THE PRODUCTION OF CHOCOLATE

07CF05869 ADEDOLAPO RAJI

CHE 511
INSTRUCTOR: DR OBANDE.

OVERVIEW

INTRODUCTION HISTORY BOTANY, CLIMATE AND SOIL REQUIREMENTS CHOCOLATE NUTRITIONAL BENEFITS ENVIROMENTAL EFFECTS BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING AND CHOCOLATE REFERENCE

INTRODUCTION
A new British survey has revealed that 9 out of 10 people like Chocolate and that the tenth lies. A lot of people love chocolate; its rich, its creamy, its sweet, and its just simply delicious. Chocolate is a product that requires intricate procedures to produce that begins with the harvest of the bean pods of the Theobroma cacao tree. The process involves harvesting coca, refining coca to cocoa beans, and shipping the cocoa beans to the manufacturing factory for cleaning, conching and grinding. These cocoa beans will then be imported or exported to other countries and be transformed into different type of chocolate products (Allen, 1994).It is ranked as one of the most favorite flavors in North America and Europe. Despite its popularity, most people do not know the unique origins of this widely held treat. Chocolate is a key ingredient in many foods such as milk shakes, candy bars, cookies and cereals.

HISTORY
The earliest record of chocolate was over two thousand years ago in the Central American rain forests. Where the tropical mix of high rain fall combined with high year round temperatures and humidity, provide the ideal climate for cultivation of the plant from which chocolate is derived. Theobroma cacao literally means food of the Gods, and this name reflects both the heavenly taste of chocolate and the reverence Mayan and Aztec cultures had for this divine food. Aztec Indian legend held that cacao seeds had been brought from Paradise and that wisdom and power came from eating the fruit of the cacao tree. Because of a spelling error, probably by English traders long ago, the cacao beans became known as the cocoa beans. The Spanish general, Hernando Cortes, landed in Mexico in 1519. The Aztecs believed he was the reincarnation of one of their lost gods. They honored him by serving him an unusual drink, presented in a cup of pure gold. This unusual drink was called "chocolatl" by the Aztecs. When Cortes returned to Spain, he took the cocoa bean with him and there it was mixed with sugar and vanilla. This sweet drink became fashionable and soon there were chocolate houses in all the capitals of Europe. Although cocoa is originally from the Americas, today Western Africa produces almost twothirds of the world's cocoa, as it inhabits four of the top seven producing countries with Cte d'Ivoire growing almost half of it. Milk chocolate was invented in 1876 by a Swiss chocolatier, Daniel Peter (1836-1919) of Vevey, Geneva. Daniel Peter successfully combined chocolate with powdered milk to produce the first milk chocolate.

Today, the finest chocolate is still made in Switzerland, and the consumption of milk chocolate far outweighs that of plain chocolate. Chocolate was introduced to the United States in 1765 when John Hanan brought cocoa beans from the West Indies into Dorchester, Massachusetts, to refine them with the help of Dr. James Baker. The first chocolate factory in the country was established there. From a delicacy for kings to everyones favorite treat, from a sacred and revered health food to a modern scientific wonder, the history of chocolate is rich, varied, and never boring.[6]

BOTANY, CLIMATE AND SOIL REQUIREMENTS

One of the world's most magical and incredible trees is the cocoa tree. The botanical name is Theobroma cacao, roughly translated means food of the gods .There are actually several trees that are members of the theobroma species, 22 to be precise but just it is used for producing chocolate. Cacao (Theobroma cacao) is a small (48 m tall (15-26 ft.)) evergreen tree in the family Sterculiaceae (otherwise Malvaceae), native to the deep tropical region of the Americas. It requires a humid climate with regular rainfall and good soil. It is an understory tree, growing best with some overhead shade. The leaves are alternate, entire, unlobed, 1040 cm (4-16 in) long and 520 cm (2-8 in) broad. The cacao tree produces pods all year long, so a typical tree would have pods in every stage of ripeness, from the earliest flowering bud to the most mature pod ready to be harvested. There are three types of cacao trees: the Forastero, the most common and robust variety with the least remarkable flavor, the Criollo, the most delicate and rare tree, with a heavily perfumed fruit, and the Trinitario, a hybrid between the Forastero and the Criollo that displays characteristics of both trees, having an average yield of moderately aromatic beans. [7] A delicate tree, cacao is only grown in rain forests in the tropics, usually on large plantations, where it must be protected from wind and intense sunlight. Cocoa grows almost exclusively from 20 degrees north of the equator to 20 degrees south of the equator, an area known as the tropical belt; and because it is rather narrow, the number of countries in which it may be grown productively is very limited. Today, the top ten producing cocoa-growing countries are (in order) the Ivory Coast, Ghana, Indonesia, Nigeria, Brazil, Cameroon, Ecuador, Dominican Republic, New Guinea, and Malaysia. Interestingly, the Ivory Coast grows more cocoa than the next six producers combined.

The cocoa tree is very particular about where it is grown. The cocoa tree is actually quite forgiving in the amount of rain it requires. Anywhere from 45 to 200 inches of rain is typical in cocoa growing regions. The trees may be grown in areas that have less rain, but in these cases, irrigation is needed to provide adequate water. The cocoa tree is sensitive to wide fluctuations in temperature or humidity, so they must be grown in areas where weather is consistent. The rich, lush soil found in cocoa-growing regions and the varying amounts of rain available to cocoa crops are but two of the key factors responsible for creating cocoa's widely varying and unique flavors. Just as flavors in wine are dependent on when the grapes are harvested, the flavors of the cocoa bean will vary depending on whether the cocoa was harvested in the fall or spring season. The tree is harvested twice a year. In order for the cacao tree to produce cacao beans that are later to be used in making chocolate, all the conditions must be absolutely perfect. Any significant deviation, and the cacao tree will not provide much (if any) fruit, or it may not survive.

CHOCOLATE- GENERAL METHOD OF PRODUCTION Harvesting Cocoa & Cocoa processing [12]

Chocolate production starts with harvesting coca in a forest. Cocoa needs to be harvested manually in the forest because the pods grow in all degrees of ripeness and at any location on the tree; most harvesting is done by hand with machetes. The seed pods of coca will first be collected; the beans will be selected and placed in piles. These cocoa beans will then be ready to be shipped to the manufacturer for mass production. Step 1: Plucking and Opening the Pods Cocoa beans grow in pods that sprout off of the trunk and branches of cocoa trees. The pods are about the size of a football. The pods start out green and turn orange when they're ripe. When the pods are ripe, harvesters travel through the cocoa orchards with machetes and hack the pods gently off of the trees. Machines could damage the tree or the clusters of flowers and pods that grow from the trunk, so workers must be harvest the pods by hand, using short, hooked blades mounted on long poles to reach the highest fruit. After the cocoa pods are collected into baskets, the pods are taken to a processing house. Here they are split open and the cocoa beans are removed. Pods can contain upwards of 50 cocoa beans each. Fresh

cocoa beans are not brown at all; they do not taste at all like the sweet like the chocolate they will eventually produce. Step 2: Fermenting the Cocoa Seeds Now the beans undergo the fermentation processing. They are either placed in large, shallow, heated trays or covered with large banana leaves in baskets for two to eight days. If the climate is right, they may be simply heated by the sun. This step is crucial, as the fermentation process relaxes the flavor of the beans and imparts the fruity undertones of the pulp. Without fermentation, the beans would be too acerbic and unpleasant to appreciate. Many high-quality chocolates undergo a long fermentation process, which can be tasted in the floral, fruity notes of the final product. Workers come along periodically and stir them up so that all of the beans come out equally fermented. During fermentation is when the beans turn brown. Fermentation takes place in the pertinacious pulp surrounding beans of this tree. Biochemical and enzymatic reactions that take place inside the cotyledon cause a variety of flavor compounds [8]. The pulp surrounding the cocoa beans is fermented by various microbes including yeasts, lactic acid bacteria, and acetic acid bacteria. The resulting high temperature and products produced by these microbes, such as the ethanol from yeast, kill the beans and contribute to the flavoring of the chocolate [9]. Once the seeds are harvested, fermentation is usually begun immediately. The beans inside of the cocoa pods are in an environment such that no microbes can grow. However, upon cutting the cocoa pods open, the beans are exposed to microbes and the fermentation process is allowed to begin. Microbes arise from hands of workers, knives, unwashed baskets, and dried mucilage on fermentation boxes [9]. Containers wrapped in banana leaves are used to ferment up to 2000 kg of beans [9]. The beans are covered in a white-cream, mucilaginous (protein/sugar coat) pulp that is solubilized, and the breakdown of the glue between the pulp cells walls and the cocoa honey (sweatings) are released through holes in the box containing the beans [2]. In the early stages of the fermenting process, yeasts produce ethanol and secrete enzymes that break down pectin. Bacteria (lactic acid and acetic acid bacteria) then appear, followed by aerobic spore-forming bacteria and filamentous fungi [1]. Physical Conditions

The bean pulp contains lots of fermentable sugars including glucose, fructose, and sucrose [2]. It is an ideal medium for microbes to grow on because it is rich in nutrients. It is made up of 82-87% water, 1015% sugar, 2-3% pentsans, 1-3% citric acid, and 1-1.5% pectin, along with various other proteins, amino acids, vitamins, and minerals [9].

Changes to Physical Conditions

Due to the presence of citric acid, the pulp is an acidic environment, with pH 3.0 to 3.5. As yeasts use up citric acid, pH increases to around 4.8 to 5.0. The yeast also converts sugars (glucose, sucrose, and fructose) into ethanol, increasing the concentration of ethanol for one or two days. The concentration then decreases gradually as it is oxidatively metabolized to acetic acid by acetic acid bacteria. Temperature rises throughout process due to the release of heat as a by-product of biochemical processes carried about by the microbes, from around 20 to 25C to 48 to 50C [2]. Yeast

Yeast grows well in acidic environments and low oxygen levels, such as in the beginning stages of fermentation. In these early stages, yeast is very important in paving the way for further fermentation by bacteria. They convert sugars, such as sucrose, glucose, and fructose, into ethanol and CO2, decrease the acidity of the pulp by using up citric acid, and produce aromatic compounds, which contribute to the chocolate aroma and are important to development of flavor. In order to deal with fluctuations in bean conditions, some yeast produce weak organic acids to buffer fluctuations such as pH. Yeast is also responsible for degrading pulp and producing enzymes that break down pectin [2]. This creates cavities in the cocoa where air can flow. However, this increased air flow, along with an increase in pH and concentration of alcohol, eventually kills off the yeast. Prominent yeast in the first 24 to 36 hours of fermentation includes Kloeckera apis (~70-90% of the total yeast grown), Kloeckera javanica and Kloeckera africana, Candida pelliculosa and Candida humicola (less than 5% of total yeast), Rhodotorula rubra and Rhodotorula glutinis. Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida tropicalis were also prominent during first 24-36 hours, but died off by the end of fermentation. Most grow only until about 37 to 40C, and up to around 5-10% ethanol [2]. Lactic-Acid Bacteria

Lactic acid bacteria begin to grow when the pulp and sweatings are degraded and drained and the yeast are dying [2]. The main function of lactic acid bacteria is to metabolize pulp sugars (glucose and fructose) and citrate to produce lactic acid, acetic acid, ethanol, and mannitol. The production of lactic and acetic acid contributes to the decrease in pH. Lactic acid bacteria have also been thought to contribute to yeasts ability to use citrate as a carbon source. These products are good for acetic acid bacteria growth, and allow them to convert ethanol into acetic acid, releasing heat as a byproduct for the eventual cocoa bean death [3].

Predominant lactic acid bacteria in the first 36 to 48 hours of fermentation include Lactobacillus cellobiosus (60-85% of the total lactic acid bacteria grown), Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus hilgardii (only 2% of the total bacteria) [9], Lactobacillus fermentum, Leuconostoc mesenteroides, and Lactococcus lactis [9]. Most grew well between 40 to 45C, and at 7 to around 10% ethanol [2].

Acetic-Acid Bacteria

Towards the end of fermentation, the presence of yeast and lactic acid bacteria decline and the fermenting heap becomes more aerated. These conditions can therefore lead to the development of acetic-acid bacteria. This bacterium oxidizes ethanol to acetic acid, and also further oxidizes the acetic acid to carbon dioxide and water. These organisms are metabolized due to the acidulation of cocoa beans at high temperatures, which causes diffusion and hydrolysis of proteins in the cotyledons. Acetic acid bacteria primarily form the precursors of chocolate flavor. These include members of the genus Acetobacter as well as Gluconobacter [1]

Aerobic Spore-Forming Bacteria

High temperatures and increase in pH along with increased aeration leads to the development of aeobic spore-forming bacteria of the genus Bacillus. This includes B. pumilus, Bacillus licheniformis, Bacillus subtilis, and Bacillus cereus. The Bacillus spp. found during the aerobic phase of fermentation have been found to be responsible for the flavoring of chocolate. Aerobic spore-forming bacteria form chemical compounds that cause acidity and sometimes off-flavoring if fermentation continues for too long [9].

Filamentous Fungi

Filamentous fungi are also found in the well-aerated parts of the fermented mass. They may cause hydrolysis of some of the pulp and produce acids, but are not considered important in microbial succession. Of the filamentous fungi, Aspergillus fumigatus and Mucor racemous is the most present in the fungal population up to the end of fermentation. These fungi cannot grow at temperatures higher than 45C, but can be isolated at a temperature of around 50C. Step 3: Drying the Cocoa Seeds

After fermentation, the cocoa seeds must be dried before they can be scooped into sacks and shipped to chocolate manufacturers. Farmers simply spread the fermented seeds on trays and leave them in the sun to dry. The drying process usually takes about a week and results in seeds that are about half of their original weight.

Manufacturing Chocolate

Step 4: Roasting and Winnowing the Cocoa After being cleaned, the cacao beans pass to the first critical step in flavor development at the factory: Roasting. The first thing that chocolate manufacturers do with cocoa beans is roast them. This develops the color and flavor of the beans into what our modern palates expect from fine chocolate. There are two main approaches to roasting: roast the beans for a short time at high heat, which produces a strong chocolate flavor but eliminates any subtle, floral notes and risks the development of charred flavors from over-roasting, or roast the beans for a long time at low heat, which allows the more delicate flavors to come through but sacrifices the big, chocolate flavor. The roasting process makes the shells of the cocoa brittle, and cocoa nibs pass through a series of sieves, which strain and sort the nibs according to size in a process called Winnowing. The outer shell of the beans is removed, and the inner cocoa bean meat is broken into small pieces called "cocoa nibs." Step 5: Grinding the Cocoa Nibs Grinding is the process by which cocoa nibs are ground into a thick, rich paste termed cocoa or chocolate liquor", (despite its name, chocolate liquor contains no alcohol) and it is essentially cocoa solids suspended. It is also known as unsweetened chocolate or cocoa mass. The grinding process generates heat and the dry granular consistency of the cocoa nib is then turned into a liquid as the high amount of fat contained in the nib melts. The cocoa liquor is mixed with cocoa butter and sugar and is the foundation of all chocolate products.

Step 6: Blending Cocoa Liquor

After the mixing process, the blend is further refined to bring the particle size of the added milk and sugar down to the desired fineness. The Cocoa powder or 'mass' is blended back with the butter and liquor in varying quantities to make different types of chocolate or coverture. The processing now goes in a couple of different directions. Some batches of chocolate liquor are pressed to extract the cocoa butter, which leaves a solid mass (cocoa press cake) behind that is pulverized into cocoa powder. The remaining cocoa butter is reserved to help in chocolate-making.

The Beginnings of Chocolate

Here on, the chocolate process differs depending on the manufacturers intentions. Other batches of chocolate liquor are used directly to make chocolate. To make dark chocolate, chocolate liquor, sugar and other minor ingredients such as vanilla are mixed together and kneaded until well blended. To make milk chocolate, milk and sugar are mixed together and then blended with chocolate liquor. This sweet combination of ingredients is stirred until the flavors are thoroughly combined. Step 7: Refining After being mixed, both dark and milk chocolates go through the same process. The mixture travels through a series of heavy rollers which press the ingredients until the mixture is refined to a dry flake. Additional cocoa butter and a small amount of emulsifying agent are added to the flake and then mixed to make a smooth paste ready for conching. Step 8: Conching Conching further develops flavor by putting chocolate through a kneading process. It is the final step in determining the ultimate flavor and texture of the chocolate. The conches, as the machines are known, have heavy rollers that plow back and forth through the chocolate mass anywhere from a few hours to up to several days. Step 9: Tempering The mixture is then tempered, or passed through a heating, cooling and reheating process. Tempering allows you to solidify chocolate in a way that keeps it glossy, causes it to break with a distinctive snap and allows it to melt smoothly in your mouth by the effect of different temperatures.

Step 10: Molding Finally, the mixture is then poured into molds and cooled in a cooling chamber. Once cooled, the chocolate is demolded, They are wrapped or packaged and shipping and distribution around the world and is ready for savoring.

NUTRITIONAL BENEFITS OF CHOCOLATE Consumers question chocolate's benefits, is chocolate a "sinful delight" or is chocolate a "healthy delight". Dark chocolate is especially beneficial. In fact, many experts recommend eating one or two ounces of dark chocolate every day. The more the chocolate is processed, the fewer health benefits remain in the finished product. Here are a few benefits amongst many: High in Antioxidants Cocoa contains flavanols, a type of flavanoid that is only found in cocoa and chocolate. Flavanoids are naturally-occurring compounds that occur in plant foods that act as antioxidants and help counteract free radicals in the body. Blood Pressure Benefits [5] Dark chocolate has been shown in studies to lower blood pressure in people with elevated blood pressure. Lower LDL Cholesterol Eating dark chocolate on a regular basis has been shown to reduce LDL (Low density Lipoproteins or bad cholesterol) cholesterol by as much as 10 percent. Natural Anti-Depressant Chocolate contains serotonin, a natural anti-depressant. Chocolate also stimulates endorphin production, which creates feelings of happiness and pleasure. In fact, one study found that melting chocolate in the mouth produced feelings of pleasure longer than passionate kissing. This may explain why many people naturally reach for chocolate when they're depressed. Cancer Fighter Several studies have found chocolate to be one of the best cancer-fighting foods along with foods like red wine, blueberries, garlic, and tea. Two ways that chocolate works as a cancer fighter is by inhibiting cell division and reducing inflammation, though research is ongoing and will probably find additional ways in which chocolate fights cancer.

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF COCOA (CHOCOLATE) PRODUCTION

The environmental effects of cocoa production are becoming much more severe as demand for cocoa increases in present day. The farming process of cocoa can damage the environment depending on the practices of the farmer, as well as be limited by the environment itself. Herbicides and Pesticides from Full Sun Cocoa There are approximately 4.5 million cocoa farms around the world. The majority of cocoa farms are located in Cte d'Ivoire and Ghana. It is estimated that the demand for chocolate will increase twofold by the year 2050.Farms' cocoa crop outputs struggle to match the increasing demand for chocolate and some operators have shifted towards unsustainable, less environmentally conscious practices to meet these demands. Cacao trees with no shade tend to accumulate more weeds as well as be more susceptible to diseases such as Witches Broom and Frosty Pod Rot. Some farmers have shifted their crops out of the shade and into direct sunlight. This practice produces a greater quantity in a small period with an inferior quality. If the crops begin to accrue pests, farmers use large quantities of herbicides to rid the crops of these pests. The herbicides used, impair the land and the health of the sprayers applying the herbicide. Excessive spraying of pesticides can also cause the weeds and insects to build up a resistance which will eventually create more damage to the crops. [1]

Deforestation [1] Cocoa farming also contributes to rainforest and old growth forest deforestation. By clearing land into these forests, farmers decrease the biodiversity and interactions between the organisms that naturally live in these areas. Many wildlife habitats are destroyed and the plant species diversity is drastically reduced. Nutrients begin to leach out of the soil due to poor irrigation and inadequate soil protection, which can increase the erosion of the soil. The more intense the farming practices are, the more damaging they are to the ecosystem. Cocoa farming becomes a destructive circle as farmers wear out the soils and cut further into the forest to obtain fresh land. All of these processes stress the Cacao trees and result in lower yields, giving the opposite effect to what the farmers expect from these practices. Through groups and programs such as the World Cocoa Foundation, Rainforest Alliance and Roundtable for a Sustainable Cocoa Economy, cocoa farming can return to its sustainable roots through education programs and help in finding ecologically and economically sound resources to further their farming. As a last resort, some programs will help farmers to access pest control products such as biocides as an alternative to the harmful pesticides being used. Other programs promote proper irrigation, composting, suitable soil management, and intercropping, meaning planting other trees and fruit crops in the surrounding land of the Cacao trees

BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING AND CHOCOLATE [11] Science is on the verge of its greatest discovery chocolate thats good for you. DNA experts are working with sweet giant Mars to create genetically modified chocolate that fights heart disease and diabetes and wont make you fat. Theyve already been at it for two years. And they claim that in another five, they could unlock the secret of how to make chocolate healthy. The scientists say the secret lies in the genetic code of the cocoa bean. The beans contain chemicals called flavonols which lower blood pressure and help keep the heart healthy. And the scientists believe they can change the DNA of the cocoa tree so it produces beans with far higher levels of flavonols. They also hope to produce beans that fight diabetes, as well as making the fat in cocoa much healthier. The idea is that this is something that will become the norm healthy fats, high levels of flavonols. Dr. Shapiro, who is also a professor at the University of California, got 6million from Mars to fund the cocoa DNA project. Computer giant IBM, who analyze the data and the US Department of Agriculture are also involved. It took two years to disentangle the cocoa trees 420 million units of DNA. Dr. Shapiro and his team are now checking all 34,997 of the trees genes in a bid to find the ones that will help them make healthy chocolate. Lets hope they finish their work soon. Then they can move on to chips, crisps, curries and pies. Safety is vital in chocolate engineering. In July, 2006, food giants Cadbury had its chocolates contaminated with Salmonella.1 million chocolate bars were recalled which affected sales, cost the company and endangered the health of about 30 people. Recently, rival company Nestle had to recall some of its Nesquik chocolate mix products due notification by an ingredient supplier, Omya Inc., on the contamination of calcium carbonate due to possible presence of Salmonella.

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9. Leal, GA, Gomes, LH, Efraim, P, et al. (2008). Fermentation of cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) seeds with a hybrid Kluyveromyces marxianus strain improved product quality attributes. FEMS yeast research, 8(5), 788-98. 10. Schwan, RF, & Wheals, AE. (2004). The microbiology of cocoa fermentation and its role in chocolate quality. Critical reviews in food science & nutrition, 44(4), 205-21. 11. The Wonders of Biotechnology: Healthy Chocolate by Farmer Gene and Karen Batra. 12. The World Atlas of Chocolate