Allotropes of Carbon Teacher Packet

Author: Dave Sederberg (dsederbe@purdue.edu) Draft Date: May, 2007 Content Area: Chemistry Grade Level: 9-12

LESSON RATIONALE
When an element can exist in more than one form, either as a result of differences in molecular composition or from different packing arrangements of atoms in the solid state, these forms are called allotropes. Allotropes often have vastly different physical and chemical properties, even though they are composed of identical atoms of the same element. The characteristic properties exhibited by the allotropes of carbon are a result of the structural arrangement of the atoms and the forces that bind them together. This activity is intended to help students understand the relationship between the atomic structure of a material and the characteristic properties that the material exhibits. This relationship is most pronounced at the nanoscale, where the proportionality between dimensions, like surface area to volume, is extreme and the difference in properties resulting from structure are profound. This lesson, accompanied by the video Race to Catch a Buckyball will provide students the opportunity to delve into the relevance of scientific research and the role of serendipitous discovery in the building of scientific knowledge.

Big Ideas of Nanotechnology Related to this Lesson

Modeling Modeling is a critical tool for scientists, combining evidence with creativity, helping to organize observations with data for the visualization of objects and phenomena and prediction for future testing. Creating a model of the buckyball made it possible for scientists to predict properties of the molecule prior to actually obtaining it in the laboratory. Size and Scale Buckyballs and Nanotubes, with dimensions in the 1 to 10 nm range exhibit the high proportionality between surface area to volume indicative of particles and structures in the nanoscale. Particulate Nature of Matter All carbon allotropes are composed of identical atoms and those atoms are in constant and random motion. Yet, the physical arrangement of the atoms in these structures, and the modes by which they are bonded together, are

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responsible for some unique and unusual properties, such as hardness, tensile strength, conductivity, flexibility and reactivity. Technology and Society While nanoscale structures such as buckyballs and nanotubes offer great potential for commercial application in current, as well as yet unpredicted aspects of science, there is no consensus as to the risk of their being incorporated into living organisms, the food chain or the environment. Additional ethical, cultural and societal issues may need to be resolved as well, with more controversial applications.

Instructional Objectives

Explain what allotropes are and name the four allotropes of carbon. Describe characteristics among a family of allotropes that are the same to all members of the family and those that are different. Construct molecular models for allotropes of carbon. Relate the way in which the carbon atoms are bonded together to the differences in allotropic properties. Explain the role of the model in scientific research. Explain how two scientists can make different interpretations and reach different conclusions from the same data and experimental evidence. Illustrate the tentative nature of scientific knowledge, using evidence from research to obtain and characterize the buckyball. Recognize potential social and ethical implications that can arise when newly discovered and developed materials become available prior to full knowledge of potential safety issues and consequences of use.

Standards
Indiana State Standards Grades 9-12 C.1.26 C.1.28 Describe physical changes and properties of matter through sketches and descriptions of the involved materials. Explain that chemical bonds between atoms in molecules, such as H2, CH4, NH3, C2H4, N2, Cl2, and many large biological molecules are covalent. Infer and explain physical properties of substances, such as melting points, boiling points and solubility, based on the strength of molecular attractions.

C.1.35

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C.1.36

Describe the nature of ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds and give examples of how they contribute to the formation of various types of compounds.

National Standards Grades 9-12 Content Standard A: Science as Inquiry Identify questions and concepts that guide scientific investigations. Formulate and revise scientific explanations and models using logic and evidence. Use technology and mathematics to improve investigations and communications. Standard G: History and Nature of Science Science as a human endeavor. Nature of science.

LESSON PREPARATION Materials (per class of 24 students, working in pairs)

Item Commercial model kit(s) (graphite, diamond, buckyball)(1) Paper model buckyball templates Nanotube transparencies (hexagonal graph paper)(2) Glue pen Scissors Cellophane tape Sample of graphite rock
(1) (4) (3)

Number/Amount 1 of each 24 (1 per student) 36 (3 per group) 12 (1 per group) 24 (1 per student) 2 rolls (optional) 1 12 or 24

Computers with internet access

Vendors for commercial models include Flinn Scientific (www.flinnsci.com) and Science Kit Boreal Laboratories (www.sciencekit.com). (2) These can be re-used with each class. (3) The Avery brand Glue Pen works well (#65781, Avery Permanent Bond Disappearing Color Glue Pen). (4) Science Kit Boreal Laboratories (www.sciencekit.com)

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Anticipated Time Allotment

2 -3 hours including introduction and discussion. Lesson segment: Leading questions and discussion Predictions from models; brainstorm properties of allotropes Search World Wide Web for data and properties of the allotropes Discussion of search results and status of knowledge Build models and answer study guide questions Watch the video, Race to Catch a Buckyball Discussion Assessment minutes 15 15 20 5 30 50 20 10

Pre-Class Preparation
Background (provided in student packet) Carbon in a nutshell The element carbon is the backbone of life on our planet. Carbon, like most other elements heavier than helium, was synthesized in the stars. It has been cycled and recycled from earthen minerals into the air, through animals and plants and back to the earth countless times. Carbon has been a familiar and useful material since prehistory, in the form of charcoal and soot, although it was not until late in the eighteenth century that carbon actually came to be recognized as an element (Greenwood & Earnshaw, 1984). The name carbon was actually coined by Antoine Lavoisier (Fr. carbone) from the Latin carbo meaning charcoal. Swedish chemist Carl Wihelm Scheele, in 1779, showed graphite, a familiar sooty material, to consist of pure carbon (IN-VSEE, 2006). That diamond was composed only of carbon as well was demonstrated just a few years later by both Antoine Lavoisier and Humphry Davy, each of whom performed the costly experiment of burning diamond in excess oxygen, identifying as the only product, carbon dioxide. Thus, by the end of the 1700s, diamond and graphite were proven to be composed of atoms of the same element carbon, except that they existed in physically different forms (Zaugg, 1990). The word diamond comes from a blend of the ancient Greek words diaphanes, transparent and adamas, invincible, referring to its extreme hardness (Greenwood & Earnshaw). The name graphite, proposed in 1789 from the Greek, graphein, to write, illustrates one of the uses for this form of carbon (Greenwood & Earnshaw, 1984). Diamond is the standard for hardness against which the hardness of other materials is measured. Pure diamond is colorless and transparent. It has the highest melting point of any known substance, is the hardest of any naturally occurring solid and it was the first material to have its crystalline structure determined by x-ray diffraction (Gale, 2005).
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Each carbon atom in diamond is covalently bonded to four neighboring atoms forming a rigid three dimensional tetrahedral network. In contrast to diamond, graphite is blackish, waxy, soft and slippery feeling, but is more thermodynamically stable than diamond. Graphite is composed of carbon atoms, each bonded to three other carbon atoms, arranged in a repeating hexagonal pattern in flat two dimensional sheets. These sheets, held together by only weak attractive forces, stack together to make the solid crystal. These two materials, diamond and graphite, vastly differ in both their appearance and in their properties, yet, despite their obvious differences, both are pure carbon; both are composed of identical atoms.. Allotropy Like carbon, a number of elements (for example, B, P, Sn, Pb and S), exist in different forms, different physical arrangements of the atoms, each possible arrangement exhibiting contrasting and unique properties. When an element can exist in more than one form, either as a result of differences in molecular composition or from different packing arrangements of atoms in the solid state, these forms are called allotropes. Allotropes often have vastly different physical and chemical properties, even though they are composed of atoms of the same element. In the two hundred years following the work of Lavoisier and Davy, the number of allotropic forms in which carbon was known to exist was only two - diamond and graphite. Events in 1985, however, brought a paradigm shift to the field of carbon chemistry with an epic history-making discovery. Two graduate students, working in the laboratory of Richard Smalley at Rice University, discovered the formation of an entirely new form of carbon, in fact a whole family of stable carbon molecules, the most abundant species of which was a molecule of sixty atoms, C60. A slightly larger molecule C70, also appeared as a stable species in the mix. The carbon atoms in these molecules had assembled from carbon vapor into solid molecular units stable molecules with a specific number of carbon atoms, resistant to further growth or modification, (Kroto, Heath, OBrien, Curl, and Smalley, 1985). The research team at Rice worked tenaciously with paper models, jelly beans and toothpicks, geometric solids, and creativity, fitting experimental evidence with the known chemical behavior of carbon, attempting to figure out how the atoms in these molecules were connected together. Ultimately, the only structure which could offer a reasonable explanation for this behavior, and still provide each carbon atom with its correct compliment of electrons, was a spherical one. These spherical structures were shown to be composed of a repeating geometric arrangement of pentagon and hexagon carbon rings, resembling a geodesic dome. The surprising anomaly of these structures, however, compared to the previously known carbon allotropes, was that they contained a specific number of carbon atoms they were molecular carbon. These new carbon molecules appeared to form from the carbon vapor surrounding them, programmed to some predetermined size and exact number of atoms. Richard Smalley, Robert Curl, and Harold Kroto were awarded the Nobel Prize for their work in 1996. Paying homage to Richard Buckminster Fuller, an architect famous for his work designing geodesic architectural domes, Smalley and Kroto named this family of
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molecules Buckminsterfullerenes. They are more commonly referred to as fullerenes, or, more affectionately, just "buckyballs." With this discovery, a new and revolutionary third allotrope of carbon had now been added to the two (graphite and diamond) already known. Although initially found as laboratory anomalies, fullerenes have since been shown to occur in nature, on the earth as well as in space. While a number of varieties of buckyballs have now been shown to exist, C60 and C70 are generally the most abundant and readily isolated fullerenes (Kroto et al., 1985). In 1991 another variety of fullerenes were discovered, with properties similar to the buckyball, but in a tubular, rather than spherical shape. The diameters of these buckytubes fall in the 1 to 10 nanometer range and as such were referred to as nanotubes, or carbon nanotubes (CNTs). Although the mechanism of their formation has not been fully determined, CNTs can be thought of as a "rolled up" a section of a graphite sheet, the ends capped with half a C60, or other molecular fragment. The carbon polygons comprising these structures can combine to create an almost infinite range of helical, toroidal, and corkscrew-shaped tubes, all with different mechanical strengths and physical properties (Gale, 2005). The story of carbon, however, was destined to be re-written again. In 1993 Sumio Iijima working at the NEC Corporation in Japan discovered that carbon nanotubes could actually be grown from vaporized carbon in the laboratory. The sizes of these structures and the ways in which the atoms in them are arranged is controlled by the laboratory conditions under which they are grown. These nanometer-scale structures have become the focus of enormous interest since they represent potential building blocks for nanostructured materials, composites, and novel electronic devices of greatly reduced size. The wide range extent of potential application of materials utilizing carbon nanotubes and buckyballs can only be left to speculation. The revolutionary mechanical and chemical properties of these forms of carbon place them at the forefront of research, with anticipated applications ranging from the structure of aircraft to molecular electronics and robot molecules. Getting the Materials Ready

Students will need the paper templates for the models that will be used. The NASA paper model is printed on a single sheet, either 8 x 11 or 8 x 14; both sizes are provided. Each student should make their own model. The copies can be made on regular copy paper, but a more durable model can be constructed using 60# or 70# card stock. Using different colors increases student interest. In order to compare the structure among the three configurations of the carbon nanotube, each team will need to be provided three identical overhead transparency templates. Unless it is the intent to provide students take-home models, the cellophane tape can be removed and the transparencies re-used for other classes.

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Variations/Suggestions Students are expected to have knowledge of the basics of chemical bonding and the periodic table. An overview of hybridization would also be helpful, where appropriate to the level or ability of the student and direction of instruction. The first part of the activity requires students to search the internet sleuthing for properties of the four carbon allotropes. If students need some guidance as to where to look, the following list may help, but any general search engine should be sufficient. 1. Properties of Diamonds http://newton.ex.ac.uk/research/qsystems/people/sque/diamond/ 2. Diamonds http://ist-socrates.berkeley.edu/~eps2/wisc/Lect6.html 3. Graphite Properties Page by John A. Jaszczak http://www.phy.mtu.edu/~jaszczak/graphprop.html 4. The World of Carbon http://invsee.asu.edu/nmodules/Carbonmod 5. Properties of Carbon and C60 http://www.creativescience.org.uk/propc60.html 6. Fullerene, C60 http://www.chemicalland21.com/arokorhi/industrialchem/organic/FULLERENE %20C60.htm 7. Physical Properties of Carbon Nanotubes http://www.pa.msu.edu/cmp/csc/ntproperties/ Follow the time line above. If the element of time is an issue, the internet search of the properties of the allotropes could be done by students outside of class, at home, before or after school in the school media center, or during study hall or resource time. Equally, as an alternative, the paper models can be constructed by students at home as well. While students are building their models the teacher should circulate among the lab groups as a resource, to answer questions and to elicit student understanding . You may elect to have students count the vertices and the number of hexagons and pentagons after they finish the paper buckyball models. As an alternative, prior to cutting out the patterns, they can identify the positions of the atoms beforehand by drawing a dot with a marker at each vertex. Then, when the buckyball is assembled, the dots will clearly show the geometric arrangement of atoms in the structure. If bonding is an appropriate topic for the class, students can draw a line along the crease between all pairs of hexagons after the model is completed. These lines represent the double bonds shared by adjacent carbon atoms. Do not draw along the lines that create the pentagons. Each hexagon should end up with single bonds and double bonds alternating around its perimeter, for a total of three single and three double bonds. Once students have completed their models and answered the report questions, move on to the NOVA video, Race to Catch a Buckyball. Depending on the grade level and ability of the students, it may be insightful to talk about bonding and hybridization,
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although these are not necessary to understand the development of the model portrayed. Additionally, images of mass spectra and UV spectra will be illustrated. Showing students examples of these in advance may be beneficial to their understanding the reference during the video. These spectra are provided in the literature, referenced below (Kratschmer, Lamb, Fostiropolos & Huffman, 1990). In fact this is the paper actually referred to in the video. Having several copies of the paper for students to see in advance will enable them to actually see a real history-making journal research paper! A main challenge faced by the scientists in the video is to determine the structure of a type of carbon molecule that had never been known previously. To provide students insight, you may want to have them try, or demonstrate, some simple tessellation activities. Tessellations are shapes which, when fitted together, will cover a flat surface with no gaps. Squares and rectangles are particularly easy to tessellate; pentagons, one of the shapes confronting buckyball researchers will not tessellate. Tessellations can be found in the pattern of tiles that cover bathroom walls and the brickwork patterns in building walls and pathways. One of the challenges facing researchers in the elucidation of the structure of the buckyball was finding a geometric arrangement around which atoms would fit within the normal parameters of their bonding patterns and angles (NOVA, 1995). Safety Scissors might be the only safety concern for this activity.

DOING THE LESSON Leading Questions/Pre-Lab Discussion

Introduce the lesson with how materials of the same chemical composition can have different properties. For example, high density versus low density polyethylene has the same chemical composition, yet different physical properties. Similarly, diamond and graphite are both pure carbon, yet each is distinctly dissimilar to the other. Each of more common allotropes of carbon, diamond and graphite, have had applications based on their respective unique properties for a long time. While buckyballs and nanotubes have been on the scene only more recently, the potential for their use as structural materials or in the medical field are on the horizon. Another aspect of this lesson pertains in several ways to the nature of science. In the video that follows the lesson, Race to Catch a Buckyball, students will see the tentative nature of scientific knowledge, demonstrated by the fact that, while all scientists agreed prior to 1985 on the existence of two structured allotropic form of carbon, they were in fact incorrect. The video also illustrates the way in which ones own theory or prior perception has an influence on the interpretation of experimental evidence and may in fact obscure evidence or bias results. Lastly, you might want to discuss the role that models play in science; how they are used, why they are used, what their benefits are, as well as their limitations. The use of models
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played a key role in the elucidation of the structure of the buckyball. Scientists have evidence that the molecule existed, but it was only through the use of models that they gained insight on where to look for further data. One of the methods by which a substance can be identified is by it absorption spectrum. The Race to Catch a Buckyball documentary illustrates how, through the use of UV spectroscopy, researchers attempted to confirm that the carbon compound that they made in the laboratory was indeed the same as that which they thought to occur in the stars. The following Leading Questions can serve to set the foundation for this lesson:
How is it possible that the element carbon can be used for decorative jewelry, as

a lubricant for moving parts, for the tips of long-lasting drill bits and to make a rope strong enough to reach from the Earths surface to a satellite in orbit?
In the field of science, where does our knowledge come from? Once scientists

agree on what they know, is it possible that what they know will change?
If you thought you had made a new kind of molecule, but it was impossible to

see, what kinds of evidence would you look for to try to figure out exactly what it is?

Activity
Once the leading questions have been discussed, break students into groups of two or three and provide each group with commercial models of diamond graphite and buckyball. If sufficient model kits are available, several buckyball kits can be combined to make a nanotube, but this can be optional. Based on appearance and manipulation of the models have students suggest evidence to support their predictions as to how the physical and chemical properties of the allotropes might compare. Consider options such as strength, hardness and chemical reactivity. From the discussion of the physical models, move into a whole-class discussion about what kinds of properties are useful, in general, for the identification and characterization of materials. Have two students come to the board to tabulate the class suggestions. Suggested properties can be debated as a class, assisted by teacher input, as to how useful they might be and perhaps put into columns based on perceived utility or type of property. The goal is to identify properties that students think might be useful in distinguishing one carbon allotrope form another. Encourage students to be creative and to see how many useful properties they can derive. Eight to ten should be a good guide. Discuss suggested properties and illustrate why some of the students choices might be more useful than others and difficulties that might be encountered. Once there has been sufficient discussion for students to have an understanding of their objective, provide them with the prepared table, listing identifiable properties from the Student Study Guide. Using the internet or other reliable research sources, students will search the properties for each of the four allotropes. As an alternative, the teacher can simply provide students with a prepared table, complete with the properties of the allotropes already entered. In either case, briefly compare the known properties, where
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applicable, with students predictions based on their previous examination of the commercial models. Once the model-building portion of the lesson is complete, show the NOVA documentary, Race to Catch a Buckyball. The video should need little introduction. One suggestion, however, is to show students what a mass spectrum looks like. The mass spectra obtained in the original research shown in the video are available in the literature (Kratscher, et al., 1990; Kaldor, 1988). Seeing an example and knowing how it is interpreted will be meaningful to students when they see the reference in the video.

Modeling carbon allotropes Once students have explored some of the most easily observable properties of the allotropes of carbon, they construct and use models to help them to visualize the structural characteristics that distinguish one allotrope from another. Guide them to follow the instructions on the handout and answer the questions as they proceed. Part 1 Modeling the buckyball: Students will construct the NASA explores model (NASA, 2006), from the template provided. A quick verbal instruction or demonstration of procedure should be sufficient. 1. Cut around the perimeter of the buckyball template. 2. Cut along each dotted line to the star. 3. Cut out the shaded areas. 4. Beginning with the space labeled G in the upper right, apply glue using a glue stick, on the side where the G is printed. Slide this ring under the adjacent ring, making a five-sided hole surrounded by six-sided shapes. 5. Repeat step 4 until the model is completed. Once students have constructed their buckyball model, they will be able to draw a representation of their model on the report sheet or in their laboratory notebook. Part 2 Modeling the carbon nanotube; the buckytube: In this second part of the activity, students will model the three possible configurations of the carbon nanotube. Provide each group with three overhead transparencies of the hexagonal grid, representing a two dimensional grapheme sheet. Ask students to find three different ways in which to curl the sheets into cylinders, making three different arrangements of atoms. The models can be taped together using cellophane tape or masking tape. Once the models are constructed, their structural characteristics can be discussed; how the three tubes are different, what is unique about the arrangement of atoms, how one can be visually described relative to the others. Students can also be probed as to where there are any other possible arrangements in which the tube could be rolled. Alternatives do exist, but the fact that the degree of offset in matching the two sides together can vary.
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When students are ready they can draw representations of the groups three buckytube models on their report sheet.

Follow-up (Modeling activity)

In building paper models of molecules, such as the buckyball, the corners, or vertices, represent the locations of atoms in the molecule. Each vertex represents an atom. A Buckyball has 60 vertices, 60 carbon atoms, and no interior atoms. That is why a Buckyball is called C60,or carbon-60. In the transparent nanotube model, each corner of every hexagon represents an atom. Three-dimensional shapes that are constructed of patterns of the same shape, such as cubes, are called regular polyhedra. If students examine a soccer ball, they will find that is not a regular polyhedron because it contains both hexagons and pentagons. It has the same structure as a Buckyball (NOVA, 1995). Students are purposefully not told the name or the atomic arrangement of the three different buckytube configurations. This will be determined in class discussion. Probe students perception and interpretation of the models and see how they might distinguish among them. They can perhaps even suggest names that might be suitable. Ultimately, the name of the three types of tubes should be provided and discussed. One model is called the zig-zag configuration. A second model is the armchair configuration. The third model is referred to as the chiral configuration. While this may not be pertinent to the class, students could research as an outside project, the numbering system by which tubes of the same type are distinguished. One of the first questions organic chemists asked about fullerenes was, What are their chemical properties? Since all of the carbons on buckminsterfullerene are sp2 hybridized, C60 could be like benzene, C6H6, which is an aromatic molecule, or like ethylene, which is a typical alkene. Give examples of how the models in this activity could be used to explain or help interpret the differences physical properties among the allotropes of carbon. Diamond is the hardest substance known because of the bonding pattern of its carbon atoms. Each atom has four covalent bonds, which join it to four neighboring atoms. The bonds are oriented at angles of 109 to each other, as though they were pointing toward the corners of a tetrahedron (sp3-hybridized geometry). The hardness of diamond is attributed to the covalent network bonding among the atoms. Discuss the similarities and differences in the types of forces interacting between the atoms among the four allotropes. Include angles and geometries around the atoms and hybridization in your discussion. The specific hybridization of carbon will determine which allotrope carbon will assume. Carbon with sp3 hybridization will form a tetrahedral lattice, thus giving rise to diamond. Carbon with sp2 hybridization will form either graphite, C60, or carbon nanotubes, depending on the conditions under which the synthesis is performed.
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Graphite, the black material in lead pencils, has little physical strength because its atoms are bonded to each other in only two dimensions (sp2-hybridized geometry). The resulting flat sheets readily slide over each other. The rings of graphite are aromatic and, similar to the benzene ring, have de-localized pi electrons which can move freely throughout the graphite sheet. This explains why graphite is the only nonmetal found in nature that conducts electricity.

Follow-up (Race to Catch a Buckyball)

Evidence that there may be a new and unknown form of carbon arose from speculation from the UV and IR spectra from stars. Matching evidence from the laboratory to what scientists had available gave support to the theory that there may be a new form of carbon, in a molecular shape never before seen. Soon after discovering that they had created a new form of carbon in the laboratory, scientists began trying to create a model of this molecule. Even when scientists were successful in creating the buckyball," they still had not been able to isolate a pure sample or see a single molecule of Carbon 60. This exemplifies one role of the model in science, providing scientists a direction in which to look for new evidence. Ask the students to reflect on this process of developing and testing a theory from evidence and observation. What evidence was available to scientists that helped them create their model? Did all scientists view that evidence equally? How did they evaluate and revise their ideas? How was the knowledge of science changing? What evidence helped then to confirm their theory? What evidence required the changing of their theory?

Alternate/supplemental activities/materials
There are other alternative models that can be used to make paper models of the buckyball. One such model is available from Project SEEDSeed (http://www.seed.slb.com/en/scictr/lab/buckyball/index.htm). Sources cited above for commercially available models also sell paper model templates.

Resources
Armfield, M. (2005). Carbon allotropes the same and not the same. Nanoscale Science and Engineering Center, Northwestern University Research Experience for Teachers Program, http://www.nsec.northwestern.edu Arizona State University, IN-VSEE. (2006). Interactive Nano-visualization in Science & Engineering Education, The Allotropes of Carbon, http://invsee.asu.edu/Modules/carbon/question.htm Castellini, O., Lisensky, G., Ehrlich, J., Zenner, G., & Crone, W. (2006). The structure & properties of carbon. The Science Teacher, 73, 36-41.
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EDinformatics. (1999). What is the approximate diameter of a buckyball? http://www.edinformatics.com/math_science/fullerene.htm Gale, Thomas, Thompson Corporation. (2005). Chemistry Explained, http://www.chemistryexplained.com/A-Ar/Allotropes.html Greenwood, N. & Earnshaw, A. (1984). Chemistry of the Elements. New York: Pergamon Press. Kratschmer, W., Lamb, L., Fostiropolos, K., & Huffman, D. (1990). Solid C60: A new form of carbon. Nature, 347, 354-358. Kroto, H., Heath, J., OBrien, S., Curl, R., Smalley, R. (1985). C60: Buckminsterfullerene. Nature, 318, 162-163. NASA. Building Buckyballs. (2006). http://www.nasaexplores.com/show_912_student_st.php?id=030107112716 NOVA. (1995).Viewing guide, Race to Catch a Buckyball. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/teachers/viewing/2216_buckybal.html Schwarzschild, B., (1996). Search and discovery: Nobel chemistry prize goes to Curl, Kroto and Smalley for discovering fullerenes. Physics Today, 49, 19-21. Zaugg, H. (1990). Growing diamonds. Chem Matters, April 10-16.

Further reading and watching

Growing Diamonds, ChemMatters, April, 1990 Nova Documentary, Diamond Deception. The melting of buckyball: http://www.pa.msu.edu/cmp/csc/simulC60melt.html NASA Nanotechnology; http://www.ipt.arc.nasa.gov/nanotechnology.html Museum of Science Boston, http://www.mos.org/cst-archive/article/4656/

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