Chapter 7

HEAT TREATMENT
Heat Treatment the operation of heating and cooling a metal in its solid state to change its physical properties.
IRON-IRON CARBIDE DIAGRAM Critical Points structural changes occur Ac (c- chauffage- to heat) Ar (r refroidissement- to cool) Allotropic Change reversible changes in the atomic structure with a corresponding change in properties Austenite solid solution of carbon in gamma iron Ferrite solid solution of carbon in alpha iron 0.20% carbon-ferrite is rejected from austenite until no free ferrite is rejected (0.80% carbon) Eutectoid steel (100% pearlite)

Eutectoid Point lowest temperature at which changes occur in a solid solution Acm Line (carbon content > eutectoid) Fe3C is rejected from austenite instead of ferrite Fe3C (iron carbide, cementite) extremely hard and brittle Hypoeutectoid:

% Pe =

%C 0. 8

Hypereutectoid:

%Ce = 100[1
GRAIN SIZE

(6.67 %C ) ] 5.87

Coarse-grained steels less tough greater tendency for distortion better machinability greater depth-hardening power

Fine-grained steels tough more ductile less tendency for distortion or crack Aluminum (as deoxidizer) raises the temperature at which rapid grain growth occurs Low-carbon steel (heated) no change in grain size up to Ac1 pt. Ac3 , minimum grain size Further heating increases austenitic grain size. Quenching from Ac3 fine grain Slow cooling/quenching from high temperature coarse grain

Final grain size depends on prior austenitic grain size.

Coarsening Temperature rapid grain size increase occurs not immediately above Ac *medium-carbon steels *alloy steels *steels deoxidized with Aluminum ISOTHERMAL TRANSFORMATION DIAGRAMS

Cooling rate, time grain structure, structure obtainable when the

quench is interrupted at certain elevated temperature Shape depends on carbon content, alloys present, austenitic grain size

1. HARDENING - The process of heating a piece of steel to a temperature within or above its critical range and then cooling it rapidly
Determination of proper heating temperature: If the carbon content of steel is known: reference to the phase diagram If not: heat-quenching of small specimens of the steel at various temperatures; results observed by hardness testing or by microscopic examination

Slow rate of heating is necessary to obtain a uniform temperature throughout the structure, especially for irregularly shaped and thick steels.

Hardness depends on: 1. Quenching rate Rapid-quenching is necessary to obtain a hard structure (martensite) Different quenching mediums: Water bath - for low/medium plain-carbon steels Oil - for high carbon and alloy steel (not as severe as water) brine/water spray - for extreme cooling air-cooling - for certain alloys

2. Carbon content 3. Work size As size increases, surface hardness decreases. If the heat inside a large piece cannot escape faster that a certain critical rate, there is a definite limit to the inside hardness. Hardness obtainable increases as carbon content increases up to 0.60% (above this, only slightly) Low-carbon steel will not respond appreciably to hardening treatments Pearlite responds best to heat treatment.

Hardenability of steel - refers to the response of a metal to a quenching operation Jominy end-quench test comparing depth-hardenability of different steels. 1. A normalized specimen of the steel is machined to a diameter of 1 inch (12.7mm) and a length of 4 inches

(100mm) and temperature.

then

heated

to

its

austenizing

2. It is quickly placed in the quenching fixture held 0.5inch (12.7mm) above a inch diameter orifice. 3. Water is directed against the bottom surface until the entire specimen is cool. Alloys increase the hardenability of steel.

Constituents of Hardened steel Extreme quenching of steel from a high temperature preserves some of the austenite (half as hard as martensite) at ordinary temperature. If hypoeutectoid steel is cooled slowly, austenite transformed into ferrite and pearlite (soft and ductile). Faster cooling (harder and less ductile) Rapid cooling martensite (hardest) is

Martensite Hardness depends on carbon content Rockwell C45 to C67 Cannot be machined, quite brittle, strongly magnetic

Fine pearlite Steel is quenched at slightly less than the critical rate Softer than austenite Quite tough and capable of resisting considerable impact.

Maximum Hardness of Steel Depends on carbon content Carbon must be completely in solution in the austenite when quenched

Critical quenching rate must be used Austenite must not be retained in high percent

2. TEMPERING

Reheating quench-hardened steel below critical range followed by any rate of cooling Reduction of hardness and brittleness to the desired point for service conditions (hardened steels are brittle and not suitable for most uses). reduce tensile strength increase ductility and toughness

Special processes:

1. Austempering - interrupted quenching process - converts austenite to bainite 2. Martempering - minimize distortion, cracking and internal stresses that result from quenching in oil or water

3. ANNEALING To soften steel so that it may be machined or cold-worked Also relieves internal stresses previously set up in the structure

Full annealing wipes out all traces of previous structure, refines the crystalline structure, softens steel. Heating rate size is considered Uniform throughout

45 min for each inch (25mm)of thickness

Isothermal Annealing - short annealing cycle; gives pearlite a more uniform structure
Process Annealing - results in the usual pearlitic structure - used to relieve stress in a cold-worked carbon steel

4. NORMALIZING - Heating about 50 to 100F (10 - 40C) above the upper critical range and cooling in still air to room temperature - Rate of cooling is faster than that of annealing but slower than that of quenching - More uniform grain structure - For high residual stresses (induced by forging, casting, machining, forming or welding) - For a better response to heat treatment - For dimensional control - For parts subjected to impact

5. SPHEROIDIZING

Spheroidite forms when carbon steel is heated to approximately 700 C for over 30 hours. The result is a structure of rods or spheres of cementite within primary structure. to soften higher carbon steels and allow more formability

Spheroidite - the softest and most ductile form of steel

6. STRESS RELIEVING - Uniform heating below the lower transformation temperature and then cooling uniformly - Applied to cold-worked, formed, machined, flame-cut, weld-fabricated parts to reduce residual stress Softer and more ductile (precipitation of iron carbide)

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF HOT AND COLD WORKING OF METAL

-AdvantagesHOT WORKING OF METAL Porosity is eliminated (most ingots contain many small blow holes; pressed and eliminated). Impurities are broken up and distributed throughout. Coarse and columnar grains are refined. Ductility increased Resistance to impact increased Strength increased Greater homogeneity Less deformation forces COLD WORKING OF METAL Cold-finished products are more commercially acceptable. Accurate dimensional control No oxidation for a smooth surface Hardness increased (for metals that do not respond to heat treatment) Close dimensional tolerance can be maintained Rapid production

-Disadvantages Poor surface finish because of rapid oxidation (scaling) Close dimensional tolerance cant be maintained Equipment and maintenance costs are high. Higher pressure and heavier equipment are needed. Brittleness results if the metal is overworked. Stresses are set up. Distortion and defragmentation Loss in ductility

CHAPTER 12 HOT WORKING OF METAL PLASTIC DEFORMATION

An exploit of the metals ability to flow plastically in the solid state without deterioration of properties.

 Above crystallization temperature Ductility improved (moderate shaping forces) ROLLING 1. Ingots are rolled into intermediate shapes: blooms, billets and slabs. 2. Blooms, billets and slabs are further rolled into plates, sheets, bar stocks, structural shapes or foils.

Definitions: Ingots a mass of metal Bloom has a square cross section with a minimum size of 6 x 6 in (150 x 150 mm). Billet square section from 1 in (38.1 mm) - 6in (150mm). Slab - may be rolled from either an ingot or a bloom - Rectangular cross sectional area with a minimum width of 10 in (250mm) and minimum thickness of 1 in (38.1mm).

Process:
Ingots remain in molds until solidification is about complete and the molds are removed. While still hot, ingots are placed in gas-fired furnaces (soaking pits), until uniform working temperature is attained. Ingots are taken to the rolling mill to be rolled into intermediate shapes.

Q1 = Q2 A1V1 = A2V2

A1 V2 = A2 V1

As the cross-sectional area is decreased the velocity increases, as do lengths of the material.

Two-high reversing mill The piece passes through the rolls Stopped and reversed in direction Repeated (frequent 90 - turns for uniform section and to refine the metal throughout.) Advantage: It has a range of adjustment as to size of pieces and rate of reduction.

Disadvantage: It is limited by the length that can be rolled and by the inertia forces that must be overcome for each reversal made.

Three-high mill Advantage: No limitations as in the reversing mill Less expensive to manufacture Has a higher output

Disadvantage:
Elevating mechanism is required.

FORGING 1. Hammer or Smith Forging - hammering the heated metal either with hand tools or between flat dies in a steam hammer Hand Forging - oldest form of forging

- inaccurate - cant make complicated shapes

Steam Hammer - the force of the blow is closely controlled by the operator - considerable skill is required 2. Drop Forging -(similar to hammer forging) uses closed impression rather than flat dies.

Two Principal Types of drop-forging hammers: 1. Steam hammer Ram and hammer are lifted by steam; the force of the blow is controlled by throttling the steam. 300 blows/min. 2. Gravity drop hammer Impact pressure is developed by the forces of the falling ram upon the lower fixed die. Uses air or steam to lift the ram Permits the preselection of short and long-stroke blows Operator is relieved of the responsibility of regulating stroke heights. Greater uniformity

Impact forging hammer - has two opposing cylinders in a horizontal plane which actuate the dies toward each other

Advantages of forging operation: Fine crystalline structure Closing of any voids Reduced machining time Improved physical properties

Disadvantages: Scale inclusions High cost of dies (prohibits short-run jobs) Die alignment is difficult to maintain Die design (should prevent cracks)

3. Press forging - employs a slow squeezing action in deforming the plastic metal (as contrasted to the rapid impact blows of a hammer). -can exert 500 1000 tons (4 90 MN) force.

Press Capacity:

F = press capacity, tons P = pressure required, psi (usually about 15000 psi for mild steel) A = area of the forging at the parting line, in2.

Closed-impression dies are used for small press forgings. Only one stroke of the ram is normally required. Impact is absorbed by the machine and foundation. Faster reduction Cost of operation is lower. Closer tolerance

4. Upset forging entails gripping a bar of uniform section in dies and applying pressure on the heated end, causing to be upset or formed to shape.

L = maximum length of stock to be upset, in. P = perimeter of cross section, in. k = constant with values of 2 or 3 (usually about 2.6 for steel)

Progressive piercing (internal displacement) - the method frequently employed on upset forging machines for producing parts such as artillery shells and radial engine cylinder forgings

Process: Round blanks of a predetermined length for a single cylinder are heated to forging temperature. A porter bar is pressed into one end. The blank is upset and is progressively pierced to a heavy bottom cup. A taper nosed punch expands and stretches the metal into the end of the die, frees the porter bar and punches out the end slug.

5. Roll forging reducing and tapering operations on short lengths of bar stock.

EXTRUSION -metal is forced through specially-formed dies. Rods, tubes, molding trim
Direct Extrusion A heated round billet is placed into the die chamber. The dummy block and ram is placed into position.

The metal is extruded through the die opening until only a small amount remains. The metal is sawed off next to the die and the butt end is removed.

Indirect Extrusion

PIPE AND TUBE MANUFACTURING

Butt Welding Heated skelp with slightly beveled edges are used. One end of the skelp is trimmed to a V shape to permit the entry into the welding bell. When the skelp is brought up to welding heat, the end is gripped by tongs that engage a draw chain. As the tube is pulled through the welding bell, skelp is formed to a cylindrical shape and the edges are welded together. The pipe is passed between sizing and finishing rolls for correct sizing and scale removal.

Continuous butt welding Skelp is supplied in coils. As the skelp enters the furnace, flames impinge on the edges of the strip to bring them to welding temperatures. Leaving the furnace, the skelp enters a series of horizontal and vertical rollers that form it into pipe.

Electric Butt Welding - Cold forming is necessary prior to the welding operation.

- The plate is passed through a continuous set of rolls that progressively change its shape (roll-forming). - The welding unit is placed at the end of the roll forming machine (consisting of three centering and pressure rolls to hold the formed shape in position and two electrode rolls that supply current to generate heat). - Sizing and finishing

Lap Welding - Skelp edges are beveled as it emerges from furnace. - The skelp is drawn through a forming die or between rolls to give it cylindrical shape with the edges overlapping. - After being reheated, the bent skelp is passed between two grooved rolls. (between the rolls is a fixed mandrel to fit the inside diameter of the pipe). - The edges are lap-welded by pressure between rolls and the mandrel. (lap-welded pipes are made in sizes 2 16 in (50 400mm) in diameter)

Piercing (seamless tubing) - Cylindrical billets are passed between two conical shaped rolls (between the rolls is a fixed point or mandrel that controls the size of the hole) - Thick walled tube passes between grooved rolls over a plug held by a mandrel (converted to a longer tube with specified wall thickness) - The tube is straightened and sized by passing through the reeling machine. - Final sizing and finishing

Continuous Piercing: - A round bar is pierced and conveyed to the mandrel mill, where a mandrel is inserted (reduce the tube diameter and wall thickness). - Mandrel is then removed. - Tube is reheated. - Tube enters a stretch reducing mill (reduces wall thickness and diameter) (maximum delivery is 1300 ft/min (6.6 m/s) for a pipe around 2 in (50mm) in diameter)

Tube Extrusion - Direct extrusion but uses a mandrel to shape the inside - The die containing the mandrel is pushed through the ingot - The press stem advances and extrudes the metal (speeds up to 10 ft/s (3m/s).

DRAWING a bloom is heated to forging temperature with a piercing punch operated in a vertical press, the bloom is formed into a closed-end hollow forging

forging is reheated and placed in the hot drawbench (consisting of several dies of successively decreasing diameter mounted in one frame) the hydraulic punch forces the heated cylinder through the full length of the draw bench

SPECIAL METHODS HOT SPINNING - Dish or form of any circular plates over a rotating form and to neck down or close the ends of tubes. - A lathe is used to rotate the piece rapidly - Shaping is done with a blunt-pressure tool or roller.

WARM FORGING - Uses a temperature between that normally used for cold and for hot working. ADDITIONAL METHODS For thinner sections of forgings: dies are heated lubricant is used to reduce surface oxidation, to obtain closer tolerances, to obtain longer periods of time in which the work remains pliable, to increase production rate die life is decreased (greater cost) High-energy rate forming: uses explosive charges or capacitors discharges parts are completed with one blow die life is relatively short useful in forging high-temperature, difficult to form alloys Environmental hot forming: for metals that are difficult to forge (titanium) metals are cast in a press surrounded by inert gas eliminates most oxidation and scaling prolong die life Aluminum sheets: molten aluminum is poured into a revolving perforated cylinder transported by air to a preheating chamber hot rolled into sheet and coiled

CHAPTER 13 COLD WORKING OF METAL PRINCIPLES OF COLD WORKING Cold working brings about charged in the grain structure of metals: - grain fragmentation - movement of atoms - lattice distortion As grain deformation proceeds, greater resistance to this action results in increased strength and hardness of metal. The higher the ductility, the more a metal is able to be cold-worked.

TUBE FINISHING steel is hot-rolled and treated by pickling any washing to remove all scales lubricant is applied to prevent galling, reduce friction and increase surface smoothness one end of the tube is reduced in diameter (by swaging operation to permit it to enter the die) the reduced end if gripped by tongs fastened to the chain of the drawbench (tube is drawn through a die smaller than the outside diameter of the tube) (inside surface and diameter are controlled by a fixed mandrel) Tube Reducer -has semicircular dies with tapered grooves through which the previously hot-rolled tubing is alternately advanced and rotated -the dies rock back and forth as the tubing moves through them -a tapered inside mandnel regulates the size to which the tube will be reduced -can make the same reduction in one pass that might take four or five passes in a draw bench -much longer lengths of tubing WIRE DRAWING - Wire is made by cold drawing hot-rolled wire rod through one or more dies, to decrease its size and increase the physical properties Process: wire rod is rolled from a single billet and cleaned in an acid bath a coating is applied a coil is placed on a reel or frame and the end of the printed so that it will enter the die the end is grasped by tongs on a drawbench and pulled through to such length as may be wound around a drawing block or reel

the rotation of the draw block pulls the wire through the die and forms it into a coil repeated with smaller dies and blocks %Reduction in Area =

A0 ( A f 100) A0

%Elongation =

L f L0 L0

100

Q0 = Qf = A0V0 = AfVf FOIL MANUFACTURE

Foils are made from a broad variety of pure metals and alloys by cold rolling to thicknesses as thin as 0.00008 in. In most instances the foil is continuously cast, cooled and rolled as it comes from the furnace. Continuous operations roll aluminum to about 0.006 in. (0.15 mm.) in thickness at velocities approaching 2000 ft/min (10 m/s).

METAL SPINNING

Shaping thin metal by pressing it against a form while it is rotating (limited to symmetrical articles). Parts are formed with the aid of blunt hand tools that press the metal against the form.

Parts may be formed either from flat disks of metal or from blanks that have been previously drawn in a press (finishing operation). Lubricants such as soap, beeswax, white lead and linseed oil reduce the tool friction.

One or more annealing operations may be necessary. For short-run production jobs Labor costs are high. Production rate is less.

SHEAR SPINNING - For spinning thick metal plates Process:

The plate is initially held securely against the mandrel by a holder. The roll formers force the plate to conform to the mandrel [maintaining a uniform wall thickness from the starting point until completion]

t f = t s (sin ) 2

 = included angle of cone

Advantages: increased length material savings reduction in cost good surface finish STRETCH FORMING -Forming large sheets of thin metals involving symmetrical shapes or double-curve bends. Process:

A single die mounted on a ram is placed between two slides that grip the metal sheet. The die moves in a vertical direction and the slides move horizontally. Large forces of 50 to 150 tons (0.5-1.3 MN) are provided for the die and slides.

Advantages:

adopted to both production and short-in jobs inexpensive large double-curvature parts (difficult by other methods are easily made with this process) can be used with many hard-to-form alloys the problem of unequal metal thin-out is minimized

Disadvantages: scrap loss is fairly high limitation to the shapes that can be formed P = 1.25 Ys A P = stretch-forming pressure, lb Ys= yield strength of metal, psi A = cross-sectional area, in.2 1.25 = empirical constant SWAGGING and COLD FORMING - done with a compressive force or impact that causes the metal to flow in some predetermined shape according to the design of the dies

Sizing - the simplest form of cold-forging

- is a process of slightly compressing a forging, casting or steel assembly to obtain close tolerance and a flat surface or a flash removal operation.

Rotary Swaging - a means of reducing the ends of bars and tubes by rotating dies that open and close rapidly on the work, so that the end of the rod is tapered or reduced in size by a combination of pressure and impact

Cold Forming (Cold Heading/Upsetting) - another form of swaging -the rod is fed by straightening rolls up to a stop and then cut off and moved into the header die Nail-making the head is formed before shearing the wire the wire is fed forward, clamped, headed and pinched or sheared off to form the point and is expelled the nails are tumbled together in sawdust to remove the lubricants and whiskers before packaging Bolt-making cutting off an oversize blank extending the shank heading, trimming, pointing and roll threading Intraforming - metal is squeezed at a pressure of about 300 tons (4000 MPa) of less, onto a die or mandrel to produce an internal configuration

HOBBING -forcing a hardened steel form a hob into soft steel to make mold cavities

The hob is heat treated to obtain necessary hardness and strength to withstand the tremendous pressures involved. Several alternative pressings and annealings are necessary.

The flow of metal in the blank is retrained from appreciable lateral movement by a heavy retainer. Advantages: multiple identical cavities can be produced economically the surfaces of the cavities have a highly polished finish machine work is unnecessary [other than to remove surplus metal from the top and sides of the blank]

COINING and EMBOSSING

Coining performed in dies that confine the metal and restrict its flow in a lateral direction - shallow configurations are produces - limited to relatively soft alloys Embossing drawing or stretching operation [does not require the high pressures in coining] - punch should not touch the mating die - embossed design is raised from the parent metal - mating die conforms to the same configuration as the punch [so there is very little metal squeezing in the operation and practically no change in the thickness of the metal] - rotary embossing using cylindrically-shaped dies is extensively used on thin sheet metal and foils -

RIVETING, STAKING and STAPLING - used to fasten parts together

Riveting: -a solid rivet is placed through holes made in the parts to be fastened together, and the end is pressed to shape by a punch Staking: -the metal of one part is upset to cause it to fit tightly against the other part Stapling: -used to join the two or more sheets of metal and to join sheet to wood ROLL FORMING - forms strips of metal into different shapes

The tubular section enters a resistance welder after being formed and is continuously welded.] Window Screen Section

A machine produces tubular sections with fine pairs of rolls.

the vertical center or pass line is established [so that the number of bends on either side is about the same] forming starts at the center and progresses out to the two (2) edges as the sheet moves through the successive roll passes Tolerance of Roll Forming:

affected by the size of the section, material, product, and the gage and gage tolerances of the material length of the piece is influenced by the speed of operation, length of the piece to be cut, and the accuracy of the cutting device

Guidelines to follow when designing a product to be cold roll formed: A slight angle is more favorable than long vertical side walls. Blind corners and radii should be avoided [to prevent inaccuracy resulting on rolls without control features]. Smaller-bend radii are easier and less expensive to make than those that are larger.

PLATE BENDING - another method of bending metal plates and strips into cylindrical shapes SEAMING - used in the manufacture of the metal drums, pails, cans and products made of light-gage metal Types:

lock seam - adapted for joints that do not have to be absolutely tight compound seam - much stronger and tighter than the lock seam double seaming - seaming for containers with a flat bottom is limited to one end of a container as the container must be open to make the joint. - seaming with recessed bottoms can be done on both ends - edge flanging, curling, flattening

HIGH-ENERGY RATE FORMING - part are formed at a rapid rate by extremely high pressures - processes materials that cant be formed by conventional forming - die costs are low - good tolerance - production cost minimized

Explosive Forming - an excellent method of utilizing energy at a high rate because the gas pressure and rate of detonation can be controlled Low Explosives:

- expanding gas is confined and pressures may build up to 100000 psi (700 Mpa) High Explosives: - need not be confined and may attain pressures of up to 20 time that of low explosives

Expanding-gas methods Presses against the workpiece and forces it to conform the die Gases act against a piston that forces the confined rubber punch over the blank and die. (similar to drop hammer but much more rapid) Slow explosive forming forms thin wall tubing by using a powder that deflagrates rather than detonates; the expanding gases are trapped inside a boot within the tubing and the expanding boot forces the tubing into the configuration of the die.

work

Electrohydraulic Forming (Electrospark Forming) - A process whereby electrical energy is directly converted into Process: A bank of capacitors is first charged to a high voltage and then discharged across a gap between two electrodes in a suitable non-conducting liquid medium. This generates a shock wave that travels radially from the arc at a high velocity.]

Magnetic Forming - Another process of direct conversion of electrical energy into useful work Process: the charging voltage E is supplied by a high-voltage source into a bank of capacitors connected in parallel when charging operation is complete, a high-voltage switch triggers the stored electrical energy through the coils establishing a high-intensity magnetic field the magnetic field induces a current into the conductive workpiece placed in or near the coil when the force exceeds the elastic limit of the material, it causes permanent deformation Different Forming Possibilities:

1. the coil surrounds a tube that when energized forces the material tightly around the fitting 2. if the coil is placed inside an assembly, the force will expand the tube into a collar 3. flat plates may be embossed or blanked (used to assemble fragile parts) Advantages: pressure on the work is uniform production rates are rapid reproducibility is excellent lubricants are unnecessary no moving mechanical parts relatively unskilled labor is required Limitations: complex shapes are impossible to form pressures cannot be varied over the workpiece OTHER METHODS

Impact Extrusion - used in the manufacture of collapsible tubes For Toothpaste tubes: a small hole is punched in the center of the blank and the die cavity is shaped to form the neck of the tube on the upstroke, the tube is blown from the ram with compressed air tubes are then threaded, inspected, trimmed, enameled and printed Hookes process (small tubes): small slugs or blanks are used in the impact extrusion process (but in this case the metal is extended downward through the die opening (0.004 to 0.010 in. (0.10-0.25 mm.) thickness, 12 in. (30mm.) length) High-speed extrusion (axle shafts): upset billets are hand-loaded onto a three-station cascade-type loading magazine shaft is elongated by forcing a ring die over the shaft Shot Peening - to improve the fatigue resistance of the metal by setting up compressive stresses in its surface - the process uses an air blast or some mechanical means as centrifugal force for hurling steel shot onto the work at high velocity

Process:

This is done by blasting or hurtling a rain of small shots at high velocity against the surface to be peened. As the shot strikes, small indentations are produced causing a slight plastic flow of the surface metal to a depth of a few thousandths of an inch. This stretching of the outer fibers is resisted by those underneath, which tend to return them to their original length, thus producing an over layer having a compressive stress while those below are in tension. The surface is slightly hardened and strengthened.