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The following article was published in ASHRAE Journal, December 1998. Copyright 1998 American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. It is presented for educational purposes only. This article may not be copied and/or distributed electronically or in paper form without permission of ASHRAE.

Using HVAC Systems to Limit Smoke

Zoned Smoke Control Applications


By William A. Webb, P .E.
Member ASHRAE

must be significantly greater and depend on the ceiling height of the space. The minimum value for a space having a 9-ft (2.7 m) ceiling height is 0.1 in. of water (25 Pa).

f the various methods to control the movement of smoke, the zoned smoke control system probably has become the most prevalent. This article describes zoned smoke control, explains how it works and gives some examples. According to the National Fire Protection Associations publication NFPA 92A, a smoke control system is defined as an engineered system that uses mechanical fans to produce airflows and pressure differences across smoke barriers to limit smoke and direct smoke movement. 1 A zoned smoke control system is defined by NFPA 92A as a smokecontrol system that includes smoke exhaust for the smoke zone and pressurization for all contiguous smoke control zones. The remaining smoke control zones in the building also may be pressurized. These systems are commonly known as pressure sandwich systems.

Examples of Zoned Smoke Control The examples that follow describe different smoke control approaches, although the smoke control objectives are similar in each case. The three examples are as follows: Low-rise modular building. Low-rise atrium lobby. Car park podium of a high-rise complex. Low-Rise Modular Building This building is a four-story office building having a total ground floor area of approximately 49,400 ft2 (4600 m), composed of symmetrical modules, each of approximately 8,000 ft (740 m). Each of the modules contains a central atrium and circular grand stair through all four levels. The modules are separated from each other by two-hour horizontal exit walls having 1.5-hour fire-rated doors held open by electromagnetic hold-open devices. The building is equipped throughout with an automatic sprinkler system and has smoke detectors installed around the atrium openings. Figure 1 is a schematic plan view, and Figure 2 is a schematic section of a typical module. The smoke control system objectives are to limit smoke spread from one compartment module to another and to limit smoke spread from one floor to another long enough to allow persons in the module to exit. The smoke control system uses the buildings HVAC system, which is a variable air volume (VAV) system with each module having its own air supply and return. The supply air is ducted through the ceiling to the office areas and the return is through each atrium to the individual air-handling unit for the module. Actuation of a ceiling-mounted smoke detector, a duct-type smoke detector or a sprinkler water flow device will cause the VAV system for the affected module to go into the following smoke mode: 1. The air supplied in the affected module goes to 75% outside air. 2. The return fan for the affected module operates at 100%
About the Author
William A. Webb, P.E., is CEO of Performance Technology Consulting, Lake Bluff, Ill. He is Chair of ASHRAE Standard Project Committee 149, Laboratory Methods of Testing Fans Used to Exhaust Smoke in Smoke Management Systems and Program Subcommittee Chair of ASHRAE Technical Committee 5.6, Control of Fire and Smoke. December 1998

Location of Zoned Smoke Control Systems Zoned smoke control systems need compartmented volumes. In this context, the compartment is formed by a smoke barrier which is defined by NFPA 92A as a membrane, either vertical or horizontal, such as a wall, or ceiling assembly, that is designed and constructed to restrict the movement of smoke. A smoke barrier may or may not have a fire-resistance rating. Smoke barriers may have openings protected by closing devices or adequate airflows. Zoned smoke control systems are used in high-rise buildings, hospitals and similar buildings or occupancies where the objective is to prevent or limit smoke spread from one compartmented area to another. In the highrise building, it will usually be from one floor to another. In the hospital, it will usually be from one smoke zone on a floor to another. In the typical configuration, the system uses the buildings HVAC system to establish a pressure difference across the compartment boundary. This is achieved by controlling the HVAC system to exhaust without return using HVAC return fans and to supply adjacent compartments without exhaust. To avoid excessive pressure difference, it may be necessary to modulate the supply to less than 100%. For buildings protected by automatic sprinkler systems, the pressure difference across the compartment boundary need be no more than 0.05 in. of water (12.5 Pa). The values for non-sprinklered buildings

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exhaust, exhausting through return airducts at approximately 41,000 cfm (19.3 m/s). 3. Air return stops in adjacent modules. 4. The air supply fans adjacent to the modules operate at 100% outside air. 5. Doors on hold-open devices in the module and contiguous modules are released to close in alarm. 6. Dampers between the modules close. Figure 3 is a schematic plan and Figure 4 is a schematic section view of a module in alarm. The system has been tested to determine that sufficient pressure difference is created in the smoke-control mode to prevent smoke spread from the alarm module to adjacent modules. The pressure difference was not too great to prevent egress doors from being opened in the alarm module. The tests also demonstrated that the system controlled smoke long enough for occupants in the alarm module to exit.

Figure 1: Schematic plan view of modular building at normal condition.

Lobby Atrium Building This building is a three-story museum and library that has a ground floor area of approximately 42,000 ft (3900 m). A central atrium lobby provides access to each wing, one for the library and one for the art gallery. Figure 5 is a schematic plan view of the building. Except for the atrium lobby, the building is protected by preaction automatic sprinkler systems and wet pipe sprinkler systems. The atrium lobby does not have automatic sprinklers because it is constructed of concrete and other noncombustible materials. Transient combustibles are limited and consist of items patrons or staff carry, cleaning carts and library or museum items in transit through the lobby. These would be small because there are separate delivery areas that have direct access without passing through the lobby. The lobby connects all levels of the building. Rolling steel fire shutters and fire doors at some of the openings limit the number of interconnected levels to a maximum of two. The building has a complete automatic detection system consisting primarily of smoke detectors except for small nonpublic areas that have heat detectors. The detection system is used to actuate the pre-action sprinkler system zones.
December 1998

Figure 2: An HVAC system schematic section of a typical module.

The HVAC system supplies approximately 1 to 1.5 cfm/ft (5 to 8 L/s/m2). Each gallery floor has an individual air-handling unit with ducted supply and ducted return. The library consists of two floors and has a single air-handling unit with ducted supply and ducted return. The smoke control system objective is to limit smoke spread from one smoke control zone to another. Those zones coincide with the HVAC system zones. The smoke control system is initiated

by zone. The ceiling-mounted detectors, duct-mounted smoke detectors and wet pipe sprinkler system water flow indicators activate the smoke control system. When the detection system activates, the HVAC system for the affected zone shuts down the supply to that zone and exhausts to the outside using the return fans. Contiguous zones have their air return shut down, and air is supplied at a minimum of 25% outside air. The systems were tested and demonASHRAE Journal 37

strated that the objective could be achieved. The pressure difference across boundaries in alarm was adequate to cause airflow to the fire module from the contiguous module when the building was in smoke control mode.

Car Park Podium The project consists of a five-level parking garage that forms a podium for multiple high-rise towers above. The towers are residential and office buildings. Automatic sprinklers protect the entire complex. The architect considered alternate schemes for whether or not to compartment the garage. Under the compartment scheme, the garage would be separated by two-hour walls at each level to segment the parking garage according to the tower below which it is located. The alternative scheme would be an undivided five-level parking garage. In each case, the parking garage podium would be separated from the towers above by a two-hour fire-resistive assembly. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the parking garage compartment schemes to recommend conceptual smoke control provisions. The objectives of the study were as follows: 1. Recommend an extract rate adequate to allow safe egress of parking garage occupants. 2. Recommend smoke control measures to restrict smoke spread to the towers. 3. Evaluate the benefits of compartment walls in the garage. This study demonstrates how a smoke management system in one area of a building can be a component of a zoned smoke control system in another area of the building. The first objective was to be achieved by a smoke management system. The other two objectives used zoned smoke control systems. The extract rate was determined from equations in NFPA 92B2 and confirmed by the plume filling rate equation in version 3.2 of FPETool, a computer program prepared by the National Institute of Standards and Technology.3 The factors determining the extract rate are as follows: 1. Heat release rate of the fire. 2. The clear layer or distance from the fire to the smoke layer. Heat Release Rate. A parking garage fire is expected to involve a single auto38 ASHRAE Journal

Figure 3: Schematic plan of a typical module response when alarm is received.

Figure 4: A schematic section view of a module in alarm.

mobile. The literature is replete with articles confirming this fact based on fire tests and actual field experience involving private passenger automobiles with steel fuel tanks. The heat release rate of three separate automobiles was measured in a series of tests performed in Finland.5 This analysis uses the average heat release rate of the three tests. The average peak heat release rate is 1,420 Btu/s (1500 kW). The clear layer height for these calcu-

lations is 6.6 ft (2 m), the approximate height of a tall person plus a factor of safety. The reasonable maximum height of a person is generally considered to be 6 ft (1.8 m). Applying the equations of NFPA 92B for a smoke temperature of 165F (74C), the automatic sprinkler temperature rating, yields an extract rate of approximately 9,320 cfm (4.4 m3/s). FPETool yields approximately 9,110 cfm (4.3 m3/s) for the extract rate, confirming the NFPA 92B value.
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SMOKE CONTROL
This extract rate applies irrespective of the compartment size. The normal ventilation rate for the parking level is eight air changes per hour. The fans providing ventilation are activated by carbon monoxide sensors. Ventilation will be arranged with air supplied at each level on one end of the garage and exhausted from each level on the other side of the garage. The ventilation rate to achieve eight air changes per hour for the smallest compartment is approximately 75,400 cfm (35.6 m/s). The smallest compartment is between exterior walls and two-hour walls. This is based on an area of approximately 47,600 ft (4420 m) and a ceiling height of 9.8 ft (3 m). It is clear that the normal ventilation rate has more than adequate capacity for the previously described fire scenario. Restricting Smoke Spread. Smoke spread from the parking garage to the towers can be restricted by maintaining an adequate pressure difference across barriers separating the towers from the parking garage. NFPA 92A recommends a minimum design pressure difference of 0.05 in. of water (12.5 Pa) for spaces protected by automatic sprinklers. The pressure difference should be positive on the towers side of the barrier so that air flows from the towers to the parking garage and thence to the exterior. This will be accomplished by the aforementioned parking garage extract system and the barriers between the garage and the towers, including shafts. Those shafts consist of stairs and elevators, both of which are pressurized to maintain a minimum of 0.05 in. of water (12.5 Pa) positive pressure from the shaft to the connecting space. In addition, the elevators and stairs are protected by vestibules at all garage levels. Next, the minimum airflow needed to maintain 0.05 in. of water (12.5 Pa) leaking from the towers through cracks and small openings in the floor and around the vestibule doors at the shafts needs to be determined. Because the parking garage system consists of exhausting air from the garage, one must also consider the leakage between compartments of the garage. The airflow rate can be estimated according to the following orifice equation from the ASHRAE/SFPE manual.4
December 1998

Figure 5: Schematic plan of the atrium lobby building.

Q = K A (P) (1) Q = Volumetric flow rate through the path, cfm (m/s) A = Flow area (also called leakage area), ft (m) P = Pressure difference across path, in. of water (Pa) K = Coefficient In this case, P = 0.05 in. of water (12.5 Pa). A is the leakage area determined by estimating the leakage rate through the floor between the garage and the tower and between the parking garage compartments through the compartment walls. Leakage through the walls to the earth is assumed to be 0. The leakage area for the walls was calculated using leakage rate factors from the aforementioned ASHRAE/SFPE Manual as 8.9 ft (0.83 m). Substituting in Equation 1 yields: Q = 5,230 cfm (2.47 m/s) (2) All levels within compartment walls would constitute a single zone. This is because there are openings at the ramps between the parking garage levels that would make restricting smoke between levels impractical. Therefore, it was proposed that the exhaust fans on all levels within a zone operate and that 50% of the supply fans operate during smoke mode. The stair and elevator shaft pressurization fans would also operate upon a fire signal from the parking garage. Further, the compart-

ment doors would close in the affected compartments. Ventilation in other areas would remain normal. Under this arrangement the required airflow rate of approximately 5,300 cfm (2.5 m/s) is less than the smoke required extract rate of 9,320 cfm (4.4 m/s) and less than the planned ventilation rate of eight air changes per hour 75,400 cfm (35.6 m/s). Based on this analysis, the planned ventilation system should be effective in restricting smoke spread from the parking garage to the towers. The compartment walls separating the parking garage by tower area are intended to restrict fire and smoke to the area generally related to the tower. The previous calculations demonstrate that the normal ventilation has adequate capacity to maintain the pressure difference between the compartments adequately to restrict smoke spread so long as the compartment doors close. One can calculate the airflow needed to limit smoke spread through the rolling door opening. That equation is as follows: Opposed airflow through opening: (3) v = 38[gH(T T o)/(T)] Where: v = air velocity, ft/min (m/s) g = acceleration of gravity, 32.2 ft/s (9.8 m/s) H = height of the opening, ft (m) T = temperature of heated smoke, R (K)
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T o = temperature of ambient air, R (K) In this case, the opening is 29.5 ft wide by 8 ft high (9 m by 2.5 m). T is taken as the sprinkler operating temperature. Substituting in the equation yields v = 533 fpm (6.06 mph) (2.71 m/s). For the opening, this yields approximately 130,000 cfm (61 m/s). Clearly, this exceeds the available capacity and therefore is not practical. Furthermore, this is for a single opening and there are six such openings in an internal compartment. Therefore, the doors are needed to maintain the pressure difference to restrict smoke between the compartments.

References
1. NFPA 92A-1996, Recommended practice for smoke-control systems. Quincy, Mass.: National Fire Protection Association. 2. NFPA 92B-1995, Guide for smoke management systems in malls, atria, and large areas. Quincy, Mass.: National Fire Protection Association. 3. Deal, S. 1994. NISTIR 5486, Technical reference guide for FPETool version 3.2. Gaithersburg, Md.: National Institute of Standards and Technology. 4. Klote, J.H., and J.A. Milke. 1992. Design of Smoke Management Systems. ASHRAE. 5. Mangs, J. and O. Keski-Rahkonen. 1994. Characteristics of the fire behaviour of a burning passenger car. Part I: car fire experiments. Fire Safety Journal 23:1735. Please circle the appropriate number on the Reader Service Card at the back of the publication. Extremely Helpful ....................................................... 454 Helpful ..................................................................... 455 Somewhat Helpful ..................................................... 456 Not Helpful ............................................................... 457

Other Considerations It is important that the objective of a smoke control system is clearly established at the outset of the design and that concurrence of those objectives is achieved with all stake holders. Smoke control systems depend on controlling the fire size. In each of the cases described in this article, automatic sprinkler protection was used to achieve that goal. Other methods such as occupancy controls can be used if credible procedures assure limits on combustible load. Simplicity of control and design enhances the likelihood that the smoke control system will achieve its objective. Finally, thorough testing of the system is needed to verify that the completed system will function properly.

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