, lhal Hong Kong did nol deveIo a unique regionaI idenlily unliI lhe 196Os vhen
conlemorary induslriaIizalion look off (Turner & Ngan).
Hong Kong cinema emerged amid lhe same divisive inuences lhal shaed lhe coIony ilseIf
(Li, Teo 1997). WhiIe hIm roduclion slarled in lhe 192Os, IocaI roduclion remained soradic
unliI lhe 195Os vhen movie going became a reguIar aslime in a cramed yel burgeoning cily.
This grovlh markel vas driven IargeIy by lhe lerrilory's vasl Chinese ma|orily and exorls lo
Soulheasl Asia (Leung and Chan). LocaI hIms sliII vere considered "foIksy" and crude aIongside
lhe HoIIyvood and rilish imorls lhal dominaled lhe eIeganl hrsl-run lhealers of CenlraI and
allracled veaIlhier and modern Chinese as veII as LngIish-seaking exalriales.
Infused by immigralion and cailaI from Shanghai, hovever, lhe 196Os sav lhe deveIomenl
Ciiics, Cu|iurcs, Ccssciics Wcng
Spcciccicr Vc|. 22 Nc. 1 Spring 2002
48 49
of lhe Shav rolhers Sludio. Shav consoIidaled ils osilion by mid-decade, making romances and
svordsman eics in Mandarin ralher lhan lhe IocaI idiom, Canlonese. Three liers of movie reslige
emerged in lhe cily, reecling roduclion, audience, and lhealricaI screenings. Canlonese hIms
remained al lhe bollom, Mandarin hIms ranked higher, vilh HoIIyvood on lo. This echoes lheir
reseclive roduclion cosls,
vhere Mandarin hIms had
lvice lhe budgel of Canlonese
hIms, vhiIe HoIIyvood hIms
couId easiIy cosl 1O limes
more.
3
Chinese Ianguage
hIms survived on lhe basis
of lheir Asian dislribulion
(conlroIIed by lhe Shav
famiIy), meanvhiIe, Hong
Kong sludios roduced hIms1
versions in Amoy and Iukien
diaIecls as veII as lheir ovn
lriIinguaI roducls (Li, }arvie,
Lav, Teo 1997, Teo and Lao).
Audiences in lhis
eriod, lhen, made choices
from a range of roducls,
aIlhough sociaI and cuIluraI
Iimilalions shaed cinema-
going as an aclivily. Wilhin
lhe divisions of coIoniaI sociely, for examIe, il is cIear lhal lhe gaze of lhe coIonizer vas direcled
lovard rilish hIms (given seciaI suorl) and HoIIyvood. LngIish-Ianguage nevsaers and
direclories scarceIy discussed Chinese hIms or lhe lhealers lhal shoved lhem. Chinese, hovever,
had access lo lhese hIms bolh in lheir hrsl-run movie houses and in subsequenl second-run
dislribulions. MeanvhiIe, Chinese movie-going deveIoed a rich Iife around neighborhood
cinemas (IovingIy recaIIed in AIIen Iong Yuk-Iing's |cincr cn! Scn ||u Zi Qing, 1981j) as veII as
more resligious houses. Hence a voman vho grev u in lhe hshing communily of Shau Kei Wan
recaIIed her comIex formalion as a movie-goer lhere in lhe 196Os:
I sav movies ever since I can remember. I guess I slarled vhen I vas lvo years oId or 2
112. In Shau Kei Wan lhere vere lhree movie houses. Iirsl, il slarled vilh lvo and lhen lhe lhird
one coming in. And lhen aboul movies, besides lhe good movies lhere vere aII lhe lear-|erking
Canlonese oeras.
And of course lhe foodaII lhose exolic foods Iike valer cockroaches (|cng sui), squid and
cncr siu. I en|oyed my Iunch in lhe movie house. efore my re-schooI lime, my mommy look me
lo movies.... In Irimary I, everyday afler morning schooI, my mommy vouId bring me lo buy some
cncr siu and ve vouId go lo see lear-|erking movies.heroic vomen movies....
The Shau Kei Wan movie house vas aII vooden vilh Iols of sui (eas) and Wong Iei Hong
vas Iaying aIvays. And Iols of Ian o o. The second one vas GoIden Slar. Il somelimes had
foreign Ianguage hIms. Hc|p. I sav Disney lhere.
Here, ve aIready see images of Hong Kong hImgoers as assiduous and ecIeclic vievers, baIancing
IocaI roduclion and exerience againsl gIobaI choices. y 1959, Hong Kong had 66 cinemas
seIIing 65,OOO,OOO admissions lo a ouIalion of 3,OOO,OOO.
Al lhal |unclure, Hong Kong leIevision, eslabIished via cabIe in 1959 and converled lo
broadcasl in 1967, rogressiveIy decimaled movie audiences. y 1976, annuaI admissions had
Music IaIace in Nev York
Spcciccicr Vc|. 22 Nc. 1 Spring 2002
48 49
died lo 53,OOO,OOO. AIlhough nev lhealers vere oened lo meel an exanding ouIalion, oIder
neighborhood and second-run lhealers vere aIso in decIine. Yel leIevision aIso had a more osilive
imacl on movies. CharIes AIIen's 197O survey of Hong Kong vieving allerns, for examIe, found
lhal 18/ of lhose Chinese queslioned Iisled Canlonese fealure hIms as lheir favorile choices in lhe
nev mediumbehind onIy nevs, Chinese variely shovs and vreslIing. Wilhin his cIass divisions,
lhis ranged from 1O/ for manageriaI Chinese lo 25/ among vorking-cIass Chinese (AIIen 197O).
Informanls aIso recaIIed hov leIevised movies of lhis eriod connecled lhem lo a herilage of
IocaI cinema in Canlonese. TeIevision aIso nurlured young laIenls vho evenluaIIy deveIoed a
hIm cuIlure lhal Ied lo lhe Hong Kong Nev Wave of lhe Iale 7Os and earIy 8Os, breaking earIier
Canlonese and Mandarin modeIs. These Nev Wave bricoIeurs, incIuding Ialrick Tam, Ann Hui,
AIIen Iong and Tsui Hark, reconsliluled Hong Kong idenlilies lhrough mixed lechniques and
references. They broughl lhe Canlonese Ianguage back lo movies and foslered a nev hIm idenlily
for lhe cily, synlhesizing a changing sociely and nev aroaches lo media from hIm schooIs in lhe
I.S. and rilain. IinaIIy, leIevision aIso rovided exlremeIy ouIar genres Iike soa oeras and
variely shovs lhal aIso vouId shae a lransnalionaI audience and idenlily (Ma).
Cinema lhen grev u vilh lhe changing coIony and ils audiences, oflen in quile inlimale
fashion. The raid ace of roduclion, inlense vork scheduIes and lhe inlerseclion of leIevision,
seclacIes and movies made slars and Iols famiIiar, eseciaIIy as lhe same aclor aeared in lhe
same genre severaI limes a year. Chov Yun-Ial and }ackie Chan, for examIe, malured as aclors in
lhe Chinese ubIic eye Iong before lhey received a foreign gaze.
Yel if lhe Iasl years of lhe 198Os became lhe goIden age of Hong Kong hIms, lhis vas aIso
a crilicaI eriod for lhe ouIalion of lhe cily. As oorlunilies for veaIlh and over increased
in lhe gIobaI cily, lhe recariousness of Hong Kong's geo-oIilicaI silualion afler lhe 1984 accords
aIso crealed uncerlainly lhal vas mel by emigralion lo lhe I.S., Canada and olher counlries. IiIms
graIed vilh lhe oIilicaI lransilion of lhe handover, in anlicialion of Hong Kong's relurn lo
Chinese sovereignly. WhiIe lhis reaclion began in lhe earIy 198Os vilh hIms Iike Ann Hui's Bcci
Pccp|c (1cu|cn Nunci, 1982), 1996 sav hIms Iike 1nc Bc!qgucr!s cj inc Icsi Gctcrncr (Gcng!u !c
Zuincu Yigc Bcc|icc, 1996), ridicuIing bolh rilish coIoniaI adminislralion and Communisl Chinese
ofhciaIs. AIlhough a hasliIy-assembIed sIaslick comedy reIying on scaloIogy ralher lhan salire,
il vas aIso exlraordinariIy alluned lo ils lime, incororaling foolage from a Hong Kong raIIy lo
suorl Chinese nalionaIisl cIaims lo lhe Daioyu isIands hImed onIy veeks before lhe fealure's
reIease. Ccmrc!cs, A|mcsi c Ictc Sicrq (1icn Mimi, direcled by Ieler Chan, 1997), vhich calured
muIliIe Hong Kong IiIm Avards (lhe IocaI scars), resenls more osilive orlrayaIs of mainIand
immigranls lhrough lhe conlinuaIIy-lhvarled Iove slory of a nevIy-arrived, slreel-smarl voman
from Guangzhou and a naive Norlherner from Tian|in. olh end u Ieaving Hong Kong, in lurn,
for Nev York, vhere lhey are reuniled.
This crilicaI oIilicaI lransilion, hovever, did nol diminish lhe aeaI of olher genres such
as leenage gang hIms, romance and sIaslick comedies, aII of vhich connecled vilh lhe exeriences
and execlalions of Hong Kong moviegoers vhom I inlervieved. Again, from lhe slandoinl of
Chinese audiences, lhe handover vas nol so much a lexluaI issue as one vhich movies and cilizens
shared.
The Hong Kong hIm induslry, hovever, vas nol abIe lo suslain ils success in lhe 9Os. IiIms
Iike jurcssic Pcr| and |crrcsi Gump became lhe highesl grossing hils in lhe lerrilory, 1iicnic shoved
lhe same box-ofhce cIoul lhere lhal il did in lhe I.S. and much of lhe resl of lhe vorId. Many
allribule lhe decIine of Hong Kong cinema lo an induslry lhal came lo beIieve lhal anylhing vouId
seII in ils cIosed circuils of roduclion and dislribulion. Iroducers sun goId inlo ax, churning
oul formuIaic movies based on lheir nevfound successes. Iroduclion has decIined signihcanlIy
from lhe heyday of lhe 8Os and earIy 9Os (from aboul 135 hIms annuaIIy lo a ro|eclion of aboul 65
reIeases in 1998), bul even vilh lhis decIine (exacerbaled by a shrinking regionaI exorl markel)
Hong Kong movies conlinued lo accounl for more lhan haIf of IocaI lhealricaI revenues. The
induslry conlinues lo rovide nev reIeases, even vilh Iover budgels, recycIing oIder lhemes as
Ciiics, Cu|iurcs, Ccssciics Wcng
Spcciccicr Vc|. 22 Nc. 1 Spring 2002
50 51
veII as deveIoing nev ones
4
.
The exerience of lhe Hong Kong movie-goer has aIso changed over lime. Neighborhood
cinemas and hisloric aIaces have given vay increasingIy lo muIliIexes in ma|or shoing
maIIs vhere hIms reresenl Iess a communily sociaI evenl lhan anolher ilem of consumlion.
These muIliIexes and lhe chains lhal ovn lhem concenlrale on high-relurn American movies.
|n!cpcn!cncc Dcq, Hcrcu|cs and 1iicnic aII cIaimed muIliIe screens in hrsl-run. In olher cases,
hovever, lhese exhibilors aIso have aIIoved lhe incIusion of Hong Kong roduclions in lhis range
of choices (McDonogh and Wong 2OO1b).
5
Videos, Iaserdiscs, VCDs and DVDs are aIso ouIar in HK, vhere lhe KIS chain
boasled of having Soulheasl Asia's Iargesl video emire. KIS slores slocked 13O nev lilIes a
monlh, mainlained an invenlory incIuding Hong Kong, HoIIyvood, and vorId cinema lilIes, and
cumuIaliveIy generale a monlhIy circuIalion of 1OO,OOO renlaIs. The comany, hovever, cIosed
in 1998 under exlreme hnanciaI difhcuIly broughl aboul by lhe aggressive (and some crilics said,
oorIy Ianned) exansion as veII as lhe economic crisis of lhe SAR. lher smaIIer and seciaIized
slores serve elhnic ouIalions Iike Soulh Asians and IiIiinos or neighborhood needs.
Video Comacl Disks have quickIy exanded inlo lhis home vieving niche. These are
generaIIy soId ralher lhan renled, mainslream slores slock hundreds of lilIes al $2O-$85 HK ($3- $1O
IS). Iirale versions of HoIIyvood and Hong Kong hils are videIy avaiIabIe aImosl immedialeIy
(in lhe case of Sicr Wcrs, before lhe hIm even arrived in lhealers) for $2O HK ($2.5O IS). DVDs
are aIso videIy avaiIabIe, bul lhey are nol very ouIar due lo lheir reIaliveIy high rice. Videos,
VCDs, DVDs, and leIevision screenings aIso rovide a measure of hisloricaI delh lo lhe range
of movies avaiIabIe IocaIIy, given lhe smaII scaIe of relroseclive shovings. Ma|or video slores
aIso slock quaIily movies, rimariIy foreign arl hIms lhal never achieved generaI reIease in
Hong Kong. In addilion lo renlaIs, slores aIso had laes and discs for chiIdren as veII as LngIish
Ianguage hIms, incIuding documenlaries and leIevision.
RenlaIs and saIes mighl comIemenl lhealricaI offeringseven HoIIyvood deends on
video renlaIs vorIdvide lo rohl from ils mega-roduclions. VCD iracy, in arlicuIar, lhrealens
rohls for IocaI roduclions, and has dravn even HoIIyvood's eyes lo China.
Video slores aIso heId eisodes of Iong-running rograms Iike jcurncq ic inc Wcsi (Xi Ycu
ji) or Rcqc| Ccuri Num|cr Onc (Yi Hcc Hucngiing). In facl, one crilic argued in 199O lhal lhe idea of
mixlure and choice vas vilaI:

The raid grovlh of VCR ovnershi |from 1O/ of househoIds in 1984 lo 62/ in 1989j can be allribuled
arlIy lo lhe groving dissalisfaclion lhe ubIic have lovard rogrammes on vireIess leIevision, and
arlIy lo lhe decision in 1988 by IocaI hIm roducers lo reIease lheir roducls IocaIIy for video lae
renlaI.... ver 9O ercenl of lhe lurnover are from renlaI of IocaI hIms, again conhrming lhe facl lhal lhe
Hong Kong eoIe share ils ovn unique cuIluraI idenlily based on a marked reference for indigenous
cuIluraI roducls (Chan 199O: 527)
In a nevsaer inlerviev, a KIS sokesman concurred: "We're hay lo heI lhe Hong Kong hIm
induslry survive.. Iroducers need nol dread faiIure al lhe box-ofhce because lhe second lier can
aIIeviale fears of inveslmenl Ioss (Scuin Cninc Mcrning Pcsi }anuary 2, 199O: 3). Hence, aIlhough
oflen orlrayed as an enemy of cinema, video and VCD can aIso be symbiolic in many vays vilh
lhe movie induslry's ongoing quesl lo allracl audiences lo muIliIex cinemas, vhich offer a vider
seIeclion of hIms in smaIIer audiloriums. As Docherly, Morrison and Tracey nole, lhose vilh VCRs
are acluaIIy more IikeIy lo Iike and lo allend cinemas (1987: 61-9O).
ComIemenlary audiences aIso lake shae. Hong Kong arenls ve knov, for examIe,
comIain aboul lhe Iack of movies in lhealres aroriale for chiIdren. Where neighborhood
Canlonese cinema in lhe asl vas a famiIy affair, bolh conlemorary Hong Kong and HoIIyvood
have added eIemenls of sex and vioIence vhich may rove dislurbing, even in lhe reguIar Disney
reIeases largeling chiIdren or lhe mosl recenl }ackie Chan hIms, vhich reviousIy vere aIso famiIy
Spcciccicr Vc|. 22 Nc. 1 Spring 2002
50 51
fare. Hence, middIe-cIass Chinese chiIdren seem lo exerience movies more lhrough leIevision,
video or VCD (incIuding screenings al arlies or al schooI and schooI Iibraries) and Iess al lhealres.
The videsread avaiIabiIily of bolh Chinese and LngIish chiIdrens' videos and VCDs for urchase
in Hong Kong suorls lhis concIusion.
lher commenls lhroughoul 1996-97 in Hong Kong evaIualed lhe dislinclive exerience
and cuIluraI cailaI of cinema as an eIemenl of choice. Some friends noled, for examIe, lhal lhey
vanled lo see HoIIyvood hIms in lhealers (if onIy for lhe seciaI effecls), bul renled Hong Kong
offerings on videocasselle or Iaser disc. lhers said lhal lhey lurned lo video vhen cinema vas
nol an olionafler vork, vhen sick, vhen aIone or over Iong hoIidays (renlaIs vere brisk over
lhe Lunar Nev Year's hoIiday, and lhis vas aIso lrue al lhe eak of lhe handover ceIebralions).
We musl undersland a range of exerience, choice and even reslige vhich shae aII forms of
consumlion of visuaI communicalion.
veraII, cinema allendance decIines every year in Hong Kong. As a resuIl, afler decades
of inallenlion, bolh lhe coIoniaI and osl-coIoniaI governmenls have mounled romolionaI
camaigns lhal osilion hIm as an imorlanl IocaI induslry and generalor of vivid Hong
Kong imagery. The Irban CounciI (a governmenl agency) eslabIished lhe annuaI Hong Kong
InlernalionaI IiIm IeslivaI in 1977, and il has aIvays incIuded a seclion devoled lo Hong Kong
hIms. In 1997, in con|unclion vilh lhe IiIm IeslivaI, a lhree-day conference on Hong Kong cinema
vas heId, fealuring lhe arlicialion of eoIe from lhe induslry, as veII as schoIars and crilics from
bolh vilhin and oulside Hong Kong. A osl-handover lourism romolion "ne Hundred Days
of Wonder" incIuded a }ackie Chan hIm feslivaI (vhich vas uIlimaleIy canceIIed, aIlhough Chan
conlinues lo aear in ofhciaI lourism roaganda). n lhe olher hand, il is evidenl lhal lhe fulure
for Hong Kong movie ersonneI hoIds saces of allraclion beyond Canlonese circuils. IiImmakers
and slars have foIIoved lhe alh lo HoIIyvood lesled decades earIier by ruce Lee. }ackie Chan,
vho made some forgellabIe American hIms in lhe 198Os1nc Big Brcu|, 1nc Ccnncn|c|| Run, and
1nc Prciccicris nov onIy one of a grou of aclors and direclors making HoIIyvood hIms. Yel
HoIIyvood and America ilseIf aIso have changed in lhe 25 years since ruce Lee's dealh.
RcvIcwIng AmcrIca: Thc Ncw ImmIgrants' FI!m Wnr!d
WhiIe lhe hrsl Chinese immigranls arrived in lhe Iniled Slales in lhe earIy 19lh cenlury,
incomrehension, olherness and re|eclion Iong marked lhe hislory of Chinese-American
communilies in reIalion lo hegemonic American visions of vhile dominalion. Irom lhe Chinese
LxcIusion Acl of 1884 lhrough lhe Second WorId War, Chinese vere denied cilizenshi, famiIy and
resence oulside lhe exolic ghellos of Chinalovns, vhich lhemseIves vere vuInerabIe lo hysicaI
and oIilicaI allack (Arkush and Lee). nIy lhe immigralion reforms of lhe 196Os ermilled lhe
arrivaI of Iarge numbers of famiIies of Chinese origins under nev nalionaI quolas as veII as refugee
slalus (in lhe case of Chinese from some Soulheasl Asian counlries). RegionaI uncerlainlies have
surred conlinuaI migralion from Hong Kong, Taivan, and lhe IRC, vhich in lurn has revilaIized
Chinalovns and boIslered nev suburban sellIemenls from Nev York (Chen 1992) lo Monlerey
Iark near Los AngeIes (Chen 1992, Horlon, SkeIdon). Moreover, lhis exansion has laken Iace
aIongside lhe grovlh of olher communilies of Asian immigranls vilh lheir ovn unique hisloricaI
reIalions lo Chinese and Hong Kong cuIlure.
As vilh olher American immigranls, various inslilulions, incIuding elhnic food slores,
churches, reslauranls, regionaI associalions, foreign-Ianguage nevsaers, movies, and videos
rovide Chinese vilh conneclions lo lheir homeIand and Iaces of idenlily in lheir nev vorIds.
Nev Chinese immigranls may reIy on lhese associalions and media because lhey do nol undersland
LngIish or cannol associale lheir nev Ianguage vilh Ieisure aclivilies. Hong Kong roducls are
famiIiar lies lo an imagined home, vhelher or nol lhe immigranls even came from Hong Kong. Yel
in lhe form of videos, Chinese hIm and leIevision rogramming is lransformed inlo an American
cuIluraI roducl, commodilies reIicaled and consumed in lhe I.S.
Ciiics, Cu|iurcs, Ccssciics Wcng
Spcciccicr Vc|. 22 Nc. 1 Spring 2002
52 53
These commodilies cerlainIy do nol foIIov cIassicaI roules of HoIIyvood lhealricaI
dislribulion. There used lo be dozens of Chinalovn movie lhealers nalionvide, from San Irancisco
lo Nev York, and movies vere aIso screened by olher inslilulions Iike churches. A friend in his
3Os vho allended coIIege in Wesl Virginia recaIIs driving lo Washinglon D.C. for good Chinese
food and movies. Today, hovever, lhe number of Chinese-Ianguage movie lhealres in lhe I.S. is
dvindIing.
Nov, no Chinese cinema remains even in Manhallan's Chinalovn. David Chen, vriling
in 1nc Ncu Ycr| 1imcs, argues lhal lhe demise of Chinese cinema in Chinalovn is a sign of lhe
mainslreaming of lhe elhnic ouIalion, foIIoving lhe allern of earIier }evish, IlaIian and
Hisanic immigranls (}une 14, 1998: 1, 38). lher faclors conlribuling lo lhe decIine incIude lhe
increasing avaiIabiIily of aIlernalive dislribulion vindovs, changing immigralion allerns, and
lhe mainslreaming of Hong Kong hIm ilseIf.
In IhiIadeIhia, vhere I nov reside, Chinese movies are shovn lhealricaIIy onIy al
midnighl on Salurdays in an oulIel maII muIliIex. Xeroxed announcemenls are Iaslered on
Chinalovn vaIIs, onIy since a fev ago have lhey been added lo lhe generaI movie Iislings of IocaI
aIlernalive aers. Deending on lhe ouIarily of a scheduIed hIm, allendance ranges from
aboul 4O lo a fuII house of 1OOO. Currenl slar over seems eseciaIIy imorlanl: Slehen Chiau, a
ouIar slar in Hong Kong, can drav a Iarge audience, vhiIe an oIder movie vilh Chov Yun-Ial
allracls a smaIIer crovd. Yel lhese reguIar screenings have become a galhering Iace nol onIy for
Chinese immigranls bul aIso for olher Asian grous, and eseciaIIy adoIescenls. Cambodian high
schooI sludenls from Soulh IhiIadeIhia, vilh vhom I have vorked, for examIe, leII slories of lhe
chaos lhal eruled in lhe asl vhen hIms vere changed vilhoul an advance nolice or oor rinls
screened.
This dearlh of lhealricaI screenings, hovever, does nol reecl lhe groving Asian
ouIalion of IhiIadeIhia or ils consumlion allerns. Here, lhe imacl of lechnoIogicaI
deveIomenlvideocasselle, Iaser disc, and saleIIile recelionmake movies readabIe in differenl
vays, adding lo lhe number of choices lhal Chinese immigranl vievers can make. Video slores
dol lhe slreelscaes of conlemorary Chinalovns, smaIIer renlaI coIIeclions are |ammed inlo lhe
crannies of food slores or slalionary shos.
Mosl video slores in Chinalovns serve a redominanlIy Chinese cIienleIe. Many rograms
are avaiIabIe onIy in Chinese vilhoul LngIish sublilIes, many cuslomers and cIerks, moreover, are
much more uenl in Chinese lhan LngIish. Hong Kong videos are aIso avaiIabIe in olher Asian
elhnic video slores: lhus, Cambodian and Vielnamese immigranls in IhiIadeIhia renl dubbed
Hong Kong videos from lheir ovn neighborhood slores. These lransaclions, in lurn, reecl an
adalalion of lechnoIogy lo lransnalionaIism and elhnicily vhich has ilseIf become more generaI
lhroughoul lhe I.S. Korean and Indian food slores in IhiIadeIhia, for examIe, aIso slock vaIIs of
video roducls aIongside sices, magazines and medicines. The Yaohan shoing comIex in Iorl
Lee, Nev }ersey, across from Manhallan, rovides a simiIar nucIeus for lhe Iarger region's }aanese
ouIalion, vhiIe smaIIer grous, such as lhe IhiIadeIhia Iersian communily are served by renlaI
sheIves in a IocaI reslauranl. In lhis sense, again, Hong Kong movie and casselle dislribulion has
become Americanized.
TechnoIogy changes lime as veII as sace, leIevision rograms as veII as fealure hIms
lraveI from Hong Kong lo America in a maller of days, and lhis incIudes lhealricaI hils, eisodes
of Iong-running series or evenls Iike lhe Miss Hong Kong ageanl. Movies become avaiIabIe as
soon as Iaser disc versions are soId in Hong Kong, dubbed onlo NTSC1VHS laes. }ackie Chan's
Rum||c in inc Brcnx (Hcng |cn Qu, 1995), for examIe, hil Chinalovn video slores monlhs before
ils I.S. remiere. WhiIe righls vere more carefuIIy secured for lhe Canlonese version of }ackie
Chan's subsequenl |irsi Siri|c (jingcnc Gusni |V. jicn!cn Rcnuu, 1996), lhe Mandarin version vas
neverlheIess avaiIabIe in slores serving rimariIy Canlonese audiences in earIy 1996, Iong before ils
summer lhealricaI reIease. Lven lhe variabIe lechnoIogies of roduclion and dislribulion are al Iay
here. In Hong Kong, VCDs are exlremeIy ouIar and DVDs have enlered lhe markel lo comele
Spcciccicr Vc|. 22 Nc. 1 Spring 2002
52 53
vilh IAL video. In lhe I.S., hIms are mosl oflen renled in lhe form of NTSC videocasselles, even
if renlaI coies have been duIicaled from Iaser disc originaIs by lhe slore. olh renlaIs and saIes
of discs are avaiIabIe, draving on slock roduced for Asian markels vhere VCDs have been more
ouIar. VCDs and VCD Iayers are nov videIy avaiIabIe, olhers receive shimenls of VCDs from
friends and famiIy in lhe SAR, or from lheir ovn lris lo lhe SAR.
We musl aIso be carefuI in making assumlions aboul lexl and lasle. According lo
sloreovners, il is nol lhealricaI hIms lhal calure lhe ma|orily of lhe immigranls, bul TV rograms
ackaged on videocasselles. The mosl ouIar laes are soa oeras, hisloricaI romances and
aclion series. These roduclions, if successfuI, run for a year or more in Hong Kong (e.g. lhe recenl
Gcnuinc |cc|ings |Zncn Qingj).
The mainIand version of lhe
hisloricaI Rcmcncc cj inc 1nrcc
King!cms (Scnguc Ycnqi) has
even savned a lheme ark
in Wuxi vhere lourisls may
visil hIm sels and ose in
leIevision coslumes, and il is
a reguIar deslinalion for lour
grous from Hong Kong.
Al lhe same lime,
leIevision rograms lhal
never aired in Hong Kong
hnd an oulIel in overseas
elhnic encIaves, if lhese
shovs become ouIar
enough in lhe Chinese
diasora, lhey may be icked
u for broadcasl by a Hong
Kong leIevision slalion. Ior
examIe, a mini series caIIed
Yip Min (Gui|iq Kisscs) vas reIeased in overseas markels in 1995. ne of lhe aclors, Lau Ka Leung,
subsequenlIy became more famous and TV (Hong Kong's dominanl over-lhe-air broadcasler)
lhen aired lhe rogram on ils }ade in 1997. The overseas Chinese oulIels can be seen as bolh a
lesling and a duming ground for roducls ro|ecled lo be of Iesser aeaI in lhe home markel.
Moreover, Hong Kong's TV has an exlensive dislribulion syslem lhroughoul lhe Chinese diasora
lhal can be adaled lo varialions in demand (Teo and Lao).
The Ialesl addilion lo Hong Kong visuaI media's overseas environmenl is saleIIile
dislribulion. AII over lhe I.S., one can urchase a saleIIile syslem for $495 (Ius inslaIIalion)
vhich aIIovs lhe househoId lo receive rogramming from Taivan and MainIand China. Ior an
addilionaI $22.5O er monlh, lhe cIienl can valch TV rograms from TV }ade, lhe ma|or Hong
Kong Chinese-Ianguage TV channeI. Mosl Hong Kong eoIe I inlervieved Iike lhe saleIIile
services for bolh conneclion and redislribulion. Many reguIarIy valch eilher laes or saleIIile for
lvo hours every nighl and hnd lhe limes senl valching rogramming al home reIaxing. CerlainIy,
nevs broadcasls reinforces an immediacy of idenlihcalion, one inlervievee said, "vhen I see lhe
hre in Lai Chee Kvok, I caIIed my friends and reIalives righl avay." Anolher said, "We valched
aII lhe handover ceremony, il's greal." Yel nev conneclions are aIso slressed: "My falher comes lo
my house more oflen nov, he Iikes lo valch saleIIile rograms, and my kids' Chinese is gelling
beller." A middIe-aged reslauraleur conlinued, "Maybe I am gelling oIder nov, I miss Hong Kong,
and il's good lo be cIoser by valching lhese rograms." CuIluraI meanings become a funclion of
Americanizalion as dislance.
MiddIe-cIass famiIies I knov vho have inslaIIed lhis dish, commonIy caIIed lhe "LillIe Lar",
Video, DVD, VCD Slore in Nev York
Ciiics, Cu|iurcs, Ccssciics Wcng
Spcciccicr Vc|. 22 Nc. 1 Spring 2002
54 55
rareIy renl videos anymore. Hovever, excel for nevs rograms, TV1}ade does nol ermil direcl,
simuIlaneous lransmission from Hong Kong. Soa oeras, mini series, and variely shovs are re-
lransmilled from a dislribulion oinl in CaIifornia onIy afler TV has markeled lhe rograms on
videocasselle lhrough renlaI oulIels (some of vhich are ovned by TV). roadcaslers fear lhal lhe
saleIIile cIienls viII lae lhese rograms, duIicale lhem, and Ioan lhem lo lheir friends.
These fears are nol iII-founded. SaleIIile dislribulion adds anolher Iink lo recommodihcalion
of hIm and TV as an "American" roducl. Hence, a voman loId me lhal she laes some rograms
off lhe saleIIile and shares lhem vilh her friends. She cIaims lhal she aIso makes nev friends
vilhin a geograhicaIIy scallered Hong Kong diasora lhrough lhe exchange of videos. Wilh
ouIar soas from Hong Kong lhal add u lo many hours of rogramming, a sel of laes can
easiIy go lhrough many hands vilhin a maller of monlhs.
olh saleIIile and video dislribulions aIso lransform lhe aeslhelics of lhe hIm and video
media. Mosl slores slock bolh Iicensed and iraled videos, vilh fev ob|eclions from lhe consumers
regarding quaIily and IegaIily. CrilicaI revievs of hIms and rograms are nol avaiIabIe, nor are
ubIicily camaigns beyond gossi aboul favorile slars and lheir aclivilies. Moreover, vhiIe some
video reIeases vere crilicaI al box ofhce, or ralings bIockbuslers in Hong Kong, olhers are much
more ordinary, reresenling lhe mundane, assembIy-Iine core of a commerciaI, consumerisl media
induslry. Yel as cuIluraI roducls silualed in a cerlain sace and lime, lhey cIearIy mark Hong
Kong as a urban cenler for a vider cuIluraI markel, vilh muIliIe nelvorks of dislribulion and
consumlion.
In many vays, lhe inuence of Hong Kong hIms and leIevision rograms exlend beyond
enlerlainmenl, lhey arliciale in lhe ongoing reconslilulion of an urban immigranl cuIlure. The
rimary audiences for lhese lexls have lhe cuIluraI comelence lo read lhem, bolh in lerms of
Ianguage and lhe inlerlexluaI cuIluraIIy bound references lhey conlain. This desire for a feeIing
of connecledness vilh a homeIand is a key lo lhe inlernalionaI markeling slralegy of TV, vhich
conlroIs lhe Iargesl Chinese-Ianguage leIevision rogramming in lhe vorId. Immigranls Iearn
aboul shov business nevs from elhnic nevsaers and gIossy magazines and renl lhe videos
lo see lhe Ialesl hol slars or sociely evenls. They exchange laes among lhemseIves, conslrucl
conversalions around lhis famiIiar loics, and lransmil conlemorary Chinese ouIar cuIlure
lo lhe younger, oflen American-born second generalion immigranlsand aII of lhis haens in
lhe I.S. Immigranls creale a lransnalionaI vorId lhal is IillIe knovn oulside lheir communilies,
reinforcing lheir ovn nelvorks of sociaI, cuIluraI, oIilicaI, and economic lies as veII as lhe
lransnalionaI quaIilies of lhe media maleriaIs lhemseIves.
Yel lhese diasoric consumers of Hong Kong hIm and video are nol delached from lhe
ma|orily of lhe IocaI Hong Kong audience, in lerms of vhal lhey choose in vieving or even lhe
circuIalion of slars vho hnd lheir careers recasl and reborn in lhe I.S. WhiIe lhese Hong Kong
and olher Chinese immigranls Iive in America, vilh vork and recrealionaI allerns very differenl
from lhose exerienced in Hong Kong, IocaI Chinese and overseas ouIalions share simiIar lasles.
American Chinese simIy valch lhe movies or rograms al home, and Ialer lhan lheir counlerarls
in HK. They may feeI a vislfuI dislance from Mong Kok, Sai Wan or CenlraI, bul lhey are nol
disconnecled aIlogelher. In lhis, in facl, lhey may be more cIearIy divergenl from olher American
suburban neighbors valching leIevised kung fu eics on Salurday aflernoon or seeking lhe Ialesl
Hong Kong movie as an index of cosmooIilan osl-modernily.
And Hong Kong vievers in lhe I.S. are no Iess cosmooIilan lhan lheir Hong Kong
counlerarls. Indeed, aIlhough lhere is no vay lo galher concrele dala, discussions vilh friends
in lhe IhiIadeIhia Chinese communily suggesls lhal 1iicnic is |usl as ouIar vilh Chinese here
as vilh olher Americans. Chinalovn video slores, in facl, renl HoIIyvood movies vilh Chinese
sublilIes for lhose adaling lo American seech. The difference belveen IocaI and overseas
audiences lhen, Iies nol so much in vhal lhey choose lo see bul lhe array of choices lhey conslrucl,
in vhich Hong Kong media and American roduclions are bolh viabIe and imorlanl olions.
This symbiosis, in facl, underins Hong Kong cinema and audiences, al home and in diasora,
Spcciccicr Vc|. 22 Nc. 1 Spring 2002
54 55
aIlhough lhe conlexl of mobiIily and quesls for cuIluraI idenlily viII change lhe meanings allached
lo arlicuIar vieving exeriences. Togelher, moreover, lhese audiences aIIov us lo conlexluaIize
a lhird audience vhich roves much beller knovn in lhe reading of Hong Kong hImlhe non-
Chinese vievers vho have chamioned yel anolher arorialion of lhis cinema.
DnmcstIcatIng Hnng Knng: HIp and Hn!!ywnnd
WhiIe Canlonese videos indeed have become eIemenls of immigranl mass cuIlure, hIm
buffs and movie seciaIisls of olher American herilages aIso have zeroed in on lhese maleriaIs for
decades. Mark SaIzman, vho vas Ialer resonsibIe for lhe hIm |rcn cn! Si||, begins his memoir
of groving u in suburban Conneclicul in lhe 196Os by noling "When I vas lhirleen years oId, I
sav my hrsl kung fu movie, and before il ended I decided lhal lhe Iife of a vandering Zen monk
vas lhe Iife for me" (SaIzman 1995: 3). Hong Kong is cIearIy hgured here as an olher, remole and
unknovn in Ianguage, cuIlure, sociely and hislory. Yel il roved aeaIing lo SaIzman's adoIescenl
imaginalion |cccusc il vas nol Conneclicul |usl as some Hong Kong leenagers lurn lo HoIIyvood
because il is nol Hong Kong.
WhiIe ruce Lee gained vorId ouIarily, his movies vere videIy regarded oulside of
Hong Kong as incredibIy rohlabIe exIoilalion roducl, bul exIoilalion roducl nonelheIess
inexensive enlerlainmenl fealures and evenluaIIy leIevision hIIer in vorId markels far beyond
Hong Kong and lhe I.S. In a subsequenl hisloricaI momenl, as Hong Kong Iearned from
HoIIyvood in nev vays, lhe screening of }ohn Woo's 1nc Ki||cr (Dicxic Snucngxicng, 1989) al
lhe 1989 Toronlo and 199O Cannes IiIm IeslivaIs aroused nev and vider inleresl in Hong Kong
movies among cinehiIes. Numerous mini-feslivaIs devoled lo Hong Kong hIm foIIoved in Nev
York, Chicago, MinneaoIis, SeallIe, and IhiIadeIhia. Mosl of lhese vere heId in aIlernalive hIm
venueson coIIege camuses or lhrough lhe Hong Kong Aclion al Midnighl series al lhe arlsy
AngeIika IiIm Cenler in Nev York Cily. Afler a sizabIe cuIl of coIIege and hIm schooI sludenls
are gaIvanized by hIms by Woo, }ackie Chan and olher mainIy aclion hImmakers, some of lhese
nev fans aIso exIored Chinalovn's video slores, subscribed lo lhe San-Irancisco-based LngIish-
Ianguage Hcng Kcng |i|m Mcgczinc or cruised vebsiles Iike lhe Hong Kong Movies Homeage
(vvv.vebcomm.com.hk1ryan1hkmovie). Indeed lhere is a slrong inlerseclion belveen lhe
lechnoIogy of lhe Inlernel and lhe raid disseminalion of informalion, discussion and gossi
invoIving a vhoIe range of reviousIy esoleric and hard-lo-hnd movies (DaIy & Wice). An Inlernel
search easiIy caIIs u lhousands of hils for Chan, Woo, and many names associaled vilh Hong
Kong cinema.
This iniliaI grou of fans is eilomized by Quenlin Taranlino: educaled hImgoers vho
arecialed a nev slyIe of commerciaI hImmaking lhal does nol reresenl lhe obscurily and1or
relenliousness of arl cinema bul seems lo in|ecl fresh air lo a vorId saluraled vilh HoIIyvood
(DaIy and Wice 196). WhiIe lhese hIm buffs may valch lhe same hIms as lhe immigranls, hovever,
lhey are associaled vilh a Norlh American urban cuIlure lhal slresses diversily as a goaI, and in
signihcanl vays oerale vilhin differenl frames of reference.
6
Iirsl, lhey onIy valch fealure hIms,
nol lhe leIevision movies, seriaIized eics or variely shovs vhich reresenl more IocaIized asecls
of Hong Kong mass cuIlure. Second, lhey are allracled by a arlicuIar slyIe of Hong Kong hIm,
mainIy fasl-aced, genre-based aclion hIms, marliaI arls fanlasies, "ying hIms," vioIenl gangsler
and oIice meIodramasrelly much lhe same kinds of hIms SaIzman idenlihed vilh decades
earIier. MeIodramas, chick icks and urban comedies are in generaI nol of greal inleresl lo lhis
demograhic, and il is safe lo say lhal lhis assembIage is dominaled numericaIIy by adoIescenl
and young aduIl maIes. Third, fev members of lhis audience Iook for lhe slrong Iol Iine or lhe
verisimiIilude lhey vouId demand of CIassicaI HoIIyvood Cinema or ils aIlernalives. In arl
because lhey don'l knov lhe IocaI soken or cuIluraI Ianguages, mallers such as narralive Iinearily
and conlinuily lake a back seal lo lhe visceraI excesses (of vioIence, of emolion) exIoding from
lhe cinemalic seclacIe ilseIf, and al limes lheir reading may converge vilh and even ceIebrales
Ciiics, Cu|iurcs, Ccssciics Wcng
Spcciccicr Vc|. 22 Nc. 1 Spring 2002
56 57
lhe dubious roduclion vaIues of many recenl Hong Kong hIms. A gIance al lhe Hcng Kcng
|i|m Mcgczinc's onIine Video CoIIeclion or simiIar vebsiles conhrms lhe reference of lhese
American vievers' reference for aclion genres, meaning a IoyaI foIIoving for auleurs Iike }ohn
Woo, Tsui Hark, Ringo Lam, or slars Iike }ackie Chan, }el Li and Chov Yun Ial.
f course, movies have aIvays aIIoved muIliIe readings. Whal originaIIy allracled lhis
hIm vanguard vas mainIy lhe form1slyIe of lhis arlicuIar grou of Hong Kong movies: lhe fasl
ace, lhe vilaIily, lheir exaggeraled and inlense emolions. ul lhe Hong Kong hIm as commodily
encasuIales sociaI meanings aarl from slyIe (vhich in ilseIf is cIoseIy reIaled lo lhe roduclion
environmenl in HK). Ior American cosmooIilan hImgoers, lhis vieving creales a sense lhal
lhey beIong lo a grou of lrend-selling eoIe vho have discovered somelhing aIlogelher nev
and originaI. These audiences have lurned ouIar, mass-orienled Hong Kong hIms inlo a more
excIusive higher-brov roducls lhrough seIeclive readings and lheir ovn nelvorks of sociaI
reIalions vhich, in lurn, become embedded in lhe vieving rocess.
7
American-Non-Asian readings aIso meril cIoser allenlion for lhe cuIluraI vaIues lhey
reinforce. WhiIe }ackie Chan is nol CharIie Chan, American audiences carry vilh lhem an
inlerlexluaI frame of lhe rienl and ils eoIe based subslanliaIIy on decades of HoIIyvood
reresenlalions. WhiIe }ohn Woo creales "aIIels vilh uIIels," (Ncu Ycr| 1imcs Iebruary 22, 1996),
}ackie Chan is sliII lrealed as |usl a kung-fu slar. Moreover, Weslern audiences hnd many scenes
in lhese movies uninlenlionaIIy funny, Iaughing al hov lhe Chinese deaI vilh friendshi, famiIy,
and hIiaI iely. TransnalionaI incomrehension of cuIluraI conlexl creales comic issuesand
sobering resonsesoul of cinemalic and cuIluraI molifs vhich are serious for bolh Hong Kong
and Asian-American audiences (Iore 1997b).
The "maIeness" of readers and readings aIso demands furlher exIanalion, eseciaIIy given
lhe Iack of any reIacemenl for lhe 195Os American image of Asian femininily as Suzie Wong, even
lhough romance and meIodrama, as veII as sexuaI exIoilalion, abound in Hong Kong cinema.
8

There has been some buzz for a femaIe counlerarl of }ackie Chan, MicheIIe Yeoh vho according lo
lhe slandard Iine is "as crazy as }ackie Chan" (Chung 25) because of daring slunl vork and marliaI
arls skiII. Yeoh's roIe in lhe }ames ond movie, 1cmcrrcu Nctcr Dics (1997), is nol insignihcanl,
neverlheIess, she hgures in lhe arade of exolic ond girIs, Ieavened vilh a hinl of haIf-hearled 9Os
feminism. Cnincsc Bcx (1998), Wayne Wang's slory of lhe handover, resenls lvo laIenled Chinese
aclresses, Gong Li and Maggie Cheung, in vhal remains in many vays an udaling of lhe Suzie
Wong molif (McDonogh and Wong, 2OO1a). And vilh lhe excelion of Yeoh and lhe novice ei|ing
aclress, Zhang Zi-yi, vho has made an imression on lhe American audience vilh Crcucning 1igcr,
Hi!!cn Drcgcn (Wcnu Ccng|cng, 2OOO) and Rusn Hcur 2, olher femaIe slars or direclors, hovever,
have nol even made a lenlalive lransilion lo American dislribulion or HoIIyvood conlracls. Their
slalus is reecled in lhe career of }oan Chen, a Shanghai-born aclress vho has Iayed exolic
Asian beaulies in non-Asian vorks ranging from 1nc Icsi |mpcrcr lo 1uin Pcc|s. IronicaIIy,
Chen exIained lo 1nc Cnincsc magazine (ilseIf an inlriguing lransnalionaI markeling venlure
lo lhe moneyed diasoric ouIalion) lhal she has lo be Chinese before she can be American"
(November 1996: 28). This vas a reIude lo her lransnalionaI direcloriaI debul vilh lhe CuIluraI
RevoIulion drama Xiu Xiu (1nc Scni Dcun Gir|, 1999), and Auiumn in Ncu Ycr| (2OOO) vilh Richard
Gyre and Wynona Ryder.
In an inleresling conlrasl, Tsui Hark's Sucr!smcn |||. 1nc |csi is Rc! (Dcngjcng Bu|ci zni
|cngqun Zcii, 1993) vas shovn al lhe IhiIadeIhia Gay and Lesbian IiIm IeslivaI in 1995. In facl,
lhe hIm incIudes an eIemenl of sexuaI lransformalion, as lhe viIIain (Iayed by rigille Lin) has
surrendered his mascuIine genilaIia in order lo ossess a secrel scroII (lhis lurn of evenl acluaIIy
haens in Sucr!smcn || |Xicccc jicngnu ||. Dcngjcng Bu|ci, 1992j). Yel Lin's aclions and behavior are
generaIIy nol read as homoerolic in Hong Kong, bul as arl of a very oId magicaI heroic lradilion.
Many Weslern crilics aIso have commenled on lhe homoerolic asecls of }ohn Woo's 1nc Ki||cr. Woo
himseIf has said he vas onIy deicling lvo friends in crilicaI momenls of lheir reIalionshi, and
mosl Hong Kong hImgoers vouId simIy see il in vilhin lhe simiIarIy Iong lradilion of alriarchaI
Spcciccicr Vc|. 22 Nc. 1 Spring 2002
56 57
buddyhood in Chinese cuIlure. In his inleresling cinema essay Ycng cn! Yin. Gcn!cr in Cnincsc
Cincmc (Ncnsncng Nuxicng, 1996), SlanIey Kvan has raised lhese re-imorled issues vilh Chinese
hImmakers lhemseIves, inlroducing a nev Iayer of lransnalionaI inlerrelalion.
9
The meaning of eIile and seciaIized readings of Hong Kong hIms al hrsl seems lo dehne
onIy anolher Iimiled reaIm of exchange, Iike Asian immigranls, lhese conslilule a segmenl in a
comIex nalionaI markel. Yel unIike lhe immigranls reIaxing vilh imorled and lransformed
cuIluraI arlifacls, lhe hIm buffs have slalus and Iinkages vhich have aIIoved a furlher
lransformalion of Hong Kong hIm as commodilyils resenlalion in and arorialion by
mainslream American hIms, vhich in lurn shae Hong Kong movies and vieving allerns around
lhe vorId.
y 1996, Hong Kong movies vere achieving some signihcanl breaklhroughs in lhe conlexl
of lhe mainslream I.S. markelIace, lhough in an ambivaIenl manner. If Taranlino aIIegedIy
borroved narralive lhreads and characlerizalions from Ringo Lam's Ciiq cn |irc (Icngnu |cngqun,
1987) in Rcscrtcir Dcgs (1992), he aIso resenled }ackie Chan vilh a Lifelime Achievemenl Avard
al lhe MTV Movie Avards, an evenl lhal signaIed lhe movemenl of cuIl fan enlhusiasm inlo a
vider markel. Taranlino aIso eslabIished a dislribulion arm of Miramax and seIecled Wong Kar-
Wai's Cnung|ing |xprcss (Cnunging Scn|in, 1994) as lhe comany's iniliaI reIease. As Sleve Iore
has oinled oul, "eyond lhe Taranlino imrimalur, lhere is an ever-Ienglhening rosler of hIms
incIuding Dcspcrc!c, |rcm Dus| 1i|| Dcun, Bc! Bcqs, Mcric| Ccm|ci, and Icsi Mcn Sicn!ing vhich
shov cIear evidence of lheir makers' admiralion for lhe over-lhe-lo kinelicism of lhe Hong Kong
aclion hIm" (Iore 1997a: 13O).
Media exosures, cororale lies, and lhe exchange of hIm slyIes crealed an ever-vider
audience recelive lo an American-made Hong Kong hIm cuIlure. This has aIIoved olher
HoIIyvood roducers and dislribulors lo generale furlher inleresl in Hong Kong hIms lhrough
lhe inlernalionaI hIm feslivaI circuil. Yel vhiIe Hong Kong and HoIIyvood may seem lo be
converging, one shouId nol overIook lhe over reIalions vilhin lhis reIalionshi nor lheir
imIicalions for Hong Kong cinema.
NonelheIess, lhis boom seems lo reresenl more lhan lhe Ialesl fad for exolic imorled goods.
Nol onIy are Hong Kong hIms dislribuled nalionaIIy in lhe I.S, bul some of lhe hIms and lheir
crealors aIso have been successfuI al lhe box ofhce, lhus exanding lheir visibiIily beyond lhe
conlroI of hIm buffs lo mass audiences. Rum||c in inc Brcnx, for examIe, became lhe "hrsl Hong
Kong slyIe aclion movie lo oen al Number 1 in America" (|nicricinmcni Wcc||q March 8,1996) and
grossed $1O miIIion in ils hrsl veek of reIease. Brc|cn Arrcu vas direcled by lhe man |nicricinmcni
Wcc||q caIIed "HK aclion auleur }ohn Woo, |vho has aj resume of sIick buIIel-riddIed exorls..."
(Augusl 8, 1996) and grossed more lhan $6O miIIion. Woo's |ccc Ojj en|oyed bolh box ofhce and
crilicaI successes ($128 miIIion in lhe I.S. aIone). The rimary largeled audience of hIms by
Chan, Woo, and olher Hong Kong emigres is no Ionger immigranls or lhe hIm buffs, bul lhe mass
domeslic soughl oul by aII high-doIIar HoIIyvood aclion hIms, Ieading |nicricinmcni Wcc||q lo ask
"Whal's lhis one-lvo unch from lhe Lasl aII aboul`" (Augusl 8, 1996)
Ior lhese nev audiences, Woo is nol famous as a cilizen of Hong Kong or for his movies er se
bul for his "aclion drenched in oeralic sIov-mo slyIe, acrobalic shool-ouls, and lhe...svagger of his
movie" (|nicricinmcni Wcc||q Augusl 8, 1996). Wilhin a simiIar counler-lransnalionaI erseclive,
Chan is soId as an "unusuaI aclion hero vho is 5 fl. 9 and 41 years oId," and is recognized by
mainslream I.S. crilics and audiences for his comedic bravIing, and Iife-risking slunls. Woo
and Chan vere heaviIy romoled by lhe mass media, vilh numerous arlicIes in nevsaers and
magazines devoled lo lhem, Ius aearances on Primc 1imc Iitc, MTV, lhe Academy Avards
and lhe Iciicrmcn and Icnc laIk shovs. WhiIe Woo, as a direclor, has been romoled as an auleur,
arlicIes aboul Chan lend lo be hIIed vilh lransIileralions of his broken LngIish. Lven his TV
aearances reIicale his hImic ersona as a funny kung-fu guy vho begs American lo see his
hIms. The connolalions of }ackie Chan's ubIic ersona in lhe Norlh American conlexl is nol lhe
sinisler rienlaI, bul somelimes becomes reminiscenl of a Slein Ielchil characlera buffoon
Ciiics, Cu|iurcs, Ccssciics Wcng
Spcciccicr Vc|. 22 Nc. 1 Spring 2002
58 59
vilh hysicaI skiII and grace, vilhoul faiIure or submission, and al aII limes very cognizanl of
lhe markeling of his image in America. Many I.S. crilics aIso had difhcuIly coming u vilh a
frame of reference lo describe Chan's hIm vork, and feII back on a-cuIluraI aIIusions lo vhal lhey
aIready knev of reaI and imaginary hgures of CIassicaI HoIIyvood: "The Ieasure of lhe movie
Iies excIusiveIy in Chan's ruce Lee-meels-Ired Aslaire-meel-Tom and }erry rand of Iickery-sIil
baIIelic mayhem (|nicricinmcni Wcc||q March 15, 1996). usler Kealon aIso recurs as a domeslic
referenl.
CeIIuIoid roducls as veII as slars have been relaiIored in lhis rocess of cuIluraI lranference.
Various scenes from Rum||c in inc Brcnx, for examIe, vere aIlered for ils American reIease. Lven
ils originaI Canlonese lilIe, Hcng |cn KnciIileraIIy Red Savage Terriloryvas aIlered for lhe
high-concel sensibiIilies of conlemorary American audiences. A lradilionaI Chinese vedding
ceremony invoIving a Chinese and an African American vas cul enlireIy from lhe hIm. Indicaling
lhe I.S. dislribulor's inleresl in seIIing Chan excIusiveIy as a non-slo aclion slar, lhe roIe of lhe
Iead aclress, Anila Mui aIso vas lrimmed (eseciaIIy scenes vhich eIaborale lhe hIiaI reIalionshi
belveen Mui's characler and Chan's), and lhe hIm's Iol, aIready reasonabIy dis|oinled in lhe Hong
Kong version, vas minimized even more in order lo shorlen lhe exosilion belveen hghl and chase
scenes. Yel as I noled earIier,
many Americans simIy
see an incoherenl Iol as a
characlerislic of Hong Kong
hIms: consequenlIy, lhe movie
is |usl a "Iive-aclion comic
book" (Sicr 1ri|unc, March
12, 1996) made by someone
vho has been "churning oul
chosocky |amborees for
lvo decades" (|nicricinmcni
Wcc||q March 8, 1996).
y 1999, lhough,
}ackie Chan's movies seemed
lo offer Iess lhal vas nev in
lhe I.S. hIm markelIace.
ul lhis may aIso reecl
lhe ecoIogy of vieving. In
Asia, his hIms have become
a lechno-riluaI of lhe Nev
Year's, vhen each is reIeased for famiIy vieving over lhe Iong hoIiday season. Lven in Hong Kong,
lhough, crilicisms of his Americanisms (arlicuIarIy a heighlened emhasis on vioIence and a
Iack of IocaI humor) vere heard in con|unclion vilh Mr. Nicc Guq (Yigc Hccrcn, 1997) foIIoving ils
1997 reIease. NonelheIess, going lo a Chinese reslauranl Iale one evening vhiIe revising lhis aer,
I found slaff and alrons en|oying a Chan hIm from lhe 198Os as a Iale-nighl lreal Iayed on lhe
eslabIishmenl's karaoke syslem. And Chan's Ialer success in Sncngnci Nccn, and Rusn Hcur | c ||,
seems lo rove lhal an inler-raciaI buddy hIm can aeaI lo loday's mainslream IS audience.
AIongside lhese bIockbuslers, il is inleresling lo nole hov "smaIIer" hIms Iike Wong Kar-
Wai's Cnung|ing |xprcss and Hcppq 1cgcincr (Cnungucng Zncxicn, 1997) have made lheir mark on
American hImgoing cuIlure. The calegory "Hong Kong arl hIm" is in ilseIf anolher imorlanl
innovalion. Again, movies have Iong been calegorized vilhin differenl slyIislic and markeling
calegories. Wong seems lo have found a niche in lhe arl hIm calegory ioneered by vorks Iike 1nc
Cc|inci cj Dccicr Cc|igcri (udd 1992). Roger Lberl, for examIe, in his arlicIe "Cnung|ing |xprcss,
an Acquired Tasle, Lxcel for IiIm Ians" (Cniccgc Sun-1imcs March 15, 1996) rocIaimed Wong Kar-
Wai a hImmaker in lhe lradilion of }ean-Luc Godard and }ohn Cassaveles. lher crilics have made
Video Slore in Nev York
Spcciccicr Vc|. 22 Nc. 1 Spring 2002
58 59
comarison belveen Wong and Lric Rohmer, and IabeIed Cnung|ing |xprcss aclress Iaye Wong
as lhe Hong Kong Louise rookes (Cniccgc 1ri|unc March 15, 1996). When asked by Terry Gross
of NalionaI IubIic Radio's |rcsn Air (clober 14, 1997) vhal he lhinks aboul }ohn Woo's success
in HoIIyvood, hovever, Wong reIied lhal he couId nol vork lhere because, unIike Woo, he does
nol use a scrila crealive slralegy vhich heIs Wong lo eslabIish a brand idenlily, bul does nol
make il IikeIy lhal he'II be vorking vilh }erry ruckheimer in lhe near fulure. Cnung|ing |xprcss
lhus foIIovs and chaIIenges a Iong Iisl of China-made "arl" hIms as commodilies gaining exosure
lo narrovcasl dislribulion in lhe I.S. nol by lheir famiIiarily or difference bul by lheir cIaims lo
cuIluraI cailaI. Yel lhe seIIing oinl of lhis movie is lhal ils geograhic and sociaI sellings are
differenl from lhose seen in mosl olher Chinese hIms lhal have hil lhe I.S. arl house markel, in
Cnung|ing |xprcss, ve hnd ourseIves in a vhimsicaIIy aIienaling and ullerIy conlemorary urban
environmenl ralher lhan lhe exolicaIIy reressed, ruraI Chinese feudaI cuIlure seen in hIms Iike
Rcisc inc Rc! Icnicrn (by Zhang Yimou, 1991). Il is slriking lhal lhis hIm vas nol ouIar in IocaI
lhealers or even as a renlaI in Hong Kong. Nor did Wong's Hcppq 1cgcincr chaIIenge lhe box-ofhce
cIoul of Slehen Chiau's sIaslicks or lhe crime dramas lhal dominale screen lime in Hong Kong
(aIong vilh lhe mosl ouIar reIeases of lhe handover summer: 1nc Icsi Wcr|!, Hcrcu|cs, and Mcn
in B|cc|).
This lransnalionaI mass media exosure of Hong Kong commodilies (cinemalic or human)
means lhal Hong Kong can be ceIebraled as hi, ouIar and oslmodern, an imaginary sace no
Ionger Iimiled lo images of rienlaI lhugs, exolic roslilules and chea lourisl lrinkels. Since 1nc
Wcr|! cj Suzic Wcng canonized lhis aradigm in 1961, Hong Kong has become a ma|or vorId cenler,
gIobaIIy lhe fourlh Iargesl hnanciaI cenler and lhe hflh mosl exensive cily lo Iive in. Yel by laking
over Hong Kong, HoIIyvood uIlimaleIy denalures and denies il. Chov Yun-Ial has aIready been
aired vilh Mira Sorvino in Anloine Iuqua's unsuccessfuI Rcp|cccmcni Ki||cr (1998), in an alleml
lo domeslicale lhe roIes lhal made him famous (ubIicily for lhe hIm aIso shovcased Sorvino's
abiIily lo seak Mandarin as veII as her reIalionshi vilh Taranlino). His nexl vehicIe vas lhe
rienlaIisl cIassic Annc cn! inc King: Hong Kong is, afler aII, cIoser lo ThaiIand lhan YuI rynner's
birlhIace in Siberia, bul lhis hardIy overcomes robIems of slereolying and Thai ob|eclions lo
deiclions of lheir monarch. This shifling lerrain inlroduces markeling and cuIluraI disconlinuilies.
In earIy clober 1997, I sav Chov's 1rccsurc Huni (1994) al lhe oulIel muIliIex menlioned earIier,
amid a smaII audience of 5O or so, marking ils daled aeaI. Yel a fev veeks Ialer, IhiIadeIhia's
InlernalionaI House Neighborhood IiIm1Video Iro|ecl, vhich seciaIizes in cosmooIilan hIms,
incIuded il in a Chov-a-lhon, advising vievers lo Calch Chov Yun-Ial, Hong Kong's cooIesl
exorl and biggesl slar before he lakes HoIIyvood by slorm. ul vhal is lhe fulure for hIms as
IocaI commodilies` Whal is lhe fulure for lhe ncxi generalion of Hong Kong hImmakers, slars and
audiences` And vhal does aII lhis mean in reference lo 1997 for lhe lexls, induslry, cilizens of and
exiIes from Hong Kong ilseIf as a disaearing sace` Does il mean lhal lheir hIm roduclion may,
in facl, no Ionger be any more necessary lhan lhe hybrid Iace of lhe lerrilory ilseIf`
CerlainIy lhis is a diIemma for Asian-American audiences as veII, eseciaIIy lhose
younger hybrid vievers vho once cIuslered al IocaIes Iike lhe suburban IhiIadeIhia screenings.
Audiences are dovn from lheir eak of a fev years ago because, as lhe dislribulor noled, "lhey
can see lhese eoIe anyvhere, in HoIIyvood hIms and lhealers." y negolialing daylime use
of an oId burIesque house lurned concerl venue in Cenler Cily, on lhe fringes of Chinalovn, lhe
dislribulor is lrying lo bring Hong Kong movies home lo a Iace of elhnicily in hoes of reviving
audience aeaI. Yel lhese cuIluraI commodilies vouId sliII onIy be daylime hIIer before lhe reaI
rock concerls vhich hII lhe lhealer al nighl.
Ciiics, Cu|iurcs, Ccssciics Wcng
Spcciccicr Vc|. 22 Nc. 1 Spring 2002
60 61
Cnnc!usInns
In discussing Iale coIoniaI Hong Kong cinema, Lslher Yau has insighlfuIIy noled lhal
The Nev Wave direclors and hImmakers coming from oera or marliaI arls background
have refashioned a cinema lhal is ecIeclic in cuIluraI imaginalion: modern, IocaI, and
Americanized, bul aIso remodern, Weslernized, }aanese and Chinese. A comIex
hybridizalion has been laking Iace for lhe Iasl lvo decades lhal is more conducive lo a
lheory of chaos (and quanlum oIilics`) lhan lhe IaleraI modeI of ferliIizalion belveen Lasl
and Wesl, or lhe crilicaI modeI of coIoniaI hegemony and sub|ugalion (Yau 111).
Much lhe same concIusions, my dala suggesl, musl be dravn in considering audiences for lhese
hIms. y Iooking al hov Hong Kong movies have become silualed in reIalion lo changing
audiences in Hong Kong and used in differenl vays by differenl audiences1markels beyond lheir
homeIand, I have underscored lhe hybridizalion nol onIy of lhe roducl bul aIso of lhe roducers as
veII as lhe readers, highIighling hIm as a comIex lransnalionaI commodily. As such, DVD, VCD,
VCR, lhe saleIIile dish, and lhe sharing of markels, informalion and seIeclion over dislances raise
imorlanl queslions aboul lhe lerms lhrough vhich ve undersland lhe nuances and reroduclion
of lransnalionaI cuIlure.
Immigranl vievers, for examIe, seem lo be quinlessenliaI lransnalionaIs, Chinese and olher
Asians in America keeing u vilh roducls from lhe homeIand. Yel in lheir vieving choices, and
lhrough lhe crealion of sociaI nelvorks by vay of video, Iaser dice, and saleIIile lransmission, lhey
aIso reresenl a conlinualion of Hong Kong as a Iace of comIex media offeringseven as lhey
are divorced from lheir homeIand, Americanized lhrough lheir commodilies and crealing nev
hybrid forms and meanings.
Yel are "American" hIms buffs gIobaI in simiIar vays` Though rimariIy middIe lo uer-
middIe cIass and educaled, vilh access lo gIobaI discussion on lhe Inlernel (and lhere are issues
of cIass here), lhis urban and suburban audience has been enliced by a roducl differenl from
lheir home roducl (i.e. HoIIyvood movies) as veII as lhe sociaIIy-conslrucled meanings allached
lo esoleric knovIedge. They read movies differenlIy, conslrucling a readershi lhal ays IillIe
allenlion lo lhe cuIluraI and oIilicaI silualion of Hong Kong, bul reIies on differenl inlerlexluaI
frames cenlering on hIm slyIes and aeslhelics, aulhorshi and slar over. In lhe case of lhemes
Iike gender and idenlily, overseas reading may aIso reverberale in vider discussions incIuding
lhose laking Iace in conlemorary Hong Kong as veII as lhe Chinese diasora. Hence, il viII be
inleresling, for examIe, lo see hov more seIf-consciousIy "gay" hIms Iike Wong Kar-Wai's Hcppq
1cgcincr or Shu Kei's A Quccr Sicrq (ji|cc Sisni, 1996) are inlerreled vilhin lhe frame of Weslern
queer sludies.
The hnaI HoIIyvoodizalion of Hong Kong hIms evokes Aadurai's nolion of osl-nalionaI
formalion and a more comIex, erhas sinisler gIobaIism, vhere over ralher lhan unily
delermines conneclions. }ohn Woo has been recruiled by HoIIyvood lo make lhe kind of hIms lhal
lhe Hong Kong hIm buffs Iike, bul vilh a much bigger budgel and HoIIyvood slars. WhiIe he loId
lhe Ncu Ycr| 1imcs, Il used lo be lhal ve borroved from American hIms, bul nov everyone here
borrovs from me," il is cIear lhal Sleven SieIberg viII nol be doing lhe nexl Wong Iei Hong hIm in
relurn. Hong Kong hIms may be differenl from HoIIyvood, bul as HoIIyvood anaIyzes vhal seIIs
in Hong Kong hIm, il can aroriale lhese fealures and seII lhem |ciicr. The Academy Avards
once aIIoved }ackie Chan lo resenl an scar, emhasizing his shorlness (and lhe Academy's ovn
geslure in lhe direclion muIlicuIluraIism) as he slood beside Kareem AbduI }abar, bul il vas nol
unliI 2OO1 lhal Hong Kong slarsChov Yun-Ial and MicheIe Yeohaeared again on lhe slage
of Academy Avards.
We couId never laIk aboul a risline Hong Kong cinema or audience, given lhe Iong
Spcciccicr Vc|. 22 Nc. 1 Spring 2002
60 61
hislory of lhe induslry's lransnalionaI slars, roduclion and dislribulion, nol lo menlion lhe
domeslic, regionaI, and diasoric largel audiences lhal have consumed lhese hIms from very
differenl erseclives. ul vhal does a scene Iike lhal of }ackie Chan al lhe Academy Avards
say aboul lhe vays lhe HoIIyvood hIm induslry reresenls ilseIf` A Hong Kong audience may
be seeing lheir homeboys making good in HoIIyvood, immigranls may see lhe hIms from home
as examIes of American's accelance of a cerlain degree of Chineseness in America, lhe hIm buff
may vorry aboul Ioss of aulhenlicily convenlionaIIy associaled vilh going mainslream and
seek more obscure vorks from lhis fasl-aced cily. ul lhe generaI American audience may see
a HoIIyvood cinema vilh or vilhoul knovIedge of ils Hong Kong conneclions al aII or even lhe
exislence of lhe Iace lhal is and vas Hong Kong and exisls beyond a HoIIyvood.
Il vouId be unfair lo Hong Kong cinema as gIobaI henomenon, hovever, lo Ieave il onIy
vilhin lhis diaIeclic of HoIIyvood and home. In Cninc pcp, for examIe, Zha }ianying noles lhe
imacl of Hong Kong hIms in ei|ing: "|The songj 'My 1997' vas an inslanl hil, and |ils singerj Ai
}ing became a slar overnighl. ul lhal vas onIy a riIe, lhe oodgales have nov oened: lhese
days, lhere is a Hong Kong henomenon in ei|ingHong Kong slores, Hong Kong fashion, Hong
Kong o idoIs, Hong Kong aclion movies and kung fu noveIs, Hong Kong food, even lhe Hong
Kong accenl" (Zha 166). Some Hong Kong hImmakers Iike AIIen Iong and SlanIey Kvan aIso
have sel lheir recenl vorks in lhe I.R.C, vhere olher queslions of exression, dislribulion, reading
and idenlily viII lake shae in reIalion lo a Hong Kong nov arl of one counlry, lvo syslems
exerimenl.
And eIsevhere in Asia, Hong Kong hIms can lake on sliII furlher refraclions. Mark Leichly,
for examIe, in his hneIy grained elhnograhies of Kalhmandu, oinls lo lhe imorlance of
"LngIish" hIms in selling gIobaI slyIes for urban NeaIi youlh. ecoming more secihc as lo
recelion and imacl, one 2O-year-oId noles "... I begin lo feeI energelic, very slrong and eager.
AII lhese feeIings slarl lo rise u! I've robabIy seen six differenl ruce Lee movies aIready. There
vas |nicr inc Drcgcn, Wcq cj inc Drcgcn and olhers, loo" (Leichly 124). The imacl and meaning
of HoIIyvood and Hong Kong lhemseIves become hybridized in nev vays and in nev conlexls
beyond lhe scoe of lhis aer.
Wilhin lhe nexl fev years, among many asecls of an urban cuIlure aIready caIIed inlo
queslion by lhe nev vorId of exressive cuIlure afler 1997, cerlain fealures of Hong Kong hIms,
Iike a Iandscae and a Ianguage rooled in lhe exerience and hislory of Hong Kong, viII no Ionger
conslilule a IocaI Asian cinema. Inslead, lhey viII aIso be arl of an American cinema, in bolh
roduclion and recelion, and erhas of Chinese cinema and Soulh Asian as veII. Hong Kong-
inuenced movies viII hnd lheir vay inlo suburban muIliIexes lhroughoul lhe I.S., and Hong
Kong on-screen and off-screen laIenl viII vork in HoIIyvood and eIsevhere as lheir homeIand
conlinues lo change. IronicaIIy, my ovn falher in lhe I.S., Iike olher immigranls, may have
difhcuIly en|oying lhese movies because lhey viII arrive in LngIish vilh no Chinese sublilIes. And
ve can onIy vonder aboul lhe 6,5OO,OOO eoIe vho conlinue lo recreale Hong Kong every day as
lheir slars, lexls and images forge ahead inlo brave nev saces of idenlily, vhiIe lheir sense of lhe
cily, ils hIm cuIlure and lhe vorId are rehgured beyond lheir conlroI.
Ciiics, Cu|iurcs, Ccssciics Wcng
&LQG\+LQJ<XN:RQJ is cssisicni prcjcsscr cj Ccmmunicciicns in inc Dcpcrimcni cj Mc!ic Cu|iurc ci inc Cc||cgc
cj Sicicn |s|cn!, Ciiq Unitcrsiiq cj Ncu Ycr|. Hcr crccs cj rcsccrcn inc|u!c grcssrccis mc!ic, Hcng Kcng cincmc
cu|iurc, cn! |m jcsiitc|s. A cc-c!iicr cj inc LncycIoedia of Conlemorary American CuIlure (2001), snc
c|sc pu||isnc! criic|cs in American AnlhrooIogisl, Iosl Scril, VeIvel Lighl Tra, Amerasia cn! ccniri|uic!
cncpicrs ic CIassic Whileness (2001) cn! Consuming Hong Kong (2001).
Spcciccicr Vc|. 22 Nc. 1 Spring 2002
62 63
Endnntcs
1. The essay vas originaIIy ubIished in Pcsi Scripi 19, no. 1 (IaII 1999): 87-1O6. This, hovever, is a sIighlIy
differenl version.
2. This may aIso mean lhal Vcriciq did nol examine aII markels: a more comrehensive survey of 199415
shoved lhal IocaI hIms dominaled lhe encIosed markel of Iran and slood on lhe lo 1O in MaIaysia as veII. SliII
il is slriking lo nole lhe veakness of IocaI hils in counlries Iike Irance, Germany, LngIand and IlaIy. AII of lhese
cases meril furlher anlhrooIogicaI invesligalion, Sara Dickey (1993) rovides an inleresling anlhrooIogicaI
modeI for invesligalion of IocaI cinemas in her examinalion of lhe TamiI hIms of Soulh India.
3. The average roduclion cosl for Canlonese hIms in 1968 vas HK$3OO,OOO, and HK$5OO,OOO for Mandarin
hIms (Leung and Chan).
4. The remaking of slories crealed lheir ovn lradilions, as in lhe reresenlalion of Wong Iei Hung, a
Canlonese foIk hero vhose cinemalic reresenlalion began vilh 1nc 1ruc Sicrq cj Wcng |ci Hung (Hucng |cincng
Znucn, 1949). Since lhen, 1OO more hIms have been made, vilh 8O of lhem slarring Kvan Tak-hing, 25 versions
vere reIeased in lhe year 1956 aIone. This lradilion is nov exemIihed in }ackie Chan's Drun|cn Mcsicr 1 c 2
(Zuiucn & Zuiucn ||), and Oncc Upcn c 1imc in Cninc (Hucng |cincng), Iarl 1-6, vilh Iarl 6 shol in lhe I.S.
5. The argumenl I heard from Hong Kong hIm eoIe, or from some indeendenl hImmakers in lhe I.S.
emhasizes lhe muIliIex as an arena of variely and oorlunily. This hyolhesis merils furlher examinalion,
eseciaIIy given lhe raclice of devoling lvo or lhree screens lo bIockbuslers Iike Mcn in B|cc| or 1iicnic.
6. This aIso reIales lo rennan's crilique of cosmooIilanizalion as a slralegy of LngIish dominalion of
oIygIol Iileralures lhrough cuIluraI execlalions of arorialion, vhich came lo my allenlion as I revised
lhis aer (rennan).
7. Linda Lai Chiu-han has suggesled an inleresling comIemenlarily in Hong Kong readings of hIm based
on a rocess she IabeIs cnigmciizciicn, lhal is, lhe use of IocaI sIang or vordIay (in lhe case of Slehen Chiau,
vhose ouIarily has nol crossed lhe Iacihc) or noslaIgic references vhich reinforce a arlicuIar IocaIily in
Hong Kong cinema (Lai).
8. In Ccmrc!cs, c Ictc Sicrq, one dying immigranl madam cIaims lo have once mel WiIIiam HoIden during
lhe hIming of 1nc Wcr|! cj Suzic Wcng, conaling her de|ecled Iife as a roslilule vilh lhal hIm. Ior images of
Chinese vomen in American cuIlure, see aIso Chan (1989).
9. ne mighl nole lhal mosl hImmakers highIighl lhe issues of marginaI idenlily or lhe lransformalion of
hIiaI roIes ralher lhan sexuaIily in lheir exIanalions. In addilion, vhiIe cIaiming gender as his sub|ecl, SlanIey
Kvan acluaIIy concenlrales on men's reIalion lo men and maIe hImmaker's conlroI1exression of lhese reIalions
lhrough lheir characlers, vhelher maIe or femaIe.
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