Humanities

PART 1
ETHICS
HUMANITIES
(COURSE MATERIAL FOR DEPARTMENTAL PROMOTION EXAMINATION (DPE)
INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS
Page 2 of 104
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Part 1 Ethics ................................................................................................................................ 1 Ch: 1 Introduction To Ethics ............................................................................................................... 6 1.1 What Is Ethics ......................................................................................................................... 6 1.2 The Nature Of Ethics .............................................................................................................. 7 1.3 Moral Sciences ..................................................................................................................... 10 1.4 The Uses Of Ethics ............................................................................................................... 11 Ch: 2 Principles Of Islamic Ethics.............................................................................................. 13 The Moral System Of Islam .................................................................................................................. 14 Motives And Incentives ........................................................................................................................ 15 Standard Of Judgment Of 'Good' And 'Bad' ......................................................................................... 16 Ch:3 The Language Of Ethics ........................................................................................................... 18 3.1 The Language Used In Ethics ............................................................................................... 18 3.2 Emotive Language In Ethics................................................................................................. 19 3.3 Prescriptive Language In Ethics ........................................................................................... 20 3.4 Descriptive Language In Ethics ............................................................................................ 21 3.5 Misuses Of Ethical Terms .................................................................................................... 21 Ch: 4 Ethical Egoism ................................................................................................................... 24 4.1 What Is Egoism .................................................................................................................... 24 4.2 Psychological Egoism........................................................................................................... 24 4.3 Ethical Egoism ...................................................................................................................... 26 4.4 Rational Egoism ................................................................................................................... 27 4.5 Egoism And Altruism ........................................................................................................... 28 Ch:5 Virtue Ethics ...................................................................................................................... 29 5.1 The Meaning Of Virtue Ethics ............................................................................................. 29 5.2 Modren Virtue Theory .......................................................................................................... 30 Ch: 6 Meta Ethics......................................................................................................................... 31 6.1 The Nature Of Meta Ethics ................................................................................................... 31 6.2 Metaphysical Issues .............................................................................................................. 31 6.3 Psychological Issues ............................................................................................................. 32 6.4 Egoism And Altruism ........................................................................................................... 33 6.5. Emotion And Reasons .......................................................................................................... 33 Ch:7 Normative And Applied Ethics ........................................................................................ 35 7.1 What Is Normative Ethics..................................................................................................... 35 7.2 Ultilitarianism ....................................................................................................................... 37 7.3 What Is Applied Ethics ......................................................................................................... 37 Ch: 8 The Psychology Of Moral Action ..................................................................................... 39 8.1 Psychology As Explaning Conduct ...................................................................................... 39 8.2 The Nature Of Desire ........................................................................................................... 40 8.3 Motive And Intention ........................................................................................................... 44 Ch: 9 The Psychology Of Moral Judgement ............................................................................. 46 9.1 Conscience ............................................................................................................................ 46 8.2 The Nature Of Moral Judgement .......................................................................................... 47 Appendix 1 ........................................................................................................................................... 50 General Knowledge............................................................................................................................. 51 Ch: 1 Religion ............................................................................................................................... 53 Important Islamic Wars (Ghazwat) .................................................................................................. 53 Introduction Of The Holy Quran ...................................................................................................... 54
Page 3 of 104
Ashra Mubasshara ............................................................................................................................ 55 Ch: 2 Basic Facts About Pakistan .............................................................................................. 56 Highest Mountain Peaks In Pakistan ................................................................................................ 56 Some Famous Museums In Pakistan ................................................................................................ 57 Famous Banks In Pakistan ................................................................................................................ 58 Ch: 3 World Geography .............................................................................................................. 59 Difference Between Latitude And Longitude................................................................................... 59 Latitude And Longitude Of World Cities ......................................................................................... 59 Difference Between Equator And Hemisphere ................................................................................ 60 Polar Regions.................................................................................................................................... 60 Myths About Explorers .................................................................................................................... 61 Worlds Highest Mountains ............................................................................................................... 62 Worlds Longest Platforms ................................................................................................................ 62 World Famous Waterfalls ................................................................................................................. 63 Large Peninsulas Of The World ....................................................................................................... 63 Largest Islands .................................................................................................................................. 64 Major Seas In The World ................................................................................................................. 65 Worlds Largest Lakes ....................................................................................................................... 66 Famous Deserts Of The World ......................................................................................................... 67 Remarkable Bridges In The World............................................................................................... 69 Famous Rivers Of The World........................................................................................................... 71 Some Famous International Air Lines .............................................................................................. 71 Ten Famous Trains Of The World.................................................................................................... 72 Worlds Famous Libraries ................................................................................................................. 74 Some Specialized Agencies In The World ....................................................................................... 75 Worlds Famous Walls ...................................................................................................................... 76 Worlds Famous Tunnels ................................................................................................................... 77 Countries Of The World ................................................................................................................... 77 Seven Wonders Of The World ......................................................................................................... 78 Difference Between Minerals And Rocks ........................................................................................ 79 Important Events In The Worlds History ......................................................................................... 80 Battles That Changed History........................................................................................................... 82 United Nations Organization ............................................................................................................ 86 Awards Other Than Nobel Prizes ..................................................................................................... 88 Some Facts About Time ................................................................................................................... 90 Places And Their Importance ........................................................................................................... 91 Famous Places In World ................................................................................................................... 93 Ch: 4 Natural Disasters ............................................................................................................... 94 Tsunamis........................................................................................................................................... 94 Major Earthquakes Around The World, 2005 .................................................................................. 94 Major Earthquakes Around The World, 2006 .................................................................................. 95 Ch: 5 Weather .............................................................................................................................. 96 Difference Between Weather And Climate ...................................................................................... 96 Hurricanes......................................................................................................................................... 96 Ch: 6 Information Technology.................................................................................................... 97 Some Facts About Information Technology..................................................................................... 97 Computer .......................................................................................................................................... 97 A Glossary Of Computer Terms ....................................................................................................... 98 A Glossary Of Some Internet Terms ................................................................................................ 99 Ch: 7 Sports ................................................................................................................................ 101 Some Facts About Olympic Games ................................................................................................ 101 Difference Between Asian And Saf Games.................................................................................... 102
Page 4 of 104
Ch: 8 World Wise....................................................................................................................... 103 Amazing Language Facts ............................................................................................................... 103 Most Widely Spoken Languages In The World ............................................................................. 103 References .......................................................................................................................................... 104
Page 5 of 104
CH: 1
Ethics is a set of principles and practices that governs good human conduct. The field of ethics involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior. Ethics refers to standards of conduct, standards that indicate how one should behave based on moral duties and virtues, which themselves are derived from principles of right and wrong. Ethics deals with what we believe to be good or bad. Ethics involves the rules for deciding right and wrong and also the code of conduct that is based on our decisions. While there are some things that not everybody sees eye-to-eye with in this area, there are a whole lot more that we do agree about. For example, to steal is wrong, for most of us. So too is physical assault. Most of us don't think it is right to cheat in school; many of us think it is injustice to punish someone who didn't do anything wrong. As an idea, ethics is simple, but the consequences are profound.
1.1
WHAT IS ETHICS
Ethics is a normative science because it is concerned with the human conduct Ethics has been defined science of conduct, and conduct is a collective name for voluntary actions. In common speech we judge many things other than human actions to be good or bad, we speak for example of good luck and bad luck. The words good and bad are used ambiguously in ordinary speech. A single science may be required to deal with them in all their various meanings and to distinguish these meanings from on another, and such a science is called as Axiology or the science of values. Study of ethics would require to be completed by a study of Axiology. However, it will keep things more clear if we confine ethics to the study of human conduct and leave to axiology the study of other things that can be called good or bad. Conduct does not include those human activities like the circulation of the blood over which most people have no control, but it includes all voluntary actions.
Page 6 of 104
A voluntary action is an action that a man could have done differently if he had so chosen. Voluntary action includes all willed or volitional actions in which there is a conscious process of willing like the action of a student in a classroom. Sometimes people try to excuse their wrong actions by saying that these actions were not consciously willed or chosen, as when a man continues a dishonest business practice of his predecessors with out thinking about it. The question for ethics is not whether such an action was deliberately willed, but the doers could have prevented it by taking thought about it. If he could have prevented it, the action can certainly be judged to be a right or a wrong action, although we may admit that its degree of rightness or wrongness may be affected by its deliberateness. Conduct may include inward activities like speech and movements of the doers limbs and so these also will fall with in the sphere of ethics.
1.2
THE NATURE OF ETHICS
Ethics is a body of principles or standards of human conduct that govern the behavior of individuals and groups. Ethics arise not simply from man's creation but from human nature itself making it a natural body of laws from which man's laws follow. Ethics is a branch of philosophy and is considered a normative science because it is concerned with the norms of human conduct, as distinguished from formal sciences such as mathematics and logic, physical sciences such as chemistry and physics, and empirical sciences such as economics and psychology. As a science ethics must follow the same rigors of logical reasoning as other sciences. The principles of ethical reasoning are useful tools for sorting out the good and bad components within complex human interactions. For this reason the study of ethics has been at the heart of intellectual thought since the early Greek philosophers, and its ongoing contribution to the advancement of knowledge and science makes ethics a relevant, if not vital, aspect of management theory. Ethical principles continue, even today, to have a profound influence on many modern management fields including quality management, human resource management, culture management, change management, risk management, mergers, marketing, and corporate responsibility.
Page 7 of 104
Ethics is much more than just a collection of values. Values are almost always oversimplifications, which rarely can be applied uniformly. Values tend to be under-defined, situational by nature and subject to flawed human reasoning such that by themselves they cannot assure true ethical conduct. Ethics Quality occurs when two conditions are met: when a repeatable reasoning process is followed; and when the output of this reasoning result in the intents, means, and ends all being "good." When the conditions for ethics quality are met the organization becomes capable of preventing ethical failure, not just catching and punishing it. Without a means of prevention organizations have no means for controlling its ethics quality. The key to good organizational ethics is awareness and real time detection (before the fact, not after). Both awareness and detection can be greatly enhanced by basic awareness training, training aids. It is a regrettable fact that most ethical failures in organizations are detected well after the fact making any realistic prevention unlikely. Poor ethics can be extremely damaging to organizational performance. When ethical behavior is poor it taxes operational performance in many visible and sometimes invisible ways. The tax can be on yield or productivity, which is easily measured. The tax can impose itself on group dynamics, suppressing openness and communication, which is hard to measure but easily felt. Perhaps the most dangerous duty is the one placed on risk, which is neither measurable nor easily sensed. Whether the damage is visible or invisible, poor ethics blinds the organization to the realities of their declining environment leaving any organization vulnerable to setbacks that could be avoided. Good ethics on the other hand have a surprisingly positive effect on organizational activities and results Productivity improves. Group dynamics and communication improve, and risk is reduced. One reason for this is ethics becomes an additional form of logical reasoning, increasing the flow of information, and adding an additional set of eyes and projection to give the organization needed feedback regarding how it is doing. Increased reasoning capabilities, coupled with additional information, is a strategic advantage in any business or organization.
Page 8 of 104
Real ethics is about ordering the complexities of human behavior in the most useful manner for all involved. Subsequently, in every conceivable human endeavor (attempt) there exists an ethical component that either succeeds in achieving usefulness and good for all involved, or fails to do so in varying degrees. This gap between reality and the ideal state can be expressed as a quality problem and solved using both ancient and modern management methods. Real organizational Ethics is a rational process for exploring decision and behavior alternatives and selecting the best possible choices for all involved. Real ethics, at the organizational level, goes beyond personal ethics and values. Real ethics is a collective undertaking, or a team sport, with team like demands and results. Ethical issues in organizations can get complicated very quickly, so much that even the best trained ethicists often will not know what decisions to make or what ought to be done. Such times are precisely when the disciplined reasoning of ethics quality pays off the most. Ethical decisions and their corresponding behaviors in organizational settings are never perfect. However, the quality of the processes applied, as well as the usefulness of their outcomes, is precise and measurable with scientific certainty. It is through the process of ethical reasoning that bad things are preventable and great things become more possible. Organizations need ethics quality not only to prevent unhealthy behavior but to inspire superior reasoning and performance. It is only through human nature, and ethics, that we can inspire greater levels of innovation, teamwork, and process breakthroughs that result in sustainable competitive advantages. Oliver Wendell Holms wrote, "Once a person's mind is expanded by a new idea the mind can never return to its original form." The same is true with management and ethics. When managers understand how ethics makes them better, their role as a manager changes forever. Once ethics is learned we all acquire the ability to see what we often could not see before. We see that using ethics - the reasoning science - to improve individual and group performance is what real ethics -and real management- are all about.
Page 9 of 104
1.3
MORAL SCIENCES
In the present day the word morals is used with a variety of meanings, for the science of ethics itself, for action regarded as good and right, and for the rules according to which such actions are done. It was originally derived from the Latin word mores, meaning customs. The word ethics is indirectly derived from a Greek word meaning custom. The science which tells not what men actually do and actually think it right to do., but in the normative science of ethics, we study the standards by which we judge actions to be right and wrong, good and bad. Discovery of the standards or criteria by which right actions can be distinguished from wrong actions or even better actions from Good actions. The discovery and the establishment of such standards are the primary tasks of the normative science of ethics. The word Establishment suggests that we can not stop in ethics with merely stating the meaning or logical connotation of such terms as good and right and ought. How far the standards of ethics can be used in ordinary practice to distinguish a right action from a wrong action will depend largely on the nature of these standards, but it has been a matter of common experience that there are cases where it is very difficult even for the man experienced in making moral judgments to tell which course of action is right. One of the most familiar examples is that whether a doctor is right in answering a patients question with a false answer, when he knows or thinks it extremely likely that a true answer will aggravate the patients illness or even cause his death. The science of applying the standards of ethics to particular kinds of cases is properly called casuistry. This approach assesses an action by comparing it with two other "paradigm" and standards actions, one that is clearly right and one that is clearly wrong. The goodness of the action depends upon which paradigm action it more closely resembles. Casuistry is a method of case reasoning especially useful in treating cases that involve moral dilemmas. Casuistry is a branch of applied ethics.The word casuistry concern with individual cases. Casuistry is a specific method of doing ethics that relies on the analysis of individual cases, exploring them in relation to standard cases and broad principles.
Page 10 of 104
Casuistry refers to the use of subtle definitional distinctions in the handling of the problems of moral theology / spatiality, with the aim of drawing fine dividing lines between what is and is not permissible at the level of action. The casuistry is one of the goals of ethical investigation and yet to deny that the aim of ethics is to affect or improve our practice. It might be better to call casuistry applied ethics than to call it practical ethics, for knowledge applied in particular circumstances is still the primary aim. There is, however, a body of knowledge collected with the special aim of guiding people in the practice of right conduct or the art of living the good life. Such guidance is called as moralizing. The moralizer has more often drawn his material from long practical experience of life than from text books of ethics. The knowledge of ethics does have some value for the moralizer; it gives him knowledge of the nature of moral principles. In the case of a subject like ethics, about the subject matter of which most people have some ideas, it is even more helpful to distinguish ethics from the other sciences dealing with human conduct with which it may be confused. There are certain sciences in which we describe human conduct without expressing any opinion about its value or making any judgment about it. Human conduct is described in sociology, which is defined as the science of human society , and while the study of individual conduct has now become the sphere of social psychology rather than sociology, sociology still has for its subject matter the social institutions and customs which form the background of all human beings which is the special concern of ethics. Sociology describes among other things of conduct in its social relations, and this the kind of conduct with which ethics is chiefly concerned. Therefore, sociology not only describes the human conduct and its condition. But it may go on to describe the opinions that men have held in different ages and in different places about their own conduct and that of others, what kind of actions they have commonly regarded as good and right , and what kind of actions they have regarded as bad and wrong.
1.4
THE USES OF ETHICS
Page 11 of 104
Ethics is primarily a part of the quest for truth and the motive for studying it is the desire for knowledge. In this respect it more similar to the natural sciences where the practical applications are many and attractive. We naturally want to know the truth about things, and ethics aims at finding out the truth about something that is both interesting and important the rightness and wrongness of human conduct. The knowledge of ethics will give some help in the search of goodness.
Page 12 of 104
CH: 2
Principles of Islamic Ethics
Islam is unique in this respect. It has its own ethical values and moral concepts, which are universal as well as specific to Islam. Islam has unique morality of its own. It puts great deal of emphasis, for example, on equality and justice and emphasizes dignity of all human beings. However, there are also universal moral values, which Islam lays emphasis on. The Quran gives us the concept of what it calls `amal salih which, translated into English, would mean 'good deeds'. But this translation does not adequately convey the meaning. The key word here is 'salih'. The root of the word is slh from which are derived many words with the meaning to be good, to repair, to mend, to improve, to be righteous, to be efficient, to be suitable, peace and friendliness. Thus it will be seen that 'amal salih leads to a society which is reformed, good, efficient, suitable (to humanity), improved and above all which is peaceful and friendly to all human beings. The Quran uses the word 'amal salih' repeatedly. For a moral conduct, according to the Qur'an, 'amal salih' is very necessary. In the chapter 103 the Qur'an says, "By the time! Surely man is in loss, except those who believe and do good work ('amal salih'), and urge one another to Truth and encourage one another to patience." Thus the key ethical concepts here in this chapter are 1) 'Amal salih'; 2) To be truthful and 3) To observe patience. One can say that these are key elements of Islamic ethic. Man is surely in loss but those who perform good deeds are truthful and patient would not be. Thus for 'Amal salih' truth and patience are highly necessary. One can say that this is most comprehensive statement of the Quranic ethic. Here important question is why so much emphasis on 'patience'? Why truth and patience are made integral to each other? Because to be truthful is most arduous and challenging. One has to face great problems in order to be truthful. One will have to face opposition, even plotting, from vested interests. It is, therefore, necessary, to be dedicated and patient and faces all these challenges with strength and courage. All this requires great deal of patience. Hence the Qur'an lays so much emphasis on being dedicated and patient to follow the path of truth. Only a man of great patience can be truthful. In Islamic system of morality, it is establishment of a moral society that is very fundamental. The emphasis of Islamic teachings is not personal recovery but establishment of a society that is just and free of zulm (oppression). Here we will like to deal with this aspect of Islamic ethic in greater detail, as it is most central to Islam. The Qur'an lays great emphasis on 'adl (justice). It is the central value in the Islamic ethic. The Qur'an says that "Be just; it is closest
Page 13 of 104
to being moral.. Thus in Islam there is no concept of faithfulness without being just. The opposite of 'adl' is 'zulm' (oppression). Zulm is derived from the root z.l.m. that has several shades of meaning i.e. to do wrong, injustice, darkness, iniquity. Islam basically lays emphasis on establishing a just society free of all forms of domination. The Prophet also says that a society can live with unbelief (kufr) but not with oppression (zulm). Thus Islamic ethic conceives of a society which will be free of all forms of exploitation and oppression. Islam basically is a non-violent religion. It does not approve of violence at all. Thus the Quran emphasis is on fighting against injustice, against oppression. Everyone has right to live in peace in ones own country. If someone tries to throw them out just because they have their own inner confidence, they cannot be thrown out of their homeland. And if someone tries to do that, one has to stand up to that and fight against this injustice. Islam does not permit violence in matters of preaching of religion. There is much misunderstanding about inter-connection between Islam and violence which needs o be clarified here since we are dealing with the question of Islamic ethic. Islam does not approve of violence except in certain extra-ordinary circumstances. The word Islam has been derived from the root s.l.m. Which means to escape danger, to be free from fault, to deliver or hand over, to commit oneself to the will of God, to lay down arms, to establish peace? Thus the best meaning of the word Islam will be to establish or promote peace in harmony with the Will of Allah. Thus a Muslim is not a true Muslim if he commits acts of violence either for spread of Islam or for purposes of achieving power be it in the name of Islam. His primary duty is to establish peace so that justice prevails and humanity prospers. The Prophet has also said that the best form of jihad is to say truth in the face of an oppressor ruler. Oppression could be both physical and psychological. The Moral System of Islam A moral sense is inborn in man and, through the ages, it has served as the common mans standard of moral behavior, approving certain qualities and condemning others. While this natural faculty may vary from person to person, human ethics has consistently declared those certain moral qualities to be good and others to be bad. Justice, courage and truthfulness have always found praise, and history does not record any period worth the name in which falsehood, injustice, dishonesty and breach of trust have been praised; sympathy, compassion, loyalty and generosity have always been valued, while
Page 14 of 104
selfishness, cruelty, meanness and bias have never been approved of by society; men have always appreciated perseverance, determination and courage, but never impatience, uncertainty, weakness and lack of common sense. Dignity, self-control, politeness and friendliness have throughout the ages been counted virtues, whereas impoliteness has always been looked down upon. People with a sense of responsibility and devotion to duty have always won the highest regard, those who are incompetent, lazy and lacking in a sense of duty have never been looked upon with approval. Similarly, in assessing the standards of good and bad in the collective behavior of society as a whole, only those societies have been considered worthy of honor which have possessed the virtues of organisation, discipline, mutual attention and compassion and which have established a social order based on justice, freedom and equality. Disorganization, indiscipline, revolution, injustice and social privilege have always been considered manifestations of decay and disintegration in a society. Robbery, murder, theft, disloyalty and corruption have always been condemned. Individuals who are honest, sincere and dependable, whose deeds match their words, who are content with their own rightful belongings, who are prompt in the discharge of their obligations to others, who live in peace and let others live in peace, and from whom nothing but good can be expected, have always formed the basis of any healthy human society. These examples show that human moral standards are universal and have been well-known to mankind throughout the ages. Good and evil are not myths, but realities well understood by all. A sense of good and evil is inherent in the very nature of man. Motives and Incentives The fact that a man voluntarily and willingly accepts Allah as his Creator and obedience to Allah as the aim of his life and strives to seek His pleasure in his every action provides sufficient motivation to obey the commandments which he believes to be from Allah. Belief that whoever obeys the Divine commands is sure to be rewarded in the future, whatever difficulties he may have to face in his life on earth, is another strong motivation for leading a good life. And the belief that breaking the commandments of Allah will mean eternal punishment is an effective prevention against violation of the moral law, however tempted a man may be by the external good looks of a certain course of action. If this hope and fear are firmly embedded in ones heart, they will inspire good deeds even on occasions when the immediate consequences may appear to be very damaging, and they will keep one away from evil even when it looks extremely attractive and cost-effective.
Page 15 of 104
This clearly indicates that Islam possesses a unique standard of good and evil, its own source of moral law, and its own sanctions and motivating force; through them it shapes the generally recognized moral virtues in all spheres of life into a balanced and comprehensive scheme and ensures that they are followed. It can therefore be justifiably claimed that Islam possesses a perfect moral system of its own. This system has many distinguishing features form its special contribution to ethics. Standard of Judgment of 'Good' and 'Bad' According to Islam, man has not come into existence on his own and neither is he a product of natural forces that had somehow, by pure chance, combined to produce life. On the contrary, man is a creation of an All Wise, and a Most Merciful Creator. God gave man life and with that also gave man the freedom and the authority to do good or to indulge into evil. This authority and this freedom was given to man for the basic purpose of testing him, as to how he uses his authority and freedom. As a part of this test, God also gave man the basic knowledge of 'good' and 'bad' at the time of his inception. Thus, according to Islam, every individual has been bestowed a clear standard of judgment of 'good' and 'evil' by God. The Quran, in Surah Al-Shams (91: 7 - 10) has presented this knowledge of the human soul as an evidence of the fact that soon, man shall indeed face separate consequences of his 'good' and 'bad' deeds. The Quran says:
The human soul - the way He molded it and inspired it with knowledge of its evil and its good - bears witness to the fact that indeed he, who cleanses it [of all impiety] shall be successful while he, who corrupts it shall face doom. Thus, according to the Ethical philosophy of Islam, the knowledge of good and evil or in other words the standard of distinguishing good from evil is a part of the sapiential sense of man. This sapiential sense includes, besides many other concepts, moral concepts like justice, truthfulness, honesty, helping the weak, freedom in one's personal matters etc.It is quite possible though; that there is a difference in the application of these concepts in practical life situations, yet the concepts themselves have never been questioned and are, and have mostly remained, universally accepted. It is for this reason that ethical values like justice, honesty, trustworthiness and truthfulness etc. have never even been questioned philosophically, even if there is a considerable practical deviation from these values or a
Page 16 of 104
huge difference in the practical application of these values. It is precisely for the stated reason that man, on the Day of Judgment, shall have no excuse for any voluntary and conscious deviation from these values in his life, even if he has remained ignorant of the teachings of any prophet. Every person, irrespective of whether he is a Christian, a Jew, a Muslim, a Buddhist, a Hindu, an atheist or an agnostic, knows that defrauding others is wrong. He defrauds others not due to any misconception about the 'goodness' or the 'badness' of defrauding others, but to gain some immediate and quick material gains from such an act. The same is the case of all other basic moral values. The excuse of ignorance, in the case of these basic moral and ethical values, shall therefore not save an individual from punishment on the Day of Judgment, as, in reality, there have never been ignorance in this sphere.
Page 17 of 104
CH: 3
3.1
THE LANGUAGE OF ETHICS

THE LANGUAGE USED IN ETHICS
Expressions may be grammatically similar and yet logically different. Most people take it for granted that the sentence which they find in the text books on ethics e.g. To speak the truth is right, Stealing is bad. One ought to pay ones debts, are statements which can be described as true, without believing that these statements are analytic or verifiable. It looks as if words in ethics are very troublesome. The same words are used in ethical and non ethical sentences, and even in ethical sentences they may be used for different jobs and for two or three jobs at the same time. In the logical analysis of such words we shall use good, which is the most troublesome, as an example three methods may be used 1. It may be said that good has used with one meaning in ethics and with another meaning in such an activity as the marking of essays by a teacher. Even if we lay aside all non ethical uses, we have still to face the different jobs for which the word good is used in ethics. 2. We may look for a common element in all the uses and regard this as the total meaning of the term. This is apparently what the Oxford English Dictionary is doing when it defines good as the most general adjective of commendation, but commendation / approval itself a formless and possibly ambiguous word, and in some uses, the word good appears to lost all sense of commendation, a good load is simply a large load. 3. While accepting the sense of commendation as basic, we may attempt to extend the meaning of good in the different spheres in which it is used. One way of doing this is by starting the criteria or standards, on the basis of which commendation is given in each sphere. There may be other ways, for example, have both suggested in the passages just quoted,, that when the word good is used in moral contexts, there is a prescriptive element in its use. Languages are fully alive to the varying uses of ethical terms, but many of them are inclined to deny that ethical terms they can have a descriptive use at all.
Page 18 of 104
This is in part a reaction from the intuitionist view of moral knowledge as knowledge that a certain object has a certain characteristic, and in part due to the limitation given to meaningful statements by those who accept the verifications principle. So we find that ethics is to maintain the specifically moral sense of ought is not descriptive. Ethics predicates are not factual they do not describe any feature of the situation to which they are applied. On the other hand, is that if we use ethical words merely as emotive or as prescriptive we are not using our tools in the most efficient way? If our purpose in saying this is good is merely I approve of this, do so as well, the better tools for our purpose would be the words, I approve of this do so as well. Some philosophers of language too in their eagerness to preserve the flexibility of ethical language and to ensure that their theories are reflecting the ordinary use of words forget that it is both science and philosophy to modify the uses of language so that words may become more efficient tools for the purposes for which they are used. No physicist uses the words atom or force in the formless, ambiguous way they are used in common speech.
3.2
EMOTIVE LANGUAGE IN ETHICS
Ethical language differs from purely emotive language in that it does not merely express an attitude; it implies that there is some reason for that attitude. This is in part of any rate, the difference between saying, I like this particular action, and I approve of this particular action in a moral context. But when we approve of something, so that we can imply that we have sound reasons for our approval. The important task of emotive language in ethics is not to express attitudes but to influence other people, and perhaps sometimes ourselves, to do what they ought to do. One good example of this is persuasive definition. In persuasive definition, the descriptive meaning of a term is changed without any substantial change in its emotive meaning. The result is that the hearer, accepting the new definition of the term, is persuaded to extend the attitude expressed in the terms emotive meaning to something new. The election agent who convinces it by the definition that patriotism and loyalty includes adherence to the principles of his party, has gone a long way to secure my approval and my vote. There are other means of persuasion, but the job of them all is to arouse feeling and so to stimulate action.
Page 19 of 104
Moral language is frequently emotive, simply because the situations in which it is typically used are situations about which we often feel deeply. It is in the case that people often use ethical terms for no other purpose than expressing their emotions, as in the common exclamation. The question is not whether ethical terms are used emotively, but whether this use is part or whole of the use being made of them in distinctively moral judgments. However the feeling of approval even if expressed in ethical language, is irrelevant to moral judgments. The point is often made that in moral judgments we are expressing our feelings and not saying in descriptive language that we have them.
3.3
PRESCRIPTIVE LANGUAGE IN ETHICS
Ethics as a special branch of logic owes its existence to the function of moral judgement as a guide in answering questions of the form, what shall I do. The answer to such questions naturally take the form of prescriptive language which is the language used most obviously in commending but also in exhorting, advising , guiding and even commending which has sometimes a hortatory force. While in activities of evaluating and expressing feeling people use most frequently the word good and bad in answering questions of the form what shall I do? They use commonly sentences containing the word right and wrong and most of all ought. Commands which show prescriptive language in its simplest form and which may occur in non ethical as well as ethical context. The ordinary view is that the function of a command is to get somebody to do something. Direct commands often arouse resistance, while a word like good does not have this effect. The direct command is often not as effective a tool of persuasion as the moral judgement for it lacks those emotive meanings which arouse feelings and stimulate actions in others. While in the ordinary command, if sincerely given has the single function of getting somebody to do something moral judgments are more variable in their functions. For example a man who gives a command is not logically bound to give any reason why it should be obeyed, but when a man says, you ought to do this he implies that there are reasons for his advice being taken. Such a moral judgement is addressed to a rational representative to help him to solve a problem of choice.
Page 20 of 104
Just because the moral judgement is universal it is a command to the speaker himself as well as to others. Decisions are not characteristically expressed in words. When words are used, they take the form of sentences in the indicative mood, pointing to or even describing the actions.
3.4
DESCRIPTIVE LANGUAGE IN ETHICS
Descriptive language used in even more prominent and specialized ethical language. When we call a man honest we are not expressing our evolution or feeling of approval we are also describing the mans habits and attitudes. When one person says to another, this is a good car, and the second person already has some knowledge of cars and the criteria by which cars are graded, and then the speaker is to some extent describing the car in question. There is a similar descriptive capacity in ethical terms. We expect some qualities in the man who is describing as a good man and the term will be more fully descriptive if we know the views of the speaker on such matter. In some context the ethical term may be both evaluative and descriptive. It is some times that an expression likes a good driver are entirely descriptive. To explain the meaning of such functional words we have to say what the object or individual is for, what it is supposed to do, and in describing that we are explicitly describing the good driver. Where such words differ from others is that in learning the meaning of these functional words, we are as it were, being handed on a cover the criteria of a good driver. There are no such given criteria for the most general ethical terms, but there are such when the term used is largely descriptive, as for example honest or industrious.
3.5
MISUSES OF ETHICAL TERMS
Some of the misuses of ethical terms are as given below MISUSE 1. Because ethical words are unclear so they may trick us. A politician or anyone may say, "I'll do good things for the community." But it is not at all clear what the person means by "good."
Page 21 of 104
MISUSE 2. "Wrong or bad in itself." People often say things are "just wrong," or "obviously bad," without knowing or being able to give a meaning. They are not clear what they mean by "bad" or why a certain act is "bad." But, because "bad" can mean many different and contradictory things, it does not make sense to say something is "just bad" or "wrong in itself." As Shakespeare put it, "There is nothing either good or bad, but thinking makes it so." MISUSE 3. Misuse of the word "bad" can help cause inferiority. People often think that they are "bad." But once it is seen that "bad" is a vague, open-context term it can help prevent inferiority. "Inferiority" partly means thinking that one is a "bad" person. Here is where an analysis of ethical language involves an analysis of emotions. It is important that the schools also have courses and texts which deal with and clarify the way in which emotions work. Experiencing "blame" and being "criticized" also involve an analysis and clarification of both ethical and emotion terms. MISUSE 4. It can be a mistake to follow commands or duties without knowing why. The error is to think that it makes sense to talk of "duty for its own sake." This is blind obedience. Imagine joining an army or organization and agreeing to dutifully obey your orders regardless of what they are. Rather, we should, for transparency and humanity find out and understand why we should do any particular duty. " A number of other misuses of ethical terms may be given, they arise because the meanings often given for ethical terms do not make sense, or are based on fallacies. In order to avoid vagueness and circular definitions, ethical terms must be reduced to logical, concrete, descriptive and accurate terms. There can be and is, in this sense, a science of ethics. What a person means by "bad," at a particular time is based on the person's beliefs, wants, and likes, and knowledge of consequences and cause and effect. If we are confused about our wants and how to bring them about we may be said to be "unethical." All that means is that "right" and "good" are based on one's beliefs and wants at that time. We may attempt to change our emotions
Page 22 of 104
and find effective and rational ways of achieving our wants. The process is empirical and rational. It involves critical, logical thinking in order to resolve conflict. Citizenship, for example, involves knowing the laws, learning to live within them and learning how to improve them. It involves familiarity with a wide range of social values and an understanding of which ones lead to desirable, well-arguedfor consequences. It involves analysis and open discussion of the various beliefs and character traits (e.g., blame). The key statement in this approach is "Teaching young people to be critical." And on this nearly every educator may well be in agreement. The student learns to deal with and solve moral (value or ethical) problems.
Page 23 of 104
CH: 4
4.1
ETHICAL EGOISM
WHAT IS EGOISM
The term egoism was introduced into modern moral philosophy as a label for a type of ethical theory that is structurally parallel to utilitarianism. The ethical belief that self-interest is the immediately and proper motive for all human conduct. In ethics, the principle that we should act so as to promote our own interests. The great advantage of such a position is that it avoids any possible conflict between morality and self-interest; if it is rational for us to pursue our own interest, the rationality of morality is equally clear.
4.2
PSYCHOLOGICAL EGOISM
All forms of egoism require explication of self-interest (or welfare or wellbeing). There are two main theories. Preference or desire accounts identify selfinterest with the satisfaction of one's desires. Often, and most plausibly, these desires are restricted to self-regarding desires. A desire for my own pleasure is self-regarding; a desire for the welfare of others is not. Objective accounts identify self-interest with the possession of states (such as virtue or knowledge) that are valued independently of whether they are desired. Psychological egoism claims that each person has one ultimate aim: her own welfare. This allows for action that fails to maximize perceived self-interest, but rules out the sort of behavior psychological egoists like to target -- such as altruistic behavior or motivation by thoughts of duty alone. It allows for weakness of will, since in weakness of will cases I am still aiming at my own welfare; I am weak in that I do not act as I aim. And it allows for aiming at things other than one's welfare, such as helping others, where these things are a means to one's welfare. Psychological egoism is supported by our frequent observation of self-interested behavior. Apparently altruistic action is often revealed to be self-interested. And we typically motivate people by appealing to their self-interest (through, for example, punishments and rewards).
Page 24 of 104
A common objection to psychological egoism, made famously by Joseph Butler, is that I must desire things other than my own welfare in order to get welfare. Say I derive welfare from playing hockey. Unless I desired, for its own sake, to play hockey, I would not derive welfare from playing. Or say I derive welfare from helping others. Unless I desired, for its own sake, that others do well, I would not derive welfare from helping them. Welfare results from my action, but cannot be the only aim of my action. The psychological egoist can concede that I must have desires for particular things, such as playing hockey. But there is no need to concede that the satisfaction of these desires is not part of my welfare. My welfare might consist simply in the satisfaction of self-regarding desires. In the case of deriving welfare from helping others, the psychological egoist can again concede that I would not derive welfare without desiring some particular thing, but need not agree that what I desire for its own sake is that others do well. That I am the one who helps them may, for example, satisfy my self-regarding desire for power. A bigger problem for psychological egoism is that some behavior does not seem to be explained by self-regarding desires. Say a soldier throws himself on a grenade to prevent others from being killed. It does not seem that the soldier is pursuing his perceived self-interest. It is plausible that, if asked, the soldier would have said that he threw himself on the grenade because he wanted to save the lives of others or because it was his duty. He would deny as ridiculous the claim that he acted in his self-interest. The psychological egoist might reply that the soldier is lying or self-deceived. Perhaps he threw himself on the grenade because he could not bear to live with himself afterwards if he did not do so. He has a better life, in terms of welfare, by avoiding years of guilt. The main problem here is that while this is a possible account of some cases, there is no reason to think it covers all cases. Another problem is that guilt may presuppose that the soldier has a non-self-regarding desire for doing what he takes to be right. The psychological egoist might reply that some such account must be right. After all, the soldier did what he most wanted to do, and so must have been pursuing his perceived self-interest. In one sense, this is true. If self-interest is identified with the satisfaction of all of one's preferences, then all intentional action is self-
Page 25 of 104
interested (at least if intentional actions are always explained by citing preferences, as most believe). There is another way to show that the trivial version of psychological egoism is unsatisfactory. We ordinarily think there is a significant difference in selfishness between the soldier's action and that of another soldier who, say, pushes someone onto the grenade to avoid being blown up him. We think the former is acting unselfishly while the latter is acting selfishly. According to the trivial version of psychological egoism, both soldiers are equally selfish, since both are doing what they most desire. The psychological egoist might handle apparent cases of self-sacrifice, not by adopting the trivial version, but rather by claiming that facts about the selfinterest of the agent explain all behavior. Perhaps as infants we have only selfregarding desires; we come to desire other things, such as doing our duty, by learning that these other things satisfy our self-regarding desires; in time, we pursue the other things for their own sakes. Even if this picture of development is true, however, it does not defend psychological egoism, since it admits that we sometimes ultimately aim at things other than our welfare. An account of the origins of our non-self-regarding desires does not show that they are really self-regarding.
4.3
ETHICAL EGOISM
Ethical egoism claims that it is necessary and sufficient for an action to be morally right that it maximize one's self-interest. (There are possibilities other than maximization. One might, for example, claim that one ought to achieve a certain level of welfare, but that there is no requirement to achieve more. One issue concerns how much ethical egoism differs in content from standard moral theories. It might appear that it differs a great deal. After all, moral theories such as Kantianism, utilitarianism, and common-sense morality require that an agent give weight to the interests of others. They sometimes require uncompensated sacrifices, particularly when the loss to the agent is small and the gain to others is large. Ethical egoists can reply, however, that egoism generates many of the same duties to others. The argument runs as follows. Each person needs the cooperation of others to obtain goods such as defense or friendship. If I act as if I give no weight to others, others will not cooperate with
Page 26 of 104
me. If, say, I break my promises whenever it is in my direct self-interest to do so, others will not accept my promises, and may even attack me. I do best, then, by acting as if others have weight (provided they act as if I have weight in return). It is unlikely that this argument proves that ethical egoism generates all of the standard duties to others. In dealings with others who lack these abilities, the egoist has no reason to cooperate. The duties to others found in standard moral theories are not conditional in this way. I do not, for example, escape a duty to save a drowning person, when I can easily do so, just because the drowning person (or anyone watching) happens never to be able to offer fruitful cooperation or retaliation.
4.4
RATIONAL EGOISM
Rational egoism claims that it is necessary and sufficient for an action to be rational that it maximizes one's self-interest. (As with ethical egoism, there are variants which drop maximization or evaluate rules or character traits rather than actions. There are also variants which make the maximization of selfinterest necessary but not sufficient, or sufficient but not necessary, for an action to be rational. Like ethical egoism, rational egoism needs arguments to support it. One might cite our most confident judgments about rational action and claim that rational egoism best fits these. The problem is that our most confident judgments about rational action seem to be captured by a different, extremely popular theory -the instrumental theory of rationality. According to the instrumental theory, it is necessary and sufficient, for an action to be rational, that it maximizes the satisfaction of one's preferences. Since psychological egoism seems false, it may be rational for me to make an uncompensated sacrifice for the sake of others, for this may be what, on balance, best satisfies my (strong, non-self-interested) preferences. This conflict with the instrumental theory is a major problem for rational egoism. The rational egoist might reply that the instrumental theory is equally a problem for any standard moral theory that claims to give an account of what one ought
Page 27 of 104
rationally, or all things considered, to do. If, for example, a utilitarian claims that I have most reason to give to charity, since that maximizes the general happiness, I could object that giving to charity cannot be rational given my particular preferences, which are for things other than the general happiness.
4.5
EGOISM AND ALTRUISM
Egoism is an ethical theory parallel to utilitarianism. The utilitarian holds that one should maximize the good of all beings in the universe; the egoist holds instead that the good one is ultimately to aim at is only ones own. This form of egoism is often called as the ethical egoism. Ethical egoism is to be distinguished from the psychological egoism that human beings seek to maximize their own good. Ethical egoism can approve of behavior that benefits others, for often the best way to promote ones good is to form cooperative relationships. But the egoist cannot approve of a selfless justification for such cooperation: altruism requires benefiting others merely for their sake, whereas the egoist insists that ones ultimate goal must be exclusively ones own good. One way to defend ethical egoism is to establish and verify the psychological egoism and then to propose that our requirements cannot outstrip our capacities; if we cannot help seeking to maximize our own well being, we should not hold ourselves to a less selfish standard. But this defense is widely rejected, because psychological egoism seems too simple a conception of human behaviors. Moreover, egoism violates our sense of objectivity and detachment. There is no fact about oneself that justifies excluding others from ones ultimate end.
Page 28 of 104
CH: 5
VIRTUE ETHICS
5.1
THE MEANING OF VIRTUE ETHICS
The word Virtue was used for the excellence of any kind and we occasionally find the English word used in a similar way as in the sentence. The medicine has lost its virtue but generally the excellence referred to is an excellence belonging to man, so that the virtues may be described as the forms of human excellence. In ethics virtue is used with two somewhat different meanings. A virtue is a quality of character a disposition/ temperament to do what is right in a particular direction, or to perform one of the more universal duties. A virtue is also a habit of action corresponding to the quality of character or disposition. We may refer to the honesty of a man or to the honesty of his dealings equally as virtues. Laird has divided virtues into three classes 1. There are virtues of what he calls the righteous quality. A virtue of this kind consists in the habit of performing a duty of a particular kind and in the quality of character which leads to this kind of action. 2. Requisite qualities are necessary to a virtuous character, but are also found in bad characters, and indeed may tend to increase the wickedness of the bad. Such virtues include prudence and perseverance. 3. There are virtues, thirdly of the generous quality. These are chiefly of an emotional kind and they add something not strictly definable but of the nature of beauty or of moral intrinsic value, to actions that are in other respects right. They sometimes even give a strange quality of nobility to conduct that is morally wrong. Virtues of this kind seem to have some intrinsic value, this at least suggested by the value that we assign to these virtues in the characters of people where no good result follows from the presence of the virtue in their actions. Of the three classes, virtues of the righteous quality are the most important in the moral life.
Page 29 of 104
5.2
MODREN VIRTUE THEORY
Virtue theory is that general area of philosophical inquiry concerned with or related to the virtues. It includes virtue ethics, a theory about how we should act or live. This distinction is a rough one, but it is important to grasp that much of modern virtue theory is by writers not themselves advocating virtue ethics. What is virtue ethics? It is tempting to characterize it as a theory advocating acting morally, but this is insufficiently accurate. Virtue ethics is usually seen as an alternative to utilitarianism. To put it roughly, utilitarianism says that we should maximize human welfare or utility. A utilitarian, however, may advocate acting virtuously for reasons of utility. Ethical theories are best understood in terms not of what acts they require, but of the reasons offered for acting in whatever way are in fact required. Which properties of actions, then, according to virtue ethics, constitute our reason for doing them? The Properties of kindness, courage and so on. It is worth noting that there is a difference between acting virtuously and doing a righteous action. Ones doing a virtuous action may be seen as doing the action a virtuous person would do in those circumstances, though one may not oneself be a virtuous person. Virtue ethics, then, concerns itself not only with isolated actions but with the character of the agent. There are reasons for doing certain things (such as kind things), and also for being a certain type of person (a kind person). This account of virtue ethics enables us to distinguish it from its other main opponent; A for example, might claim that my reason for telling the truth is that to do so would be in accordance with the categorical very important. That is a property of the action of telling the truth quite different from its being honest.
Page 30 of 104
CH: 6
META ETHICS
6.1
THE NATURE OF META ETHICS
The term "meta" means after or beyond, and, consequently, the notion of metaethics involves a removed, or bird's eye view of the entire project of ethics. We may define metaethics as the study of the origin and meaning of ethical concepts. When compared to normative ethics and applied ethics, the field of metaethics is the least precisely defined area of moral attitude. Two issues, though, are prominent: (1) Metaphysical issues concerning whether morality exists independently of humans, and (2) Psychological issues concerning the underlying mental basis of our moral judgments and conduct.
6.2
METAPHYSICAL ISSUES
"Metaphysics" is the study of the kinds of things that exist in the universe. Some things in the universe are made of physical stuff, such as rocks; and perhaps other things are nonphysical in nature, such as thoughts, spirits, and gods. The metaphysical component of metaethics involves discovering specifically whether moral values are everlasting truths that exist in a spirit-like sphere, or simply human conventions. There are two general directions that discussions of this topic take, one other-worldly and one this-worldly. The "other-worldly" views typically hold that moral values are objective in the sense that they exist in a spirit-like realm beyond subjective human gathering. They also hold that they are absolute, or everlasting, in that they never change, and also that they are universal in so far as they apply to all rational creatures around the world and throughout time. The example of this view is Plato, who was inspired by the field of mathematics. When we look at numbers and mathematical relations, such as 1+1=2, they seem to be timeless concepts that never change, and apply
Page 31 of 104
everywhere in the universe. Humans do not create numbers, and humans cannot modify them. Plato explained the eternal character of mathematics by stating that they are abstract unit that exist in a spirit-like realm. He noted that moral values also are absolute truths and thus are also abstract, spirit-like creature. In this sense, for Plato, moral values are spiritual objects. Medieval philosophers commonly grouped all moral principles together under the heading of "eternal law" which were also frequently seen as spirit-like objects. The second and more this-worldly approach to the metaphysical status of morality the first is individual relativism, which holds that individual people create their own moral standards. For example, the extraordinary human being creates his or her morality distinct from and in reaction to the slave-like value system of the masses. The second is cultural relativism which maintains that morality is grounded in the approval of one's society - and not simply in the preferences of individual people. This view was advocated by Sextus and in more recent centuries by Michel Montaigne and William Graham Sumner. "thisworldly" approaches to the metaphysical status of morality deny the absolute and universal nature of morality and hold instead that moral values in fact change from society to society throughout time and throughout the world. They frequently attempt to defend their position by citing examples of values that differ dramatically from one culture to another, such as attitudes about human sacrifice.
6.3
PSYCHOLOGICAL ISSUES
A second area of metaethics involves the psychological basis of our moral judgments and conduct, particularly understanding what motivates us to be moral. We might explore this subject by asking the simple question, "Why be moral?" Even if I am aware of basic moral standards, such as don't kill and dont steal, this does not necessarily mean that I will be psychologically bound to act on them. Some answers to the question "Why be moral?" are to avoid punishment, to gain praise, to attain happiness, to be fit with in the society.
Page 32 of 104
6.4
EGOISM AND ALTRUISM
Egoism is an ethical theory parallel to utilitarianism. The utilitarian holds that one should maximize the good of all beings in the universe; the egoist holds instead that the good one is ultimately to aim at is only ones own. This form of egoism is often called as the ethical egoism. Ethical egoism is to be distinguished from the psychological egoism that human beings seek to maximize their own good. Ethical egoism can approve of behavior that benefits others, for often the best way to promote ones good is to form cooperative relationships. But the egoist cannot approve of a selfless justification for such cooperation: altruism requires benefiting others merely for their sake, whereas the egoist insists that ones ultimate goal must be exclusively ones own good. One way to defend ethical egoism is to establish and verify the psychological egoism and then to propose that our requirements cannot outstrip our capacities; if we cannot help seeking to maximize our own well being, we should not hold ourselves to a less selfish standard. But this defense is widely rejected, because psychological egoism seems too simple a conception of human behaviors. Moreover, egoism violates our sense of objectivity and detachment. There is no fact about oneself that justifies excluding others from ones ultimate end.
6.5
EMOTION AND REASONS
A second area of moral psychology involves a difference of opinion concerning the role of reason in motivating moral actions. We can amass all the reasons we want, but that alone will not constitute a moral assessment. We need a distinctly emotional reaction in order to make a moral statement. For example, although the statement "it is good to donate to charity" may on the surface look as though it is a realistic description about charity, it is not. Instead, a moral statement like this involves two things. First, I (the speaker) I am expressing my personal feelings of approval about charitable donations and I am in essence saying "good job for charity!" This is called the emotive element in so far as I am expressing my emotions about some specific behavior.
Page 33 of 104
Second, I (the speaker) am trying to get you to donate to charity and am essentially giving the command, "Donate to charity!" This is called the prescriptive element in the sense that I am prescribing some specific behavior.
Page 34 of 104
CH: 7NORMATIVE AND APPLIED ETHICS
7.1
WHAT IS NORMATIVE ETHICS
Normative ethics involves arriving at moral standards that regulate right and wrong conduct. In a sense, it is a search for an ideal litmus test of proper behavior. The Golden Rule is a classic example of a normative principle: We should do to others what we would want others to do to us. Since I do not want my neighbor to steal my car, then it is wrong for me to steal her car. Since I would want people to feed me if I was hungry, then I should help feed starving people. Using this same reasoning, I can theoretically determine whether any possible action is right or wrong. So, based on the Golden Rule, it would also be wrong for me to lie to, harass, victimize, battering, or kill others. The Golden Rule is an example of a normative theory that establishes a single principle against which we judge all actions. The key assumption in normative ethics is that there is only one ultimate standard of moral conduct, whether it is a single rule or a set of principles. Three strategies will be noted here: (1) Virtue theories (2) Duty theories, and (3) Consequentiality theories.
(1) Virtue Theories Many philosophers believe that morality consists of accurately defined rules of conduct, such as "don't kill," or "don't steal." most probably; I must learn these rules, and then make sure each of my actions live up to the rules. Virtue theorists, however, place less emphasis on learning rules, and instead stress the importance of developing good habits of character, such as kindness. Once I've acquired kindness, for example, I will then habitually act in a kind manner Plato emphasized four virtues in particular, which were later called cardinal virtues: wisdom, courage, temperance and justice. Other important virtues are courage, generosity, self-respect, good temper, and sincerity. In addition to advocating good habits of character, virtue theorists hold that we should avoid acquiring bad character traits, such as weakness, insensibility, injustice, and egotism. Aristotle argued that virtues are good habits that we acquire, which regulate our emotions. For example, in response to my natural feelings of fear, I should develop the virtue of courage which allows me to be stiff when facing danger.
Page 35 of 104
Analyzing 11 specific virtues, Aristotle argued that most virtues fall at a mean between more extreme character traits. With courage, for example, if I do not have enough courage, I develop the disposition of weakness, which is a vice. If I have too much courage I develop the character of carelessness which is also a vice. According to Aristotle, it is not an easy task to find the perfect mean between extreme character traits. In fact, we need assistance from our reason to do this. (2) Duty Theories Many of us feel that there are clear responsibilities we have as human beings, such as to care for our children, and to not commit murder. Duty theories base morality on specific, initial principles of obligation. These theories are sometimes called deontological, from the Greek word Deon or duty in view of the foundational nature of our duty or obligation. They are also sometimes called non consequentiality. A second duty-based approach to ethics is rights theory. Most generally, a "right" is a justified claim against another person's behavior - such as my right to not be harmed by you. Rights and duties are related in such a way that the right of one person implies the duties of another person. This is called the correlativity of rights and duties. First, rights are natural as they are not invented. Second, they are universal as they do not change from country to country. Third, they are equal in the sense that rights are the same for all people, irrespective of gender, race, or handicap. Fourth, they are unchallengeable which means that I can not hand over my rights to another person, such as by selling myself into slavery. A third duty-based theory is that by Kant, which emphasizes a single principle of duty. Kant agreed that we have moral duties to oneself and others, such as developing one's talents, and keeping our promises to others. A fourth and more recent duty-based theory is that by British philosopher W.D. Ross, which emphasizes prima facie duties. Ross argues that our duties are "part of the fundamental nature of the universe." However, Ross's list of duties is much shorter, which he believes reflects our actual moral convictions: Fidelity: the duty to keep promises Reparation: the duty to compensate others when we harm them Gratitude: the duty to thank those who help us Justice: the duty to recognize merit Beneficence: the duty to improve the conditions of others Self-improvement: the duty to improve our virtue and intelligence
Page 36 of 104
(3) Consequentiality theories. It is common for us to determine our moral responsibility by weighing the consequences of our actions. According to consequentialist normative theories, correct moral conduct is determined exclusively by a cost-benefit analysis of an action's consequences: An action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than unfavorable. Consequentialist normative principles require that we first compute both the good and bad consequences of an action. Second, we then determine whether the total good consequences outweigh the total bad consequences. If the good consequences are greater, then the action is morally proper. If the bad consequences are greater, then the action is morally improper.
7.2
ULTILITARIANISM
Utilitarianism is a normative ethical theory that places the locus of right and wrong exclusively on the outcomes (consequences) of choosing one action/policy over other actions/policies. As such, it moves beyond the scope of ones own interests and takes into account the interests of others. Utilitarianism: if the consequences are positive for everyone Ethical Altruism : if the consequences are positive for others; Ethical Egoism; if the consequences are positive for the individual. 7.3
WHAT IS APPLIED ETHICS
Applied ethics is the branch of ethics which consists of the analysis of specific, controversial moral issue. Applied ethical issues have been subdivided into convenient groups such as medical ethics, business ethics, and environmental ethics. Arriving at a short list of representative normative principles is itself a challenging task. The following principles are the ones most commonly appealed to in applied ethical discussions Personal benefit: acknowledge the extent to which an action produces beneficial consequences for the individual in question. Social benefit: acknowledge the extent to which an action produces beneficial consequences for society. Principle of benevolence: help those in need. Principle of paternalism: assist others in pursuing their best interests when they cannot do so themselves. Principle of harm: do not harm others.
Page 37 of 104
Principle of honesty: do not deceive others. Principle of lawfulness: do not violate the law. Principle of autonomy: acknowledge a person's freedom over his/her actions or physical body. Principle of justice: acknowledge a person's right to due process, fair compensation for harm done, and fair distribution of benefits. Rights: acknowledge a person's rights to life, information, privacy, free expression, and safety. The above principles represent a spectrum of traditional normative principles and are derived from both consequentialist and duty-based approaches. The first two principles, personal benefit and social benefit, are consequentialist since they appeal to the consequences of an action as it affects the individual or society. The remaining principles are duty-based. The principles of benevolence, harm, honesty, and lawfulness are based on duties we have toward others. The principles of autonomy, justice, and the various rights are based on moral rights.
Page 38 of 104
CH: 8
8.1
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MORAL ACTION

PSYCHOLOGY AS EXPLANING CONDUCT
The psychology is to explain conduct and not to judge it either by justifying it or by condemning it, to justify or to condemn is the ethics. By explaining an action, we mean the setting forth of its relations to other facts connected with it, and particularly to those mental processes which lead the action in the mind of the person doing it. We may say that these ancestor mental processes cause the action, so long as we remember that the causation by which mental processes produce bodily actions is likely to be somewhat different from the causation by which the physical events studied in physics and chemistry produce shortly physical events. While psychology can not justify or condemn actions, it appears reasonable to think that the psychological explanation of an action may affect our ethical judgment of them. A simple example would be the weaker criticism given to an act of violence when it is known that this was done after great frustration. There seem to be in our mind four types of mental process determining our conduct, and two of these are more important than the other ethics. There is a tendency in some ideas, perhaps in all ideas, to produce movements directly or automatically, and this is called the ideo-motor tendency. The thought of the cold wind blowing in at the door of my study room may make me rise automatically and move towards the door in order to shut it, without there being any conscious desire in my mind to do so. Indeed, the movement that I realize what I am doing, I may stop moving towards the door because I am now aware that I really desire fresh air more strong than I desire greater warmth. According to some psychologists the ideo motor tendency is a basic principle of conation, others think that there is no such tendency at all, and that what we really have in our minds is a dim awareness of an intended result (such as greater warmth) confused with an anticipatory image of the means needed to produce that result (such as expanding and closing the door). In this case the ideo-motor action is merely a desired and intended action that has become more or less habitual and unconscious by means of repetition. In any case, in so far as the ideo motor action is automatic, it tends to be involuntary; it is only when conscious desire affects the action, as in my conscious desire for fresh air in the example, that the ideo motor action becomes a voluntary action and so within the sphere of ethics. There is however, one way in which the ideo motor tendency, if ideas tend to realize themselves in actions, it is important for a man to have the right kind of ideas in his mind.
Page 39 of 104
We act most commonly because of our desires. We are hungry and desire food and so we eat, we are curious and desire knowledge and so we study. Desire is itself a developed mental process. We may act because of unconscious mental tendencies. These are sometimes regarded as unconscious desire or wishes, which lead to action very much in the way that conscious desires or wishes do. We may mean by an unconscious desire, a desire which have difficulty in observing in our minds or attending to, and in this case the word desire is appropriate, but the desire is not altogether unconscious. Such desires differ from fully conscious desires in another way, they are generally less controlled by us and less influenced by the principle of the society, so that the unconscious desire suggests some traditional urge. Such half conscious urges should be regarded as desires or as un conscious mental tendencies, there certainly appears to be an un conscious regulation of our behavior by factors in our mind, the movements for the sleep walker are not determined by conscious desire, but they are in all probability determined by some cause with in the mind. In so far as actions are produced by unconscious mental tendencies they are involuntary, it is possibility of modifying them by conscious desire, even if it be the desire to be psycho analyzed, that gives them any degree of voluntaries they have and so brings them into the consideration of ethics. As in the case of the ideo motor tendency it is the possibility of desire intervening that alone makes the actions possible objects of moral judgments. We may act from a sense of duty and to do so is usually regarded as the outstanding form of moral action. Many psychologists hold that the sense of duty is simply one of our many desires, a complicated one certainly, but not for that reason of a different kind psychologically form the others, in this case our analysis of desire generally will include this special form of desire. Others hold that here we have a new determining tendency, which is often labeled conscience (sense of right and wrong).
8.2
THE NATURE OF DESIRE
Desires depend on certain tendencies of our human nature which may be classified as Organic needs Instincts General tendencies
Page 40 of 104
Organic needs Organic needs or wants are those human tendencies which are necessary for the continued existence and normal development of the body. We human beings share needs with the lower animals and even with the plants, for plants need food, moisture and air just we do. In the case of plants and of at least the lower forms of animal life, such needs are probably unconscious, and there are some cases where a need may be unconscious in human being. In a state of illness the body may be in need of nourishment, but the patient may not feel hungry and so may be unaware that he really needs food. Consciousness of such an organic need is called an appetite. In an appetite, as contrasted with the desire which is the normal development of an appetite in human beings, the craving is vague and not directed to any particular object. The most prominent feature of consciousness in an appetite is the strong unpleasantness accompanying its satisfaction. The word appetite like so many other psychological terms is used ambiguously in common speech. Sometimes it merely points to organic sensations which accompany an organic need, without implying any conative tendency or striving to satisfy the need when we refer to their organic sensations. Sometimes the word appetite is used for desires that are fully conscious and for desires which are based on instincts as well as those based on organic needs. Instincts Mc Dougall defines an instinct as an inherited or innate psycho physical disposition which determines its possessor to perceive and to pay attention to objects of a certain class, to experience an emotional excitement of a particular quality on perceiving such an object, and to act in regard to it in a particular manner, or at least to experience an impulse to such action. The instinct of flight may be taken as an example; a man or one of the higher animals tends to perceive and to pay attention to a strange loud noise, to experience the emotion of fear on hearing it, and to run away from it or at least to feel an impulse to do so. Common speech doesnt put the same emphasis on the cognitive and particularly on the emotional sides of an instinct. We would still call the action of an animal in running away from a strange noise instinctive even although we believed perception and attention ( in the senses of in which we use these terms of human activities) to be absent , and even although we believed the animal to be without conscious fear. The inherited deposition to act in a certain fixed way would be enough to make the action instinctive. In our human instinctive actions, there is probably always some consciousness of what we are doing, although this consciousness may vary from a weak desire very like that of an appetite to a clear purpose. Mc Dougall arranges the principal human instincts in this way;
Page 41 of 104
The instinct of flight The instinct of repulsion The instinct of curiosity The instinct of self assertion The parental instinct We need not support that this list is complete, or that other psychologists may not make a different and better list. What is certain is that there are inborn in our human nature certain tendencies to actions of different types, which appear either at birth or at later stage of development. Instincts are not mental processes or bodily activities which we can observe they are depositions to action, and the only way we can know of them is through the actions they produce. We know nothing that whatever their own nature, for they belong not to the order of scientific phenomena like desires and movements they belong to the order of scientific hypotheses or assumptions like atoms in chemistry or the unconscious in psychology. The General innate tendencies differ from the instincts is not being characterized by one particular feeling state or by a tendency to one particular mode of action. The kinds of action in which one general natural tendency may express itself are indefinitely variable. According to Mc Dougall, these include sympathy or the tendency to share the emotions of which we observe the expressions in others, suggestibility or the tendency to accept beliefs from others in the absence of logically adequate grounds for their acceptance, and imitation / reproduction or the tendency of one individual to copy the movements and activities of another. Other general innate tendencies are the tendency to play and the tendency to form habits (that is the tendency for any action to be repeated more readily in virtue of its having occurred before). From the point of ethics, there are no important differences between the general innate tendencies and the instincts the first three which we have mentioned sympathy, suggestibility and imitation, are all bound up with the gregarious instinct. In human beings at any rate there may be a less or greater consciousness of any one of these tendencies, appetites, instincts and general innate tendencies, and of the activity in which it will find satisfaction. We call this consciousness impulse a more definite consciousness impulse or desire and the word desire implies a more definite consciousness than the word impulse. In impulse there is a conscious tendency to some activity, but there need not be the clear picture in the mind of the satisfaction to be gained from the activity that we find in the more developed forms of desire, desires are not commonly isolated but tend to be affected by other desires, while impulse remain more or less isolated conscious tendencies to action. The isolated impulse in the developed mind may take the form of an impulse to do good action, and this impulse may in some cases be opposed to the general tendency of the desires of the agents. In such circumstances a person may even say that he had an impulse to do a right
Page 42 of 104
action, and that he was wrong to have acted differently. In such a case he may be referring to an intuition resembling an impulse in its arousing a tendency to action and in its being isolated from the main stream of ideas. We may define a desire as the conscious tendency to attain an object or to engage in an activity which may satisfy a particular want or fulfill a particular tendency of the agent. When a man is in want of food he has the appetite of hunger and he desires to eat food. The difference of a desire from an appetite or an instinctive craving is that it is directed towards a definite object and is more fully conscious. It is because of this fuller consciousness that a desire in its more developed forms becomes something more than a simple consciousness need of some object, it becomes a conscious want that we still have in the light of our other conscious desires. As desire develop there are various ways in which the original tendencies to action become more complicated The tendencies to action may be aroused by other objects or even by ideas of other objects, than those which originally excited them. A child, for example who shows the tendency to flight on hearing a loud noise will come to show the same tendency at the sight of an animal or toy repeatedly shown to it along with the loud noise. Similarly a desire for an object may develop into a desire for the pleasantness which regularly accompanies the obtaining of this object. The two desires are by no means the same. The hungry man desires food and not merely pleasantness. The bodily movements in which our inborn tendencies find satisfaction may change and become more complicated. In childhood the conflicts are often avoided by the simple means of the child taking one desire at a time and satisfying it and then passing on to other, and parental authority often settles conflicts by a definite command, but most children have at some time or other conflicts of desire that prevent activity for a time and find their expression only in an outburst of tears. When we attend to the conscious desires and the activities to which they lead we are apt to speak as we have been doing, of the harmonizing taking place among these desires or activities. It is however the common opinion that this harmonizing takes place chiefly among the instincts and innate tendencies. In childhood, these tendencies seem to be more or less separate from on another and each may be aroused to action by its own appropriate stimulus without as it were any reference to the others. In the development of the mind, our instincts develop into dispositions that may be called sentiment / feelings. Although the word sentiment has perhaps too great a suggestion of emotion for our present purpose. What we mean here by sentiments is a developed and organized tendency to activities of a complicated kind in response to a particular object to which our mind has certain emotional attitudes. The sentiments must in turn form of a harmonious system, and this is what generally meant by the character.
Page 43 of 104
Character is not something that we are born with, but something that we acquire by the development and particularly the harmonizing of our sentiments. The man with a single universe of desires dominant in his mind is the man of strong character, not necessarily the man of good character, for the dominant desires may be bad. The man of the weak character is the man without any dominant sentiments to control his passing desires so that he is carried away by the desires of the moment without any consideration of the other universes of desires in his mind. A mans character will make him more sensitive to certain objects and ideas those which appeal to his dominant systems of desires and less sensitive to others.
8.3
MOTIVE AND INTENTION
A motive may be defined as a conscious mental process which moves a man to act in a particular way, and with the possible exception of actions done from a sense of duty actions done with a conscious process of willing have as their motives desires. It is my desire to eat food that moves me to go into restaurant and order a meal. In itself however there appear to be two aspects, on the other hand the natural desire or urge impelling a man to action and on the other side the end or object at which he is aiming which is said to induce him to the action. The motive which impels a father to send his son to school may be from one aspect the parental instinct or parental affection impelling him to do so, from another aspect it is aim of giving his son an education that will secure his full development and enable him to earn his living that induces the father to do so. There may be a lower level of actions where a man is carried away by feeling and acts blindly without considering the end or result of his action. Such actions are called impulsive actions and they come into the sphere of ethics because by thinking of the consequences we could have acted differently. The consciousness of the consequences of an action varies from a vague awareness of some objects, as when a child runs from some strange animal towards his mother, to well thought out plan or policy where a man has a scheme of action covering a number of years and thinks of all the possible consequences of his plan as when a man accepts an appointment for a number of years in a foreign country. This whole willed scheme of action as anticipated by the doer of it is called his intention. We mat distinguish between the immediate intention and the remote intention of an action. Two young men may have the same immediate intention of enlisting in the army, but the one has the remote intention of earning large sums of money, while the other has the remote intention of sacrificing his career for the welfare of his country. We may again distinguish between the direct intentions of an act, which is the aim aspect of the motive. So one individual aim of making money, and the indirect intention or undersigned consequences which are anticipated.
Page 44 of 104
It is more convenient to limit the words motive and intention to conscious mental processes. The psychology has given us strong reasons to think that unconscious mental processes play a large part in determining our actions, and it is evident that our behavior is not always fully explained by the motives and intentions consciously present in our control and so not of direct interest to ethics. It is sometimes argued that motives can not be included among the voluntary activities which are judged in ethical judgments because a man can not be able there and then to replace that desire by another, but none the less, a good deal of moral training consists in the development and modification of motives. A mans desires in their office of being motives, often conflict with one another. Mackenzie called the desire which emerges successful from such a conflict a wish but in common speech wish and desire has much the same meaning. A man desires both to make money for him and to engage in some public service, which implies self sacrifice and at the moment the two desires point to different lines of action and so are in conflict with one another, now each of these desires belongs to larger systems or universe of desires. The desire of man to make money may have associated in the same universe with it the desire to make a good provision for his children, and to display his superiority over his business rivals. The desire of the man for self sacrificing service may have associated in the same universe with it the desire to help others, the desire to show him of superior character the desire to give pleasure to those whose opinion he values, the desire for social reform and the desire to do the will of God. It is fact that makes the statement that the strongest motive always wins, meaningless for the strongest motive may mean the strongest single motive (which perhaps never occurs alone) or the motive belonging to the strongest universe of desires. In a deliberate / planned action the winning motive does not only bring to its aid the strongest universe of desire, it has in some way or other now got on its side the mind or character as a whole and the accomplishment of this is what is commonly called willing.
Page 45 of 104
CH: 9
9.1
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MORAL JUDGEMENT

CONSCIENCE
Conscience is defined as the faculty or principle which pronounces upon the moral quality of ones actions or motives approving the right and condemning the wrong. Conscience is the ability to put your self in the place of others and to look at yourself through the eyes of others. Following Sigmund Freud conscience is the part of the mind which controls your actions. Conscience decides what is ethical for you to do. In the normal daily life our conscience works without trouble we know what to do in different situations. But in stressed situations conscience is the first part of the mind to get hit, so that we sometimes do the wrong things. It is a sense whereby we distinguish between right and wrong. Just as by the sense of sight we distinguish black from white, and distinguish by the sense of touch what is cold from what is hot, so by this inner sense we distinguish what is right from what is wrong. When we are about to act, we see before us two ways, between which we have to choose. The one is right and the other wrong; and it is conscience that informs us which is which. Conscience is the voice of the Self which says yes or no when you are involved in a moral struggle. It is a call from within to do an act or to avoid it. Conscience is the internal monitor. Conscience is a form of truth which is the knowledge of our own acts and feelings as right or wrong. It is a sensitive balance (scales) to weigh actions. It is a guiding voice from within, the faculty or principle by which we distinguish right from wrong. This sense of duty is conscience. Conscience is a moral faculty. It is a delicate instrument or sense that tells you then and there what is right and what is wrong. It is the soundless inner voice that shows you the path of virtue and goodness. It is indeed very, very delicate. It is very easy to choke it, but it is so very clear that it is impossible to mistake it. Conscience is a needle that points steadily to the Pole Star: Do this action, it is right." It warns you also: "That is wrong, do not do that." When you do a wrong action, the consciences prick you. It says to you in a clear small shrill voice "Do not do this wrong action. It will bring misery to you." A wise man at once ceases to act further. Conscience warns you like a teacher or a friend, before it punishes you as a judge. It tells you to behave in the right manner. Conscience is obscured by human sin and weakness. In the world people think of one thing, say another thing, and do a third thing. This is horrible, and nothing but lack of honesty. You must carefully watch your thought, speech and action. The little you gain by telling lies is no gain at all. You pollute your conscience and infect your subconscious mind.
Page 46 of 104
9.2
THE NATURE OF MORAL JUDGEMENT
When our conscience tells us that an action is good or right, what is implied in the statement that we make? It is necessary first of all to distinguish what is subjectively right, that is what appears to be right that is right in the light of objective moral standards. There is little doubt that the ordinary man does not make this distinction when he says that moderate drinking is right what he is really doing is saying that in his own opinion the moderate drinking is right that is subjectively right, but he probably feels that he is making a statement that is objectively true and that moderate drinking is right, apart from his own opinion altogether. There are four implications that may be in peoples minds when they use the terms right and good. Some other ethical terms which may be called as value, obligator ness, moral fittingness and objective validity? It is not likely that all these implications are present in a persons mind when he uses an ethical term, but one or more them certainly is. Certain terms emphasize one implication more than another duty for example, emphasizes obligator ness and right implies moral rightness rather than value. It may be that these notions are not completely in harmony with one another, so that what has most value need not be what is most obligatory. What we have now to do is to consider how these implications are present in the mind of an ordinary person as he makes his moral judgment. values When we make the moral judgment, this action is good. We imply that the action has some value or that it is worth while doing. The same is true although perhaps in a less degree of the judgment, This action is right. It may be that the action is worthwhile in itself apart from its result, this is what we mean often when we say that a character is good, and what we mean sometimes when we say a motive like gratitude is good. Or it may be that an action is worthwhile because it produces results which are worth while in themselves like things of beauty and state of happiness. Good conduct is by no means the only thing in the universe that is worthwhile; most people agree that things like the enjoyment of beauty or attentive relationship with God are also worthwhile and so worthy to be called good. Indeed, it is here that the ethical use of good agrees in part with the many other uses of good which may be studied in axiology. When we wish to make a moral judgment emphasizing this aspect of value or disvalue, we tend to use the terms good and bad rather than the terms right and wrong. Some people think that the term right is used to indicate what produces good results, but at most this only a part of its meaning, and sometimes it does not seem to bear this meaning at all. Obligator ness When we judge a piece of conduct morally we imply that somebody ought to do certain actions. Very often the moral judgment comes with the force of an order
Page 47 of 104
that is why the moral law is an imperative. A external introspection probably suggest that most people under the influence of conscience feel under the control of a command coming from outside, that it is an external God order them do something or outside society bidding them do something. A deeper reflection will show that the authority is in some sense inside of us, that in some sense it is an obligation that is imposed or at any rate accepted by the self. It is obligator ness that is one mark distinguishes conduct and other things which are ethically good from things that are good in some other way. However good we may regard the perception of a beautiful object or the experiencing of some pleasure we do not feel the obligation to enjoy them that we feel to do good actions. Because of this, many moralists hold that this notion of obligatoriness is the fundamental notion of ethics. Many people doubt whether we can say that it is obligatory for anyone to produce certain outside results, for outside results generally depend on many factors over which we can have no control. What is obligasizing this aspect, we tend to use the phrases we ought to do something or it our duty to do something. Moral fittingness Many people think that the whole meaning of an ethical judgment like this action is right is contained in the notions of value and obligatoriness. When we use the term right however, we are often not lying emphasis either on the value of the action or its results, or on the obligation we feel to perform it. We are rather implying that the action is suitable in some unique and probably indefinable way to the situation in which the doer finds himself, although we may also think that such an action is likely to produce results of value and that we have some obligation to do it. The rightness of an action like speaking the truth consists not merely in its producing good results, for many people would think it still right if it produced bad results, and it does not consist in its being obligatory, for people hold that it is obligatory because it is right. Its rightness depends on its being the morally fitting thing to do in most circumstances. Action rightness depends on its moral suitability and the mental attitude of the dominating factor in determining its suitability the spirit in which help is given is more important for the rightness of the action than the nature of the help. It is certainly the case that mental conditions must be taken into account but there is also an objective moral fittingness. A certain situation seems to call for a certain type of action, apart from its good consequences. There is a moral fittingness in a man attempting to save a drowning child even although his inability to swim makes his action useless. This notion of the moral fittingness is the chief rival of obligatoriness as the fundamental notion of ethics. It is of course most commonly expressed in the moral judgment this is right, and its opposing judgment, this is wrong. Objective validity When the ordinary man says that an action is good or right he holds that he is saying something which is true, apart from his own judgement on the matter. It
Page 48 of 104
is of course possible that he is mistaken in this, and many theories of ethics hold that all that he is affirming is that he has feeling of liking or a feeling of some kind of moral approval towards the action. He holds that his ethical judgement is one that can be contradicted by an opponent and that either he or his opponent is wrong in the matter. This may be put in another way by saying that the ordinary man holds that the decisions of jury that a prisoner on trial of guilty or not guilty is a true or false decision.
Page 49 of 104
APPENDIX 1
REFERENCE LIST
www.home12.inet.tele www.hinduism.co.za www.arts.adelaide.edu www.pressurecooker.phil.cmu.edu www.moralphilosophy.info/normativeethics.html www.londonoratory.org www.stevepavlina.com www.en.winkipedia.org www.understanding-islam.com An Introduction to Ethics by William Lillie
Page 50 of 104
PART GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
Page 51 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
Page 52 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
CH: 1
RELIGION
IMPORTANT ISLAMIC WARS (GHAZWAT)

BADR It was fought in the year 624AD between 1000 Kafirs and 373 Muslims. Two Muslims were martyred whereas 70 Kafirs slained. UHAD Fought in 625 AD between 3,000 Kafirs and 700 Muslims. Three Muslims were martyred whereas 70 Kafirs slained. KHANDAQ Fought in 627 AD between troops of 10,000 Kafirs and 3000 Muslims. Five Muslims were martyred while 20 Kafirs slained. In this battle Hazart Salman Farsi (RA) made a proposal for digging a ditch. MAUTA Fought in 630 AD. TREATY OF HUDAIBIA It was agreed between Hazarat Muhammad (PBUH) and Sohail ibn Umar in 628 AD. BATTLE OF HUNAIN It was fought after the conquest of Makkah in the year 630AD. Muslims were 12,000 in number whereas non believers are 20,000. KHAIBER Fought in 628AD against the Jewish tribes, in which 15 Muslims were martyred as against 93 Jewish slained. COQUEST OF MAKKAH Makkah was conquered by Muslims in 630AD.
Page 53 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
INTRODUCTION OF THE HOLY QURAN

It sis the Holy book of Muslims, revealed on Holy Prophet Hazrat Muhammad ( PBUH) , through arch angel Hazrat Gabriel ( AS) in 22 years , 5 months and 14 days. It consists of 30 Paras (Parts), 114 Surahs, 6666 Ayats, 105684 words and 3236700 letters. The Holy Quran is not consisting upon the fundamental laws for Muslims but it also contains laws for all humanity till the day of Resurrection. It forbids such evils as drinking, swearing, gambling, the worship of graven images, and the belief in the other gods than Allah. In short it described the entire organization of life.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
First Surahs of the Holy Quran Last Surahs of the Holy Quran Longest Surahs of the Holy Quran Shortest Surahs of the Holy Quran
Al Fatiah Al Nas Al Baqarah Al Kausar Aaital Kursi Surah Tauba 87 27 7 558 14 6666
Longest Ayat of the Holy Quran Surah that not Begins with Bismillaha Number of Makki Surah Number of Madni Surah Number of Manzil Number of Rakus Number of Sajdas Number of Ayats
Page 54 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
ASHRA MUBASSHARA
Ashra Mubasshara are those fortunate companions of Holy Prophet Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH), who were declared Heavenly persons by the Holy Prophet (PBUH). They are ten in number, whose names are given as under. 1. Hazrat Abu Bakr ( RA) 2. Hazrat Umar Farooq ( RA) 3. Hazrat Usman ( RA) 4. Hazrat Ali ( RA) 5. Hazrat Abu Talha ( RA) 6. Hazrat Abu Obeida Bin Jarrah ( RA) 7. Hazrat Abdur Rehman Bin Auf ( RA) 8. Hazrat Saad Ibn Waqas ( RA) 9. Hazrat Zubair Bin Awam ( RA) 10.Hazrat Saeed Ibn e Zaid ( RA)
Page 55 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
CH: 2
BASIC FACTS ABOUT PAKISTAN
HIGHEST MOUNTAIN PEAKS IN PAKISTAN

S.# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Mountain Peak K-2 Nanga Parbat Gasherbrum -1 Gasherbrum -2 Gasherbrum -3 Raka Poshi Tirich Meer West Tirich Meer East Sia Kangri 1 Istoronal Baltoro Height feet / meters 28269 / 8616 26660 / 8125 26470 / 8068 26360 / 8035 26090 / 7953 2552 / 7788 25264 / 7699 25230 / 7690 24351 / 7422 24240 / 7390 19850 / 6518 KaraKoram Himalaya KaraKoram KaraKoram KaraKoram KaraKoram HinduKush KaraKoram KaraKoram KaraKoram KaraKoram Range
Page 56 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
SOME FAMOUS MUSEUMS IN PAKISTAN

S.# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Name of Museums Allama Iqbal Museum Quaid i Azam Museum Air Force Museum Archaeological Museum Armed Forces Museums Army Museum Bahawal Pur State Museum Botanical Museum Dir Museum Quetta Museum Lahore Museum Peshawar Museum Islamia College Museum Taxila Museum Agricultural Museum Location Lahore Islamabad Peshawar Peshawar University Islamabad Rawalpindi Bahawal Pur Rawalpindi Chakdara Quetta Lahore Peshawar Peshawar Taxila Faisalabad
Page 57 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
FAMOUS BANKS IN PAKISTAN

Nationalized Scheduled Banks S.# 1 2 3 4 Name First Women Bank Ltd National Bank of Pakistan The Bank of Khyber The Bank of Punjab
Specialized Scheduled Banks
S.# 1 2 3 4
Name Industrial Development Bank of Pakistan Punjab Provincial Co operative Bank SME Bank Limited Zarai Taraqiati Bank Limited
Private Local Banks S.# 1 2 3 4 5 6 Name Allied Bank Limited Askari Commercial Bank Ltd Habib Bank Limited Union Bank Limited United Bank Limited Saudi Pak Commercial Bank
Page 58 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
CH: 3
WORLD GEOGRAPHY
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE

Latitude: It is the angular distance of any point from the equator, measured north or south, along the earths curved surface equaling the angle between the respective horizontal planes. It is measured in degrees, minutes and seconds, each minute equaling one sea mile in length. Longitude: It is the angle between the terrestrial meridian drawn from the pole, through a place, and a standard meridian now taken at Greenwich. All determination of longitude are based on the earth turning through 360 in 24 hours, or the sun reaching 15 west each hour.
LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE OF WORLD CITIES

Latitude Longitude City Aberdeen, Scotland Algiers, Algeria 57 ' 9N 2 3 ' 9W 0E
36 50 N
Amsterdam, Netherlands 52 22 N Ankara, Turkey Bangkok, Thailand Barcelona, Spain Beijing, China Belm, Brazil Brisbane, Australia Bristol, England Brussels, Belgium Calcutta, India 39 55 N
4 53 E 32 55 E
13 45 N 100 30 E 41 23 N 2 9E
39 55 N 116 25 E 1 28 S 48 29 W 8E
27 29 S 153 51 28 N 50 52 N 22 34 N
2 35 W 4 22 E 88 24 E 18 22 E 67 2W
Cape Town, South Africa 33 55 S Caracas, Venezuela Frankfurt, Germany 10 28 N 50 7N
8 41 E
Page 59 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EQUATOR AND HEMISPHERE

Equator: Imaginary great circle around the earth, everywhere equidistant from the two Geographical poles and forming the base line from which latitude is reckoned. The equator, which measures (40,076 km), is designated as lat. 0. It intersects N South America, central Africa, and Indonesia. The celestial equator is the projection of the plane of the earth's equator on the celestial sphere. Hemisphere: A hemisphere is half the Earth's surface. The four hemispheres are the Northern and Southern hemispheres, divided by the equator (0 latitude), and the Eastern and Western hemispheres, divided by the prime meridian (0 longitude) and the International Date Line.
POLAR REGIONS
Polar Regions are the areas of the globe surrounding the poles also known as frigid zones. The North Pole and South Pole being the centers, these regions are dominated by the polar ice caps, resting respectively on the Arctic Ocean and the continent of Antarctica. Antarctica: The second smallest Continent, mostly south of the Antarctic Circle. Area: 14.2 million sq. km (5.5 million sq. mi.). Geographic South Pole: Earth's southernmost point, at latitude 90S, where all lines of longitude meet. Magnetic South Pole: The magnetic South Pole shifts about 5 miles (km) a year and is now located at about 66S and 139E on the Adlie Coast of Antarctica. Climate: The coldest, windiest, driest continent. The Arctic: Region primarily made up of the frozen Arctic Ocean that surrounds the North Pole. Land masses include islands and the northern parts of the European, Asian, and North American continents. Area: 14.056 million sq. km (5.4 million sq. mi.), largely frozen ocean. Geographic North Pole: Northern end of Earth's axis, located at about latitude 90N. Magnetic North Pole: Continues to shift and is located at approximately 82N and 114W in the Queen Elizabeth Islands of northern Canada. Climate: Polar climate characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual temperature ranges; winters characterized by continuous darkness, cold and stable weather conditions, and clear skies; summers characterized by continuous daylight, damp and foggy weather, and weak cyclones with rain or snow.
Page 60 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
MYTHS ABOUT EXPLORERS

Most people think Christopher Columbus discovered America. In fact, the Vikings, led by Leif Ericson, were the first Europeans to land on the coast of North America in the year 1000. Christopher Columbus landed on the island of San Salvador in 1492, thinking he had reached the East Indies. Ferdinand Magellan was the first to sail around the world. In fact, he was dead before the voyage was over. Magellan set sail from Spain in 1519 with five ships and 270 men and was killed in a fight with the natives of Mactan Island in the Philippines in 1521. In 1522, one of his ships, with 18 original crewmen, completed the journey. Phileas Fogg traveled around the world in 80 days. In fact, he was an imaginary character in a Jules Verne novel, Around the World in Eighty Days. Nellie Bly, an American journalist, accepted a challenge to go around the world in fewer than 80 days. In 1889, she made the journey in 72 days. Charles Lindbergh was the first to fly across the Atlantic Ocean. In fact, he was the first to fly solo (alone) across the Atlantic in 1927. The first nonstop flight across the Atlantic was made by Alcock and Brown, two British aviators, in 1919.
Page 61 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
WORLDS HIGHEST MOUNTAINS

The worlds highest mountains are listed below S.# 1 2 Mountain Mount Everest K2 (Chogori) Height in feet 29,028 28,250 28,208 27,923 27,824 27,803 27,504 Range Himalaya Karakoram Himalaya Himalaya Himalaya Himalaya Himalaya
3 Kanchenjunga 1 4 5 Lhotse 1 Makalu 1
6 Kanchenjunga 2 7 Lhotse Star
WORLDS LONGEST PLATFORMS

S.# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Name The Loop Khargpur Storvik Sonepur Bulawayo New Luck now Manchester Victoria Exchange Location Chicago West Bengal Sweden Bihar Zimbabwe UP ( INDIA) United kingdom Length in feet 3500 2733 2470 2415 2302 2250 2194
Page 62 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
WORLD FAMOUS WATERFALLS

S.# 1 2 3 4 5 Name Angel Tugela Kukenaam Sutherland Ribbon ( Yosemite) Location Venezuela Natal, south Africa Guyana South Island, N.Z California Height in meters 1,000 914 610 580 491
LARGE PENINSULAS OF THE WORLD

S.# 1 Arabia 2 Gouthern India 3 Alaska 4 Labrador 5 Scandinavia Name Area in Sq Kms 3,250,000 2,072,000 1,500,000 1,300,000 800,300
Page 63 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
WORLDS LARGEST ISLANDS

The world largest Islands are as given below
S.# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Name Greenland ( Denmark) New Guinea Borneo Madagascar Baffin Sumatra Honshu Great Britain Victoria Ellesmere
Area Sq miles 21,75,600 8,07,396 7,46,308 5,87,042 5,07,449 4,73,606 2,27,414 2,18,980 2,17,290 1,96,236
Location North Atlantic West Pacific Pacific India Atlantic Pacific Northwest Pacific North Atlantic Arctic ocean Arctic ocean
Page 64 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
MAJOR SEAS IN THE WORLD
S.# 1 2 3 4 5 6
Name South China Sea Caribbean Sea Mediterranean Sea Bering Sea Gulf of Mexico Sea of Okhotsk
Area in Sq Km 2,974,600 2,753,000 2,503,000 2,268,180 1,542,985 1,527,570 1,249,150 1,232,300 1,007,500 797,700 575,300 461,980 437,700 422,160 238,790
Average depth in meters 1,200 2,400 1,485 1,400 1,500 840 180 120 1,370 865 90 1,100 490 55 24
7 East China Sea 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Persian Gulf ( Arabian Gulf) 16 Gulf of St. Lawrence 17 Gulf of California 18 English Cannel 19 20 Irish Sea Bass Strait Hudson Bay East Sea Andaman Sea North Sea Black Sea Red Sea Baltic Sea
237,760 23237, 162,000 89,900 88,550 75,000
120 810 54 60 70
Page 65 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
WORLDS LARGEST LAKES

The world largest Lakes are as given below
S.# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Lake Caspian sea Lake Superior Lake Victoria Aral sea Lake Huron Lake Michigan Lake Tanganyika Lake Great Bear Lake Baikal Lake Nyasa
Location Iran Azerbaijan Canada USA Kenya-Tanzania & Uganda Kazakhstan Canada USA USA Burundi Tanzania & Zambia Canada Russia Malawi Mozambique & Tanzania
Area in Kms 3, 72,000 82,103 69,484 66,459 59,699 57,757 32,893 31,792 31,499 28,749
Depth in meters 995 406 82 68 229 281 1,435 411 1,620 701
Page 66 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
FAMOUS DESERTS OF THE WORLD

The worlds famous deserts are listed below
S.# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Name The Sahara Australian Desert Arabian Desert The Gobi Kalahari Desert Takla Makan Sonoran Desert Namib Desert Kara Kum Thar Desert Somall Desert Atacama Desert Kizil Kum Dasht-e-Lut Mojave Desert Desierto De Sechura
Area in Sq Km 84,00,000 15,50,000 13,00,000 10,40,000 5,20,000 3,20,000 3,10,000 3,10,000 2,70,000 2,60,000 2,60,000 1,80,000 1,80,000 52,000 35,000 26,000
Territories Algeria Chad, Libya, Mauritania Australia, Great Victoria, Simpson Southern Arabia, Iraq, Yamen etc Mongolia and China Botswana Sinkiang, China Arizona and California, U.S.A., and Mexico Namibia Turkmanistan Northwestern India and Pakistan Somalia Northern Chile Uzbekistan-Kazakhstan Eastern Iran Southern Californis North-West 'Peru'
Page 67 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
CURRENCIES OF DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

S.# 1 2 Country Afghanistan Argentina Currency Afghani Austral and Argenintinian Neuvo Peso (replacement for the Peso) 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Australia Belgium Brazil Canada China Egypt France Gambia Greece Hong Kong Iceland Israel Jamaica Lebanon Malta Mongolia Poland South Africa Australian Dollar Euro Cruzeiro Real Canadian Dollar Yuan Renminbi Egytian Pound Euro Dalasi Euro Hong Kong Dollar Icelandic Krna Shekel Jamaican Dollar Lebanese Pound Maltese Lira (Maltese Pound formerly in use) Tugrik New Zloty (replacement for Zloty) Rand
Page 68 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
REMARKABLE BRIDGES IN THE WORLD

S.# 1 2 Name Angostura Bridge Bendorf Bridge Location Cuidad Bolivar, Venezuela Coblenz, Germany
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Bosporus Bridge Gladsvill Bridge Humber Bridge Lake Pontchartr ain Bridge Oostersce Iderbrug Rio Niteroi Tagus River Bridge Zoo Bridge
Istanbul, Turkey ( linking Europe to Asia) Sydney, Australia Kingston upon Hull, UK New Orleans, United States Vlissingen / Rotterdam, the Netherlands Guanabara Bay, Brazil Lisbon, Portugal Colonge, Germany
Page 69 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
FAMOUS RIVERS OF THE WORLD

S.# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Name Nile Amazon Yangtze Hang He Congo Niger Mekong Mississippi Missouri Volga Rio Grande Indus Danube Zambezi Ganges Location Northeast Africa South America China China Africa Africa Asia United States United States Russia USA Mexico Pakistan Europe Africa India Bangladesh Length in Km 6,671 6,437 6,300 5,464 4,667 4,180 4,180 3,779 3,726 3,531 3,034 2,897 2,860 2,570 2,478
Page 70 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
SOME FAMOUS INTERNATIONAL AIR LINES

S.# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Air lines name Aerofloat Air Canada Alitalia Garuda Sabena Qantas Swissair Lufthansa BOAC Cathy Pacific Country Russia Canada Italy Indonesia Belgium Australia Switzerland Germany Britain Hong Kong
Page 71 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
TEN FAMOUS TRAINS OF THE WORLD

1. Trans-Siberian Express Traveling between Moscow and Vladivostok, the Trans-Siberian Express makes the longest regular train trip in the world, covering 5,778 mi and making 91 stops over the course of nine days. During the Cold War, Westerners could travel only in compartments, where they were subject to Stalinist propaganda played on loudspeakers. 2. Blue Train The Blue Train has run between Cape Town and Pretoria, South Africa, since 1939 and derives its name from its blue locomotives, railroad cars, and leather seats. It is still considered one of the most luxurious trains running, having been upgraded in 1997 to include televisions and phones in all of its suites. 3. Indian Pacific Connecting the east and west coasts of Australia, the Indian Pacific runs from Sydney to Perth in three days, over a distance of 2,461 mi. This route has the world's longest stretch of straight track, which lasts for 297 mi. 4. Super Chief Originally operated by the Santa Fe Railway beginning in 1936, the Super Chief ran from Chicago to Los Angeles. It was considered one of the best long-distance trains in the U.S. and was renowned for its gourmet food and Hollywood clientele. Amtrak currently operates a long distance train over the same route. 5. TGV The French TGV (train grande vitesse, or high speed train) is an electric train system. Trains run between Paris and several other cities, regularly traveling at speeds as high as 186 mph. A modified TGV set a world speed record in 1990 when it hit 320 mph in trial runs. 6. Orient Express In 1883 the Orient Express began service from Paris to Istanbul, crossing six countries. The train was famous for its five-course French meals and for its passengers, who were often diplomats, royalty, or government couriers.
Page 72 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
7. 20th Century Limited The 20th Century Limited debuted in 1902 as the New York Central's luxury train, operating between New York and Chicago. It traveled the smooth water level route alongside the Hudson River and the shores of Lake Erie. The railroad would roll out a crimson carpet to welcome passengers to the train, giving rise to the phrase the red carpet treatment. Amtrak currently operates a long distance train over the same route. 8. The Flying Scotsman Running between King's Cross station in London and Edinburgh, Scotland, the Flying Scotsman was a luxury express train full of amenities. It featured a hairdressing salon, a Louis the XVIstyle restaurant and bar, and, for a short time, a cinema coach. 9. Peruvian Central Railway The highest railway in the world, the Peruvian Central Railway is an engineering marvel, climbing 13,000 ft on its trip from La Oroya to Lima, Peru. The railroad, which features 66 tunnels and 59 bridges, zigzags across valleys in order to minimize the steepness of its climb. There is an onboard doctor who administers oxygen to passengers who get altitude sickness. 10. Bullet Train
The Japanese Shinkansen, or Bullet Train, runs at speeds of more than 100 mph over special tracks with minimal curves. In 1997, a newer version of the Bullet Train became the fastest scheduled train in the world, regularly reaching speeds of up to 186 mph.
Page 73 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
WORLDS FAMOUS LIBRARIES

The National Library, Vienna (Austria) The National Library of Vienna is considered to be the one of the largest libraries in the world. It contains a collection of Papyri consisting of 81,000 items, 12, 00,000 printed books and volumes of printed and 12,000 music manuscripts. Munich State Library It comprises of 2.5 million volumes and is considered to be the biggest library in Germany. British Museum Library It was established in 1759. It has six million printed books and 60,000 manuscripts. In World War 2 (1939 45) one hundred and fifty thousand books were destroyed by air raid. National Library, Paris (France) It is considered to be one of the biggest Libraries in the world. It comprises of over six million books. State Library, Berlin (Germany) It was established between the years 1659 61. In 1947 it was amalgamated with the Berlin University Library. Prior to the World War 1 (1914 18) it had 2.85 million books. On the whole now there are fifteen lakhs books in the new library. Amongst Germanys other biggest libraries are University of Bonn ( 8,00,000) Freidburg ( 12,00,000) Munich ( 25,00,000) Vatican Library, Vatican State (Italy) The Vatican Library contains many valuable and rare books of Christians. It also has rare manuscripts. Lenin State Library, Tokyo (Japan) It comprises of the hundred and fifty million books, magazines and manuscripts. Some historical documents are also preserved in this library.
Page 74 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
The National Library, Tokyo (Japan) The national library of Tokyo contains 4.1 million books while the university Library of Tokyo has 18, 25,000 books. Imperial Library, Calcutta (India) This is Indias biggest library and contains 500,000 books and manuscripts. Punjab Public Library, Lahore (Pakistan) Amongst the public Libraries this is the biggest library in Pakistan established in 1884. it has 4,00,000 books and manuscripts. A Quranic section has been added in the upper storey of library which houses old and rare copies of the Holy Quran, translated in many languages of the world. Congress Library, New York (USA) It was established in 1800 and contains more than 43.5 million books. Each year many thousands books are added in the library.
SOME SPECIALIZED AGENCIES IN THE WORLD

1. Economic and Social Council ( ECOSOC) It is responsible under the General Assembly for carrying out the functions of the United Nations with regard to international, economics, social, cultural, educational, health and related matters. 2. Food and Agriculture Organization ( FAO) Established in 1945, its chief aims are to help nations raise the standards of living and to improve nutrition of the people. 3. World Health Organization ( WHO) It was formed in 1948 with the purpose of raising health standards, to eradicate epidemic and other diseases, also to make information on medical research available to all the countries. It also promotes the improvement of nutrition housing, sanitation and recreation. 4. International Atomic Energy Agency It was set up in 1955 under the UNO to make recommendations for the use of atomic energy for peaceful purposes. All the member nations are required to
Page 75 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
place a part of fissionable material and also Uranium at the disposal of the agency. 5. United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO) The main purpose of UNESCO is to promote peace and security in the world by promoting collaborations among the member nations through the medium of education, science and culture so that people may develop respect for justice for the rule of law and for human rights irrespective of race, sex, language or religion. 6. United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP) It came into being on December 15, 1972 as a result of Stockholm Conference on the Human environment, to identify major international environment problems. Headquarters is in Nairobi, Kenya.
WORLDS FAMOUS WALLS

Great Wall of China It is the only human achievement from visible from the moon, stretches for 1684 miles or 6000 kilometers from Shanhaikuan pass into the east to Chiayukan pass in the west .it was built in the region of Shih Huang ti. It is 15 to 39 feet high and up to 32 feet thick. Hadrians Wall (UK) It stretches for 73 miles across the neck of England from wall send (towards east) near the mouth of Tyne to Bowness on the Solway Firth. The most impressive stretch of the wall lies with in the Northumberland National Park between the Stony North Tyne River and the country boundary at Gilshead constructed between 118AD to 122AD. Wailing Wall (Jerusalem) It is a part of western wall of the temple court at Jerusalem. Regarded sacred by the Muslims, Jews and Christians alike. Here the Jews have been gathering for centuries to weep over the destruction of Jerusalem.
Page 76 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
WORLDS FAMOUS TUNNELS

S.# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Name Seikan Channel Shimizu Simplon 1, 11 Vereina Shin Kanmon Apennine Rokko Furka St. Gotthard Lotschberg Location Japan England France Japan Italy - Switzerland Switzerland Japan Italy Japan Switzerland Switzerland Switzerland Length in Km 53.9 49.8 22.2 19.8 19.1 18.7 18.5 16.3 15.3 15.0 14.6
COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD

Largest country: The Russia is the largest country of the world, having about 15% of the world area. Smallest country: Vatican state is the smallest country of the world. The enclave has an area of 108.7 acres. Smallest colony: Gibraltar is the smallest colony, with area of 2 Sq.miles. Worlds smallest republic: The worlds smallest republic is Nauru.
Page 77 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD

The Seven Wonders of the World is the name given to a group of well known works of art and engineering that were popular. 1) The Light House of Alexandria The Light House of Alexandria was built by Ptolemy 1 in the third century BC and stood on the island of pharos at the entrance to the harbour. It was so famous that pharos came into general use as the word for lighthouse. The building said to be 400 feet high, was of white stone and contained many storeys. No remains are left now. 2) The Angkor Vat The most famous monument Angkor Thom (Cambodia). The frontage is about 5,000 feet surrounded by a water filled moat. It contains a series of maze passages, courtyards, rooms and than half a mile of continuous narrative, including the epic stories of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Damaged by Cambodian Artillery in February 1971. 3) The Colosseum This largest structure in the ancient Rome was built from 72 to 80 AD under the Emperors Vespasian and Titus. The arena had seats for 50,000 spectators. It has suffered a series of disasters of plundering, fire, earthquakes and robbery of building materials, in its long history. Large sections of the Colosseum have been preserved and testify to the ancient Roman skill as builders.
4) Learning Tower of Pisa (Italy) An eight storey (50.18 meter or 170 feet high) bell tower. It dates back from 12th century. The tilt is aggravated by rotational movement caused by heat from the sun expanding the marble block of the tower is built from. 5) The pyramids of Egypt A group of three pyramids, situated about 8 miles southwest of Cairo (Egypt). The great pyramid of Khufu at Giza is the only one of the original seven wonders that still exists. It was built in 2690 BC by Cheops, the second Pharoah of 4th Dynasty. The original height of the pyramid was 481 feet, but now it is 450 feet. 6) The Hanging Gardens of Babylon
Page 78 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
The hanging Gardens of Babylon (Iraq) were built by King Nebuchadnezzar about 600 BC in memory of his beloved queen Amuhia. The gardens were laid in five storeys vaulted structure raising from 75 to 300 feet, with provision for raising water. No traces of the hanging gardens have been left nows. 7) Shwe Dagon Pagoda, Rangoon ( Myanmer) It contains about 25 tons of gold and 100 tons of silver. Around the base are 64 small shrines. It is situated in the city of Rangoon ( Myanmer)
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MINERALS AND ROCKS

Minerals A mineral is a natural substance having a characteristics chemical composition. Most of them are crystalline, and in this they differ from rocks. The classification of mineral is based chiefly on their chemical constitution, metallic, ionic and molecular. Geologists have classified nearly 3000 minerals. Minerals are generally found underground and the process of locating valuable deposits and of ascertaining both the quality and quantity of such deposits is a slow and a costly one. Rocks A large mass of stone or stony matter is called rock. Rock which forms the earths crust is composed of mineral material particles welded together under great heat or pressure. Worlds deepest mines do not go down far enough to tell us what is at the center of the earth which is about 4000 miles form its crust. Nearer the crusts are the rock and stone of the lithosphere, then the waters of the earth( hydrosphere), and then the atmosphere, the land surface on which we live comprises of sand and soil, which are derived from ancient rocks. Classification of Rocks Rocks may be classified into three categories namely 1. Igneous Rocks Igneous rocks are formed from lava or magma. Magma is molten rock that is underground and lava is molten rock that erupts out on the surface. The two main types of igneous rocks are plutonic rocks and volcanic rocks. Plutonic rocks are formed when magma cools and solidifies underground. Volcanic rocks are
Page 79 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
formed from lava that flows on the surface of the Earth and other planets and then cools and solidifies. 2. Sedimentary Rocks These rocks are formed by the deposition of the sediment in water, conglomerates (e.g. gravel, shingle, pebbles) sand stones and shales (layered clay and clay stone). 3. Metamorphic Rocks These are rocks transformed by the action of intense heat or great pressure of chemical activity on rock formations. Sedimentary rocks cover about 75% of the worlds land areas, whereas igneous rocks and metamorphic rocks make up 95% of the top 16 km (10 miles) of the earths crusts. The moon rocks are collected by astronauts are igneous in type.
IMPORTANT EVENTS IN THE WORLDS HISTORY

Black Death Modern names (first used in England in the early 19th century) for the great epidemic of bubonic Plague, which spread from China to devastate Europe in the 14th century. Bloodless Revolution in England After king James of England accession a rebellion took place in favor of the duke of Monmouth, but the Duke was put to death. Kellogg Bariand Pact (August 27, 1928) Belgium, Brain, Czechoslovakia, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Poland and USA are its original signatories also known as Pact of Paris. The Simla Agreement (July 2, 1972) peace agreement signed between Pakistan and India, after 1971 indo pak war. Paris Peace Accord (Oct 1991) signed for ending 13 year old civil war in Combodia.
Page 80 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
The Egypt Israel Peace Treaty (March 26, 1979) signed for ending 30 year of war and establishing diplomatic relations between Egypt and Israel. Rio Earth Summit Held under the auspices of UN between June 3 to June 14, 1992 in Rio de Janeiro Brazil and signed by 178 nations. Its mainly object was to reconcile global economic development with environmental protection. The World first Solar Summit The worlds first solar summit was ended in Harare (Zimbabwe) on September 17, 1996 with predictions that it could change the lives of millions of people as long as the cash available. Hong Kong handed over to China As a result of Chinese leaders negotiations with British authorities Britain, relinquished the control of Hong Kong and thus it became part of China on July 1, 1997. D 8 Conference Developing -8 (D 8) Summit was held in Cairo on Feb 25, 2001. it vowed to ensure a better deal for the worlds poor and to negotiate as a bloc with World Trade Organization (WTO). Member countries also pledged to double the volume of Trade between them over the next five years. Locarno Pacts To establish peace and reconciliation between Germany and its neighbours agreements was signed on October 16, 1925. Germany, Belgium, France, Great Britain and Italy were the signatories of these pacts. OIC Ninth Summit Meeting OIC held its 9th Summit meeting on November 12, 2000 and passed a resolution for sending a delegation to Kashmir to examine the factual position of Kashmiris.
Page 81 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
U.S extended Sanctions on Libya Despite handing over of two suspects by Libya, US on Jan 5, 2000 extended sanctions on Libya for further 6 months. Exchange of mail between North and South Korea On March 15, 2001, north and South Koreas postal authorities exchanged mail between the two countries. It was the first in the history of both the countries that this histrionic event took place after five decades. The Group of Eight Meeting The Group of eight industrialized states on July 22, 2001in a joint statement pledged to take a decisive action in order to help the worlds poorest countries, especially in Africa. The G-8 announced no new initiations on the debt relief but pointed out the 23 out of the poorest countries had already qualified for the total relief of $ 53 billion.
BATTLES THAT CHANGED HISTORY

Some battles were turning points, not only in war, but in history itself, and we still talk about them today. Battle Where/When Opponents
Zama Zama, an ancient town in N. Africa southwest of Romans/Carthaginians Carthage / 202 B.C. This battle marked the downfall of Hannibal, one of history's most famous and daring generals. For more than 60 years, the Carthaginians and the Romans fought for world power. For 16 of those years Hannibal, the Carthaginian leader, was able to hold off the Romansuntil the battle of Zama. Though the Carthaginians had 15,000 fewer warriors, Hannibal thought he had solved the problem. He had 80 elephants, which he would use to send the Roman army fleeing in terror and confusion. But when Hannibal set the elephants free in the Roman ranks, the animals took the easier route and ran the other way! Hannibal and his army lost 11 elephants, the battle, and the war. Battle Marathon Where/When Opponents
Greece / 490 B.c. Persia / Greece
Page 82 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
The battle of Marathon is famous, not only because the underdog won, but also because of a legend of courage and sacrifice. Darius, the leader of Persia, Egypt, Babylon, and India, decided to become the ruler of Greece as well. But the Greeks, armed only with javelins and swords, defeated the much larger and better armed Persian army. What we remember today is the story of the messenger who brought the good news to Athens, the capital of Greece. Upon completing his 26-mile run, legend says he delivered his message, collapsed, and died. Today, the word marathon means a footrace of exactly 26 miles, 385 yards. Battle Where/When Opponents / Normans (French from
Hastings England / 1066 British
Normandy) This battle resulted in the Norman conquest of England. Edward the Confessor, the king of England, had no sons and promised that when he died his throne would go to his cousin William, duke of Normandy. On his deathbed, however, the king chose Harold, the powerful earl of Wessex, as king. An enraged William rushed into battle to claim the English throne. At the battle's height, the Normans pretended to flee. When the English ran after them, the Normans turned and attacked them again. Harold was shot in the face with an arrow and died on the battlefield, leaving the throne to William. To this day, the English royal family can be traced back to William the Conqueror. Battle Agincourt Where/When Opponents
France / 1415 England / France
This famous battle was part of the Hundred Years' War between the French and the English. English archers with their longbows were able to keep the French with their crossbows too far away to shoot. The French decided to charge. The ground was wet and muddy, causing the heavily armored troops to slip and fall. The French lost at least 5,000 men; another 1,000 were captured. The English losses totaled only 140. The Hundred Years' War between England and France lasted from 1337 to 1453, more than 100 years. It ended when the English were driven out of France. Battle Where/When Opponents
Lexington and Concord Massachusetts / 1775 American colonists / British
Page 83 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
This was the opening battle of the American Revolution. British troops led by General Thomas Gage were moving from Boston toward Lexington and Concord to capture the rebel leaders Samuel Adams and John Hancock and destroy their military supplies. The colonists were warned when Paul Revere made his famous midnight ride, shouting, The British are coming! At Lexington and Concord, armed colonists called Minutemen resisted the British. Ralph Waldo Emerson later wrote a poem describing this conflict as the shot heard round the world. The fighting ended almost a year later, when the British evacuated Boston. On July 4, 1776, representatives from the 13 colonies signed the Declaration of Independence to gain their freedom from Great Britain. Battle Where/When Opponents
Waterloo Belgium / 1815 England & European allies / France This battle ended not only Napoleon's Hundred Days' War but also 23 years of almost constant war between France and the rest of Europe. France and England had been enemies for hundreds of years. The battle of Waterloo was fought by the English forces and their allies, some 68,000 men under Arthur Wellesley (later the duke of Wellington), with 45,000 Prussians under Gebhard von Blcher against the French emperor Napoleon, with almost 72,000 men. Casualties of 25,000 men destroyed the French army. Soon after this crushing defeat, Napoleon was exiled on the island of Saint Helena, where he died six years later. Waterloo has since come to mean a disastrous defeat of any nature. Battle Where/When Opponents
Gettysburg Pennsylvania / 1863 Union / Confederacy The greatest battle of the American Civil War, Gettysburg marked the northernmost advance of the Confederate forces and is considered the war's turning point. Three bloody days of fighting ended in the failure of the Confederate army, led by General Robert E. Lee, to invade the North. Though his army outnumbered the Union forces under Major General George G. Meade, the North expected the Confederates to charge and try to break the center of its line. Cut down by enemy fire, the Confederates were quickly overwhelmed; only 150 out of 15,000 Southerners reached the Union lines. This decisive victory for the North was the beginning of the end of the Confederacy. Battle Where/When Opponents
Britain Great Britain / 1940 Summer & Fall Germany / England The battle of Britain was a series of air battles fought between the German air force, or Luftwaffe, and the British Royal Air Force, or RAF. It was the first time
Page 84 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
during World War II that Adolf Hitler's Nazi forces were thwarted. Following the fall of France, only Great Britain held out against Germany. With ground forces stopped by the English Channel, Hitler launched a heavy air attack on England. When several daytime attacks proved unsuccessful, the Germans executed a nighttime Blitzkrieg, or lightning war, on London, England. This attack, begun on September 7, continued for 57 nights. During this time an average of 200 planes each night blasted the city with high-explosive bombs. The relentless raids killed more than 43,000 British and wounded five times that number. Only the outstanding performance of the RAF kept the Germans from forcing Britain to surrender. As a result, Germany abandoned its plan for invasion. Battle Where/When Opponents
Guadalcanal SW Pacific / 1942-43 Japanese / U.S. This World War II battle was unique in many ways. The U.S. victory meant that Japan experienced its first setback in the Pacific islands. Also for the first time during the war, America was on the offensive. The ferocious 6-month battle for control of this tiny island 1,000 miles off the coast of Australia was fought on land, on sea, and in the air. Although many bitter battles were still to be fought before the end of the war in August 1945, the battle of Guadalcanal opened the way for U.S. victory in the South Pacific. Battle Where/When Opponents
Tet Offensive S. Vietnam / 1968 Vietnam / U.S. The Tet Offensive was the turning point in the Vietnam War. The North surprised the South Vietnamese and American forces in simultaneous attacks in many parts of Vietnam during the Vietnamese New Year, or Tet. Many of the attackers disguised themselves as Tet holiday celebrators. Although American troops weren't withdrawn from Vietnam until 1973, the Tet Offensive was the beginning of the end of the U.S. presence there. It was the first time the United States was unable to gain victory in war (since the War of 1812). Communist forces gained control of South Vietnam in 1975.
Page 85 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
UNITED NATIONS ORGANIZATION

The name United Nations was devised by the then U.S president Franklin D.Roosevelt, and was first used in the declaration by the United Nations on January 1, 1942.The United Nations Organization is an association of nations which have pledged themselves for the maintenance of international peace and security. The states agree to Co operate in promoting such political, economic and social conditions which may facilitate the achievement of these objects. Aims and Objectives The purposes of the United Nations are: To maintain international peace and security. To develop friendly relations among nations. To Co operate internationally in solving international economic, social, cultural and humanitarian problems and in promoting respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. To be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations in attaining these common ends. Disarm, decolonize and develop are the three new objectives set forth by the United Nations. Languages The official languages of the United Nations are Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russia and Spanish, while the working languages are English and French only. Spanish is also a working language of the General Assembly and of the Economic and social Council. Headquarters The headquarters of the United Nations are at New York (USA). The first meeting of the General Assembly was held there in October 1952. The secretariat building stands on a 17 acre tract of land, donated by John D. Rockfeller on the Manhattan Island, a suburb of New York. It has 39 storeys and accommodates over 8000 office workers. Flag of the United Nations Light blue with white global map of the world in centre supported by two Olive branches. United Nations Day The United Nations day is observed on October 24, each year.
Page 86 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
Organs of United Nations There are six main organs of the United Nations 1. General Assembly 2. Security Council 3. Economic and Social Council 4. Trusteeship Council 5. International Court of Justice 6. Secretariat 1) General Assembly It is the main body of the United Nations. It is also called as the town meeting of the world. Composed of all members nations. It may discuss any matter within the scope of the charter except those already referred to the Security Council. It meets once a year. It approves the United Nations Budget and apportions. 2) Security Council It is executive body of the United Nations. It is mainly responsible for maintaining international peace. It is session all the year round so that it may act quickly. It is composed of permanent five members Britain, china, France, Russia, and United States. And ten non permanent members elected by the General Assembly for two year terms. Retiring members is originally the Security Council consists of 11 members, but it was enlarged to its present 15 members in 1965, in accordance with an amendment in the charter. 3) Economic and Social Council The economic and social Council is composed of 54 members, 18 of which are elected each year by the General Assembly for a three year term office. Retiring members are eligible for immediate re elections. It is aided by separate regional commissions for Europe, Asia, the Far East, Latin America and Africa. 4) Trusteeship Council It is composed of members of the United Nations administering trust territories permanent member of the Security Council which do not administer trust territories and enough other members to make an equal division between countries which do not. Elected members of the Council are eligible on the expiration their term for immediate re election.
Page 87 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
5) International Court of Justice It is the principle judicial organ of the United Nations. It had as its predecessor the permanent Court of international Justice, institute by League of Nations and dissolved in 1946. The function of the International Court of Justice is to decide in accordance with international law, such disputes as are submitted to it. It consists of 15 judges elected by the Security Council and the General Assembly. Its seat is at Hague. 6) Secretariat It is composed of the secretary General who is the Chief Administrative officer of the Organization and international staff appointed by him under regulations established by the General Assembly.
AWARDS OTHER THAN NOBEL PRIZES

1. Aga Khan Award for Architecture It was established in 1977, strives to enhance the perception of Islamic culture as expressed through the architectural excellence encompassing concerns as varied as contemporary design social housing, community improvement and development, restoration, re-use and area conservation and landscaping and environmental issues. Through its efforts, the award seeks to identify and encourage building concepts that successfully address the needs and aspirations of Muslims societies. The award is organized on the basis of a rotating calendar spanning cyclical periods of three years each, and is government by a steering committee chaired by his highness Aga Khan. Up to $ 50,000 the largest architectural prize in the world are awarded every three years to projects selected by an independent Jury. 2. Atoms for Peace Award The award is annually distributed by the United Nations to the Persons who work for the development and peaceful use of atomic energy. 3. Bharat Ratna ( Jewel of India) Indias highest national award. The award is made for exceptional work for the advancement of art, literature and science and in recognition of public service.
Page 88 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
4. Haile Selassie Award This award has been instituted by the Ethiopian government and its value is more than 10,000 sterling. 5. Kalinga Award ( India) The award is distributed annually since 1962, by the Kalinga Foundation, from the grant made by B.Patnaik, former chief minister of Orissa. He named the prize after Kalinga the Indian empire conquered by Ashoka. 6. Third world Foundation Award The award has been instituted by the Third world Foundation for rendering meritorious services in the field of social welfare and economic. 7. king Faisal International Prizes King Faisal International Awards were created in 1979 for rendering excellent services in the fields of Islam, Islamic Studies and Arabic Literature. In 1980 it added prizes of medicine and science. Science Awards rotate between the fields of Biology, Physics, Mathematics and Chemistry. Each Award consists of a certificate containing an abstract of the winning work, a commemorative gold medallion and a cash endowment of SR 3, 50,000($ 93, 333). Joint winners in any category share the monetary grant.
Page 89 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
SOME FACTS ABOUT TIME

Time It is based on the times taken by the earth to rotate on its axis (day) by moon to revolve round the earth (month), and by the earth to revolve round the sun (year). Day starts at the midnight and is divided into 24 hours. The sun rises earlier in the places situated in the east, and later in the places situated in the west. The hours are counted from midnight upto12 at noon and these hours are designated AM and again from noon up to 12 at midnight which hours are designated PM and the hours are numbered 0 to 23 from midnight to midnight. Local Time When the system of local time is used, it is 12-O Clock noon at any region, where sun is at its highest point in the sky, and shadows are cast in a line extending north and south. Standard Time It is the system of the time established by common usage or legislative action in any part of the world. Standard time is the local time of standard meridian but used over an entire time zone. International Meridian conference, held in 1884 in USA, established the Meridian passing through Greenwich, England as the prime Meridian from which worlds time was to be reckoned. For every 15 degrees of longitude, east or west of Greenwich a time change of one hour results. Pakistan Standard Time The Pakistan standard time which is 5 hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time was adopted on October1, 1951. Greenwich Mean Time The standard time of England is known as Greenwich Mean Time. It is local time of Greenwich Observatory, which is on Longitude 0. Day light saving Time It was begun during World War 1. It is one hour earlier than standard time. The object is to save light and fuel by making more use of the sun. Summer Time The practice introduced in the UK in 1916, whereby legal time from spring to autumn is a four in advance of Greenwich Mean Time. It was permanently in force from February 1940 to October 1945 and from February 1968 till now. Sidereal Time It is the measure of time defined by the diurnal motion of the vernal equinox, and is determined from observation of the meridian transits of stars. One complete rotation of the earth relative to the equinox is called the Sidereal day.
Page 90 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
It is divided into 24 Sidereal hours, reckoned from upper transit (Sidereal noon). The mean Sidereal day is equal to 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4.09 seconds of mean solar time.
PLACES AND THEIR IMPORTANCE

Aachen German Cathedral city, French name Aix la Chapelle. During the World War 2 captured and severely destroyed by Allies. Birth place of Charlemagne. Abu, Mount Hill station in Rajasthan, which is famous for Jain Temples and the Central Police Training College. Agra Famous for Taj Mahal, fort and pearl Mosque Sikandra, the tomb of the Mughal Emperor Akbar, is situated here. It is also a centre of leather industry. On July 14 -15, 2001 Summit Conference to solve various issues between India and Pakistan was held, but ended with out achieving any result. Aden Town of Yemen is famous for its refineries. Allahabad Indian city situated at the confluence of three rivers Ganga, Jumna and Sarasvati. Therefore it is regarded as the holy city of Hindus. Baku Capital and chief port of Azerbaijan, on Caspian Sea. Vienna The Capital of Austria also has the status of a federal Province, seat of many international organizations. e.g. the International Atomic Energy Agency. Munich
Page 91 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
City of Germany. 1972 Olympic Games were held here. Famous for brewing and printing industries.
Multan ( Punjab, Pakistan) City in Punjab Province of Pakistan. Famous Baha Ud Din Zakria University, Nishtar Medical College, Fertilizer Factory and Natural Gas Power Station.
FAMOUS PLACES IN WORLD

S.# 1 Name AUROVILLE Famous for UNESCO sponsored world's first international town near Pondichery in Tamil Nadu named after Aurobindo Ghose. The town with an area of 15sq. miles and a population of 50,000 will be a selfsupporting township having gour zones, viz., cultural, industrial, residential and international. It was inaugurated on February 28, 1963.
ABU SIMBAL (U.S.A.)
A monument executed by UNSCO in Egypt, the famous temple at Nybia (Egypt) was facing submergence as result of the construction of Aswan Dam. UNSCO has reconstructed it at a cost of 36 million dollars and was inaugurated on 12th Sept. 1968.
ADAM'S BRIDGE
Sand and rock bridge between Sri Lanka and India. Legent has is that was constructed by Lord Rama when he was in invade Lanka of Ravana.
ALICE SPRINGS (Australia) BIG BEN BILLING'S GATE
Spring with medicinal properties
5 6
Name given to the big clock of the British Parliament building. London fish market. As a term, it means foul language.
Page 92 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
7 8
DODOMA ELBA
This is going to be the new capital of Tanzania in place of Dar-esSalam. An isolated island in the Meduterranean Sea, where Napoleon was exiled in 1841.
ELLORA
Famous for rock-pruned Kailash Temple (Aurangabad) in Maharashtra. An exquisite piece of Dravidian art. Ellora cave temples, 34 in number, present a blend of caves representing Buddhism and Jainism constructed in 8th century A.D.
10
ELYSEE PALACE
Official residence of the President of France. It was the venue of Paris Peace parleys on Vietnam World's one of the loftiest structures. It has 103 storeys and a height of 1200 feet.
11 EMPIRE STATE BUILDING (U.S.A)
Page 93 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
CH: 4
NATURAL DISASTERS
TSUNAMIS
A tsunami (pronounced soo-nahm-ee) is a series of huge waves that happen after an undersea disturbance, such as an earthquake or volcano eruption. Tsunami is from the Japanese word for harbor wave. The waves travel in all directions from the area of disturbance, much like the ripples that happen after throwing a rock. The waves may travel in the open sea as fast as 450 miles per hour. As the big waves approach shallow waters along the coast they grow to a great height and smash into the shore. They can be as high as 100 feet. They can cause a lot of destruction on the shore. They are sometimes mistakenly called tidal waves, but tsunamis have nothing to do with the tides. Hawaii is the state at greatest risk for a tsunami. They get about one a year, with a damaging tsunami happening about every seven years. Alaska is also at high risk. California, Oregon and Washington experience a damaging tsunami about every 18 years.
MAJOR EARTHQUAKES AROUND THE WORLD, 2005

Date Feb. 5 March 2 Location Celebes Sea Banda Sea Magnitude1 7.1 7.1 8.7 7.8 7.2 7.3 7.2 7.7 7.5 7.6 7.0
March 28 Northern Sumatra, Indonesia June 13 June 15 July 24 Aug. 16 Sept. 9 Tarapaca, Chile Off coast of northern California Nicobar Islands, India Near the East Coast of Honshu, Japan New Ireland Region, Papua New Guinea
Sept. 26 Northern Peru Oct. 8 Nov. 14 Pakistan Off coast of Honshu, Japan
Page 94 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
MAJOR EARTHQUAKES AROUND THE WORLD, 2006

Date Jan. 2 Jan. 2 Location East of the South Sandwich Islands Fiji Region Magnitude1 7.4 7.2 7.6 7.0 7.6 7.9 7.4 7.7 7.0 8.3 7.1
Jan. 27 Banda Sea Feb. 22 Mozambique April 20 Koryakia, Russia May 3 Tonga
May 16 Kermadec Islands Region July 17 South of Java, Indonesia Aug. 20 Scotia Sea, south of S. America Nov. 15 Kuril Islands Dec. 26 Taiwan region
Page 95 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
CH: 5
WEATHER
Difference between weather and Climate

Weather Weather may be defined as the immediate general meteorological conditions existing at any one time, whether the day is sunny and fine or dull and wet. Climate Climate is really long term weather and refers to the meteorological conditions experienced in an area over a period of time possibly a year.
Hurricanes
Hurricanes are severe tropical storms that form in the southern Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, and in the eastern Pacific Ocean. Hurricanes gather heat and energy through contact with warm ocean waters. Evaporation from the seawater increases their power. Hurricanes rotate in a counterclockwise direction around an eye. Hurricanes have winds at least 74 miles per hour. When they come onto land, the heavy rain, strong winds, and heavy waves can damage buildings, trees and cars. The heavy waves are called a storm surge. Storm surges are very dangerous and a major reason why people MUST stay away from the ocean during a hurricane warning or hurricane. Hurricane Classification Hurricanes are classified into five categories, based on their wind speeds and potential to cause damage. Category Category Category Category Category OneWinds 74-95 miles per hour TwoWinds 96-110 miles per hour ThreeWinds 111-130 miles per hour FourWinds 131-155 miles per hour FiveWinds greater than 155 miles per hour
Page 96 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
CH: 6
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
SOME FACTS ABOUT INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Information Technology plays a vital role in the development of a country. The stormy pace of developments in information technology has forced the government to plant and implement strategic at quicker pace. In response the government policy per capita internet prevalence is growing in geometrical progression. The internet usage is growing at more than 50% per annum. In government of Pakistan announced information Technology policy in April 2000. Under this policy more than 180 senior professional would be trained. Besides this an action plan of more than 400 key points was also prepared. On May20, 2000, Government of Pakistan approved a sum of Rs.500 crore for the development of information technology. Information technology centers have been established in 350 cities. Other features as under Ordinance for the establishment of institute of Information Technology promulgated Aug 2, 2000. Proposal for the establishment of virtual information Tech University at Lahore Jan 8, 2001. Upgradation of Petroman Computer Institute to the status of University Feb 7, 2001. Decision for compulsory education of information Technology for the purpose of appointment in the Govt departments March 5, 2001.
COMPUTER
What is computer? A computer is a machine for storing and processing information. It converts any information that it receives into a binary code, a string of signals in which each signal is either 1 or 0. The basic working component of a computer is a series of switches each of which can be set either off or on and thus represent 1 or 0 in the binary system. The history of computers is to some extent a history of the switching devices that have been used to represent 1 or 0. A computer system is made up of a number of different sub- component systems which together allow the system to perform calculations and complicated tasks. An electronic device for the storage and processing of information. A programmable machine that inputs, processes and outputs data.
Page 97 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
An electronic device that stores retrieves and processes the data and can be programmed with instructions. A computer is composed of hardware and software, and can exist in a variety of sizes and configurations.
A GLOSSARY OF COMPUTER TERMS

Booting A computer means to load a programme automatically. Buffer Any memory location where data can be stored temporarily while the computer is doing something else, specifically, a memory location in the computer in a printer or in a separate storage device ( peripheral) that stores a file being printed. So that the computer is not tied up waiting for the printing to finish. Massively Parallel A form of computer architecture that uses hundreds or thousands of inexpensive microprocessors to perform many operations simultaneously. Peripheral A device connected to computer that provides communications or auxiliary functions. There are three types of peripherals namely 1. Key boards. 2. Out put devices such as monitors and printers. 3. Storage device such as magnetic disc. UNIX A multi users, multitasking operating system designed to run on a wide variety of computers, from microcomputers to mainframes. VDU ( Visual Display Unit) A screen similar to a TV screen which is used to display computer information. RISC Chip Reduced Instruction set Computer Chip, such as the Apple IBM power Pc chip which gains speed by using fewer instructions than the more familiar Complex instruction Set Chip. Graphical User Interface ( GUI)
Page 98 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
A system that uses the icons (symbols) seen on the screen to represent available functions. These icons are generally manipulated by a mouse and / or a Keyboard. This approach contracts with the more traditional method. Of using typed Commands? Liquid Crystal Display ( LCD) A type of flat panel display monitor used in Portable computers. Flow Chart A chart which shows the steps needed in the Programme. Add Time The amount of time it takes a computer to do a single addition operation. Baud Rate A transmission rate used in sending data from one Computer to another, with a Baud approximately equal to one bit per second. Rates must be the same between modems for data to be transmitted.
A GLOSSARY OF SOME INTERNET TERMS

WAIS (wide Area Information Servers) A commercial software package that allows the indexing of huge quantities of information and then making those indices searchable across networks such as the internet. A prominent feature of WAIS is that the search results are ranked ( scored) according to how relevant the hits are and tat subsequently searches can find more stuff like that last batch and thus refine the search process. Telnet The command and program used to login from one internet site to another. The telnet command / program gets you to the login, prompt of another host. T1 A leased line connection capable of carrying data at 1,544,000 bits per second. At maximum theoretical capacity a T 1 line could move a megabyte in less than 10 seconds. That is still not fast enough for full screen, full motion video for which you need at least 10,000,000 bits per second. T 1 is the fastest speed commonly used to connect networks to the internet. Archie A tool (software) for finding files stored on anonymous FTP sites. You need to know the exact file name or a substring of it.
Page 99 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
BPS
( Bit Per Second)
A measurement of how fast data is moved from one place to another. Bin hex ( Binary Hexadecimal) A method for converting non text files into ASC 2. this is needed because internet E mail can only handle ASC 2. Fire Wall A combination of hardware and software that separates a LAN into two or more parts for security purposes.
Page 100 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
CH: 7
SPORTS
Some Facts about Olympic Games

The games which took place at Olympia after every four year were the oldest and the most celebrated of the ancient world. They date back to 776BC. They were part of the honours paid to divinity and would never have had the importance they had but for an essential characteristics of Hellenism is its religious fervour. The Olympic Games the revival of which we owe to the Baronde Coubertin were first held after revival in April 1896 in the stadium of Athens, and from then on they have continued at four year intervals in various countries, drawing athletes from all over the world. Olympic Symbol The Olympic circles are the official symbol of the Olympic Movement. The five circles bind together. They are on a white background in blue, yellow, black, green and red colors. Baron de Coubertin revealed the Olympic symbol in 1913. In his words: these five circles stand for the five regions on Earth that reconcile with Olympism it is an authentic Olympic symbol. These Olympic circles represent the five continents and the meeting of the athletes from all around the world. The colors of the Olympic circles have been chosen to represent at least one of the colors of the flags of each country. The five colors are: bleu, yellow, black, green and red and are set upon a white background. The prototype Olympic flag was made by Bon March, in Paris. It is three meters long and two meters wide. It hoisted for the first time at the Olympic stadium in Antwerp, Belgium, in 1920, at the VII Olympiad. The Olympic Flame The most venerable and evident symbol of the Olympic Games is the Olympic Flame. It symbolizes the force of mind, the brainpower mobilizing energetically the human heart and body. A new flame is lit using a parabolic mirror to focus the rays of the Sun at the ancient Olympic Stadium in Olympia, Elis, Greece. The Flame is then transported to the host city where the last runner lights the large Olympic Cauldron by it and this burns throughout the Games. The Flame is extinguished during the closing ceremony. The first Olympic Torch Relay occurred at the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games
Page 101 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
Difference between Asian and SAF Games

Asian Games The Asian Games are held on the lines of Olympic Games, after every four years. The first Asian Games were held in New Delhi (India) in 1951. subsequently the games were held in 1954, 1958,1962,1966,1970,1974,1978,1982,1990 ,1994,1998and in 2002. SAF Games SAF Games are played between the member nations of the SAARC. The games are held after every Two years.
Page 102 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
CH: 8
WORLD WISE
AMAZING LANGUAGE FACTS

There are more than 2,700 languages in the world. In addition, there are more than 7,000 dialects. A dialect is a regional variety of a language that has a different pronunciation, vocabulary, or meaning. The most difficult language to learn is Basque, which is spoken in northwestern Spain and southwestern France. It is not related to any other language in the world. It has an extremely complicated word structure and vocabulary. All pilots on international flights identify themselves in English. Somalia is the only African country in which the entire population speaks the same language, Somali. The language in which a government conducts business is the official language of that country. More than 1,000 different languages are spoken on the continent of Africa. Many languages in Africa include a click sound that is pronounced at the same time as other sounds. You must learn these languages in childhood to do it properly.
MOST WIDELY SPOKEN LANGUAGES IN THE WORLD

Approx. number Language 1. Chinese (Mandarin) 2. English 3. Hindustani1 4. Spanish 5. Russian 6. Arabic 7. Bengali 8. Portuguese 9. Malay-Indonesian 10. French of speakers 1,075,000,000 514,000,000 496,000,000 425,000,000 275,000,000 256,000,000 215,000,000 194,000,000 176,000,000 129,000,000
Page 103 of 104
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
REFERENCES
http://www.nicepakistan.com/basicfact.htm http://www.winentrance.com/deserts.asp http://www.factmonster.com/world.html
Jahangirs Competitive Encyclopedia of General Knowledge, Latest Edition by Zahid Hussain Anjum, Ever latest General Knowledge by Prof. Iqbal Ahmad Bhatti
Page 104 of 104

Humanities

Cargado por

Información del documento

Derechos de autor

Formatos disponibles

Compartir este documento

Compartir o incrustar documentos

Opciones para compartir

¿Le pareció útil este documento?

¿Este contenido es inapropiado?

Copyright:

Formatos disponibles

Humanities

Cargado por

Copyright:

Formatos disponibles

PART 1

(COURSE MATERIAL FOR DEPARTMENTAL PROMOTION EXAMINATION (DPE)

THE NATURE OF ETHICS

THE USES OF ETHICS

Principles of Islamic Ethics

THE LANGUAGE OF ETHICS

EMOTIVE LANGUAGE IN ETHICS

PRESCRIPTIVE LANGUAGE IN ETHICS

DESCRIPTIVE LANGUAGE IN ETHICS

MISUSES OF ETHICAL TERMS

EGOISM AND ALTRUISM

THE MEANING OF VIRTUE ETHICS

MODREN VIRTUE THEORY

THE NATURE OF META ETHICS

EGOISM AND ALTRUISM

EMOTION AND REASONS

CH: 7NORMATIVE AND APPLIED ETHICS

WHAT IS NORMATIVE ETHICS

WHAT IS APPLIED ETHICS

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MORAL ACTION

THE NATURE OF DESIRE

MOTIVE AND INTENTION

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MORAL JUDGEMENT

THE NATURE OF MORAL JUDGEMENT

PART GENERAL KNOWLEDGE

IMPORTANT ISLAMIC WARS (GHAZWAT)

INTRODUCTION OF THE HOLY QURAN

BASIC FACTS ABOUT PAKISTAN

HIGHEST MOUNTAIN PEAKS IN PAKISTAN

SOME FAMOUS MUSEUMS IN PAKISTAN

FAMOUS BANKS IN PAKISTAN

Specialized Scheduled Banks

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE OF WORLD CITIES

Cape Town, South Africa 33 55 S Caracas, Venezuela Frankfurt, Germany 10 28 N 50 7N

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EQUATOR AND HEMISPHERE

MYTHS ABOUT EXPLORERS

WORLDS HIGHEST MOUNTAINS

3 Kanchenjunga 1 4 5 Lhotse 1 Makalu 1

6 Kanchenjunga 2 7 Lhotse Star

WORLDS LONGEST PLATFORMS

WORLD FAMOUS WATERFALLS

LARGE PENINSULAS OF THE WORLD

WORLDS LARGEST ISLANDS

MAJOR SEAS IN THE WORLD

237,760 23237, 162,000 89,900 88,550 75,000

WORLDS LARGEST LAKES

FAMOUS DESERTS OF THE WORLD

CURRENCIES OF DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

REMARKABLE BRIDGES IN THE WORLD

FAMOUS RIVERS OF THE WORLD

SOME FAMOUS INTERNATIONAL AIR LINES

TEN FAMOUS TRAINS OF THE WORLD

WORLDS FAMOUS LIBRARIES

SOME SPECIALIZED AGENCIES IN THE WORLD

WORLDS FAMOUS WALLS

WORLDS FAMOUS TUNNELS

COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD

SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MINERALS AND ROCKS

IMPORTANT EVENTS IN THE WORLDS HISTORY

BATTLES THAT CHANGED HISTORY

Greece / 490 B.c. Persia / Greece

Hastings England / 1066 British