Concrete Design Guide in 40 Characters

Concrete Design 6-1
Chapter
Concrete Design
The concrete design modules can be used for the design of reinforced and pre-stressed concrete
beams and slabs, columns, column bases and retaining walls.

Concrete Design 6-2
Quick Reference
Concrete Design using PROKON 6-3
Continuous Beam and Slab Design 6-5
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-9
Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-9
Rectangular Slab Panel Design 6-9
Column Design 6-9
Retaining Wall Design 6-9
Column Base Design 6-9
Section Design for Crack width 6-9
Concrete Section Design 6-9
Punching Shear Design 6-9

Concrete Design using
PROKON
Several concrete design modules are included in the PROKON suite. These are useful tools for
the design and detailing typical reinforced and pre-stressed concrete members.
Beam and slab design
The Continuous Beam and Slab Design and Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design modules
are used to design and detail reinforced and pre-stressed beams and slabs. Simplified design of
flat slab panels is available through the Rectangular Slab Panel Design module. In contrast,
the Finite Element Slab Design module is better suited for the design of slabs with more
complicated geometries. Punching shear in flat reinforced concrete slabs can be checked with
the Punching Shear Design module.
Column design
Rectangular Column Design and Circular Column Design offer rapid design and detailing
of simple short and slender columns. Columns with complicated shapes can be designed using
the General Column Design module.
Substructure design
Use the Column Base Design and Retaining Wall design to design and detail typical bases
and soil retaining walls.
Section design
Two modules, Concrete Section Design and Section Design for Crack width, are available
for the quick design of sections for strength and crack width requirements.

Continuous Beam and
Slab Design
The Continuous Beam and Slab Design module is used to design and detail reinforced
concrete beams and slabs as encountered in typical building projects. The design incorporates
automated pattern loading and moment redistribution.
Complete bending schedules can be generated for editing and printing using Padds.

Theory and application
The following text gives an overview of the theory and application of the design codes.
Design scope
The program designs and details continuous concrete beams and slabs. You can design
structures ranging from simply supported single span to twenty-span continuous beams and
slabs. Cross-sections can include a mixture rectangular, I, T and L-sections. Spans can have
constant or tapered sections.
Entered dead and live loads are automatically applied as pattern loads during the analysis. At
ultimate limit state, moments and shears are redistributed to a specified percentage.
Reinforcement can be generated for various types of beams and slabs, edited and saved as
Padds compatible bending schedules.
Design codes
The following codes are supported:
BS 8110 - 1985.
BS 8110 - 1997.
SABS 0100 - 1992.
Reinforcement bending schedules are generated in accordance to the guidelines given by the
following publications:
General principles: BS 4466 and SABS 082.
Guidelines for detailing: Standard Method of Detailing Structural Concrete published by
the British Institute of Structural Engineers.
Sub-frame analysis
A two-dimensional frame model is constructed from the input data. Section properties are
based on the gross un-cracked concrete sections. Columns can optionally be specified below
and above the beam/slab and can be made pinned or fixed at their remote ends.
Note: No checks are made for the slenderness limits of columns or beam flanges.
Pattern loading
At ultimate limit state, the dead and live loads are multiplied by the specified ULS load
factors (see page 6-9). Unity load factors are used at serviceability limit state. The following
load cases are considered (the sketch uses the load factors applicable to BS8110):
All spans are loaded with
the maximum design load.
Equal spans are loaded with
the maximum design
ultimate load and unequal
spans with the minimum
design dead load.
Unequal spans are loaded
with the maximum design
load and equal spans loaded
with the minimum design
dead load.Note: The case
where any two adjacent spans
are loaded with maximum load
and all other spans with minimum load, as was the case with CP 110 - 1972 and
SABS 0100 - 1980, is not considered.
The following are special considerations with pertaining to design using SABS 0100 - 1992:
SABS 0100 - 1992 suggests a constant ULS dead load factor of 1.2 for all pattern load
cases. In contrast, the BS 8110 codes suggest a minimum ULS dead load factor of 1.0 for
calculating the minimum ultimate dead load. The program uses the more approach given
by the BS 8110 codes at all times, i.e. a ULS load factor of 1.0 for minimum dead load and
the maximum load factor specified for maximum dead load.
The South African loading code, SABS 0162 - 1989, prescribes an additional load case of
1.5DL. This load case is not considered during the analysis if required, you should
adjustment the applied loads manually. In cases where the dead load is large in comparison
with the live load, e.g. lightly loaded roof slabs, this load case can be incorporated by
increasing the entered dead load or increasing the ULS dead load factor. This adjustment
applies to cases where 1.5DL > 1.2DL + 1.6LL or, in other words, LL < 19%. Using
an increased dead load factor of 1.4 instead of the normal 1.2 will satisfy all cases except
where 1.5DL > 1.4DL + 1.6LL or, in other words, LL < 6%DL.
Moment redistribution
Ultimate limit state bending moments are redistributed for each span by adjusting the support
moments downward with the specified percentage. If the method of moment redistribution is
set to optimised, the design moments are further minimised by redistributing span moments
upward as well.
Note: No moment redistribution is done for serviceability limit state calculations.
The moment envelopes are calculated for pattern loading and then redistributed using the
procedures explained in the following text.
Downwards redistribution
The downward distribution
method aims to reduce the
hogging moments at the
columns without increasing
the sagging moments at
midspan. The redistribution
of moments and shear forces
procedure is performed as
follows:
1. The maximum hogging
moment at each column
or internal support is
adjusted downward by
the specified maximum
percentage.
2. The corresponding span
moments are adjusted
downward to maintain
static equilibrium. The
downward adjustment
of hogging moments
above is limited to
prevent any increase in
the maximum span
moments of end spans.
3. The shear forces for the
same load cases are
adjusted to maintain
static equilibrium.
Optimised redistribution:
The optimised distribution procedure takes the above procedure a step further by upward
distribution of the span moments. The envelopes for the three pattern load cases are
redistributed as follows:
1. The maximum hogging moment at each internal support is adjusted downward by the
specified percentage. This adjustment affects the moment diagram for the load case where
the maximum design load is applied to all spans.
2. The relevant span moments are adjusted accordingly to maintain static equilibrium.
3. The minimum hogging moment at each internal support is subsequently adjusted upward
to as close as possible to the reduced maximum support moment, whilst remaining in the
permissible redistribution range. A second load case is thus affected for each span.
4. The relevant span moments are adjusted in line with this redistribution of the column
moments to maintain static equilibrium.
5. For each span, the moment diagram for the remaining third load case is adjusted to as near
as possible to the span moments obtained in the previous step. The adjustment is made in
such a way that it remains within the permissible redistribution range.
6. Finally, the shear force envelope is adjusted to maintain static equilibrium.
7. The following general principles are applied when redistributing moments:
8. Equilibrium is maintained between internal and external forces for all relevant
combinations of design ultimate load.
9. The neutral axis depth is checked at all cross sections where moments are redistributed. If,
for the specified percentage of moment redistribution, the neutral axis depth is greater than
the limiting value of (
b
0.4)d, compression reinforcement is added to the section to
sufficiently reduce the neutral axis depth.
10. The amount of moment redistribution is limited to the specified percentage. The maximum
amount of redistribution allowed by the codes is 30%.
Note: The exact amount of moment redistribution specified is always applied, irrespective
of the degree of ductility of the relevant sections. Where necessary, ductility is improved by
limiting the neutral axis depth. This is achieved by adding additional compression
reinforcement.
Deflection calculation
Both short-term and long-term deflections are calculated. No moment redistribution is done at
serviceability limit state.
Elastic deflections
Short-term elastic deflections are calculated using un-factored SLS pattern loading. Gross un-
cracked concrete sections are used.
Long-term deflections
Long-term deflections are determined by first calculating the cracked transformed sections:
1. The full SLS design load is applied to all spans to obtain the elastic moment diagram.
2. The cracked transformed sections are then calculated at 250 mm intervals along the length
of the beam. The results of these calculations are tabled in the Crack files on the
View output pages.
Note: The calculation of the cracked transformed section properties is initially based on the
amount of reinforcement required at ULS. However, once reinforcement is generated for
beams, the actual entered reinforcement is used instead. You can thus control deflections by
manipulating reinforcement quantities.
Next, the long-term deflection components are calculated by numerically integrating the
curvature diagrams:
1. Shrinkage deflection is calculated by applying the specified shrinkage strain.
Unsymmetrical beams and unsymmetrical reinforcement layouts will cause a curvature in
the beam.
2. The creep deflection is calculated by applying the total dead load and the permanent
portion of the live load on the beam. The modulus of elasticity of the concrete is reduced
in accordance with the relevant design code.
3. The instantaneous deflection is calculated by applying the transient portion of the live load
on the transformed crack section.
4. The long-term deflection components are summed to yield the total long-term deflection.
Note: When calculating the curvatures for integration, elastic moments are used together
with cracked transformed sections, which implies plastic behaviour. Although this
procedure is performed in accordance with the design codes, the use of elastic moments
together with cracked sections in the same calculation is a contradiction of principles. As a
result of this, long-term deflection diagrams may show slight slope discontinuities at
supports, especially in cases of severe cracking.
Calculation of flexural reinforcement
The normal code formulae apply when calculating flexural reinforcement for rectangular
sections and for flanged sections where the neutral axis falls inside the flange.
If the neutral axis falls outside the flange, the section is designed by considering it as two
sub-sections. The first sub-section consists of the flange without the central web part of the
section and the remaining central portion defines the second sub-section. The reinforcement
calculation is then performed as follows:
1. Considering the total section, the moment required to put the flange portion in
compression can be calculated using the normal code formulae. This moment is then
applied to the flange sub-section and the required reinforcement calculated using the
effective depth of the total section.
2. The same moment is then subtracted from the total applied moment. The resulting moment
is then applied to the central sub-section and the reinforcement calculated.
3. The tension reinforcement for the actual section is then taken as the sum of the calculated
reinforcement for the two sub-sections. If compression reinforcement is required for the
central sub-section, it is used as the required compression reinforcement for the actual
section.
Design and detailing of flat slabs
When entering the input data for a flat slab, you should use its whole width, i.e. the transverse
column spacing (half the spacing to the left plus half the spacing to the right). The program
will then calculate bending moments and shear forces for the whole panel width.
When generating reinforcement, however, the program considers the column and middle strips
separately. The program does the column and middle strip subdivision as suggested by the
design codes. The procedure is taken a step further by narrowing the column strip and
widening the middle strip to achieve a simpler reinforcement layout a procedure allowed by
the codes.
Initial column and middle strip subdivision
The flat slab panel is divided into a column strip and middle strip of equal widths and then
adjusted to simplify reinforcement detailing:
1. The width of the column strip is initially taken as half the panel width. The total design
moment is then distributed between the column and middle strips as follows:

Moment position Column strip Middle strip
Moment over columns 75% 25%
Moments at midspan 55% 45%

2. Reinforcement is calculated for each of the column and middle strips.
Adjusted column and middle strip subdivision
The design codes require that two-thirds of the column strip reinforcement be concentrated in
its middle half. The codes also state that a column strip may not be taken wider than half the
panel width, thereby implying that it would be acceptable to make the column strip narrower
than the half the panel width.
To simplify the reinforcement layout and still comply with the code provisions, the program
narrows the column strip and widens the middle strip. The widening of the middle strip is done
as follows:
1. The middle strip is widened by fifty percent from half the panel width to three-quarters of
the panel width.
2. The reinforcement in the middle
strip is accordingly increased by
fifty percent. Reinforcement
added to the middle strip is taken
from the column strip.
The column strip is subsequently
narrowed as follows:
1. The column strip is narrowed to
a quarter of the panel width.
2. As explained above, rein-
forcement is taken from the
column strip and put into the
widened middle strip.
3. The remaining reinforcement is
checked and additional rein-
forcement added where
necessary. This is done to ensure
that the amount of reinforcement
resisting hogging moment is
greater than or equal to two-
thirds of the reinforcement
required for the original column
strip.

Designing the slab for shear
The program considers the column strip like a normal beam when doing shear calculations. A
possible approach to the shear design of the slab is:
Consider the column strip like a beam and provide stirrups equal to or exceeding the
calculated required shear steel.
In addition to the above, perform a punching shear check at all columns.
Implications of modifying the column and middle strips
In applying the above modifications, the moment capacity is not reduced. The generated
reinforcement will be equal to, or slightly greater, than the amount that would be calculated
using the normal middle and column strip layout.
The above technique gives simplified reinforcement details:
A narrower column strip is obtained with a uniform transverse distribution of main bars
and a narrow zone of shear links.
Detailing of the adjoining middle strips is also simplified by the usage of uniform
reinforcement distributions.
The design procedures for flat slabs and coffer slabs are described in more detail on page 6-9.

Input
The beam/slab definition has several input components:
Parameters: Material properties, load factors and general design parameters.
Sections: Enter cross-sectional dimensions.
Spans: Define spans and span segments.
Supports: Define columns, simple supports and cantilevers.
Loads: Enter dead and live loads.
Parameters input
Enter the following design parameters:
f
cu
: Characteristic strength of concrete (MPa).
f
y
: Characteristic strength of main reinforcement (MPa).
f
yv
: Characteristic strength of shear reinforcement (MPa).
Redistr : Percentage of moment redistribution to be applied.
Method : Method of moment redistribution, i.e. downward or optimised. Refer to page 6-
8 for detail.
Cover top : Distance from the top surface of the concrete to the centre of the top steel.
Cover bottom: Distance from the soffit to the centre of the bottom steel.
DL factor : Maximum ULS dead load factor.
LL factor : Maximum ULS live load factor.
Note: The ULS dead and live load factors are used to calculate the ULS design loads. The
ULS dead and live loads are then automatically patterned during analysis. Refer to page 6-7
for more information.
Density : Concrete density used for calculation of own weight. If the density filed is left
blank, the self-weight of the beam/slab should be included in the entered dead
loads.
LL perm : Portion of live load to be considered as permanent when calculating the creep
components of the long-term deflection.
: The thirty-year creep factor used for calculating the final concrete creep strain.

cs
: Thirty-year drying shrinkage of plain concrete.
The graphs displayed on-screen give typical values for the creep factor and drying shrinkage
strain. In both graphs, the effective section thickness is defined for uniform sections as twice
the cross-sectional area divided by the exposed perimeter. If drying is prevented by immersion
in water or by sealing, the effective section thickness may be taken as 600 mm.

Note: Creep and shrinkage of plain concrete are primarily dependent on the relative
humidity of the air surrounding the concrete. Where detailed calculations are being made,
stresses and relative humidity may vary considerably during the lifetime of the structure and
appropriate judgements should be made.
Sections input
You can define rectangular, I, T, L and inverted T and L-sections. Every section comprises a
basic rectangular web area with optional top and bottom flanges.
The top levels of all sections are aligned vertically by default and they are placed with their
webs symmetrically around the vertical beam/slab centre line. The web and/or flanges can be
move horizontally to obtain eccentric sections, for example L-sections. Whole sections can
also be moved up or down to obtain vertical eccentricity.
Note: In the sub-frame analysis, the centroids all beam segments are assumed to be on a
straight line. Vertical and horizontal offsets of sections are use used for presentation and
detailing purposes only and has no effect on the design results.
Section definitions are displayed graphically as they are entered. Section cross-sections are
displayed as seen from the left end of the beam/slab.

The following dimensions should be defined for each section:
Sec no : The section number is used on the Spans input page to identify specific
sections.
Bw : Width of the web (mm).
D : Overall section depth, including any flanges (mm).
Bf-top : Width of optional top flange (mm).
Hf-top : Depth of optional top flange (mm).
Bf-bot : Width of optional bottom flange (mm).
Hf-bot : Depth of optional bottom flange (mm).
Y-offset : Vertical offset the section (mm). If zero or left blank, the top surface is aligned
with the datum line. A positive value means the section is moved up.
Web offset : Horizontal offset of the web portion (mm). If zero or left blank, the web is
taken symmetrical about the beam/slab centre line. A positive value means the
web is moved to the right.
Flange offset : Horizontal offset of both the top and bottom flanges (mm). If zero or left blank,
the flanges are taken symmetrical about the beam/slab centre line. A positive
value means the flanges are moved to the right.
Note: There is more than one way of entering a T-section. The recommended method is to
enter a thin web with a wide top flange. You can also enter wide web (actual top flange)
with a thin bottom flange (actual web). The shear steel design procedure works with the
entered web area, i.e. B
w
D, as the effective shear area. Although the two methods produce
similar pictures, their shear modelling is vastly different.
Spans input
Sections specified on the Sections input page are used here with segment lengths to define
spans of constant or varying sections.

Spans are defined by specifying one or more span segments, each with a unique set of section
properties. The following data should be input for each span:
Span no : Span number between 1 and 20. If left blank, the span number as was
applicable to the previous row is used, i.e. another segment for the current
span.
Section length : Length of span or span segment (m).
Sec No Left : Section number to use at the left end of the span segment.
Sec No Right : Section number to use at the right end of the span segment. If left blank, the
section number at the left end is used, i.e. a prismatic section is assumed. If
the entered section number differs from the one at the left end, the section
dimensions are varied linearly along the length of the segment.
Tip: When using varying cross sections on a span segment, the section definitions are
interpreted literally. If a rectangular section should taper to an L-section, for example, the
flange will taper from zero thickness at the rectangular section to the actual thickness at the
L-section. If the flange thickness should remain constant, a dummy flange should be defined
for the rectangular section. The flange should be defined marginally wider, say 0.1mm, than
the web and its depth made equal to the desired flange depth.
Supports input
You can specify simple supports, columns below and above, fixed ends and cantilever ends. To
allow a complete sub-frame analysis, columns can be specified below and above the beam/slab.
If no column data is entered, simple supports are assumed.
The following input is required:
Sup no : Support number, between 1 to 2. Support 1 is the left-most support.
C,F : The left-most and right-most supports can be freed, i.e. cantilevered, or made
fixed by entering C or Frespectively. By fixing a support, full rotational
fixity is assumed, e.g. the beam/slab frames into a very stiff shaft or column.
D : Depth/diameter of a rectangular/circular column (mm). The depth is measured
in the span direction of the beam/slab.
B : Width of the column (mm). If zero or left blank, a circular column is assumed.
H : Height of the column (m).
Tip: For the sake of accurate reinforcement detailing, you can specify a width for simple
supports at the ends of the beam/slab. Simply enter a value for D and leave B and H blank.
In the analysis, the support will still be considered as a normal simple support. However,
when generating reinforcement bars, the program will extend the bars a distance equal to
half the support depth past the support centre line.
Code : A column can be pinned at its remote end by specifying P. If you enter F or
leave this field blank, the column is assumed to be fixed at the remote end.

Tip: You may leave the Support input table blank if all supports are simple supports.
Loads input
Dead and live loads are entered separately. The entered loads are automatically patterned
during analysis. For more detail on the pattern loading technique, refer to page 6-7.
Distributed loads, point loads and moments can be entered on the same line. Use as many lines
as necessary to define each load case. Defined loads as follows:
Case D,L : Enter Dor Lfor dead load or live load respectively. If left blank, the previous
load type is assumed. Use as many lines as necessary to define a load case.
Span : Span number on which the load is applied. If left blank, the previous span
number is assumed, i.e. a continuation of the load on the current span.
Wleft : Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied at the left-hand starting position of
the load. If you do not enter a value, the program will use a value of zero.
Wright : Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied on the right-hand ending position of
the load. If you leave this field blank, the value is made equal to Wleft, i.e. a
uniformly distributed load is assumed.
P : Point load (kN).
M : Moment (kNm).
a : The start position of the distributed load, position of the point load or position
of the moment (m). The distance is measured from the left-hand edge of the
beam. If you leave this field blank, a value of zero is used, i.e. the load is taken
to start at the left-hand edge of the beam.
b : The end position of the distributed load, measured from the start position of the
load (m). Leave this field blank if you want the load to extend up to the
right-hand edge of the beam.
Note: A portion of the live load can be considered as permanent for deflection calculation.
For more detail, refer to the explanation of the Parameters input on page 6-9.

Note: If you enter a concrete density on the Parameters input page, the own weight of the
beam/slab is automatically calculated and included with the dead load.
Design
The analysis is performed automatically when you access the Design pages.
Analysis procedure
Two separate analyses are performed for SLS and ULS calculations.
Serviceability limit state analysis
Elastic deflections are calculated by analysing the beam/slab under pattern loading using the
gross un-cracked sections.
When determining long-term deflections, however, the all spans of the beam/slab are subjected
to the maximum design SLS load. Sections are then evaluated for cracking at 250 mm
intervals, assuming the reinforcement required at ultimate limit state. The long-term deflections
are then calculated by integrating the curvature diagrams.
Tip: After having generated reinforcement for a beam, the long-term deflections will be
recalculated using the actual reinforcement.
Refer to page 6-9 for more detail on calculation of long-term deflections.
Ultimate limit state analysis
At ultimate limit state, the beam/slab is subjected to pattern loading as described on page 6-7.
The resultant bending moment and shear force envelopes are then redistributed. Finally, the
required reinforcement is calculated.
Fixing errors that occurred during the analysis
The Input pages incorporate extensive error checking. However, serious errors sometime still
slip through and cause problems during the analysis. Common input errors include:
Using incorrect units of measurement. For example, span lengths should be entered in
metre and not millimetre.
Entering too large reinforcement cover values on the Parameters input screen, gives
incorrect reinforcement. Cover values should not be wrongly set to a value larger than half
the overall section depth.
Not entering section numbers when defining spans on the Spans input screens causes
numeric instability. Consequently, the program uses zero section properties.

Long-term deflection problems
The cause of unexpected large long-term deflections can normally be determined by careful
examination of the analysis output. View the long-term deflection diagrams and determine
which component has the greatest effect:
The likely cause of large shrinkage deflection is vastly unsymmetrical top and bottom
reinforcement. Adding bottom reinforcement over supports and top reinforcement at in the
middle of spans generally induces negative shrinkage deflection, i.e. uplift.
Large creep deflections (long-term deflection under permanent load) are often caused by
excessive cracking, especially over the supports. Compare the span to depth ratios with the
recommended values in the relevant design code.
Reduced stiffness due to cracking also has a direct impact on the instantaneous deflection
component.
To verify the extent of cracking along the length of the beam/slab, you can study the contents
of the Crack file. Check the cracked status and stiffness of the relevant sections. The extent of
cracking along the length of the beam/slab is usually a good indication of its serviceability.

Viewing output graphics
The analysis results can be viewed graphically or in tabular format. Output data, including
graphics and tabled values, can be selectively appended to the Calcsheets using the Add to
Calcsheets function on each output page.
Diagrams can be displayed for deflection, member forces and stress and shell reinforcement of
any load case.
Deflections
The elastic deflection envelope
represents the deflections due to
SLS pattern loading.
The long-term deflection diagram
represents the behaviour of the
beam/slab under full SLS
loading, taking into account the
effects of shrinkage and creep:
The green line represents the
total long-term deflection.
The shrinkage deflection is
shown in red.
The creep deflection (long-term
deflection due to permanent loads)
is given by the distance between the
red and blue lines.
The distance between the blue and
green lines represents instantaneous
deflection due to transient loads.
Note: Long-term deflections in beams are influenced by reinforcement layout. Initial long-
term deflection values are based on the reinforcement required at ultimate limit state. Once
reinforcement has been generated for a beam, the long-term deflections will be based on the
actual reinforcement instead.
Moments and shear forces
The bending moment and shear
force diagrams show the
envelopes due to ULS pattern
loading.

Steel diagrams
Bending and shear reinforcement
envelopes are given for ULS
pattern loading. The bending
reinforcement diagram sows
required top steel above the zero
line and bottom steel below.

Viewing output tables
Open the Output file page for a tabular display of the beam/slab design results. Results include
moments and reinforcement, shear forces and reinforcement, column reactions and moments
and deflections.
The Crack file gives details of the cracked status, effective stiffness and concrete stresses in
the beam/slab at regular intervals. You should find the information useful when trying to
identify zones of excessive cracking.
Reinforcing
Reinforcement can be generated for the most types of continuous beam and slabs using the
automatic bar generation feature. Reinforcement is generated in accordance to the entered
detailing parameters after which you can edit the bars to suit your requirements.
To create a bending schedule, use each detailing function in turn:
Detailing parameters: Select the detailing mode, enter you preferences and generate the
reinforcement.
Main reinforcement: Review the main bars and adjust as necessary.
Stirrups: Enter one or more stirrup configurations.
Shear reinforcement: Distribute stirrups over the length of the beam.
Sections: Specify positions where of cross-sections details should be generated.
Bending schedule: Create the Padds file.
Detailing parameters
The detailing parameters set the rules to be used by the program when generating
reinforcement:
Beam/slab type: Different detailing rules apply to different types of beams and slabs:

Type Description Main reinforcement Shear reinforcement
1 Normal beam
Nominal reinforcement
as for beams
Beam shear
reinforcement
2
One way spanning
flat slab
as for slabs.
No shear
reinforcement.
3
Column strip
portion of flat slab
on columns
4
Middle strip
portion of flat slab
on columns
Main reinforcement in
accordance with
moment distribution
between column and
middle strips. Nominal
reinforcement as for
slabs.
No shear
reinforcement.
Separate punching
shear checks should
be performed.
5 Rib
as for slabs.
Shear reinforcement
as for beams.

Maximum bar length: Absolute maximum main bar length to be used, e.g. 13 m.
Minimum diameter for top bars, bottom bars and stirrups: The minimum bar diameter to
be used in each if the indicated positions.
Maximum diameter for top bars, bottom bars and stirrups: The maximum main bar
diameter to be used in each if the indicated positions.
Tip: To force the program to use a specific bar diameter, you can enter the same value for
both the minimum and maximum diameters.

Note: The default bar types used for main bars and stirrups, e.g. mild steel or high tensile,
are determined by the yield strength values entered on the Parameters input page refer to
page 6-9 for detail. High tensile steel markings, e.g. 'T' or 'Y', will be used for specified
values of f
y
and f
yv
exceeding 350MPa.
Stirrup shape code: Preferred shape code to use for stirrups. Valid shape codes include:
BS 4466: 55, 61, 77, 78 and 79.
SABS 082: 55, 60, 72, 73 and 74.
First bar mark - top: The mark of the first bar in the top of the beam/slab. Any
alphanumerical string of up to five characters may be specified. The rightmost numerical
or alpha portion of the bar mark is incremented for subsequent bars. Examples of valid
marks include:
001 will increment to 002, 003 etc.
A will increments to B, C, etc.
B002 will increment to B003, B004 etc.
First bar mark - middle: The mark of the first bar in the middle of the beam/slab. If you
do not enter a mark, the bar marks continue from those used for the top reinforcement.
Middle bars are generated for all beams with effective depth of 650 mm or greater.
First bar mark - bottom: The mark of the first bar in the bottom the beam/slab. If you
leave this field blank, the bar marks will continue from those used for the top or middle
reinforcement.
Cover to stirrups: Concrete cover to use at the top, bottom and sides of all stirrups.
Minimum stirrup percentage: Nominal shear reinforcement is calculated according to
the code provisions for beams and slabs. In some cases, it may be acceptable to provide
less than the nominal amount stirrups, e.g. for fixing top bars in a flat slab. The minimum
amount of stirrups to be generated can be entered as a percentage of the nominal shear
reinforcement.
Note: For beams and ribs, the minimum stirrup percentage should not be taken less than
100% of nominal shear reinforcement.
Loose method of detailing: The envisaged construction technique can be taken into
account when detailing reinforcement:
With the loose method of detailing, also referred to as the splice-bar method, span
reinforcement and link hangers are stopped short about 100 mm inside each column
face. This is done at all internal columns were congestion of column and beam
reinforcement is likely to occur. The span bars and stirrups are often made into a cage,
lifted and lowered between supports. For continuity, separate splice bars are provided
through the vertical bars of each internal column to extend a lap length plus 100 mm
into each span. Top bars will extend over supports for the required distance and lapped
with nominal top bars or link hangers. Allowance is made for a lap length of 40 and a
100 mm tolerance for the bottom splice bars that are acting in compression.
Alternatively, where accessibility during construction allows, the 'normal' method of
detailing usually yields a more economical reinforcement layout. This method allows
bottom bars to be lapped at support centre lines. Top bars will extend over supports for
the required distance and lapped with link hangers. Where more practical, top bars over
adjacent supports may be joined. Adjacent spans are sometimes detailed together.
Note: The normal method of detail may give rise to congested reinforcement layouts at
beam-column junctions, especially on the bottom beam/slab layer. Reinforcement layout
details at such points should be checked.
Generating reinforcement
Use the Generate reinforcing to have the program generate bars according the detailing
parameters.
Note: The aim of the automatic reinforcement generation function is to achieve a reasonable
optimised reinforcement layout for any typical beam or slab layout. More complicated
layouts will likely require editing of the generated reinforcement as described in the text that
follows. Very complicated layouts may require more detailed editing using Padds.
Editing reinforcement
You can modify the generated reinforcement to suite your requirements by editing the
information on the Main reinforcing, Stirrups, Shear reinforcing and Sections pages.
Main reinforcing
The main reinforcement bars are defined as follows:
Bars: The quantity, type and diameter of the bar, example 2T20 or 2Y16. The bar
defined at the cursor position is highlighted in the elevation.
Mark: An alphanumerical string of up to five characters in length, example A, 01
or A001.
Shape code: Standard bar shape code. Valid shape codes for main bars include 20, 32, 33,
34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39 and 51.
Span: The beam/slab span number.
Offset: Distance from the left end of the span to the start point of the bar (m). A negative
value makes the bar start to the left of the beginning of the span, i.e. in the previous span.
Length: Length of the bar as seen in elevation (m).
Hook: If a bar has a hook or bend, enter L or R to it on the left or right side. If this field
is left blank, an L is assumed.
Layer: Position the bar in the top, middle or bottom layer. Use the letters T, M or B
with an optional number, e.g. T or T1and T2.

The bending reinforcement diagram is shown on the lower half of the screen. The diagrams for
required (red) and entered (blue) reinforcement are superimposed for easy comparison. Bond
stress development is taken into consideration in the diagram for entered reinforcement.
Stirrups
Define stirrup layouts as follows:
Stirrup number: Enter a stirrup configuration number. Configuration numbers are used
on the Shear reinforcing input page (see page 6-9) to reference specific configuration. If
left blank, the number applicable to the previous row is assumed, i.e. an extended
definition of the current configuration.
Section number: Concrete cross section number as defined on the Sections input page
(see page 6-9). If left blank, the number applicable to previous row in the table is used.
Bars: Type and diameter of bar, example R10.
Note: Mild steel bars are normally used for shear reinforcement. However, in zones where
much shear reinforcement is required, you may prefer using high yield stirrups. You can do
this by entering T or Y bars instead of R bars. In such a case, the yield strength ratio of
the main and shear reinforcement, i.e. f
y
/f
YV
as entered, will be used to transpose the entered
stirrup areas to equivalent mild steel areas.

Mark: Any alphanumerical string of up to five characters in length, e.g. SA1, 01 or
S001.
Shape code: Standard double-leg bar shape code. The following shape codes can be used:
BS4466: 55, 61, 77, 78 and 74.
SABS082: 55, 60, 72, 73 and 74.
Bars are automatically sized to fit the section web. The first stirrup entered is put against the
web sides. Subsequent stirrups are positioned in such a way that vertical legs are spaced
equally.
Tip: Open stirrups, e.g. shape code 55, can be closed by entering a shape code 35.
Shear reinforcing
Stirrup layouts defined on the Stirrups input page (see page 6-9) are distributed over the
length of the beam/slab:
Stirrup number: The stirrup configuration number to distribute.
Spacing: Link spacing (mm).
Span: The beam/slab span number.
Offset: Distance from the left of the span to the start point of the distribution zone (m). A
negative value makes the zone start to the left of the beginning of the span, i.e. in the
previous span.
Length: Length of the stirrup distribution zone (m).

The diagrams for required and entered shear reinforcement are superimposed. The required
steel diagram takes into account shear enhancements at the supports.
It may sometimes be acceptable to enter less shear steel than the calculated amount of nominal
sheer steel, e.g. when the stirrups are only used as hangers to aid the fixing main steel in slabs.
This option can be set as default on the Detailing parameters input screen see page 6-9
for detail.
Sections
Cross-sections can be generated anywhere along the length of the beam/slab to show the main
and shear steel layout:
Label: The cross-section designation, e.g. 'A'.
Span no: The beam/slab span number.
Offset: The position of the section, given as a distance from the left end of the span (m).
Sections are displayed on the screen and can be used to check the validity of steel entered at the
different positions. Stirrup layouts defined on the Stirrups input (see page 6-9) rely on
appropriate section positions specified. All specified sections will be included in the final
bending schedule.

Bending schedule
The Bending schedule input page is used generate a complete Padds compatible bending
schedule. The parameters allow flexibility in the bending schedule creation, e.g. you can have
the details of a beam/slab on a single bending schedule or split it onto more than one schedule
to improve clarity. Each bending schedule can then be given a unique name and the associated
spans entered.
The following information should be entered:
File name: The name of the Padds drawing and bending schedule file
First span: For clarity, a beam/slab with many spans can be scheduled put on more than
one bending schedule. Enter the first span number to be included in the bending schedule.
Last span: Enter the last span number to be included in the bending schedule.
Grid lines: Optionally display grid lines and numbers appear on the bending schedule
drawing.
Columns: Optionally display column faces on the bending schedule drawing.
First grid: The name or number of the first grid. Use one or two letters and/or numbers.
Number up or down: Specify whether grids must be numbered in ascending or
descending order, i.e. A, Band C or C, Band A
Drawing size: Select A4 or A5 drawing size. If A4 is selected, the drawing is scaled to fit
on a full page and the accompanying schedule on a separate page. The A5 selection will
scale the drawing to fit on the same page with the schedule. Typically, a maximum of
three to four spans can be shown with enough clarity in A5 format and four to six spans in
A4 format.
Note: When combining a drawing and schedule on the same page, the number of schedule
lines is limited to a maximum of twenty-four in Padds. Using more lines will result in the
drawing and schedule being printed on separate pages.
Use the Generate schedule function to create and display the Padds bending schedule.
Editing and printing of bending schedules
Detailed editing and printing of bending schedules are done with Padds. For this, following the
steps below:
Exit the program and launch Padds.
Choose Open on the File menu and double-click the relevant file name. The file will be
opened and displayed in two cascaded widows. The active windows will contain the
drawing of the beam and the second window the bar schedule.
Make any necessary changes to the drawing, e.g. editing or adding bars and adding
construction notes.
Click on any visible part of the window containing the cutting list to bring it to the front.
Enter the following information at the relevant positions:
Member description: Use as many lines of the member column to enter a member
description, e.g. 450x300 BEAM.
General schedule information: Press PgDn to move to the bottom of the bending schedule
page and enter the detailers name, reference drawing number etc.
Bending schedule title: Enter the project name and bending schedule title in the centre
block at the bottom of the bending schedule.
Bending schedule number: The schedule number in the bottom right corner defaults to the
file name, e.g. BEAM.PAD. The schedule number can be edited as required to suite
your companys schedule numbering system, e.g. P12346-BS001.
Note: The bottom left block is reserved for your company logo and should be set up as
described in the Padds Users Guide.
Finally, combine the beam
drawing and schedule onto one
or more A4 pages using the
Make BS Print Files command
on the File menu. Use Alt+P to
print the schedule immediately
or Alt+F to save it as a print file
for later batch printing.
Calcsheets
The beam/slab design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.
Various settings are available to include input and design diagram and tabular result.

Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Recalling a data file
If you enable the Data File option before sending a calcsheet to Calcpad, you can later recall
the design by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in Calcpad
is saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the design module
as well.
Appendix: Suggested design procedures for slabs
Some suggestions are made below with regards the design and detailing of solid slabs and
coffer slabs.
Suggested design procedure for solid slabs
The suggestions are explained by way of an example. A flat slab with a regular rectangular
column layout of 6.0 m by 5.5 m is considered.
Typical strip over a row of internal columns (Strip A)
The strip is modelled as a 6000 mm wide panel, i.e. 3000 mm either side of the columns. The
program calculates moments and shear forces for the whole panel width. It then details a
column strip, 1500 mm wide, and middle strip, 4500 mm wide. For an explanation of the
division into column and middle strips, see page 6-9.
External strip (Strip B)
The external strip, strip B, is defined as the portion over the external columns that extending
halfway to the first row of internal columns. Strip C is the first internal strip and it extends to
midspan on both sides.
Consider the end panel,
i.e. the portion between
edge columns and the
first row of internal
columns or, in other
word, strip B together
with half of strip C. The
portion over the internal
columns (portion of strip
C) will tend to attract
more moment than the
portion over the external
columns (strip B). Using
a rule of thumb, a
reasonable moment distri-
bution ratio would be
about 62.5% to 37.5%.
The external strip (strip
B) can thus be
conservatively modelled
as a panel with width equal to half the transverse column spacing, i.e. 3000 mm, carrying the
full load for that area. The program will analyse the strip and the generate reinforcement for a
column strip, 750 mm wide, and a middle strip, 2250 mm wide.
First internal strip (Strip C)
The first internal strip can subsequently be modelled using the same width as a typical internal
panel, i.e. 6000 mm. Because of the moment distribution explained above, the loading is
increased to 50% + 62.5% = 112.5% of the typical panel loading. The small overlap in loading
between the edge and first internal panels should take care of any adverse effects due to pattern
loading.
Note: If the own weight is modelled using a density, you should account for the increased
loading by either increase the density value by 12.5% or increasing the applied dead load.
The program will analyse the panel and generate a column strip, 1500 mm wide, and a middle
strip 4500 mm wide.
Reinforcement layout
Careful combination of the column and middle strips generated above, should yield a
reasonably economical reinforcement layout:
For typical internal strips (strip A), use the generated column strip (CA) and middle
strip (MA).
For the column strip over the external row of columns, use no less than the column strip
reinforcement (CB) generated for the external strip (strip B).
For the column strip over the first row of internal columns, use no less than the column
strip reinforcement (CC) generated for the first internal strip (strip C).
The first middle strip from the edge (MC/MB) can be conservatively taken as the worst of
middle strip generated for the first internal strip (MC) and twice that generated for the
external strip (MB).
Suggested design procedure for coffer slabs
Coffer slabs can normally be designed and detailed using the design procedure for solid slabs.
The procedure suggested for solid slabs should be also a reasonable design approach for coffer
slabs if the following conditions are met:
The solid bands should be as wide or slightly wider than the generated column
strips, i.e.
L
/
4
or wider.
Assuming that the concrete compression zone of each coffer rib falls in the coffer flange,
the slab can be modelled as a solid slab.
Setting the density to zero and appropriately increasing the applied dead load can model
the own weight of the slab.
The linear shear requirements should be verified for the column strips, i.e. solid bands.
The areas around columns slab should also be checked for punching shear.
The coffer webs should be checked for linear shear and compression reinforcement.
Note: You should validate the design procedure by checking that, in zones of sagging
moment, the concrete compression zones of coffer ribs fall within the coffer flanges. Zones
of hogging moment should be located inside solid bands.

Pre-stressed Beam and
Slab Design
Captain (Computer Aided Post Tensioning Analysis Instrument) can be used to design and
detail most types of continuous pre-stressed beam and slab systems encountered in typical
building projects. The design incorporates automated pattern loading and moment
redistribution.
Both unbounded systems, e.g. flat slabs, and bonded systems, e.g. bridge decks, can be
designed. Estimates for quantities are calculated and tendon profile schedules can be generated
for use with Padds.

Design scope
The program designs and details continuous pre-stressed concrete beams and slabs. You can
design structures ranging from simply supported single span to twenty-span continuous beams
or slabs.
Cross-sections can include a mixture rectangular, I, T and L-sections. More complex sections,
e.g. box bridge decks, can be modelled with the aid of the section properties calculation
module, Prosec. Spans can have constant or tapered sections.
Entered dead and live loads are automatically applied as pattern loads during the analysis. You
can also enter individual load cases and group them in load combinations. At ultimate limit
state, moments and shears are redistributed to a specified percentage.
Pre-stressed tendons can be generated to balance a specified percentage of dead load.
Conventional reinforcement can be added to help control cracking, deflection and increase the
ULS capacity.
Tendon profiles can be scheduled and saved as Padds compatible drawings.
Design codes
BS 8110 - 1985.
BS 8110 - 1997.
SABS 0100 - 1992.
Reinforcement bending schedules are generated in accordance to the guidelines given by the
following publications:
Report No 2 of the Joint Structural Division of SAICE and ISA (JSD), Design of Pre-
stressed Concrete Flat Slabs.
Technical Report 25 of the Concrete Society, published in 1984.
Attached torsional members are treated in accordance with ACI 318 - 1989.
Sub-frame analysis
A two-dimensional frame model is constructed from the input data. Section properties are
based on the gross un-cracked concrete sections. Columns can optionally be specified below
and above the beam/slab and can be made pinned or fixed at their remote ends.
Note: No checks are made for the slenderness limits of columns or beam flanges.
Column stiffness
BS 8110 and SABS 0100 - 1992 assume that columns are rigidly fixed to slabs over the whole
width of the panel. If the ultimate negative moment at an outer column exceeds the moment of
resistance in the adjacent slab width, the moment in the column should be reduced and the
sagging moment in the outer span should be increased to maintain equilibrium.
In ACI 318 - 1989, on the other hand, allowance is made for the reduction of column stiffness
due to torsion. Report 2 of the JSD adapts a similar column stiffness reduction approach. The
program incorporates this approach by allowing you to optionally enable attached torsional
members.
Note: When the approach to include the attached torsional members is followed, column
heads will also be taken into account in the column stiffness.
Pattern loading
At ultimate limit state, the dead and live loads are multiplied by the specified ULS load
factors (see page 6-9). Unity load factors are used at serviceability limit state. The following
load cases are considered (the sketch uses the load factors applicable to BS8110):
All spans are loaded with
the maximum design load.
Equal spans are loaded with
the maximum design
ultimate load and unequal
spans with the minimum
design dead load.
Unequal spans are loaded
with the maximum design
load and equal spans loaded
with the minimum design
dead load.

Note: The case where any two adjacent spans are loaded with maximum load and all other
spans with minimum load, as was the case with CP 110 - 1972 and SABS 0100 - 1980, is
not considered.
The following are special considerations with pertaining to design using SABS 0100 - 1992:
SABS 0100 - 1992 suggests a constant ULS dead load factor of 1.2 for all pattern load
cases. In contrast, the BS 8110 codes suggest a minimum ULS dead load factor of 1.0 for
calculating the minimum ultimate dead load. The program uses the more approach given
by the BS 8110 codes at all times, i.e. a ULS load factor of 1.0 for minimum dead load and
the maximum load factor specified for maximum dead load.
The South African loading code, SABS 0162 - 1989, prescribes an additional load case of
1.5DL. This load case is not considered during the analysis if required, you should
adjust the applied loads manually. In cases where the dead load is large in comparison
with the live load, e.g. lightly loaded roof slabs, increasing the entered dead load or
increasing the ULS dead load factor can incorporate this load case. This adjustment
applies to cases where 1.5DL > 1.2DL + 1.6LL or, in other words, LL < 19%. Using
an increased dead load factor of 1.4 instead of the normal 1.2 will satisfy all cases except
where 1.5DL > 1.4DL + 1.6LL or, in other words, LL < 6%DL.
Moment redistribution
Ultimate limit state bending moments are redistributed for each span by adjusting the support
moments downward with the specified percentage. If the method of moment redistribution is
set to 'optimised', the design moments are further minimised by redistributing span moments
upward as well.
Note: No moment redistribution is done for serviceability limit state calculations.
The moment envelopes are calculated for pattern loading and then redistributed using the
procedures explained in the following text.
Code requirements
The JSD Report 2 recommends that the maximum moment redistribution should not
exceed 20%.
Downwards redistribution
The downward distribution method aims to reduce the hogging moments at the columns
without increasing the sagging moments at midspan. The redistribution of moments and shear
forces procedure is performed as follows:
4. The maximum hogging moment at each column or internal support is adjusted downward
by the specified maximum percentage.
5. The corresponding span moments are adjusted downward to maintain static equilibrium.
The downward adjustment of hogging moments above is limited to prevent any increase in
the maximum span moments of end spans.
6. The shear forces for the same load cases are adjusted to maintain static equilibrium.
Optimised redistribution:
The optimised distribution procedure takes the above procedure a step further by upward
distribution of the span moments. The envelopes for the three pattern load cases are
redistributed as follows:
11. The maximum hogging
moment at each internal
support is adjusted
downward by the
specified percentage.
This adjustment affects
the moment diagram for
the load case where the
maximum design load is
applied to all spans.
12. The relevant span
moments are adjusted
accordingly to maintain
static equilibrium.
13. The minimum hogging
moment at each internal
support is subsequently
adjusted upward to as
close as possible to the
reduced maximum
support moment, whilst
remaining in the
permissible
redistribution range. A
second load case is thus
affected for each span.
14. The relevant span
moments are adjusted in
line with this redis-
tribution of the column
moments to maintain
static equilibrium.
15. For each span, the moment diagram for the remaining third load case is adjusted to as near
as possible to the span moments obtained in the previous step. The adjustment is made in
such a way that it remains within the permissible redistribution range.
16. Finally, the shear force envelope is adjusted to maintain static equilibrium.
17. The following general principles are applied when redistributing moments:
18. Equilibrium is maintained between internal and external forces for all relevant
combinations of design ultimate load.
19. The neutral axis depth is checked at all cross sections where moments are redistributed. If,
for the specified percentage of moment redistribution, the neutral axis depth is greater than
the limiting value of (
b
0.4)d, compression reinforcement is added to the section to
sufficiently reduce the neutral axis depth.
20. The amount of moment redistribution is limited to the specified percentage. The maximum
amount of redistribution allowed by the codes is 30%.
Note: As would be the case in typical pre-stressed sections, the program assumes that all
sections have adequate ductility to allow moment redistribution. The actual ductility of
sections is not verified.
Tendon generation procedures
Captain is capable of generating tendons for typical beam and slabs. The procedure aims to
balance a specified percentage of the dead load in the span.
For purposes of the generation, all the dead loads on the span, including self weight, UDL's,
partial UDL's, trapezoidal and point loads, are summed and divided by the span length to
obtain an equivalent UDL for the span.
Parabolic or harped tendons are then selected to balance the required percentage of this
equivalent dead load. In the case of harped tendons, the tendons are chosen to provide two
upward point loads per span that balance the selected percentage of the sum of all the dead load
components.
Note: The program uses load balancing only for the purpose of generating tendons.
Since long-term losses are not known beforehand, a 15% loss of pre-stress is assumed. Further,
the generation procedure that tendons are stressed to 70% of their ultimate tensile
strength (UTS).
The details of the tendon generation procedure are explained in the following text.
Parabolic tendons in cantilever spans
Consider a typical cantilever span with a tendon
following a parabolic profile. The profile is chosen
with a zero eccentricity at the cantilever end. At
the internal support the tendon is taken as high as
possible.
The program chooses the following values:
The left offset, L, is chosen as zero.
The right offset, R, is chosen equal to the span length divided by twenty, with a minimum
of 250 mm.
The eccentricity at the cantilever end is taken as zero, i.e. b
1
(b
3
for a cantilever on the
right end) is chosen on the neutral axis.
The tendon position over the internal support is taken as high as possible. The value of b
3

(b
1
for a cantilever on the right end) is thus taken as the top cover plus half the sheathed
tendon diameter.
The tendon force, T, required to produce the balanced load W
bal
is given by
) )( ( 2
) ( 15 . 1
1 3
2
R Length b b
Length R Length W
T
bal
req

=
and the number of tendons required by
tendon
req
tendons
UTS
T
N
7 . 0
=
Parabolic tendons in internal spans and end spans
For a typical internal span, a parabolic tendon
profile is chosen to give maximum eccentricities
over supports and at midspan.
The same also applies to an end span, except that
the tendon as moved to the neutral axis at the
anchor.
The program chooses the following default values:
The left and right offsets, L and R, are chosen by the program to be equal to the span
length divided by twenty, with a minimum of 250 mm.
Over the supports, the tendons are taken as high as possible. The values of b
1
and b
2
are
made equal to the top cover plus half the sheathed tendon diameter. At the end of the
beam/slab, i.e. at an anchor, the tendons are taken on the neutral axes.
At midspan, tendons are taken as low as possible. The value of b
2
is therefore chosen as
being equal to the bottom cover plus half the sheathed tendon diameter.
The drape of the tendon is then calculated as
( ) ( )( )
Length
R L Length b b b
drape
+
=
2 2 / 3 1

The tendon force required to produce the balanced load W
bal
is then given by
drape
Length R L Length W
T
bal
req

=
8
) ( 15 . 1
2

tendon
req
tendons
UTS
T
N
7 . 0
=
Harped tendons in cantilever spans
For a cantilever span with a harped tendon profile,
the profile is taken as a straight line from the
neutral axis at the cantilever end to the highest
position over the internal support.
In the calculations, the minimum radius R
min

specified is used in determining the final slopes of
the tendons. The program chooses the following
values:
The left offset, L, is chosen as zero.
The right offset, R, is set equal to the span length.
The eccentricity at the cantilever end is taken as zero, i.e. b
1
(b
3
for a cantilever on the
right end) is chosen on the neutral axis.
The tendon position over the internal support is taken as high as possible. The value of b
3

(b
1
for a cantilever on the right end) is thus taken as the top cover plus half the sheathed
tendon diameter.
The position of the start of the radius of the internal support, x
w
, is calculated as
) ( 2
1 3 min
2
b b R Length Length x
w
=
Further, the corresponding vertical offset for the start of the radius, y
w
, is given by
min
2
2R
x
y
w
w
=
and the slope of the tendon as

=
w
w
x Length
y b b
1 3
arctan
bal
is then given by
=
sin
15 . 1
bal
req
W
T
tendon
req
tendons
UTS
T
N
7 . 0
=
Harped tendons in end spans
For an external span, a harped tendon profile is
chosen to give maximum eccentricities over the
internal support and at midspan. The eccentricity
at the end support is chosen to be zero to eliminate
moments.
The following values are chosen:
The left and right offsets, L and R, are set to span length divided by four.
The eccentricity at the end of the beam/slab end is taken as zero, i.e. b
1
(b
3
for a right end
span) is chosen on the neutral axis.
The eccentricities at both ends are taken as high as possible. The value of b
3
(b
1
for a right
end span) is thus taken as the top cover plus half the sheathed tendon diameter.
2
being equal to the bottom cover plus half the sheathed tendon diameter.
w
, is calculated as
) ( 2
4 4
2 3 min
2
b b R
Length Length
x
w

=
w
, is taken as
min
2
2R
x
y
w
w
=
bal
is then given by
( )
w
bal
req
x Length
d
Length
d
W
T

+
=
3
16
3
16
15 . 1
2 1

where
3
) ( 2
2 1
1
b b
d

=
3
) ( 2
2 3
2
b y b
d
w

=
The number of tendons required is then given by
tendon
req
tendons
UTS
T
N
7 . 0
=
Harped tendons in internal span
Maximum eccentricities are chosen over the
supports and at midspan for an internal span with a
harped tendon profile.
The following values are chosen:
The left and right offsets, L and R, are set to
span length divided by four.
The eccentricities at both ends are taken as high as possible. The values of b
1
and b
3
are
thus taken as the top cover plus half the sheathed tendon diameter.
2
being equal to the bottom cover plus the half the sheathed tendon diameter.
w
, is calculated as
) ( 2
4 4
2 3 min
2
b b R
Length Length
x
w

=
w
, is taken as
min
2
2R
x
y
w
w
=
bal
is then given by
( )
( )

+
=
w
bal
req
x Length
d d
W
T
3
16 16
15 . 1
2 2

where
3
) ( 2
2 1
1
b y b
d
w

=
3
) ( 2
2 3
2
b y b
d
w

=
The number of tendons required is then given by
tendon
req
tendons
UTS
T
N
7 . 0
=
Pre-stress losses
In the following text, an explanation as given for the various components of pre-stress losses:
Friction losses.
Wedge-set.
Long-term losses.
Friction losses in parabolic tendons
Friction losses are calculated for each span in turn. The calculation is started at the active end
of each tendon. The effective tendon force is calculated at the end of the span taking into
account the friction losses. This force is then carried over to the start of the next span for the
process to be repeated.
The following is applicable to parabolic tendon profiles, including those cases where L and R
are zero:
Length Length R a n
L a R Length m
) (
) 2 (
1
2
=
=

where
1 2
a a a
dif
=
These values are used to determine the position of the lowest point on the parabola, X, and are
derived from the basic parabolic equations describing the tendon profiles. The position of the
lowest point is at midspan if a
dif
is equal to zero, otherwise it is calculated as
dif
a
p
x
2
=
where
n a m p
dif
=
2

If x 0, then the vertical position of the left inflection point, c
1
, is given by
X
L a
c
1
1
= else c
1
is zero.
If L X then the vertical position of the right inflection point, c
s
, is given by
X Length
R a
c
=
2
2
else c
2
is zero.
The following can then be calculated:
2
3 2 1
2
2
2 2 1 1
2
1
1
) ( 16
8
3
2
) ( ) (
8
3
Length
d d d
c
d
c a c a
d
c
d
+ +
=
=
+
=
=

The effective pre-stressing force at the end of the span, P
e
, can now be calculated:
Length k
o e
e P P
) ( +
=

where
P
o
= Applied tendon force
= Friction coefficient of the tendon against the sheath
= Cumulative angle of curvature over length
k = Friction coefficient for unintentional variation form specified profile (wobble in
sheath)
Friction losses in harped tendons
The following is applicable to harped tendon
profiles, including those cases where L and R are
zero:
R L Length l =
2

The position of the end of the left minimum radius, x
wL
, is given by
1 min
2
2 a R L L x
wL
= for
1 min
2
2 a R L >
0 =
wL
x otherwise.
Corresponding to this

min
2
2R
x
y
wL
wL
=
Similarly, the position of the start of the right minimum radius, x
wR
, is given by
2 min
3
2 a R R R x
wR
= for
2 min
2
2 a R R >
0 =
wR
x in all other cases.
Corresponding to this

min
2
2R
x
y
wR
wR
=
The slopes of the three sections of tendon are now known. The change in slope at each kink
is then determined. At the first kink, friction losses occur over a length x
wL
and at the second
kink over a length of 2 x
wL
. At the Last kink, friction losses occur over a length x
wR
and at the
third kink over a length of 2 x
wR
.
Starting from the one side the force at the end of each kink is calculated as:
fric
L k
begin end
e P P
) ( +
=

where
L
fric
= Portion over which the losses occur.
Wedge-set
As soon as the stressing jacks are
released, a phenomenon known as
wedge-set or wedge pull-inoccurs.
In typical building slabs, the tendons
normally pull in by about 5mm to
10 mm before the tendons grip onto
the wedges in the anchor head. The
influence on the tendon force is
significant.
Because of frictional losses, the effect of wedge-set is to reduce the effective pre-stress over a
limited length of tendon only. This length, labelled l
w
, is calculated by considering the average
force loss over the entire length of the tendon:
length tendon Total
P P
m
end begin

=
The length effected by wedge-set is then given by
m
E A d
l
s ps ws
w
=
where
A
ps
= Area of tendons
E
s
= Modulus of elasticity of tendons
d
s
= Wedge-set
The force loss over the length affected by the wedge-set can then be calculated:
w
ps s ws
lossws
l
A E d
P =
The tendon force profile can then be adjusted by reducing the tendon force at the live anchor
by 2P
lossws
and taking the negative pre-stress loss gradient up to the position of wedge-set
influence, l
w
.
Long-term tosses
The average steel strain in all the tendons is given by
ps s
end pan begin span
st
A E
Ps P
+
=
2
) (

This summation is carried out over all spans for all tendons.
The creep strain is estimated as

c c
avg
creep
E A
P
=
where
P
avg
= Average pre-stressing force
A
c
= Concrete area
E
c
= Concrete modulus of elasticity
= Creep factor
The percentage total losses can be calculated as
ps s
creep shrinkage
A E
relaxation Loss
+
+ =
) ( 100
% %

where

shrinkage
= Shrinkage strain

creep
= Strain due to creep
Load balancing
Captain uses a load balancing approach when generating tendons. The average tendon force,
P
av
, is calculated for each span and each tendon. P
av
is used to calculate the equivalent load
from the central portion of the tendon. The tendon force values at the beginning and end of
each span are used to calculate the equivalent loads for the reversed parabolic portions of
parabolic tendons and for the point loads from harped tendons at supports.
Equivalent load for parabolic tendons
Consider a typical span with parabolic tendons.
The procedure described next for calculating the
equivalent loads is applicable to cantilever and end
spans as well.
The following values are used to determine the
position of the lowest point on the parabola and
are derived from the basic parabolic equations
describing the tendon profiles.
Length Length R a n
L a R Length m
) (
) 2 (
1
3
=
=

where
1 3
a a f a
di
=
These values are used to determine the position of the lowest point on the parabola, X, and are
derived from the basic parabolic equations describing the tendon profiles. The position of the
lowest point is at midspan if a
dif
is equal to zero, otherwise it is calculated as
dif
a
p
X
2
=
where
n a m p
dif
=
2

If x / 0 then vertical position oI leIt inIlection point, c
1
, is given by
X
L a
c
1
1
= else c
1
is zero.
If L / X then the vertical position of right inflection point, c
s
, is given by
X Length
R a
c
=
3
2
else c
2
is zero.
If L > 0, the equivalent load starting at the left support is given by
2
1
2
L
P
W
begin
=
If L = 0 then W
1
= 0.
The central portion of the equivalent tendon load is calculated by using a length l
calc
. The
distance l
calc
is measured from the lowest point of the parabola to the nearest inflection point.
If the left inflection point is nearest to the lowest point, then
L X l
calc
=
and the equivalent load in the centre portion
2
1 1
2
) (
calc
av
l
c a P
W

=
Else, if the right inflection point is nearest to the lowest point, then
R X Length l
calc
=
and the equivalent load in the centre portion
2
2 3
2
) (
calc
av
l
c a P
W

=
If R > 0, the equivalent load ending at the right support is given by
2
3
2
R
P
W
end
=
If R = 0 then W
3
= 0.
If the value of X is equal to zero, it implies that the tendon is horizontal at the beginning or end
of the span. If the value of L or R is equal to zero, it means that there is no reverse portion of
the parabola. In such a case a point load is calculated which acts downwards at the support.
If L is zero, the slope of the tendon is calculated as
=
X
a
1
2
arctan
The downward point load is then given by
= sin P P
begin t

Similarly, if R is zero, the slope of the tendon is calculated as
=
X
a
3
2
arctan
The downward point load is then given by
= sin
end t
P P
If a tendon is stopped off away from the neutral axis, a point moment is generated in the slab.
The magnitude of this moment is given by:
tendon tendon t
e P M =
where
e
tendon
= Tendon eccentricity measured from the section neutral axis.
Equivalent load for harped tendons
Consider a typical span with harped tendons. The
procedure described next for calculating the
equivalent loads is applicable to both cantilever
and end spans.
The four point loads caused by the typical harped
tendon are labelled P
1
to P
4
. The central portion of
the tendon is assumed to be horizontal, causing no
vertical components of force.
The sloped ends with offset lengths L and R cause upward or downward point loads where they
change direction at the support or at the offset points to the horizontal portion. In practice, the
change in direction of the tendon occurs over a short distance dictated by the allowable
minimum radius of the tendon. For calculation purposes the vertical components are calculated
as point loads at the theoretical intersection points of the straight portions.
The tendon forces used in the calculation are P
begin
end P
end
, which are the tendon forces at the
beginning and end of each span. For calculating the values of P
2
and P
3
, the tendon force is
interpolated linearly between the end values.
The equivalent loads are given by
2 2
3
3
4
4 3
1 2
2 2
1
1
1
) (
1
) (
1
R b
b P
P
LengthP
R P P
P P
LengthP
L P P
P P
L b
b P
P
end
end
end begin
begin
end begin
begin
+
=

+ =

+ =
+
=

Calculation of concrete stresses
Tensile stresses calculated on un-cracked sections do not always correlate well with cracking.
For this reason, Report 2 of the JSD does attach great value to concrete stresses as a
serviceability limit state. However, tensile stresses are a good indicator of where cracking may
be a problem and could therefore be useful during preliminary design. The stress checks will
be useful if you have been using the Report 25 provisions in the past.
Stress envelopes are calculated for the following two cases:
At transfer of tendon forces: Only initial dead loads are considered at transfer. Additional
dead loads are only considered later at SLS. On the Loads input screen, a dead load is
considered as an initial dead load except if the letter A is entered before or after the load
value. In that case, the load is taken as an additional dead load to be considered at SLS
only and will not be considered at transfer.
At SLS: The full SLS loads, i.e. initial dead load, additional dead load and live load, are
applied and long-term losses in tendon forces are included.
Note: Tensile concrete stresses are not considered when generating tendon profiles. The pre-
stressing is considered as an external load with a load balancing effect. Typical bridge
design code checks for class 1, 2 and 3 structures should be done in an iterative way by
manually checking the stress diagrams.
Reports 2 and 25 gives the following allowable concrete stresses for flat slab construction:

Permissible Tension
Loading
Condition
Permissible
Compression
Bonded Un-bonded
Transfer
Sagging 0.33f
ci
0.45f
ci
0.15f
ci

Hogging 0.24f
ci
0.45f
ci
0
Serviceability limit state
Sagging 0.33f
cu
0.45f
cu
0.15f
cu

Hogging 0.24f
cu
0.45f
cu
0

The allowable stresses tabled above apply to post-tensioned flat slab design. Different values
may apply to the design of other types of members. Refer to the relevant design code for
allowable stresses for class 1, 2 and 3 pre-tensioned and post-tensioned members.
Deflection calculation
Both short-term and long-term deflections are calculated. No moment redistribution is done at
Code guidelines
Deflection can generally be controlled in the preliminary design by limiting span to depth
ratios. Report 2 of the JSD gives the following guidelines for flat slabs where at least half of
the dead plus live load is balanced by pre-stress:

Type of Slab
Loading
Intensity
Maximum span
to depth ratio
Light 40 to 48
Normal 34 to 42 Flat Slabs
Heavy 28 to 36
Waffle Slabs Heavy 28 to 32
Elastic deflections
Short-term elastic deflections are calculated using un-factored SLS pattern loading. Gross un-
cracked concrete sections are used.
Long-term deflections are determined by first calculating the cracked transformed sections:
3. The full SLS design load is applied to all spans to obtain the elastic moment diagram.
4. The cracked transformed sections are then calculated at 250 mm intervals along the length
of the beam. The results of these calculations are tabled in the Crack files on the
View output pages.
Note: The calculation of the cracked transformed section properties is initially based on the
amount of reinforcement required at ULS. However, once reinforcement is generated for
beams, the actual entered reinforcement is used instead. You can thus control deflections by
manipulating reinforcement quantities.
Next, the long-term deflection components are calculated by numerically integrating the
curvature diagrams:
5. Shrinkage deflection is calculated by applying the specified shrinkage strain.
Unsymmetrical beams and unsymmetrical reinforcement layouts will cause a curvature in
the beam.
6. The creep deflection is calculated by applying the total dead load and the permanent
portion of the live load on the beam. The modulus of elasticity of the concrete is reduced
in accordance with the relevant design code.
7. The instantaneous deflection is calculated by applying the transient portion of the live load
on the transformed crack section.
8. The long-term deflection components are summed to yield the total long-term deflection.
Note: When calculating the curvatures for integration, elastic moments are used together
with cracked transformed sections, which implies plastic behaviour. Although this
procedure is performed in accordance with the design codes, the use of elastic moments
together with cracked sections in the same calculation is a contradiction of principles. As a
result of this, long-term deflection diagrams may show slight slope discontinuities at
supports, especially in cases of severe cracking.
Crack width calculation
In the calculation of crack widths, the program takes into account all bonded tendons and also
any additional reinforcement that has been entered. The effect of the axial compressive
concrete stress due to pre-stressing is also taken into account. Un-bonded tendons are ignored.
The crack spacing is calculated on the assumption that all unstressed bars and bonded tendons
are spaced equally across the widest portion of the section. In flat slab design, it is common
practice to have tendons banded in one direction. In such cases, tensile concrete stresses will
tend to be concentrated at the position of the tendons. Therefore, the assumption that all
unstressed bars and bonded tendons are spaced equally across the section, will likely yield
conservative crack width values.
Calculation of additional flexural reinforcement
The required reinforcement is based on supplying reinforcement for the tensile force in the
concrete at a stress of 0.58fy. This is the method employed by the British Concrete Society
Technical Report 25, published in 1984.
Note: Because the additional reinforcement is calculated using stress considerations, the
suggested values are normally conservative. In the final analysis, you should check that the
beam/slab has adequate strength at ultimate limit state.
Calculation of ULS capacity
Ultimate limit state calculations are performed for the following:
Bending moment.
Linear shear.
Punching shear.
Moment capacity
The moment capacity is calculated using general flexural theory. The tendon strain at ultimate
limit state is given by
pa pe pb
+ =
where

pe
= Strain due to tendon pre-stress after losses

pa
= Additional strain due to applied loading
The strain due to pre-stress is determined from the stress-strain curve. If the pre-stress is within
the elastic limit, the strain is given by
s
pe
pe
E
f
=
The additional strain,
pa
, is determined by considering the change in concrete strain at the
level of the tendon. The concrete strain distribution resulting from the effective pre-stress force
is shown as a dashed line in the figure.

Thus, for bonded tendons, the additional tendon strain is given by
u e pa
+ =
where
c
e
E
prestress Concrete
= at the level of the tendons
For un-bonded tendons
u e pa
+ <
In general, one can say
u e pa

2 1
+ =
where

1
and
2
= Bond coefficients
The program uses the following typical bond coefficients values:

Tendon bond
coefficients
Pre-tensioned and bonded
post-tensioned tendons
Un-bonded post-
tensioned tendons
1
1.0 0.5
2
1.0 0.1

It now follows that
cu e pa
x
x d

+ =
2 1

and
cu a pe
pa pe pb
x
x d

+ + =
+ =
2 1

This can be rewritten as
c pe pb cu
cu
d
x

1 2
2
+
=
From equilibrium it follows that
bx f k A f
cu ps pb 1
=
Therefore
c pe pb cu
cu
ps
cu
pb
A
bd f k
f

1 2
2 1
+
=
The values of f
pb
and
pb
are solved by iteration using the stress-strain curve to subsequently
yield the neutral axis depth, x.
The ultimate moment of resistance is then calculated as
) (
2
x k d A f M
ps pb u
=
The calculated ULS capacity envelopes for bending moment and shear force incorporate all
tendons and additional reinforcement entered. Strain is calculated on the assumption that plane
sections remain plane and concrete and steel stresses are then calculated correspondingly.
Note: The secondary moments, or a portion thereof, caused by pre-stressing may optionally
be included in the ULS calculations. Refer to page 6-9 for information on specifying the
percentage of secondary moment to be included in the analysis.
Linear shear
The linear shear checks performed by the program are done according to the provisions of
codes using the procedure described below.
An analysis is done on the sub-frame with only the equivalent tendon loads applied. The
minimum fibre stress as a result of the tendon forces is then calculated as
Z
M
A
P
f
concrete
tendons
pt
+ =
The section modulus, Z, is taken at the top for negative bending and at the bottom for positive
bending.
The cracking moment is then calculated as
Z
f .
M
pt
o
8 0
=
The section is considered as cracked in areas where the ultimate moment exceeds the cracking
moment.
In areas that are un-cracked, the shear capacity is calculated as
t cp t w co
f f . f h b . V 8 0 67 0
2
+ =
where
f
t
= Concrete tensile strength
=
cu
f .24 0
f
cp
= Average concrete compressive pre-stress
=
concrete
tendons
A
P
for rectangular sections
=
I
z P
A
P
f tendons
concrete
tendons
+ for flanged sections
z
f
= Distance from the neutral axis to the junction of the flange and the web of the
section which falls inside the compression zone
In areas that are cracked, the shear capacity s given by
M
V M
d b )v
f
f
. - ( V
o
w c
pu
pe
cr
+ = 55 0 1
where

tendon
tendons
pu
pe
UTS
P
f
f
=
tendons of No

The value of v
c
is calculated by taking into account the total area of pre-stressing tendons and
unstressed steel.
In areas that are cracked, the shear capacity V
cap
is the minimum of V
co
and V
cr
calculated
above.
The shear forces are reduced by the vertical components of the tendon forces if this was
specified. Where the shear force V is less than 0.5 the shear capacity V
cap
, no shear
reinforcement is required. Shear reinforcement must be supplied in zones where
(V
cap
+ 0.4b
w
d) V 0.5V
cap
:

f .
b .

S
A
yv
w
v
sv
87 0
4 0
=
If V > V
cap
+ 0.4b
w
d then
t yv
cap
v
sv
d f .
V - V

S
A
87 0
=
where
d
t
= Depth to the bottom reinforcement or tendons about which the stirrups are taken.
Linear shear is normally not a problem in flat slabs, but comes into play if ribbed slabs and
beams are analysed. For flat slabs, punching shear is normally the main shear design criterion.
Evaluation of punching shear
The first item to be determined is the enhanced shear. Columns have to be considered as either
internal, edge or corner columns. For purposes of calculations done by the program, the
following is assumed:
If no edges are closer than 5d from the
column centre, the column is considered
to be an internal column.
If one edge is closer than 5d from the
column centre, the column is considered
to be an edge column.
If two edges are closer than 5d from the
column centre, the column is taken as a
corner column.
The enhanced shear force, V
eff
, for an internal
column is then calculated as the largest of
V . V
)
Vx
M
. V( V
)
Vy
M
. V( V
eff
b
y
eff
b
x
eff
15 1
05 1 1
05 1 1
=
+ =
+ =

where
M
x
= Moments transferred between slab and column in the X direction, i.e. about the
Y-Y axis
M
y
= Moments transferred between slab and column in the Y direction
x
b
= Projected width of the critical perimeter in the X directions
y
b
= The projected width of the critical perimeter in the Y direction
Note: The factor 1.05 is derived from 1.5M as given by the codes, with a 30% reduction
allowed if the equivalent frame method with pattern loading has been used in calculating the
moments.
For an edge column, the enhanced shear force is the largest of
V . V
)
Vx
M
. . V( V
eff
eff
25 1
05 1 25 1
=
+ =

If the edge lies parallel with the X-axis, then M = M
x
and x = y
b
. Similarly M = M
y
and x = x
b

for the edge parallel to the Y-axis.
For a corner column, the enhanced shear force is given by
V . V
eff
25 1 =
The effective shear force is then adjusted by the vertical components of the tendon forces as
specified. The shear capacity is subsequently checked for each perimeter and reinforcement
calculated.
The shear capacity on a specific perimeter is given by
d u v V
crit c cap
=
where
u
crit
= Critical perimeter
d = Effective slab depth
The value of v
c
is calculated for both the x and y-directions and the average of the two values
used. If V
eff
exceeds V
cap
, shear reinforcement is calculated as
yv
crit
yv
crit c eff
sv
f
d u
f
d u v V
A
87 . 0
4 . 0
87 . 0

=
The shear reinforcement represents vertical links to be placed in slabs deeper than 200 mm.
Circular columns
Given modern design trends, e.g. the approaches by ACI 318 - 1995 and Eurocode 2 - 1992,
the use of circular perimeters seems a more rational approach to evaluating punching shear for
circular columns. The program recognises this and uses the following design approach for
checking punching by circular columns:
As in the case of a rectangular column, the shear capacity v
c
is taken as the average of v
cx

and v
cy
. Put differently, one could consider an imaginary square shear perimeter when
determining v
c
.
The shear force capacity, V
c
, is calculated using the actual circular perimeter. The shorter
circular perimeter (compared to a rectangular perimeter) yields a lower (conservative)
shear force capacity.

Input
The beam/slab definition has several input components:
Parameters: Material properties, load factors and general design parameters.
Tendon data: Tendon properties and profile generation options.
Sections: Enter rectangular, I, T and L-sections.
User-defined sections: Complex section geometries.
Spans: Define spans and span segments.
Supports: Define columns, simple supports and cantilevers.
Column heads: Square and tapered drop panels.
Loads: Uniform distributed loads, point loads and moments.
Load combinations: User-defined combination of load cases.
Parameters input
The following general parameters are required for analysis and design:
f
cu
: Characteristic 28day strength of concrete (MPa).
f
y
: Characteristic strength of additional un-tensioned reinforcement (MPa).
f
yv
: Characteristic strength of shear reinforcement (MPa).
f
ci
: Characteristic strength of concrete at transfer of pre-stress (MPa).
E
c
: Concrete modulus of elasticity (kPa).
E
st
: Modulus of elasticity of unstressed steel (kPa).
Density: Concrete density used for calculation of own weight.
Note: Own weight is automatically added to the dead load with the auto load combination
mode selected and to the first load case with the user load combination mode selected
refer to page 6-9 for more detail on the load combination modes.
Top cover: Concrete cover to top of tendon sheaths (mm).
Bottom cover: Concrete cover to bottom of tendon sheaths (mm).
Reduce moments to column face: If selected, this option will take the moments at the
column faces as the design moments rather than the moments at support centres.
Reduce shear by tendon force component: Select this option to include the effect of
tendons in punching shear checks.
SLS DL factor: Serviceability limit state dead load factor used for calculation of
deflection, stresses and crack widths.
SLS LL factor: Serviceability limit state live factor.
ULS DL factor: Ultimate limit state dead load factor used for calculation of moments,
shear and reactions.
ULS LL factor: Ultimate limit state live load factor.
Note: In the automatic load combination mode, the ULS load factors are used with the
patterned dead and live loads. The load factors are ignored when using the user load
combination mode. Refer to page 6-9 for more detail on specifying your own load
combinations. The procedure of automated pattern loading is explained on page 6-9.

Redistribution: Percentage of moment redistribution to be applied. Redistribution should
be limited 10% in structures over four storeys high where the frame provides lateral
stability.
Optimised/downward: Method of moment redistribution.
Secondary moment: Moments resulting from reactions to the pre-stress in statically
indeterminate beams. Some design methods, e.g. the method given in Report 25, ignore
secondary moments. Report 2 of the JSD recommend the tendons be considered as
external forces with a load-balancing effect and hence secondary moments are to be taken
into account.
Live load permanent: Percentage of live load to consider as permanent when calculating
long-term deflections.
Attached torsional members: This option enables the reduction in column stiffnesses as
allowed for by ACI 318 - 1989. To prevent overestimation of column moments, it is
recommended that this option should be enabled. For more detail on the sub-frame
analysis technique used by the program, refer to page 6-9.
Edge beam: This option only applies if attached torsional members are used and allows
for the case where the columns are framing into the slab on one side only.
I: The thirty-year creep factor used for calculating the final concrete creep strain.
H
cs
: Thirty-year drying shrinkage of plain concrete.
The graphs displayed on-screen give typical values for the creep factor and drying shrinkage
strain. In both graphs, the effective section thickness is defined for uniform sections as twice
the cross-sectional area divided by the exposed perimeter. If drying is prevented by immersion
in water or by sealing, the effective section thickness may be taken as 600 mm.
Note: Creep and shrinkage of plain concrete are primarily dependent on the relative
humidity of the air surrounding the concrete. Where detailed calculations are being made,
stresses and relative humidity may vary considerably during the lifetime of the structure and
appropriate judgements should be made.
Tendon data input
Characteristics can be entered for up to three types of tendons or cables:
Bonded: Classify tendons as bonded (grouted after stressed) or un-bonded.
Ultimate strength: Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of one tendon or cable (kN).
Maximum stress: Maximum tensile stress as a percentage of the UTS.
Outside diameter of sheath: The diameter of a tendon or cable, including sheath or duct
(mm). The program measures concrete cover to the outside diameter.
Tendon area: The cross sectional area of the tendon or cable itself (mm
2
).
k: Friction coefficient due to unintentional variation from the specified profile (wobble in
the sheath). Both BS 8110 and SABS 0100 - 1992 recommend a value of not less than
33E-4 in general. Where wobbling is limited, e.g. rigid ducts with close supports, a
reduced value of 17E-4 may be used. For greased tendons in plastic sheaths, a value
of 25E-4 may be taken. However, for greased tendons, both FIP and Report 2 of the JSD
recommend a value of 10E-4.
Friction coefficient due to curvature of the tendon. BS 8110 - 1997 and SABS 0100 -
1992 recommend values ranging from 0.55 to 0.05, depending on the condition of the
strand and the duct. For greased tendons, FIP and Report 2 of the JSD recommend values
of 0.05 and 0.06 respectively.
Wedge pull-in: Movement of the tendon will occur when the pre-stressing force is
transferred from the tensioning equipment to the anchorage, causing a loss in pre-stress.
The magnitude of the draw-in depends on the type of tendons used and the tensioning
equipment. Values of 4 to 8 mm are common for flat slab construction.
Tendon / Cable relaxation: Percentage long-term loss of force due to cable steel
relaxation.

Es: Modulus of elasticity of tendon (kPa). This value is typically set to 195E6 kPa.
Minimum radius: The minimum radius to use for harped tendons at change of slope (m).
This value is ignored when using parabolic tendons.
Sections input
You can define rectangular, I, T, L and inverted T and L-sections. Every section comprises a
basic rectangular web area with optional top and bottom flanges.

The top levels of all sections are aligned vertically by default and they are placed with their
webs symmetrically around the vertical beam/slab centre line. The web and/or flanges can be
move horizontally to obtain eccentric sections, for example L-sections. Whole sections can
also be moved up or down to obtain vertical eccentricity.
Note: In the sub-frame analysis, the centroids all beam segments are assumed to be on a
straight line. Vertical offsets of sections are used when calculation of tendon eccentricities
and has no other effect on the design results.
Section definitions are displayed graphically as they are entered. Section cross-sections are
displayed as seen from the left end of the beam/slab.
The following dimensions should be defined for each section:
Sec no: The section number is used on the Spans input page to identify specific sections
(see page 6-9).
Bw: Width of the web (mm).
D: Overall section depth, including any flanges (mm).
Bf-top: Width of optional top flange (mm).
Hf-top: Depth of optional top flange (mm).
Bf-bot: Width of optional bottom flange (mm).
Hf-bot: Depth of optional bottom flange (mm).
Y-offset: Vertical offset the section (mm). If zero or left blank, the top surface is aligned
with the datum line. A positive value means the section is moved up.
Web offset: Horizontal offset of the web portion (mm). If zero or left blank, the web is
taken symmetrical about the beam/slab centre line. A positive value means the web is
moved to the right.
Flange offset: Horizontal offset of both the top and bottom flanges (mm). If zero or left
blank, the flanges are taken symmetrical about the beam/slab centre line. A positive value
means the flanges are moved to the right.
Note: There is more than one way of entering a T-section. The recommended method is to
enter a thin web with a wide top flange. You can also enter wide web (actual top flange)
with a thin bottom flange (actual web). The linear shear steel design procedure works with
the entered web area, i.e. B
w
D, as the effective shear area. Although the two methods
produce similar pictures, their linear shear modelling is vastly different.
User-defined sections input
Complicated sections can be
defined with the aid of the
section properties calculation
module, Prosec.
If Prosec is included in your set
of programs, it can be used for
entering sections as follows:
Enter the section dimensions
in millimetres.
Save the input data to a file,
e.g. Deck.G01.
Calculate the bending sect-
ion properties.
Section properties calculated by Prosec are subsequently used to derive an equivalent
I-section. It is important that the area and inertia values of the effective I-section tie up. The
program limits the non-dimensional parameter I/(Ad
2
) to the range 0.02 to 0.225.
The properties of the user-defined sections are:
Sec no: Number of the section to be referenced when you enter spans on the Spans
input page (see page 6-9).
Designation: Prosec file name. If the cursor is on a defined section when you press the
Prosec button, the relevant section will automatically be loaded and displayed in Prosec.
Area: Gross sectional area as calculated by Prosec (mm
2
).
Shear Area: Enter the area likely to transmit the vertical shear (mm
2
). Use your own
judgement on what portions of the section are suitable for transmitting shear.
Ix: Second moment of inertia about the X-axis calculated by Prosec (mm
4
)
Neut Axis: Position of the neutral axis as measured from the bottom of the section (mm).
Y-plas: Plastic neutral axis position. (mm).
Y-top: Offset of top surface from the datum line (mm). This value will initially be set to
zero but can be adjusted to move the section up (positive) or down.
Y-bottom: Offset of bottom surface from the datum line (mm). The section depth is given
by Y-top minus Y-bottom.

Note: The derived equivalent I-section is not unique more than one solution is possible.
The derived section merely serves the purpose of simplifying the section for use by the
program. If a particular equivalent section does not seem like a realistic approximation of
the original section, you should consider entering the section as a normal I-section on the
preceding input page, using more appropriate section dimensions.
Spans input
Sections specified on the Sections input and User sections input pages are used here with
segment lengths to define spans of constant or varying sections.
Spans are defined by specifying one or more span segments, each with a unique set of section
properties. The following data should be input for each span:
Span no: Span number between 1 and 20. If left blank, the span number as was applicable
to the previous row is used, i.e. another segment for the current span.
Section length: Length of span or span segment (m).
Sec No Left: Section number to use at the left end of the span segment.
Sec No Right: Section number to use at the right end of the span segment. If left blank,
the section number at the left end is used, i.e. a prismatic section is assumed. If the entered
section number differs from the one at the left end, the section dimensions are varied
linearly along the length of the segment.

Tip: When using varying cross sections on a span segment, the section definitions are
interpreted literally. If a rectangular section should taper to an L-section, for example, the
flange will taper from zero thickness at the rectangular section to the actual thickness at the
L-section. If the flange thickness should remain constant, a dummy flange should be defined
for the rectangular section. The flange should be defined marginally wider, say 0.1mm, than
the web and its depth made equal to the desired flange depth.
Supports input
You can specify simple supports, columns below and above, fixed ends and cantilever ends. To
allow a complete sub-frame analysis, columns can be specified below and above the beam/slab.
If no column data is entered, simple supports are assumed.
The following input is required:
Sup no: Support number, between 1 to 2. Support 1 is the left-most support.
C,F: The left-most and right-most supports can be freed, i.e. cantilevered, or made fixed
by entering C or Frespectively. By fixing a support, full rotational fixity is assumed, e.g.
the beam/slab frames into a very stiff shaft or column.
D: Depth/diameter of a rectangular/circular column (mm). The depth is measured in the
span direction of the beam/slab.
B: Width of the column (mm). If zero or left blank, a circular column is assumed.
H: Height of the column (m).
Tip: For the sake of accurate reinforcement detailing, you can specify a width for simple
supports at the ends of the beam/slab. Simply enter a value for D and leave B and H blank.
In the analysis, the support will be considered as a normal simple support. However, when
generating reinforcement bars, the program will extend the bars a distance equal to half the
support depth past the support centre line.
Code: A column can be pinned at its remote end by specifying P. If you enter F or leave
this field blank, the column is assumed to be fixed at the remote end.

Tip: You may leave the Support input table blank if all supports are simple supports.
Column heads input
The punching shear capacity of a flat slab can be enhanced by defining column heads or drop
panels. If the ACI approach of column stiffness reduction is used, the stiffness of column heads
is also included in the sub-frame analysis.
The following data can be entered at each column head:
S/T: Specify a square or tapered column head. If left blank, a tapered head is used.
Diameter/Depth: The depth (in span direction) or diameter, in the case of circular column
heads (mm).
Width: The width of a rectangular column head (mm). Leave this field blank if the
column head is circular.
Height: The height of the column head (mm).

Note: The program will not check the validity of a column head in relation to column. It is
possible, for example, to define an unpractical circular column head for a rectangular
column.
Loads input
Dead and live loads are entered separately. The entered loads are automatically patterned
during analysis. For more detail on the pattern loading technique, refer to page 6-9.

Distributed loads, point loads and moments can be entered on the same line. Use as many lines
as necessary to define each load case. Defined loads as follows:
Case D,L: Enter D or L for dead load or live load respectively. If left blank, the previous
load type is assumed. Use as many lines as necessary to define a load case.
Span: Span number on which the load is applied. If left blank, the previous span number
is assumed, i.e. a continuation of the load on the current span.
Wleft: Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied at the left-hand starting position of the
load. If you do not enter a value, the program will use a value of zero.
Wright: Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied on the right-hand ending position of the
load. If you leave this field blank, the value is made equal to Wleft, i.e. a uniformly
distributed load is assumed.
P: Point load (kN).
M: Moment (kNm).
a: The start position of the distributed load, position of the point load or position of the
moment (m). The distance is measured from the left-hand edge of the beam. If you leave
this field blank, a value of zero is used, i.e. the load is taken to start at the left-hand edge of
the beam.
b: The end position of the distributed load, measured from the start position of the
load (m). Leave this field blank if you want the load to extend up to the right-hand edge of
the beam.
Note: A portion of the live load can be considered as permanent for deflection calculation.
For more detail, refer to the explanation of the Parameters input on page 6-9.

Note: If you enter a concrete density on the Parameters input page, the own weight of the
beam/slab is automatically calculated and included with the dead load.
Load combinations input
Load cases can be optionally be combined into load combinations.

Two loading modes are available:
Automatic load combinations allows for automatic pattern loading of dead and live loads,
e.g. as for typical building slabs.
User load combinations allows for combinations of the entered load cases, e.g. as for
bridge decks.
Note: No load combinations need be entered if the automatic load combination mode is
selected.
As many lines as necessary may be used to input combinations of the various load cases:
Load Combination: Name of the load combination. If this field is left blank, the load
combination is taken to be the same as for the previous row in the table.
Load Case: Number or name of the load case.
ULS Factor: Load factor with which the load case should be multiplied for the ultimate
limit state.
SLS Factor: Load factor with which the load case should be multiplied for the
Tendon Profiles
You can let the program generate tendon profiles or you can enter profiles as required. The
program is capable of generating reasonable tendon profiles for typical beams and slabs that
you can adjust and change to obtain the required result.
Generated tendons can have parabolic or harped profiles. The program attempts to generate
tendons to balance the specified percentage of dead load. Profiles generated will not be perfect
for all cases and may require some manual adjustment.

Tendon profiles are displayed one set at a time, where a set is defined as one or more tendons
with the same profile and force distribution. The following parameters define the profile for
each span:
L: Left offset of tendon inflection point (parabolic) or slope change (harped) from left end
of span (m).
R: Right offset of tendon inflection point or slope change from right end of span (m).
b1: Distance from top surface to tendon centre line at left end of the span (mm).
b2: Distance from bottom surface at midspan to tendon centre line (mm).
b3: Distance from top surface to tendon centre line at right end of the span (mm).
Tip: The values of L and R are normally taken is the greater of span divided by and 250mm
for parabolic cables and span divided by four for harped cables.
The following properties cab be set for each group of tendons:
Number of tendons: Number of tendons in the set.
Tendon property no: Tendon property number 1, 2, or 3 as defined in the original input.
Life end position: Position of live end from left hand side of entire beam or slab.
Dead end position: Position of dead end from left hand side of entire beam or slab.
Parabolic / Harped: Parabolic or harped tendons.
The plotted tendon force diagrams represent the total force of all tendons:
The initial tendon forces are shown in blue and include losses due to friction, wedge slip
and elastic shortening of the concrete.
The final tendon forces are shown in red and include the long-term effects, tendon
relaxation, shrinkage and creep of the concrete.
The equivalent balancing loads are also displayed. The balancing loads are shown as
percentage of the equivalent dead load. The latter is defined as the total dead load for each
span, including own weight and any applied dead load, divided by span length.
Tip: Even if you want to specify your own tendon profile, it is nearly always easier to allow
the program to generate the tendon profiles and then edit them, delete some or add more
tendon groups.
Reinforcement
Additional bending reinforcement and punching shear reinforcement can be designed
interactively.
Additional bending reinforcement
Diagrams are displayed for additional reinforcement required (blue lines) and reinforcement
entered (red lines). Anchorage and bond lengths are taken into account.
The required additional unstressed reinforcement is calculated in accordance with the Concrete
Society Technical Reports 17 (paragraph 3.3 and 4.3) and 25 (paragraph 4.11):
A minimum of 0.15% unstressed reinforcement is taken over columns over a width equal
to the column width plus four times the slab width.
Where tensile stress prevails over supports, reinforcement is supplied to resist
tensile force.
At midspan and where the tensile concrete stress exceeds 0.15f
cu
, a working stress of
0.58f
y
is used in the reinforcement.

Tip: The method used to calculate reinforcement aims to limit tensile concrete stress by
adding sufficient reinforcement and tends to be conservative. Less reinforcement can
normally be used, say three quarters of the peak values. In the final analysis you should
check that the various requirements for crack width, ULS capacity and nominal
reinforcement are met.
Reinforcement bars are entered as follows:
Span: Span number
T/B: Reinforcement at Top or Bottom
Bar: Specify the steel as individual bars, e.g. 3T16, 2Y20 or 4R16, or groups of bars, e.g.
Y25@300. One can also combine bars, e.g. 2T16 + T10@250.
L/R: If a hook or bend is required on the left end of the bar, enter an H or B in the L
column. For a hook or bend on the right end of the bar, use the R column.
X: Position of left end of the bar measured from the left end of the span (m).
Length: Length of the bar (m).
Punching shear reinforcing
The data required for punching shear design is categorised as follows:
Geometrical input.
Forces and parameters required calculating the effective shear force V
eff
.
Tendons and additional reinforcement to consider when calculating the allowable shear
stress, v
c
.
The following parameters are required to define the column and slab geometry:
A: Column dimension in longitudinal direction (mm). If a column below was originally
input, its D value will be used as default.
B: Column dimension in transverse direction (mm). If a column below was originally
input, its B value will be used as default.
C: Column head dimension in longitudinal direction (mm). Leave this field blank if there
is no column head.
D: Column head dimension in the transverse direction (mm). Leave this field blank if there
is no column head.
Deffx: Effective depth for reinforcement orientated in the X-direction (mm).
Deffyx: Effective depth for reinforcement orientated in the Y-direction (mm).
X: Longitudinal distance from the support centre to the edge of the slab (mm).
Y: Transverse distance from the support centre to the edge of the slab (mm).
Corner: Enter Yfor an outside corner or Nfor an inside corner.
For the calculation of the effective shear force V
eff
, the program detects internal, edge and
corner columns as follows:
Internal column: Both edges further than 5d
eff
from the column centre.
Edge column: One edge closer than 5d
eff
Corner column: Two edges closer than 5d
eff
Information required calculating the effective shear force V
eff
:
Vt: Total Shear force transferred from slab to column.
Mtx: Moment transferred between slab and column in X-direction.
Mty: Moment transferred between slab and column in Y-direction.
Note: Irrespective of the selected loading combination mode, the program will assume that
pattern loading would have been applied. The program therefore automatically reduces the
entered values for M
tx
and M
ty
by 30%. Refer to BS 8110 - 1997 clauses 3.7.6.2 and 3.7.6.3
and SABS 0100 - 1992 clauses 4.6.2.2 and 4.6.2.3 for detail.
UDL: Uniform ultimate load in the region of the column (kN/m). The shear force is
reduced by the portion of load within each perimeter considered.
Pcx: The pre-stressing force in the longitudinal direction deemed to have a shear relieving
effect (kN). The value will default to the total pre-stressing force of all tendons. This may
be accurate for banded tendons. However, for tendons spaced further apart, only those
passing through the shear perimeters should be considered. The vertical component of the
entered total pre-stressing force is deducted from the effective shear force.
Pcy: The pre-stressing force in the transverse direction deemed to have a shear relieving
effect (kN). This value must be entered manually.
Slope-X: Average slope of tendons in X-direction crossing the punching shear perimeters.
The slope is used to calculate the vertical component of the pre-stress relieving the
effective shear force. The program will base the initial value on the generated tendon
profiles.
Slope-Y: Average slope of tendons in Y-direction crossing the punching shear perimeters.
The value must be entered manually.
Note: Although the program performs a uni-directional analysis for bending moment,
deflections, etc, bi-directional effects are included in the punching shear design procedure.

Tip: For orthogonally stressed slabs, it is recommended that you design one direction, e.g.
the banded direction, and record the relevant punching shear values. On analysing the other
direction, you can enter these parameters for the Y-direction entered for complete
bi-directional punching shear checks.
The shear capacity is based on the following parameters:
Type: The number of the tendon types entered on the Parameters input page refer to
page 6-9 for detail. The specified type's properties are used to calculate the pre-stressed
reinforcement passing through each perimeter.
N cables: Number of cables passing longitudinally through each perimeter (average per
side) in the X (longitudinal) and Y-directions (transverse). The area of the pre-stressed
cables is then incorporated in the calculation of the shear resistance V
c
.
Note: When calculating the shear resistance V
c
, both bonded and un-bonded tendons are
considered.

Ast: Amount of conventional
reinforcement passing longitudinally
through each shear perimeter in the X and
Y-directions. The reinforcement values
A
sx
and A
sy
represent the minimum
amount of main reinforcement crossing
each perimeter in the X and Y-directions.
For a perimeter edge on both side if the
column, e.g. y
1
in the sketch, you should
use the minimum of the amount of
reinforcement crossing the left edge and
the amount crossing the right edge. For a
perimeter edge on one side only, e.g. y
2
in
the sketch, use the amount of
reinforcement crossing that single edge.
Note: The amount of conventional reinforcement can be taken as the average (minimum for
unsymmetrical reinforcement) amount passing through the perimeter on the left and the
right (as seen on the screen) of the column. For an edge or corner column, the amount
should be taken equal to the amount passing through the perimeter on the span side.
Design
The analysis is performed automatically when you access the View output pages.
Analysis procedure
Two separate analyses are performed for SLS and ULS calculations.
Serviceability limit state analysis
Elastic deflections, concrete stresses and cracking are calculated by analysing the beam/slab
under pattern loading using the gross un-cracked sections.
When determining long-term deflections, however, the all spans of the beam/slab are subjected
to the maximum design SLS load. Sections are then evaluated for cracking at 250 mm
intervals, assuming the reinforcement required at ultimate limit state. The long-term deflections
are then calculated by integrating the curvature diagrams.
Tip: After having generated reinforcement for a beam, the long-term deflections will be
recalculated using the actual reinforcement.
Refer to page 6-9 for more detail on calculation of long-term deflections.
Ultimate limit state analysis
At ultimate limit state, the beam/slab is subjected to pattern loading as described on page 6-9.
The resultant bending moment and shear force envelopes are then redistributed. Finally, the
required reinforcement is calculated.
The Input pages incorporate extensive error checking. However, serious errors sometime still
slip through and cause problems during the analysis. Common input errors include:
Entering too large reinforcement cover values on the Parameters input screen, gives
incorrect reinforcement. Cover values should not be wrongly set to a value larger than half
the overall section depth.
Not entering section numbers when defining spans on the Spans input screens causes
numeric instability. Consequently, the program uses zero section properties.

Long-term deflection problems
The cause of unexpected large long-term deflections can normally be determined by careful
examination of the analysis output. View the long-term deflection diagrams and determine
which component has the greatest effect:
The likely cause of large shrinkage deflection is vastly unsymmetrical top and bottom
reinforcement. Adding bottom reinforcement over supports and top reinforcement at in the
middle of spans generally induces negative shrinkage deflection, i.e. uplift.
Large creep deflections (long-term deflection under permanent load) are often caused by
excessive cracking, especially over the supports. Compare the span to depth ratios with the
recommended values in the relevant design code.
Reduced stiffness due to cracking also has a direct impact on the instantaneous deflection
component.
The analysis results can be viewed graphically or in tabular format. Output data, including
graphics and tabled values, can be selectively appended to the Calcsheets using the Add to
Calcsheets function on each output page.
Diagrams can be displayed for deflection, member forces and stress and shell reinforcement of
any load case.
Deflections
The elastic deflection envelope
represents the deflections due to
SLS pattern loading. The long-
term deflection diagram
represents the behaviour of the
beam/slab under full SLS
loading, taking into account the
effects of shrinkage and creep:
The green line represents the
total long-term deflection.
The shrinkage deflection is
shown in red.
The creep deflection (long-term
deflection due to permanent loads) is
given by the distance between the red
and blue lines.
The distance between the blue and
green lines represents instantaneous
deflection due to transient loads.
Note: Long-term deflections in beams are influenced by reinforcement layout. Initial long-
term deflection values are based on the reinforcement required at ultimate limit state. Once
reinforcement has been generated for a beam, the long-term deflections will be based on the
actual reinforcement instead.
Moments and shear forces
The bending moment and shear
force diagrams show the
envelopes due to ULS pattern
loading. The capacities are
calculated from the entered
tendons and conventional rein-
forcement. Capacities are shown
in blue and actual moments and
shear forces in red.

Concrete stress
Serviceability limit state stress
envelopes are displayed for the
following cases:
At transfer of tendon forces:
Only initial dead loads and
no additional dead loads are
considered.
At SLS: The full SLS loads
are applied and long-term
losses in tendon forces
included.
The actual stress envelopes are
shown in red and the allowable
stresses in blue. Guidelines for
allowable concrete stresses are
given on page 6-9.

Crack widths
In the calculation of crack
widths, the program takes into
account all bonded tendons and
also any additional
reinforcement that has been
entered. The crack spacing is
calculated on the assumption
that all the bars and bonded
tendons are spaced equally
across the widest portion of the
section.
Un-bonded tendons are ignored
when calculating crack widths.
If too few bars or bonded
tendons are present, rotations in
the sections will be high and
unrealistic values of deflection
will result. The program will
give a warning when this occurs.
Calcsheets
The beam/slab design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.
Various settings are available to include input and design diagram and tabular result.

is saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the design module
as well.
Profile Scheduling
Designed tendons can be
scheduled as Padds compatible
drawings. Profile properties are
taken from the Tendon profiles
input page. Enter Padds file name
special notes that should appear
on the schedules and then click
Generate schedules.
The resulting schedule can be
opened in Padds for further
editing and printing.

Tendon detailing in Padds
Apart from other reinforcement
detailing commands, Padds cab
also draw tendons in plan.

Finite Element Slab Analysis
Fesd (Finite Element Slab Design) can perform linear elastic plate bending analyses of
two-dimensional concrete slab structures. Reinforcement can be calculated from moments
transformed using the Wood and Armer equations.
To design concrete membranes, use the Space Frame Analysis module instead.

The following text explains the sign conventions used and gives a brief background of the
analysis techniques.
Sign conventions
Slab input is done using the global axes. The analysis output is given in a mixture of global
axis and local axes values.
Global axes
The global axis system is nearly exclusively used when entering slab geometry and loading.
Global axes are also used in the analysis output for deflections and reactions.
The global axes are defined as follows:
For the sake of this definition, the
X-axis is chosen to the right.
The Y-axis always points vertically
upward.
Using a right-hand rule, the Z-axis points out of the screen.
Note: Unlike some other 3D programs that put the Z-axis vertical, this program takes the
Y-axis vertical.
Local axes
Local axes are used in the output for
bending stresses:
The local x-axis is chosen parallel to
the global X-axis.
The y-axis is taken parallel to the
negative Z-axis.
The z-axis is then taken vertical parallel
to the Y-axis.

Shell element stresses
Shell element stresses are given using the local axes:
Bending stresses: The entities M
x
and M
y
are moment per unit width about the local x and
y-axes.
M
xy
represents a torsional moment in the local x-y plane.
The principal bending moments per unit width are represented as M
max
and M
min
.
Note: To assist you in evaluating shell element stresses, stress contour diagrams show
orientation lines at the centre of each shell element. An orientation line indicates the
direction the direction (not axis) of bending or plane stress. In a concrete shell, the
orientation line would indicate the direction of reinforcement resisting the particular stress.
Wood and Armer moments and shell reinforcement axes
Reinforcement is calculated in the user-defined x and y-directions. Unlike the shell bending
stresses that are taken about the x and y-axes, the Wood and Armer moments are given in the x
and y-directions. Refer to page 6-9 for detail.
Units of measurement
The following units of measurement are supported:

Units Metric Imperial
Distance mm,m ft, inch
Force N, kN lb, kip
Finite element analysis
Fesd uses four-node quadrilateral and three-node triangular isoparametric shell elements with
plate bending behaviour. The bending formulation of the quadrilateral shell element was
derived from the Discrete Kirchoff-Midlin Quadrilateral.
Accuracy of triangular elements
Both the quadrilateral and triangular elements yield accurate stiffness modelling. However,
stress recovery from the triangular elements is not as accurate as is the case for quadrilateral
elements. This means that deflections calculated using triangular elements are generally quite
accurate, but moments may be less accurate.
Stress smoothing
A reduced integration technique is used to calculate the element stiffness matrices. The stresses
are calculated at the Gaussian integration points and subsequently extrapolated bi-linearly to

the corner point and centre point of each element. Stresses at common nodes are smoothed by
taking the average of all contributing stress components.
Element layout
Consider a typical continuous flat concrete slab supported on columns or walls. To ensure
accurate modelling of curvature, a minimum of about four elements should be used between
bending moment inflection points. This translates to a minimum of about eight elements per
span in both directions.
Using more elements per span often does not yield a significant improvement in analysis
accuracy. In addition, the particular finite element formulation yields its most accurate results
when the element thickness does not greatly exceed its plan dimensions.
For a typical concrete slab with a thickness of about one-tenth or one-fifteenth of the span
length, a reasonable rule of thumb is to make the plan dimensions of the shell elements no
smaller than the thickness of the slab. In other words, use a maximum of about ten to fifteen
elements per span.
Concrete design
Fesd can perform reinforced concrete design for shell elements. The Wood and Armer
equations are used to transform the bending and torsional stresses to effective bending
moments in the user-defined xand y-directions.
Note: The Space Frame Analysis modules can design shells for in-plane stresses as well.
Refer to Chapter 3 for detail.
Codes of practice
The following concrete design codes are supported:
ACI 318 - 1995.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CSA A23.3 - 1993.
Eurocode 2 - 1992.
SABS 0100 - 1992.
Input
Work through the relevant Input pages to enter the slab geometry and loading:
General input: Enter special design parameters.
Nodes input: Slab coordinates.
Shell elements input: Define shell elements.
Supports input: External supports.
Point loads input: Point loads and moments.
Shell loads input: Apply uniform distributed loads to shells.
Load combinations input: Group dead and live loads in load combinations.
Alternative methods of generating slab analysis input are discussed on page 6-9.
Viewing the structure during input
You may want to enlarge portions of the picture of the structure or rotate it on the screen.
Several functions, all of which are described in detail in Chapter 2, are available to help you
using pictures of the structure:
Use the Zoom buttons to zoom into a part of the structure or view it from another angle.
Use the View Point Control to set a new viewpoint or camera position.
Use the View Planes Control to view a slice through the slab.
The Options menu makes the following additional functions available:
Graphics:
Select whether you want items
like node numbers and supports to
be displayed.
Display the structure with full 3D
rendering, e.g. to verify the
thickness of slab sections.
Choose quick or detailed
rendering. Quick rendering is
faster than the detailed method,
but you may find that some
surfaces are drawn incorrectly.

All surfaces are drawn as polygons. You can choose to make the surfaces transparent
or have them filled and outlined.
Contour values, like those on the reinforcement contour diagrams, can optionally be
shown.
Tip: The Graphics options and 3D rendering function can also be accessed using the buttons
next to the displayed picture.
Views: You can save the current viewpoint and graphic display options. The current
views name is displayed on the picture. To re-use a saved view, click the view name
on the picture to drop down a list of saved views. A detailed explanation is given
in Chapter 2.
The functions described above can also be used when viewing output. Contour diagrams, for
example, are drawn as polygons. You can therefore use the Graphics options setting for
polygons to change their appearance. Views defined during input are also available when
viewing output and vice versa.
General input
The General input page handles several important analysis parameters.
Concrete design parameters
Specify the concrete and reinforcement material properties, concrete cover to reinforcement
and orientate the reinforcement axes. Refer to page 6-9 for more detail.
Envelope of load cases
Fesd calculates a set of results, including reinforcement values, for each load case or
combination analysed. To enable you to easily identify the worst-case scenario, you can
specify an envelope of load cases for which the minimum and maximum values are extracted.
The envelope can comprise load cases and/or load combinations. Results for the envelope is
presented and can be accessed as if a separate load case.
Wizards
The wizards are suitable for the
rapid generation of complete
input files for some typical slabs.
Input generated this way can
optionally be appended to
existing data you can therefore
repeatedly use the wizards to
generate complicated structures.
Note: The program is not limited to modelling only those slabs generated by the parametric
modules. Any general two-dimensional slab can be treated. The parametric modules merely
serve to simplify input of typical slabs.
Own weight
The own weight of the frame can be calculated using the entered cross-sectional areas and
member lengths. If you specify a load case, the own weight is calculated and added to the other
loads of that case.
The following are points of importance:
By default, the own weight of the frame is set to not be included in the analysis. Be sure to
select the appropriate load case for own weight or, alternatively, to include the frames
own weight in the values of the loads entered.
The list of load cases from which you can select is based on the load cases defined on the
Point loads and Shell loads input pages. You may thus prefer to specify the own weight
load case only after completing all other input for the frame. However, you can also enter
the own weight load case at the start of the frame input process in which case you may
ignore the warning message (that the load case does not exist).
Tip: If you wish to use own weight in its own separate load case, you can do so by defining
an empty load case. You can enter a zero load at any node number, for example, and then
select that load case as the one to use for own weight.
Adding input data to the Calcsheets
You can append the input tables (as they appear on the screen) to the Calcsheets by clicking
the Add input tables to Calcsheets button.
You can add a picture from any input pages to the Calcsheets by clicking the Add to
Calcsheets button next to the picture in question.
Title
Enter a descriptive name for the frame. It should not be confused with the file name you use
when you save the input data.

Nodes input
Use as many lines as necessary to enter the nodes defining the slab. A unique number must be
assigned to each node. The node number is entered in the No column, followed by the X and
Z-coordinates in the X and Z columns. If you leave X or Z blank, a value of zero is used.

You are allowed to skip node numbers to simplify the definition of the slab. You may also
leave blank lines in the input to improve readability. If a node number is defined more than
once, the last definition will be used.
Error checking
The program checks for nodes lying at the same coordinate. If a potential error is detected, an
Error list button will appear.
Generating additional nodes
When defining a node, you can have additional nodes generated at regular intervals. Example:

The X-coordinate of node 4 is left blank. Therefore, node 4 is put at the coordinate
(0,14.614).
The No of is set to 2, meaning that two additional nodes must be generated.
Setting Increment to 7 means that the node numbers are incremented by seven.
Therefore, node 4 is copied to node 11 and node 11 is copied to node 18.
The values in the X-inc and Z-inc columns set the distance between copied nodes. The
coordinates 4 to 18 are spaced at 1.140 m and 0.472 m along the X and negative Z-axis
respectively. The coordinates of the additional nodes are thus (1.140,14.142) and
(2.280,13.670).
An alternative method to generate equally spaced nodes is to use the Inc to End option. This
method allows you to define two nodes and then generate a number of nodes in-between:
Use the same procedure as above to define the first nodes coordinates.
Set the values of X-inc and Z-inc to the total co-ordinate difference to the last node and
enable the Inc to End option. The last nodes coordinates are then first calculated and the
specified number of intermediate nodes then generated.

Second order generation
Once you have defined one or more nodes in the table, you can copy that relevant rows nodes
by entering a '' character in the No column of the next row. Then enter the number of
additional sets of nodes to be generated in the No of column and the coordinate increments in
the X-inc and Z-inc columns.

Second order generation example:

The following nodes are generated:
No X Z
15 0.00 5.12
16 2.00 5.22
17 4.00 5.32
18 0.50 6.12
19 2.50 6.22
20 4.50 6.32
Block generation
A group of nodes can be repeated by entering a B in the No column followed by the first and
last table row numbers in which the nodes were defined. Separate the row numbers with a '.
Block generation example:

The nodes defined in rows 11 to 26 are copied twice. Node numbers are incremented by thirty for
each copy. The X and Z-coordinate increments are 10 m and zero respectively.
To copy one row only, simply omit the end row number, e.g. 'B10' to copy row 10 only.
The block generation function may be used recursively. That means that the rows specified
may themselves contain further block generation statements.
Tip: To move a group of nodes to a new location without generating any new nodes, set the
No-of to '1' and Inc to '0'.
Arc generation
A group of nodes can be repeated on an arc by entering an 'A' in the No column, followed by
the start and end row numbers. Enter the centre of the arc in the X and Z columns and use the
X-inc column to specify the angle increment.
Example:

All nodes defined in rows 5 to 9 of the table will be repeated eleven times on an imaginary
horizontal arc. The centre point of the arc is located at the coordinate (10,1.5). The node
number increment is set to 5, i.e. node number 3 becomes node 8, etc. The rotation angle
between the generated groups of nodes is 30 degrees about the Y-axis, i.e. anti-clockwise using
a right-hand rule.
To copy one row only, simply omit the end row numbers, e.g. A5to copy row 5 only.
Note: The arc generation function may be used recursively.
Rotating nodes
To rotate a group of existing nodes without generating any new nodes, use the arc generation
function and set the No-of to 1and Increment to 0.
Deleting nodes
Nodes can be deleted by entering a special X-coordinate of 1E-9 or by entering Delete in the
Inc to end column. This can be especially handy if you have generated a large group of nodes
and then need to remove some of them again.
Example:

Nodes 15 and the additional nodes 18 and 21 are deleted.
Rigid links input
Point loads and supports invariably result in stress concentrations. In the case of slabs
supported on columns, it may be reasonable to ignore stress concentrations within the column
areas and rather work with the stress values at the column faces. An alternative approach could
be to smooth the stresses that prevail with the close surrounds of each of the columns, e.g.
within a perimeter at a distance equal to the depth of the slab away from the column face.
Another more rational approach to modelling a slab at column supports is to introduce rigid
links. This approach entails stopping shell elements at the column face and then linking the
perimeter with the supported node at the position of the column centre. The high bending
stiffness of the rigid links gives a reasonable approximation of the increased stiffness of the
slab inside the perimeter of the column. The approach has the advantage of ridding the analysis
of high shell bending stress peaks at the points of support.


Shell elements input
Elements are defined by referring to corner nodes, four in the case of quadrilaterals and three
for triangles. You should enter the node numbers in sequence around the perimeter, either
clockwise or anti-clockwise, in the Node 1 to Node 4 columns. Leave Node 4 blank to define a
triangular element.
Note: Quadrilateral elements generally yield more accurate analysis results than triangular
elements. Refer to page 6-9 for more detail.

Selecting materials
Each slab element should
have an associated
material.
To add one or more
materials to a slab analysis
data file, click Materials.
Open the relevant material
type screen and select the
materials that are required
for the current slab input.
After adding the selected
materials to the input, you
can select them by clicking
the Material column to
drop down a list.

Adding materials to the global database
The procedure to permanently add more materials to the database is described in Chapter 2.
Error checking
The program checks for duplicate elements and nodes not connected to elements. It also checks
that a group number is assigned to each element. If an error is detected, an Error list button
will be displayed.
Generating additional elements
You can generate additional elements with the same section and fixity code values using the
No of extra and Node No Inc columns.
Example:

The element enclosed by nodes 15, 16, 26 and 25 are copied ten times with a node number
increment of three, i.e elements (18,19,29,28), (21,22,32,310 etc.
Block generation
A group of elements can be repeated by entering a B in the No column. Then enter the first
and last table row numbers in which the elements were defined, separated with a '.
Block generation example:

All elements defined in rows 5 to 7 will be copied ten times with a node number increment of
twelve. The copied elements will use the same thickness and material properties as the original
elements.
To copy one row only, simply omit the end row number, e.g. 'B5' to copy row 5 only.
The block generation function may be used recursively. The group of lines referenced may thus
contain block generation statements.
Tip: When entering a complicated slab it may help to leave a few blank lines between
groups of elements. Not only will it improve readability, but it will also allow you to insert
additional elements at a later stage without upsetting block and arc generations.

Deleting elements
Shell elements can be deleted by entering Deletein the Material column. This can be useful if
you have generated a large group of elements and need to remove some of them again.
Example:

Elements 15-16-26-25 and 18-19-29-28 are deleted.
Supports input
Slabs require external supports to ensure global stability. Supports can be entered at nodes to
prevent any of the three degrees of freedom associated with plate bending, i.e. translation in the
Y-direction and rotation about the X and Z-axes. You can also define elastic supports and
prescribed displacements, e.g. foundation settlement.

Enter the node number to be supported in the Node No column. In the next column a
combination of the letters Y, x and z can be entered to indicate the direction of fixity. Use
capitals and lowercase to define restraint of translation and rotation respectively, e.g. Yxz
means fixed against movement in the Y-direction and rotation about the X and Z-axes.

Note: The use of lowercase for rotational restraints should not be confused with the
convention of using lowercase for local element axes.
Tip: To enter a simple support with no moment restraint, one would typically enter a Y.
If you want to repeat the supports defined on the previous row of the table, you need only enter
the node number, i.e. you may leave the Fixity column blank. If the Yxz column is left blank,
the supports applicable to the previous row will be used automatically.
Skew supports
The rotational supports x and z can be made skew by entering a value in the Angle column.
This feature may be useful when modelling slabs with rotational support perpendicular to skew
edges.
Prescribed displacements
Use the X, x, and z columns to enter prescribed displacements and rotations. Being a global
support condition, the effect of the prescribed displacement is added once only to the analysis
results of each load case and load combination. Optionally enter a P in the P/S column to
designate the values as prescribed displacements.
Elastic supports
Elastic supports, or springs, are defined by entering spring constants in the X, x, and z
columns. The spring constant is defined as the force or moment that will cause a unit displace-
ment or rotation in the relevant direction. Enter an S in the P/S column to indicate that an
entered value is a spring constant rather than a prescribed displacement. If you leave the P/S
column blank, the entered values are taken as prescribed displacements.
Tip: The effect of a column above or below the slab can be modelled by entering their
bending stiffnesses as rotational spring supports about the x and z-axes. From simple elastic
theory, the rotational stiffness of a column that is fixed at the remote end is given as 4EI/L.
The stiffness of a column that is simply supported at the remote end is equal to 3EI/L.
Error Checking
The program does a basic check on the structural stability of the slab. If a potential error is
detected, an Error list button will appear.
Note: You cannot define an elastic support and a prescribed displacement at the same node
because it will be a contradiction of principles.
Generating additional supports
Additional supports and prescribed displacements can be generated using the Number of extra
and Node number inc columns. The procedure is similar to that described on page 6-9 for
generating additional nodes.
Note: The display of supports can be enabled by editing the Display Options.
Point loads input
Loads on shell elements are categorised as point loads, i.e. concentrated loads at specific
coordinate, and element loads, i.e. uniform distributed loads.
All loads are organised in load cases, e.g. DL for own weight, ADL for additional dead loads,
LL for live load, etc. Load cases apply equally to the various load input screens, meaning that
you can build up a load case using different types of loads.

To define a load case, type a descriptive name for each load case in the Load Case column.
Use up to six characters to describe each load case. If the load case name is not entered, the
load case applicable to the previous row in the table is used.

Enter the coordinates and load values in the appropriate columns, using the global axis sign
conventions given on page 6-9. The load case at the cursor position is displayed graphically.
Press Enter or Display to update the picture.
Error checking
The program checks that specified nodes have indeed been defined in the Nodes input table. If
an error is detected, an Error list button will appear.
Generating additional point loads
Additional point loads can be generated using the Number of extra and X-increment and
Z-increment columns.
Shell loads
Distributed loads can be applied on shell elements. Enter a load case description in the Load
case column followed by the relevant element numbers in the Shell numbers column. The
program automatically assigns numbers to all shell elements in the sequence they are defined
on the Shells input page.

A series of elements can be entered by separating the first and last element numbers by a '
character, e.g. '16' to define elements 1 up to 6.Enter the distributed load intensity in the UDL
column.
Note: Positive vertical loads act upward and negative loads act downward.
Error checking
The program checks that the entered element numbers are valid. If an error is detected, an
Error list button will appear.
Generating additional element loads
The No of extra and Shell number Inc columns can also be used to generate additional shell
loads. The procedures are similar to that used to generating additional shell elements see
page 6-9 for detail.
Load combinations input
You can model practical scenarios by grouping load cases together in load combinations. Enter
the load combination number in the Load Combination column; followed by the load case
name and relevant load factors.
If the Load Combination column is left blank, the load combination is taken to be the same as
for the previous row of the table. The load cases to consider in a load combination are entered
one per row in the Load case column. Enter the relevant ultimate and serviceability limit state
load factors in the ULS factor and SLS factor columns.
Tip: You may leave one or more blank lines between load combination definitions to
improve readability.
The ultimate and serviceability
limit states are used as follows:
Deflections are calculated
using the entered SLS loads.
A set of reactions is also
calculated at SLS for the
purpose of evaluating
stability and bearing
pressures.
A second set of reactions
and all element forces are
determined using the
entered ULS forces.

Error checking
The program only checks that valid load cases are specified. It has no knowledge of the design
code that will be used in the member design and therefore does not check the validity of the
entered load factors.
Alternative slab input methods
Alternative means of slab input are available:
Parametric input: Modules are available for the rapid generation of input for typical slab
structures.
Graphical input: Structures can be drawn in Padds or another CAD system and converted
to slab analysis input.
Wizards
A number of typical frames can be input by entering a number of parameters. The Wizards do
most of the data input. See page 6-103 for detail on the wizards.
Graphical input
In some situations, it may be easier to define a slabs geometry graphically. With Padds you
can draw a slab and then generate a slab analysis input file.
Using Padds for slab input
To use Padds to define a slabs geometry:
1. Use Padds to draw the slab. Alternatively, import a DXF drawing from another CAD
system.
2. The slab should be drawn to scale using millimetres as unit.
3. The element grid is drawn using lines.
Tip: You may sometimes find it quicker to hatch an area with a line pattern and then
vectorise the hatch to turn it into normal lines.
4. Use the Generate input command on the Macro to display the drawing conversion
options. Choose the Fesd and press OK to start the conversion procedure.
The resultant Fesd input file will be compatible with both the Dos and Windows versions
of the slab analysis modules. The file is saved in the working folder as a last file, e.g.
Lastfesd.a01.
5. Close Padds.
Tip: To see a graphical input example, open \prokon\data\demo\inputgen.padin Padds.

Analysis parameters input
The General input page allows you to set the parameters relevant to the analysis.
Concrete design parameters input
It is generally impractical to design reinforcement to resist torsional moments in slabs.
Reinforcement is usually fixed in two directions approximately, but not necessarily,
perpendicular to each other. This justifies the use of transformed moments to calculate
reinforcement.
Fesd uses the Wood and Armer theory; to convert calculated bending and torsional moments
to transformed bending moments. More detail is given on page 6-9.

The required concrete design parameters are:
Enter the concrete and reinforcement material characteristics, f
cu
and f
y
.
Define the orientation for the main and secondary reinforcement, i.e. the x and y-axis.
Looking from the top, the x-axis is measured anti-clockwise from the local x-axis to the
reinforcement x-axis. The y-axis is in turn measured anti-clockwise from the x-axis.
Define the reinforcement levels in the slab by entering the concrete cover values for the
top and bottom reinforcement in both directions.
Reinforcement contours can be displayed on the Bending stresses output page.
Analysis
On completing the slab input, you should set the analysis options before commencing the
actual analysis.
Analysis options
Analysis options available on the General input page include:
Concrete design: If the model includes finite shell elements, you can optionally design the
shells as reinforced concrete members.
Add own weight: Select a load case to which the self-weight of the beam and shell
members should be added.
On the Analysis page, select the following:
Output file: Enter an output file name or accept the default file name, e.g. Fesd.out.
Analyse load combinations only: Enable this option if the results of only the load
combinations are required. Generally, one would require results for the load combinations
only. However, you may have a special need to view the results of specific load cases as
well. Disable this option to include the results for the individual load cases as well.
Analysing the slab
To analyse the slab, open the
Analysis page and press Start
Analysis. The analysis progress
of displayed to help you judge
the time remaining to complete
the analysis.
After a successful analysis, the
deflected shape is displayed for
the first load case or load
combination or, in the case of
modal or buckling analysis, the
first mode shape.

Error checking during analysis
During the input phase, the slab geometry and loading data is checked for errors. Not all
reported errors are necessarily serious. To define duplicate elements between two nodes, for
example, could be an accidental error on your side. However, the program can deal with a
situation like this and will allow the analysis procedure to continue.
Other input errors could be serious enough to prevent an analysis from being completed
successfully. Nodes with no elements, for example, have no restraints and will cause numeric
instability during the analysis.
The first step of any analysis is the final verification of the input data. In the case of critical
errors still present, a warning message will be displayed. If you then choose to not proceed
with the analysis, you will be taken to the input table with the error. However, choosing to
proceed and ignore the warning will have an unpredictable result.
Even if all input data seems valid, numeric errors may still occur during an analysis. For
example, if you entered incorrect section properties, such as a very small E-value, the mistake
may go by unnoticed. However, the analysis will then yield an invalid value in the stiffness
matrix or extremely large deflections. The same applies to the stability of the slab.
If an error was detected during the analysis, a warning will be displayed. The cause of the error
should become clear when studying the output file:
The text at the end of the output file normally gives the reason for the error.
If the output file seems complete, the problem will require more careful attention. Scan all
output tables for excessively large or small values.
Viewing output
The analysis results can be viewed graphically or in tabular format.
Diagram can be displayed for the following:
Deflections: Deflections are
generally small in relation to
dimensions of the structure.
To improve the visibility of
the elastic deflection
diagram, you can enter a
screen magnification factor.
Bending stresses in shells:
The x, y and xy
bending stresses: The
bending stresses about
the local x and y-axes
and the torsional
stresses. The direction
(not axis) of bending is
shown as a small line on each shell element.
Maximum and minimum bending stresses: The principal bending stresses.
Reinforcement and Wood and Armer moments: Contours of the effective bending
moments and corresponding required reinforcement at the top and bottom in the xand
y-directions. The reinforcement direction is shown as a small line on each shell. Refer
to page 6-9 for an explanation of the use of the Wood and Armer equations and to
page 6-9 for the definition of the reinforcement directions.
Note: Shell bending stresses are taken about the x and y-axes. In contrast, the Wood and
Armer bending moments are given in the xand y-directions.

Viewing output tables
Open the Output file page for a tabular display of the slab analysis output file. You can filter
the information sent to the calcsheets by enabling or disabling the relevant sections.
You can also quickly locate a section of the output file using the Find output function.

Calcsheets
Slab analysis output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad. To
include a particular component of the output in the calcsheets, view the relevant output
information and then click Add to Calcsheets.

The Data File is automatically included in the calcsheet sent to Calcpad. You can later recall
the slab by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in Calcpad is
saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the slab analysis module
as well.

Rectangular Slab Panel Design
The Rectangular Slab Panel Design module designs rectangular flat slab panels with a variety
of edge supports. The program should best be used for designing slabs with approximately
rectangular panel layouts. You can use the Space Frame Analysis or Finite Element Slab
Design module to analyse slabs with irregular panel layouts and openings.

Design scope
The program designs rectangular reinforced concrete flat slab panels. Design loads include
own weight, distributed and concentrated dead and live loads. Slab edges can be made free,
simply supported or continuous.
Bending moment is transformed to include torsional moment using the Wood and Armer
equations. Reinforcement is calculated using the normal code formulae.
Irrespective the selected design codes, long-term deflections are estimated in accordance with
clause 9.5.2.3 of ACI318 - 1992
Codes of practice
ACI 318 - 1995.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CSA A23.3 - 1993.
Eurocode 2 - 1192.
SABS 0100 - 1992.
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported.
List of symbols
The design code symbols are used as far as possible:
Slab geometry
d
x
: Effective depth for reinforcement in the longer span direction, i.e. parallel to
the X-axis (mm or in).
d
y
: Effective depth for reinforcement in the shorter span direction, i.e. parallel to
the Y-axis (mm or in).
h : Overall slab depth (mm or in).

L
short
: Length of the short side of the slab, taken parallel to the Y-axis (m or ft).
L
long
: Longer side length of the slab, taken parallel to the X-axis (m or ft).
Material properties
f
cu
: Concrete cube strength (MPa or psi).
f
y
: Reinforcement yield strength (MPa or psi).
: Time factor for long-term deflection
: Poissons ratio, typically equal to 0.2.
: Unit weight of concrete (kN/m or lb/ft)
Applied loads
W
ADL
: Additional distributed dead load (kN/m or kip/ft).
W
LL
: Additional distributed dead load (kN/m or kip/ft).).
P
DL
: Additional dead point load (kN or kip).
P
LL
: Additional live point load (kN or kip).
Design output
A
botx
: Bottom steel parallel to the X-axis (mm/m or in/ft).
A
topx
: Top steel parallel to the X-axis (mm/m or in/ft).
A
boty
: Bottom steel parallel to the Y-axis (mm/m or in/ft).
A
topy
: Top steel parallel to the Y-axis (mm/m or in/ft).
Analysis of the slab
The program calculates bending stresses and elastic deflection by means of a finite element
analysis. Thirty-six plate elements are placed on a 6 x 6 grid. The program uses eight-noded
isoparametric finite elements that are well suited for thin plate analysis.
The analysis procedure employs a 2 x 2 Gaussian integration technique to calculate the
element stiffness matrix. The stresses are calculated at the Gaussian integration points and
subsequently extrapolated to the eight nodes and centre point of each element. The stresses at
common nodes are smoothed by taking the average of all contributing stress components.
The program estimates long-term deflections by adjusting the stiffness of the slab based on the
level oI cracking. The use oI a time Iactor Ior estimating creep behaviour, is based on the
approach by ACI 318 1992 clause 9.5.2.3.
Typical values Ior are:

Duration of load 7LPHIDFWRU
5 years or more 2.0
12 months 1.4
6 months 1.2
3 months 1.0
Instantaneous 0.0

Note: The calculated long-term deflections are not exact and should be considered a
reasonable estimate only.
Reinforcement calculation
The finite element analysis yields values for bending stresses about the X and Y-axes and
torsional stresses. Due to the practical difficulties involved in reinforcing a slab to resist
torsion, the Wood and Armer equations are used to transform the bending and torsional
stresses to effective bending moments in the X and Y-directions.
Correlation with the design code values
The moments and reinforcement calculated by the program are generally lower than the values
given by the design codes. The discrepancy can be ascribed to the differences in the analysis
techniques used. In particular, the code values include allowances for pattern loading and
moment redistribution.
Considering continuous slabs, negative moments will generally correlate well while positive
span moments would be about ten to fifteen percent too low.
Note: In cases where pattern loading is important, e.g. continuous slabs, it is suggested that
the calculated bottom reinforcement be increased by about fifteen percent.

Input
Use the single input table to define the slab and its loading.
Geometry and loads input
The following general points should be noted:
If the aspect ratio of the slab exceeds 3:1, it may be more appropriate to design it as
spanning in one direction only.
Long-term deflections are calculated if you specify a time factor, , larger than one.

Own weight is modelled by entering a value for the unit weight. The own weight is
automatically added to each load case entered.
For the ultimate limit state calculations, the own weight, additional dead load and dead
point loads are multiplied by the entered dead load factors. All live loads are similarly
multiplied by the live load factor.
To create load combinations, simply repeat the relevant loads in the table. Copying lines in
the table is easily accomplished using the table editor commands.
Tip: You can use the mouse to click on the slab picture and stretch its dimensions.
Supports input
The corners of the slab are supported vertically at all times. The edges can be supported using
the following codes:
Displacement: To support an edge in the vertical direction, i.e. simply supported. A typical
example would be a slab simply supported on a masonry wall that provides no rotational
support.
Rotation: To restrain rotation about an axis parallel to the slab edge, i.e. continuous. This
could be a reasonable model for a slab panel supported on columns if it is continuous with
one or more adjacent panels.
Displacement and rotation: The support conditions can be used together to support an edge
vertically and prevent rotation, e.g. a continuous slab resting on a wall.
Note: Edges that are made continuous are given zero rotation during the analysis. This could
be a reasonable assumption provided that the adjacent panel has a similar flexural stiffness.
Where adjacent spans differ significantly in terms of span length and thickness, spans
should be modelled individually with continuous supports. Differences in the negative
moments on the continuous edges should then be redistributed manually according to the
relative stiffness of each panel.

Design
Due to the simple finite element arrangement used, the analysis procedure will complete
almost instantaneously. You can view the design results graphically:
Moments: Transformed
moment diagrams, using the
Wood and Armer
equations, for the top and
bottom in the X and
Y-directions are shown.
Values are given per unit
width. The transformed
moments in the top and
bottom fibres represent the
moments to be resisted by
the calculated
reinforcement.
Deflections: Short-term
elastic deflections, based on
the un-cracked gross
concrete section are shown.
The deflections do not
include long-term effects
like shrinkage and creep.
Reinforcement: Required
reinforcement for the top
and bottom in the X and
Y-directions is shown. The
calculated reinforcement is
based on the transformed
moments and therefore
includes the effects of
torsion.
Calcsheets
The slab panel design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.
Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and pictures.

is saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the column design
module as well.

Detailing
Reinforcement bending schedules can be generated for designed slab panels. Bending
schedules can be edited and printed using Padds.
Generating a bending schedule
Based on your initial input and the design results, initial values are chosen for the
reinforcement. Change the values to suit your detailing requirements.
Required information:
Schedule file name: Name of the Padds drawing and schedule file.
Detailing parameters:
First bar mark: Mark to
use for the main bar.
You may use any
alphanumeric string of
up to five characters,
e.g. A, 01 or A01.
The mark is incre-
mented automatically
for subsequent bars.
Concrete cover to
reinforcement
Reinforcement bond
length.
Drawing scale: The
drawing paper is sized
to fit the complete detail.
Reinforcement for top and bottom layers in each of the X and Y-directions.
Press Generate to create a Padds bending schedule with the entered settings. To discard all
changes you have made and revert to the default values for the designed column, press Reset.
Note: To detail slabs of more complex shape, use Padds.
Detailed editing and printing of bending schedules are done with Padds. For this, follow the
steps below:
In Padds, choose Open on the File menu and double-click the relevant file name. The file
will be opened and displayed in two cascaded widows. The active windows will contain
the drawing of the slab panel and the other window the bar schedule.
Make any necessary
changes to the drawing, e.g.
editing or adding bars and
adding construction notes.
Click on any visible part of
the window containing the
cutting list to bring it to the
front. Enter the following
information at the relevant
positions:
Member description: Use as
many lines of the Member
column to enter a
description, e.g. SLAB
PANEL E.
file name, e.g. SLABE.PAD. The schedule number can be edited as required to suit your
numbering system, e.g. P123456-BS405.
Finally, combine the column drawing and schedule onto one or more A4 pages using the
Make BS Print Files command on the File menu. Use Alt-P to print the schedule immediately
or Alt-F to save it as a print file for later batch printing.

Column Design 6-134
Column Design
The concrete column design modules are suitable for the design of the following column types:
Rectangular Column Design, RecCol: Solid rectangular columns of which the larger
column dimension does not exceed four times the smaller dimension.
Circular Column Design, CirCol: Solid circular columns where the simplified design
approach applicable to rectangular columns may be applied.
General Column Design, GenCol: Columns of any general shape and columns with
openings.
All column design modules can design reinforced concrete columns subjected to bi-axial
bending. Bending schedules can be generated for editing and printing using the PROKON
Drawing and Detailing System, Padds.

Column Design 6-135
Design scope
The column design modules design reinforced concrete columns subjected to axial force and
bi-axial bending moment.
The following conditions apply to the design of rectangular and circular columns:
The design codes give simplified procedures for designing columns of which the ratio of
the larger to the smaller dimension does not exceed 1:4.
The procedure used for the design of rectangular columns is applied to the design of
circular columns.
The reinforcement layout is assumed to be symmetrical.
Reinforcement bending schedules can be generated for designed columns. Schedules can be
opened in Padds for further editing and printing.
Codes of practice
ACI 318 - 1993.
BS 8110 - 1987.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CSA-A23.3 - 1994.
Eurocode 2 -1992.
SABS 0100 - 1992.
List of symbols

Column Design 6-136
Rectangular column geometry
b : Width of cross section, perpendicular to h (mm or in). This smaller column
dimension is taken parallel the X-axis.
d
x
: Distance from the column face to the centre of the reinforcement resisting
moments about the X-axis (mm or in).
d
y
: Distance from the column face to the centre of the reinforcement resisting
moments about the Y-axis (mm or in).
h : Depth of the cross section (mm or in). This larger column dimension is taken
parallel the Y-axis.
Circular column geometry
d : Distance from the column face to the centre of the reinforcement (mm or in).
: Diameter of column (mm or in).
Effective lengths
x : Effective length factor for bending about the X-axis
y : Effective length factor for bending about the Y-axis
Material properties
f
cu
f
y
E
s
: Modulus of elasticity of reinforcement (GPa or ksi).
Applied loads
M
x top
: Moment about the X-axis applied at the top end of the column (kNm or kipft).
If left blank, a value of zero is used. A positive moment is taken anti-
clockwise.
M
x bot
: Moment about the X-axis applied at the bottom (kNm or kipft).
M
y top
: Moment about the Y-axis applied at the top (kNm or kipft). A positive moment
is taken anti-clockwise.
M
y bot
: Moment about the Y-axis applied at the bottom (kNm or kipft).
P : Axial force in the column (kN of kip). A positive value denotes a downward
compression force and a negative value an uplift force.
Design output
A
c
: Gross concrete area (mm or in).

Column Design 6-137
A
scx
: Area of vertical reinforcement to resist the effective design moment about
the X-axis (mm or in).
A
scy
: Area of vertical reinforcement to resist the effective design moment about the
Y-axis (mm or in).
b' : Effective depth to reinforcement in shorter direction of rectangular
column (mm or in).
h' : Effective depth to reinforcement in longer direction of rectangular
column (mm or in).
L
ex
: Effective length for bending about the X-axis (m or ft).
L
ey
: Effective length for bending about the X-axis (m or ft).
M
add
: Additional moment about the design axis of a circular column (kNm or kipft).
M
add x
: Additional slenderness moment about the X-axis due to the column deflection
(kNm or kipft).
M
add y
: Additional moment about the Y-axis (kNm or kipft).
M
min x
: Minimum design moment for bending about the X-axis (kNm or kipft).
M
min y
: Minimum design moment about the Y-axis (kNm or kipft).
M
x
: Design moment about the X-axis for rectangular column (kNm or kipft).
M
y
: Design moment about the X-axis for rectangular column (kNm or kipft).
M' : Design moment (kNm or kipft).
M'
x
: Effective uniaxial design moment about the X-axis for rectangular
column (kNm or kipft).
M'
y
: Effective uniaxial design moment about the Y-axis for rectangular
column (kNm or kipft).
Code requirements
The supported design codes have similar clauses with respect to bracing and end fixity
conditions.
Braced and un-braced columns
A column is braced in a particular plane if lateral stability to the structure as a whole is
provided in that plane. A column should otherwise be considered as un-braced.
Global lateral stability is normally provided by means of shear walls or other bracing systems.
Such bracing systems should be sufficiently stiff to attract and transmit horizontal loads acting
on the structure to the foundations.

Column Design 6-138
RecCol and Circol allow you to set independent bracing conditions for bending about the X
and Y-axis of rectangular columns.
Effective length of columns
The effective length or height of a column depends on its end conditions, i.e. the degree of
fixity at each end. Four end condition categories are defined in the design codes:
End condition 1: The end of the column is connected monolithically to beams or slabs that
are deeper than the column dimension in the relevant plane.
End condition 2: The end of the column is connected monolithically to beams or slabs
which are shallower than the overall column dimension in the relevant plane.
End condition 3: The end of the column is connected to members that provide some
nominal restraint. In the context of this program, this condition is regarded as pinned.
End condition 4: The end of the column has no lateral or rotational restraint, i.e. a free end
of a cantilever column. In the context of this program, this condition is regarded as free.
The codes suggest the follow values for the effective length factor, :

End condition
at the top
End condition
at the bottom
(Effective
length factor)
Column in braced frame ( 1.0)
Fixed
Fixed
Pinned
0.75 to 0.85
0.90 to 0.95
Pinned
Fixed
Pinned
0.90 to 0.95
1.00
Column in unbraced frame ( > 1.0)
Fixed
Fixed
Pinned
1.2 to 1.5
1.6 to 1.8
Pinned
Fixed
Pinned
1.6 to 1.8
N.A.
Free Fixed 2.2

Note: The column design modules automatically calculate the effective length factors in
relation to the specified end conditions. You may however manually adjust the effective
length factors if necessary.

Column Design 6-139
Short and slender columns
A column is considered to be short if the effects of its lateral deflection can be ignored.
Slenderness in a given plane is expressed as the ratio between the effective length and the
column dimension in that plane. The slenderness limits for short and slender columns set by
some of the supported codes of practice are:

Slenderness limit BS 8110 - 1997 SABS 0100 1992
Short
Braced
h
l
ex
and
b
l
ey
< 15
h
l
ex
and
b
l
ey
<
2
1
M
M
7 17
Column
Unbraced
h
l
ex
and
b
l
ey
< 10
h
l
ex
and
b
l
ey
< 10
Maximum
All l
o
60b L
o
60b and b
4
h

Slenderness
Cantilevers b 60
h
b 100
lo
2
l
o
25b and b
4
h

Note: In the above expressions for maximum slenderness, h and b are taken as the larger
and smaller column dimensions respectively.

Column Design 6-140
Input
The column definition has several input components:
Geometry and material properties.
Bracing conditions and fixity at the column ends.
Load cases.
Geometry input
The RecCol and CirCol modules have been simplified for the design of rectangular and
circular columns. Entering a columns geometry input in either of these modules is therefore
straightforward.

Tip: You can use the mouse to click on the column pictures and stretch certain dimensions,
e.g. the column length.

Column Design 6-141
General column geometry input
GenCol is used to design columns of any general shape and hence has a reasonably intricate
input procedure. A column section is entered as one or more shapes or polygons:
The Code column is used for categorise the data that follows in the next columns:
+ : The start of a new polygon. An absolute reference coordinate must be entered
in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns. If you leave either blank, a value of
zero is used.
: Start of an opening. An absolute reference coordinate must be entered in the
X/Radius and Y/Angle columns.
R : If you enter an 'R' or leave the Code column blank, a line is drawn using
relative coordinates, i.e. measured from the previous coordinate.
L : Enter an 'L' in the Code column blank to make the following coordinate
absolute.
A : To enter an arc that continues from the last line or arc. The arc radius and angle
are entered in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns respectively. The angle is
measured clockwise from the previous line or arc end point.

Column Design 6-142
C : A circle with the radius entered in the X/Radius column.
B : A reinforcement bar with its diameter entered in the X/Radius column.
Note: Bar positions and diameters do not need to be entered when using RecCol and
CirCol.
The X/Radius/Bar dia and Y/Angle columns are used for entering coordinates:
X : Absolute or relative X coordinate (mm or in). Values are taken positive to the
right and negative to the left.
Y : Absolute or relative Y coordinate (mm or in). Values are taken positive upward
and negative downward.
You do need to close the polygon the starting coordinate is automatically used as the ending
coordinate. If two polygons intersect, the geometry of the last polygon takes preference and the
previous polygon is clipped. A hole in a structure can, for example, be entered on top of
previously entered shapes.
Tip: You can leave blank lines between polygons/bars to improve readability.
If convenient, e.g. to simplify loading input, the column can be rotated by entering an angle.
Material properties input
The following material property values are required:
Concrete cube strength, f
cu
(MPa or psi).
Reinforcement yield strength, f
y
(MPa or psi).
GenCol also requires a value for the modulus of elasticity of the reinforcement,
E
s
(GPa or ksi).
Specifying bracing and fixity conditions
Define the bracing and fixity conditions by making the appropriate selections. For an
explanation of the terms used, refer to page 6-9. The effective length factors are automatically
adjusted in relation to the specified bracing and end fixity conditions. If necessary, you may
manually edit the effective length factors.
Note: RecCol allows the bracing and end fixities to be set independently for bending about
the X and Y-axis.

Column Design 6-143
Loads input
More than one ultimate load case can be entered:
Enter a case number and description for each load case.
Axial load (kN or kip). A positive value denotes a compression force. The program does
not automatically include the self-weight of the column. The self-weight should be
calculated and manually included in the applied loads.
Moment values (kNm or kipft). Use the same sign for the top and bottom moments about
an axis to define double-curvature about that axis.

Note: All entered loads should be factored ultimate loads.
You can use as many lines as necessary to define a load case all values applicable to a
specific load case are added together.

Column Design 6-144
Design
The column design modules follow different design approaches:
RecCol and CirCol calculate the required reinforcement for the column.
GenCol evaluates the column for the entered reinforcement or calculates a single bar
diameter to be used at each defined bar position.
Irrespective the approach followed, additional moments are calculated for slender columns and
automatically added to the applied moments. The design moment is taken to be equal to or
larger than the minimum moment set by the code.
Rectangular column design
The design procedure given in the codes is applied. The column is evaluated at the top, middle
and bottom and the critical section identified as the section requiring the greatest amount of
reinforcement.
The design procedure can be summarised as follows:
Column design charts are constructed for bending about the X and Y-axis.
If the column is slender, additional slenderness moments are calculated as required about a
single or both axes.
For slender columns, the applied moments and additional moments are summed for each
axis.
In the case of bi-axial
bending, the moments are
converted to an effective
design moment about a
single design axis.
The reinforcement required
to resist the design moment
is read from the applicable
column design chart.
Using the same procedure, a
design moment is derived
about the axis perpendicular
to the design axis.
Reinforcement resisting the
secondary design moment is
read from the relevant chart.

Column Design 6-145
Circular column design
The same simplified design
procedure as for rectangular
columns is used. The major and
minor column dimensions, h and
b, are both set equal to the
column diameter.
The column is evaluated at the
top, middle and bottom and the
critical section identified as the
section requiring the greatest
amount of reinforcement.

Note: The design procedure for bi-axially bent slender columns tend to be conservative due
to he codesallowance for additional moment about both the X and Y axes.
General column design
GenCol designs columns that do not necessarily fall inside the scope of the code requirements.
The program therefore reverts to basic principles, e.g. strain compatibility and equilibrium, to
analyse columns. This is achieved using an automated finite difference analysis.
The following calculations are followed:
The section properties are
calculated and the column
slenderness evaluated.
For a slender column, the
additional slenderness
moment is calculated and
applied about the weak axis,
i.e. axis of lowest second
moment of inertia. The
output gives the X and
Y-axis components.
The design moment and axis
are determined by taking the

Column Design 6-146
vector sum of the applied and additional moments.
An iterative solution is obtained using strain compatibility and equilibrium as criteria. The
simplified rectangular stress block given by the codes is used.
Note: Given the differences in the design procedures described above, GenCol will not
yield identical results to RecCol and Circular Column Design modules when designing
simple rectangular or circular columns.

Column Design 6-147
Design charts
The column design charts can be displayed for the specified column geometry and material
properties:
Rectangular columns: Separate charts are given for bending about the X and Y-axis for
various percentages of reinforcement.
Circular columns: Due to axial symmetry, a single design chart is shown.
General columns: Separate charts are given for bending about the X and Y-axis.

Displaying design charts about other axes
You can use Gencol to define a column and then rotate it about any angle. Design charts can
then be displayed for the resultant horizontal and vertical axes.

Column Design 6-148
Calcsheets
The column design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.
The different column design modules allow various settings, including design charts, tabular
design summaries and detailed design calculations.

is saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the column design
module as well.

Column Design 6-149
Detailing
Reinforcement bending schedules can be generated for designed columns. Bending schedules
can be edited and printed using Padds.
Schedule file name: Name
of the Padds drawing and
schedule file.
Main bars (high yield steel
is assumed):
Rectangular columns:
Bar diameter for the
corner bars and the
number and diameter of
the intermediate bars in
the horizontal and
vertical faces of a
rectangular column, as
displayed on the screen.
Circular columns: The
diameter and number of
main bars. It is
generally assumed good
practice to use at least
six bars.
General columns: Main
bar diameters are
defined in the initial
input. The shape code
can be selected for each
individual bar.
Lap length factor for
main bars.

Column Design 6-150
Note: To ensure that the amount of reinforcement supplied is not less than the amount
required, the relevant values are shown in a table.
Level at the bottom of the column (m or ft).
Level at the top of the column or, in the case of starter bars, at the top of the
base (m or ft).
Links:
Rectangular columns: Enter a link diameter and spacing, e.g. R10@200, and choose a
link layouts. Link type 2should only be used with square columns.
Circular columns: Enter a link diameter and spacing and choose between using
circular or spiral links.
General columns: Select a shape code and follow the prompts to indicate the link
coordinates. Available shape codes include 35 (normally used for holding
intermediate bars in position), 60 or 61 (used to enclose four bars by a rectangular
link) and 86 or 87(spiral bar for use with circular columns).
Link type: Choose one of the displayed link layouts.
Concrete cover on links (mm or in).
Detailing style to use:
First bar mark: Mark to use for the first main bar. You may use any alphanumeric
string of up to five characters, e.g. A, 01 or A01. The mark is incremented
automatically for subsequent bars.
Select a size for the sketch: If A4 is selected, the drawing is scaled to fit on a full page
and the accompanying schedule on a separate page. The A5 selection will scale the
drawing to fit on the same page with the schedule.
The following additional settings should be made:
Column continuous: Enable this option to make the column bars continuous and have it
detailed with a splice at the top. If this option is disabled the column is detailed with bends
at the top to anchor it in a beam or slab.
Starter bars only: If enabled, starter bars are generated instead of complete column bars.
Double links at kinks: If enabled, a set of double links is provided at the position of the
main bar kinks. Circular columns are detailed with straight bars, removing the need for
this option.

Column Design 6-151
steps below:
the drawing of the column and the other window the bar schedule.
Make any necessary
positions:
Member description:
Use as many lines of
the Member column to
enter a member
description, e.g.
COLUMN TYPE 5.
General schedule information: Press PgDn to move to the bottom of the bending
schedule page and enter the detailers name, reference drawing number etc.
Bending schedule number: The schedule number in the bottom right corner defaults to
the file name, e.g. COLUMN5.PAD. The schedule number can be edited as required
to suit your numbering system, e.g. P123456-BS201.

Retaining Wall Design
The Retaining Wall Design module is used to analyse retaining walls for normal soil and
surcharge loads or seismic load conditions. Various types of walls can be considered, including
cantilever, simply supported and propped cantilever walls.
Padds compatible bending schedules can also be generated for designed walls.

The following text gives an overview of the application of retaining wall analysis theory. For
more detailed information, reference should be made to specialist literature.
Design scope
The program can design most conventional retaining walls, including cantilever, simply
supported and propped cantilever walls. Both static and seismic load conditions are supported.
Analyses are performed using either the Coulomb or the Rankine theory.
Walls can be made to slope forward or backwards and the wall thickness can vary with height.
Toes may optionally be included. Line loads, point loads and distributed loads can be placed on
the backfill. A water table can be defined behind the wall. If required, the soil pressure
coefficients can be adjusted manually.
Padds compatible bending schedules can be generated for designed walls.
Codes of practice
ACI 318 - 1995.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CSA A23.3 - 1993.
Eurocode 2 - 1192.
SABS 0100 - 1992.
List of symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the design codes.
Wall geometry
A
t
: Wall thickness at the top (m).
A
b
: Wall thickness at the bottom (m).
B : Horizontal base dimension in front of the wall (m).
C : Depth of the base (m).
D : Horizontal base dimension at back of the wall (m).
F : Depth of the shear key (m).

H
1
: Total wall height (m).
H
2
: Height of soil in front of the wall (m).
H
3
: Height from top of wall to soil level at back of wall (m).
H
r
: Height of the support point from the top of the wall for a simply supported or
propped cantilevered wall (m).
H
w
: Height of water table, measured from the top of wall (m).
x : Inclination of the wall (m).
x
f
: Position of the shear key, measured from the front of the base (m).
x
L
: Position of the line load, measured from the front edge of the wall (m).
x
P
: Position of the point load, measured from the front edge of the wall (m).
: Angle of soil behind wall ().
Material properties
f
cu
: Concrete cube compressive strength (MPa).
f
y
: Reinforcement yield strength (MPa).
: Angle of friction between wall and soil (). Must be zero if Rankine theory is
specified.
: Angle of internal friction ().
: Poissons ration for the soil. The plane strain value should be used rather than
the triaxial value see geometry and loads input.
Applied loads
k
h
: Horizontal acceleration for seismic analysis (g).
k
v
: Vertical acceleration for seismic analysis (g).
L : Line load on or behind the wall (kN/m).
L
h
: Horizontal line load at top of wall (kN/m).
P : Point load on or behind the wall (kN).
W : Uniform distributed load behind the wall (kN/m
2
).
Design parameters
DL
fact
: Ultimate limit state dead load factor.
LL
fact
: Ultimate limit state live load factor.

P
max
: Design bearing pressure at serviceability limit state (kPa)
SF
Ovt
: Allowable safety factor for overturning at serviceability limit state.
SF
Slip
: Allowable safety factor for slip at serviceability limit state.
Design output
A
s1
: Flexural reinforcement in the wall (mm
2
).
A
s2
: Flexural reinforcement in the back part of the base (mm
2
).
A
s3
: Flexural reinforcement in the front part of the base (mm
2
).
A
c1
: Compression reinforcement in the wall (mm
2
).
A
c2
: Compression reinforcement in the back part of the base (mm
2
).
A
c3
: Compression reinforcement in the front part of the base (mm
2
).
D
s
: Density of soil (kN/m
3
).
K : Active pressure coefficient, including seismic effects.
K
a
: Active pressure coefficient.
K
p
: Passive pressure coefficient.
K
ps
: Passive pressure coefficient including seismic effects.
M
1
: Maximum ultimate moment in the wall (kNm).
M
2
: Maximum ultimate moment in back part of the base (kNm).
M
3
: Maximum ultimate moment in front part of the base (kNm).
P
fac
: Pressure factor used for Terzaghi-Peck pressure distribution diagram.
V : Shear force in wall at base-wall junction (kN).
v : Shear stress in wall at base-wall junction (MPa).
v
c
: Allowable shear stress in wall at base-wall junction (MPa).
: Friction coefficient between base and soil.
General assumptions
The following assumptions are applicable to the analysis:
A unit width of the wall is considered.
Predominantly active soil pressures are assumed to act on the right-hand side of the wall
Predominantly passive pressures are present on the left-hand side of the wall.

Soil pressure, soil weight and wall self-weight are taken as dead loads.
Applied distributed loads, line loads and point loads are considered to be live loads.
If a water table is specified behind the wall, a linear pressure distribution is used along its
depth. The pressure applied on the bottom of the base is varied linearly from maximum at
the back, to zero at the front.
Point loads are distributed along the depth of the soil. In contrast, line loads are taken
constant in the transverse direction of the wall.
Application of Coulomb and Rankine theories
The program can analyse retaining walls using either the Coulomb wedge theory or the
Rankine theory.
Note: This manual does not attempt to explain the applicable theories in detail, but merely
highlights some aspects of their application. For more detail, reference should be made to
specialist literature.
Friction between the wall and soil
The higher the value of the angle of friction between the wall and soil, , the greater the degree
of rotation of the system is implied. If the Coulomb theory is used, the friction angle should
preferable be set equal to the internal angle of friction, . This will yield pressures that
correlate better with the Rankine theory, than would be the case if is set equal to zero.
Active pressure on the shear key
Depending on its position, the shear key (if any) may be subjected to active pressure. The
program allows for active pressure to be included or excluded from the analysis.
Saturated and submerged soil
To keep input as simple as possible, the program does no provide an option to enter values for
specific gravity, void ratio, moisture content and degree of saturation. However, reasonable
modelling of saturated soil and submerged conditions is still possible:
If no water table is present,
soil
should be taken as a value that includes moisture content
that can reasonably expected.
If a water table is present, the portion of the soil above the water table will likely have a
degree of saturation close to unity. Using the wet density rather than the dry density should
yield reasonable results.
Point loads and line loads
Point loads and line loads behind the wall are incorporated using the Boussinesq theory. The

theory can be found in Foundation Analysis and Design by Joseph E Bowles, chapter 11-13,
published by McGraw Hill. It is recommended that the plane strain be used instead of the
tri-axial . Values of plain strain versus tri-axial can be found in the table below.

Tri-axial 0.30 0.33 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.60
Plane strain 0.42 0.50 0.54 0.67 0.82 1.00 1.50
Seismic analysis
The program uses the Okabe-Monobe equations, based on the Coulomb wedge theory, to
calculate revised active and passive pressure coefficients. The seismic portion of the active
pressure is assumed to act at 60% of the soil height behind the wall, effectively increasing the
lever arm of the soil pressure.
The densities of the materials are also adjusted by multiplying with (1-k
v
). An upward
acceleration therefore effectively decreases the stabilising effect of the wall and soil weight.
Live loads can be optionally included in a seismic analysis. If included, live loads are applied
with the same pressure coefficients as for dead loads.
Modelling of soil pressure behind rigid walls
The program suggests values for the active and passive pressure coefficients, K
a
and K
p
. These
values generally yield reasonable results for cantilever walls. However, simply supported and
propped cantilever walls tend to be very rigid. This means that the actual active soil pressures
could potentially rise well above the level normally assumed. The program therefore allows
uniform pressure distribution to be specified, i.e. F
active
= P
fac
H
wall

soil
K
a
. Typical values
for the uniform pressure coefficient, P
fact
, was determined by Terzaghi and Peck. An average
value of 0.65 should yield reasonable results in most cases.
Seepage modelling
When a water table is modelled, seepage can optionally be allowed below the wall. If seepage
is allowed, hydrostatic pressure is modelled as follows:
The pressure behind the wall is taken as zero on the level of the water table and then
linearly increased with depth.
At the front of the wall, the pressure is taken as zero at ground level and linearly varied
with depth.
The hydrostatic pressure below the base is varied linearly between the values calculated
behind and in front of the wall. If seepage is not allowed, the hydrostatic pressure in front
of the wall or below the base is taken as zero.

Input
Use the input tables to enter the wall geometry, loading and general design parameters.
Geometry and loads input
When entering the dimensions and loads working on the wall, you should keep the following
in mind:
Leave the value for F blank if a shear key is not required.
The value for H
r
is only required for simply supported and propped cantilever walls.
Leave the H
w
field blank if you do not want to define a water table. If you wish to design a
liquid retaining wall, you may set the water table above the soil level.
All applied loads work downward. Point loads are distributed at 45 through the depth of
the soil. Line loads are applied uniformly along the width of the wall.

Disable the option to allow seepage below the base if applicable, e.g. for liquid retaining
walls.
Allow active pressure to be applied to the back of the shear key (if any) if applicable, e.g.
if it is positioned towards the back of the base with compacted backfill.
Note: For suggestions on modelling saturated soil and submerged conditions, refer to
page 6-9.
Enabling seismic analysis
When enabling Seismic analysis, you should also enter the following analysis parameters:
Enter the equivalent seismic accelerations in the horizontal and vertical directions.
Optionally include live loads in the analysis.
Soils pressure coefficients
The program will calculate the soil pressure coefficients by default. To use your own
coefficients, select User defined design values:
Active and passive
pressure coefficients,
K
a
and K
p
.
Soil friction constant
below the base, .
For simply supported
and propped
cantilever walls, you
can choose between
triangular or uniform
pressure
distributions. In the
case of rigid walls, a
uniform pressure
coefficient can also
be entered. See page
6-9 for more detail.

Selecting a wall type
Choose one of the following wall types:
Cantilever: The base is fixed against rotation with the wall cantilevering from it.
Simply supported: The base has no fixity, i.e. free to rotate. The wall is supported
horizontally at the bottom and at the level defined by Hr.
Propped cantilever: Fixed at the bottom and simply supported at the level defined by H
r
.
Selecting an analysis theory
Choose between the Column and Rankine analysis theories. The Rankine theory cannot be
used if the slope of the backfill is less than zero. Due to this and other limitations of the
Rankine theory, use of the Coulomb wedge theory is often preferred.

Design
You can design the entered wall configuration or use the optimisation functions to obtain a
more economic design.
Analysing the entered wall configuration
The analysis includes several ultimate and serviceability limit state checks.
Calculating the ultimate design loads
Loads due to soil pressure and all weights, including concrete and soil, are multiplied by the
dead load factor. Applied loads are considered to be live loads and are therefore multiplied
with the live load factor.
Additional checks for propped cantilever walls
In the case of a propped cantilever wall, the program checks whether fixity can be obtained at
the base. Fixity is attained by balancing loads such as own weight and soil weight plus the
pressure distribution under the base against the fixity moment. If the fixity moment attainable
is less than one and a half times the theoretical fixed moment, the fixity moment is reduced and
the bending moment diagram and soil pressures adjusted accordingly.
Checking stability
Stability against overturning of
the wall is checked by assuming
rotation about the lower front
corner of the base. If a shear key
is used and it is located within
one quarter of base width from
the front, the program also
checks for rotation about the
bottom of the shear key.
Design results
The design output gives the
following values at ultimate limit
state:
Bending moment diagrams (kNm).
Required reinforcement in the base and wall (mm
2
).
Maximum shear stress in the wall, v, and concrete shear capacity, v
c
(MPa).

Note: The wall design does not include any axial effects due to friction or applied loads.
Results for serviceability limit state checks include:
Safety factor for overturning.
Safety factor for slip.
Bearing pressure diagram below the base.

Optimising the wall dimensions
Optimise the wall using the following functions:
Select B: Optimise the horizontal base dimension in front of the wall. The smallest value
of B is calculated to not exceed the allowable bearing pressure and safety factor for
overturning. A warning message is displayed if an appropriate value could not be
calculated.
Select D: Optimise the horizontal base dimension behind wall. The smallest value of D is
calculated to satisfy the requirements set for the allowable bearing pressure and safety
factor for overturning.

Select F: The value of F is optimised using the safety factor for slip as only criterion.
Note: None of the optimisation functions considers all design criteria. It is therefore
possible that after optimising the value of B, for example, the safety factor for slip is
exceeded. You may thus need to alternate optimisation functions to arrive at a workable
solution.

Calcsheets
The retaining wall design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to
Calcpad. Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and
pictures.

is saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the wall design module
as well.

Detailing
Reinforcement bending schedules can be generated for designed retaining wall. Bending
schedules can be edited and printed using Padds.
schedule file.
Wall and base reinforcement:
Reinforcement is
generated at various
positions in the wall and
base using the
calculated ultimate
bending moments.
Change the diameters
and spacing as required.
Bond stress: Allowable
stress for evaluating bar anchorage of the wall starter bars. If 90 bends proof
insufficient, the program automatically uses full 180 hooks. Bar spacing is also
reduced to lower bond stress.
string of up to five characters, e.g. 'A', '01' or 'A01'. The mark is incremented
Select a size for the sketch: If A4 is selected; the drawing is scaled to fit on a full page
changes you have made and revert to the default values for the designed retaining wall, press
Reset. Also press Reset if you have changed the reinforcement bond stress and want to
recalculate the reinforcement.

steps below:
the drawing of the retaining wall and the other window the bar schedule.
Make any necessary
positions:
Member description: Use as
many lines of the Member
column to enter a
description, e.g. WALL
TYPE C.
file name, e.g. WALLC. The schedule number can be edited as required to suit your
numbering system, e.g. P123456-BS303.


Column Base Design
The Column Base Design module is used to design and optimise rectangular column bases.
Padds compatible bending schedules can be generated for designed bases.

Design scope
The program designs rectangular concrete column bases subjected to vertical force and bi-axial
bending moment. The program designs the base at ultimate limit state for bending moment and
shear.
The program also verifies the stability requirements for overturning and bearing pressure.
Stability checks can be performed at ultimate limit state or using the working force method.
Refer to page 6-9 for details.
Reinforcement bending schedules can be generated for designed bases. Schedules can be
opened in Padds, for further editing and printing.
Codes of practice
ACI 318 - 1993.
BS 8110 - 1987.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CSA-A23.3 - 1994.
Eurocode 2 -1992.
SABS 0100 - 1992.
List of symbols
The design code symbols are used as far as possible.
Geometry:
A, B : Horizontal and vertical base dimensions as shown on the screen (m or ft).
C, D : Horizontal and vertical column dimensions as shown on the screen (m or ft).
E, F : Horizontal and vertical column eccentricity as shown on the screen (m or ft).

X : Stub column height (m or ft).
X : Base thickness (m or ft).
Z : Soil cover on base (m or ft).
Rebar depth : Concrete cover plus half of the reinforcement diameter (mm or in).
Materials:
Density : Concrete and soil densities (kN/m or lb/ft).
Friction angle : Internal friction angle for calculating passive soil stress.
Friction constant : Coefficient for calculating horizontal friction between the base and soil.
f
ci
: Concrete cylinder strength of base and column (MPa or psi).
f
cu
: Concrete cube strength of base and column (MPa or psi).
f
y
Safety factors:
SF
over
: Safety factor for overturning.
SF
slip
: Safety factor for slip.
Loads:
H
x
, H
y
: Horizontal forces in X and Y direction (kN or kip).
LF
ovt
: Load factor to use for evaluating overturning stability.
LF
uls
: Load factor for ultimate limit state calculations.
M
x
, M
y
: Moment in X and Y direction (kNm or kipft).
P : Vertical load (kN or kip).

Sign conventions
The X and Y-axes lie in the horizontal plane. Using a
right-hand rule, the Z-axis points vertically upward.
The sign conventions applicable to forces and
moments are as follows:
The vertical force, P, works downward.
The horizontal forces H
x
and H
y
are applied
parallel to the X and Y-axes.
The moments M
x
and M
y
are applied in the X
and Y-directions, i.e. about the positive Y and
negative X-axes respectively
Post-processing frame analysis results
Forces are usually obtained using the reaction values calculated by frame analysis. When
extracting frame analysis output, the differences in the sign conventions and axis systems used
should be kept in mind:

Applied load in Column Base Design
module
P
H
x

H
y

M
x

M
y

Frame Analysis
Mode
Frame analysis reaction value to use
Plane Frame
Analysis
R
y

R
x

N
one
M
N
one
Grillage Analysis
R
y

N
one
N
one
M
z

M
x

Space Frame
Analysis
R
y

R
x

R
z

M
z

M
x

Input
The column base definition has several input components:
Geometry and material properties.
Load cases and stability criteria.
Geometry input
Enter the base and column dimensions, omitting the values for the either column if only one
column is used. A column is positioned at the centre of the base unless non-zero values are
entered for E and/or F.

Tip: You can use the mouse to click on the base pictures and stretch certain dimensions,
e.g. the base thickness and column sizes.

Material properties input
You are required to enter the properties of the concrete and soil fill and also specify the
concrete cover to the reinforcement.
Setting the stability criteria
Relevant limits should be entered for checking overturning, slip and bearing pressure at
serviceability and ultimate limit state.
Modern design codes tend to consider stability checks like overturning at ultimate limit state.
Depending on your own preference, you can use the program to check stability at ultimate limit
state or using the older method of working loads (permissible working stress):
Checking overturning at ultimate limit state
The ratio of the cumulative effects of factored destabilising loads to the effect of the factored
stabilising forces should not exceed unity. In this ratio, all forces are multiplied by the
appropriate ULS factors that exceed unity and only the self-weight components of stabilising
forces by the minimum ULS load factor that does not exceed unity.
When using this approach in the program, you will likely want to set the load factors for
overturning for all stabilising components of self-weight to the minimum prescribed ULS dead
load factor, typically between 0.9 and 1.0. For all other loads, a ULS load factor of between 1.2
and 1.6 (depending on the relevant code) will be appropriate.
Checking overturning using working loads
The older method requires the ratio of the cumulative effects of destabilising loads to
stabilising loads to be greater than an appropriate safety factor, typically
1
/
0.7
or 1.5.
When using this approach, you should enter unity values for all load factors for overturning
and specify relevant safety factors for overturning.
Checking slip at ultimate limit state
The program uses the entered load factors for ultimate limit state, LF
uls
, to evaluate slip. The
safety factor for slip should thus normally be set to unity.

Loads input
Enter one or more load cases. The following should be kept in mind:
All loads are applied at the centre of the columns. A column is positioned at the centre of
the base unless values for E and/or F are entered.
For the case of a concrete column extending to the slab above, no stub column should be
entered, i.e. the value for X should be left blank.
For a steel base plate bearing directly on the base, enter the plate dimensions for the
column dimensions, C and D, and use zero for the stub column height, X.
Seen in elevation, the horizontal forces H
x
and H
y
are applied at the top of the stub
column.
All loads are entered un-
factored. The ultimate
design loads are obtained by
multiplying the entered
forces by the specified
load factor.
A positive value of P
denotes a downward force.
Use a negative value for
uplift.
Moments are applied in the
X and Y directions, rather
than about the X and
Y-axes.
For detail on the sign conventions used for loads, refer to page 6-9.
Load factors
Each load has two load factors:
LF
ovt
: Load factor to use for overturning stability check.
LF
ULS
: Load factor to use for calculating bending moment, shear and reinforcement at
ultimate limit state analysis.
Own weight of the base is considered as a separate load case. Load factors for own weight is
entered in the geometry input table.

Note: Although overturning is also considered an ultimate limit state, the ULS abbreviation
is used to designate the strength ultimate limit state.
For more detail on calculating the safety factor for overturning at ultimate limit state, refer to
page 6-9.

Design
A column base is designed for compliance with ultimate limit state and serviceability limit
state conditions:
The required reinforcement to resist ultimate moments is calculated.
Linear and punching shear checks are performed.
The stability of the base is evaluated at both ultimate and serviceability limit state.
Stability checks
Stability values for overturning, slip and bearing pressure are calculated at both ultimate limit
state and serviceability limit state. The following general principles apply:
Overturning: When considering overturning at ultimate limit state, the applied loads are
multiplied by the entered load factors for overturning to calculate the ratio of destabilising
to stabilising effects. At serviceability limit state calculations are performed using the
entered un-factored working loads.
Slip: At ultimate limit state, all forces are multiplied by their ULS load factors. The safety
factor for slip is calculated by dividing the resisting passive soil pressure and friction by
the horizontal forces causing slip. The same calculation is performed at serviceability limit
state using un-factored forces.
Bearing pressure: Entered loads are multiplied by their respective ULS load factors before
calculating the bearing pressure. The un-factored loads are used at serviceability limit
state.
Note: With careful manipulation of the load factors for overturning, you can manipulate the
program to evaluate overturning stability at ultimate limit state or using the working loads
method. Refer to page 6-9 for more information.
Reinforcement calculation
The loads are multiplied by the specified load factor to obtain the ultimate design loads. The
design forces, including the base self weight and weight of the soil cover, are used to calculate
the ultimate bearing pressure below the base. The program calculates the bending moments in
the base and uses the normal code formulae to obtain the required reinforcement. Nominal
reinforcement is also calculated where applicable.
Shear checks

The required reinforcement for bending is used to calculate the shear resistance, v
c
, in the X
and Y-directions. For punching shear, the value is based on the average required reinforcement
in the two directions.
Linear shear
When considering
linear shear, lines are
considered at a
distance equal to the
base depth in front of
each face of the
column. The
contribution of the
soil pressure block
outside the lines is
then used to calculate
the shear stress.
Punching shear
For punching shear, shear perimeters are considered at one and a half time the base thickness
from the column faces.
Various combinations as for internal, edge and corner columns are considered.
Design results
Results of stability checks:
Bearing pressure beneath the base. The 3D pressure diagram is shown in elevation.
Safety factor for overturning.
Safety factor for slip.
Note: Stability checks are performed at ultimate limit state (modern limit state approach)
and serviceability limit state (older working load approach). Depending of your way of
working and the design code used, you may prefer to use only one or both sets of results.
Results of strength checks at ultimate Limit State:
Design moments in the X and Y-directions in the bottom and top of the base (kNm or
kipft).
The corresponding required reinforcement (mm or in)
Linear and punching shear stresses and allowable shear stresses (MPa or psi).


Optimising base dimensions
The base dimensions can be optimised using the following functions:
Optimise A, B and Y: Calculate the optimum values for all the base dimensions. The
optimisation procedures take into account the specified material costs.
Select B: Calculate the optimum value for the base dimension in the Y-direction. All other
dimensions are left unchanged.
Select A: Calculate the optimum value for the base dimension in the X-direction. All other
dimensions are left unchanged.
Note: When optimising the base dimensions A and B, the base thickness is kept constant
and no shear checks are performed. Where necessary, the base thickness should be adjusted
manually.

Calcsheets
The column base design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to
pictures.

is saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the design module as
well.

Detailing
Reinforcement bending schedules can be generated for designed columns. Bending schedules
can be edited and printed using Padds.
schedule file.
Main reinforcement:
Change the displayed
bottom and top steel in
the X and Y-directions
as necessary.
Top steel will only be
given for bases thicker
than 600 mm, or where
tension reinforcement is
required.
Column reinforcement:
At each column portion used, specify whether a normal column, stub column or no
column should be detailed.
Main bars: Diameter of column corner bars.
Middle bars: The number and diameter of intermediate bars in the horizontal and
vertical column faces, as displayed on the screen.
Lap length factor: Splice length to allow for column starter bars.
Links: Diameter, dimensions and number of stirrups to hold column starter bars in
position.
string of up to five characters, e.g. A, 01 or A01. The mark is incremented

Select a size for the sketch: If A4 is selected; the drawing is scaled to fit on a full page
Choose a configuration of bar shape codes to use for the bottom and, where
applicable, the top reinforcement.
steps below:
the drawing of the column base and the other window the bar schedule.
Make any necessary
positions:
Member description:
Use as many lines of
the Member column to
enter a description, e.g.
BASE 6.
General schedule information: Press PgDn to move to the bottom of the bending
schedule page and enter the detailers name, reference drawing number etc.
Bending schedule number: The schedule number in the bottom right corner defaults to
the file name, e.g. BASE6.PAD. The schedule number can be edited as required to
suit your numbering system, e.g. P123456-BS206.



Section Design for Crack width
The Section Design for Crack width can be used to design reinforced concrete sections to
meet specific crack requirements. Both beam and slab sections can be designed for the
combined effects of axial tension, bending moment and temperature.

The following text gives an overview of the application of the theory.
Design scope
The program can determine reinforcement layouts to contain cracks. Both rectangular beam
and slab sections can be designed to resist the effects of axial tension, bending moment and
temperature and the combination thereof. Temperature effects are also included to evaluate
early cracking and long-term thermal cracking.
Shrinkage
Concrete shrinkage due to hydration is accounted for by a combination of the thermal
expansion coefficient and the restraint factor. The design method employed by the codes is
ideally suited for non-temperate regions like Europe.
Reinforcement type
Concrete cracking has traditionally been correlated with the prevailing tensile steel stress.
Eurocode 2 - 1984 also takes account of the type of reinforcement, i.e. bond between concrete
and reinforcement.
Codes of practice
Design calculations are done according to BS 8007 - 1987 and Eurocode 2 - 1984.
List of symbols
Section dimensions
b
t
: Width of the section (mm or in).
h : Overall height of the section (mm or in).
h
e
: Effective surface zone depth (mm or in).
Material properties
f
cu

f
y
: Main reinforcement yield strength (MPa or psi).
Applied loads
R : Restraint factor.
T
1
: Hydration temperature difference (C).
T
2
: Seasonal temperature variation (C).
: Thermal expansion coefficient of concrete (m/m per C or in/in per C).
T
SLS
: The tensile force on the full section at serviceability limit state (kN or kip).
T
ULS
: The tensile force on the full section at ultimate limit state. (kN or kip).
M
SLS
: Serviceability limit state moment (kNm or kipft).
M
ULS
: Ultimate limit state moment (kNm or kipft).
Ro critical : The minimum percentage of reinforcement to be supplied.
Design output
A
st
: Area of suggested reinforcement layout. (mm or in).
f
st
: Tensile stress in reinforcement (MPa or psi).
M
u
: Ultimate moment capacity of section (kNm or kipft).
T
U
: Ultimate tensile capacity of surface zone (kN or kip).

Input
The section geometry and loading is entered using the single input table. The following points
require special attention.
The program evaluates an effective surface zone where crack control would be effective,
rather than the complete section. The surface zone is normally entered as half the section
depth but not more than 250 mm.
Because only a surface zone is considered, only half of the entered tensile forces
(applicable to the overall section) is used.
Reinforcement is calculated for the surface zone. The same reinforcement should be
supplied in full in both faces of the section.
Eurocode 2 requires additional information regarding the type of reinforcement bond
applicable i.e. high-bond or plain bars.
Select Beam mode if you wish cracking to be evaluated at the section corners as well.
Tip: It is recommended that wide sections be designed using Slab mode.

The hydration temperature, T
1
, is defined as the difference between the environmental
temperature and the peak temperature due to hydration. The value is used to evaluate early
thermal cracking. Typical values, taken from Table A.2 of the code, are given below.

OPC content (kg/m
3
)
Section
325 350 400 325 350 400
Thickness (mm)
Steel formwork 18 mm plywood formwork
300 11* 13* 15* 23 25 31
500 20 22 27 32 35 43
700 28 32 39 38 42 49
1000 38 42 49 42 47 56

* Generally a minimum value of 20C should be used.

The seasonal temperature variation, T
2
, is used to calculate long term thermal cracking:
If movement joints are provided as per Table 5.1 of the code, the seasonal variation
can normally be set equal to zero when considering early cracking only.
The seasonal temperature variation should always be considered for long-term thermal
cracking in combination with the applied moments and tensile forces.

Section
OPC content (kg/m
3
)
Thickness (mm)
325 350 400
300 15 17 21
500 25 28 34

The restraint factor describes the amount of restraint in the system. The factor varies
between 0.0 to 0.5. For more detail, refer to Figure A3 of the code.
Tip: A higher restraint factor generally gives rise to more severe cracking. Therefore, when
in doubt, use a restraint factor of 0.5.
Enter a value for Ro critical, i.e. the minimum percentage of reinforcement to be supplied.
The value applies to the gross concrete section of the surface zone. The program gives a
default value of 100 f
ct
/ f
y
, where f
ct
is the three-day tensile strength of the immature
concrete. For more detail, refer to paragraph A.2 of the code.

Design
The following checks are considered for each load case at serviceability limit state:
The combined effect of bending moment, tensile force and the seasonal temperature
variation, i.e. M
SLS
+ T
SLS
+ T
2
.
Early thermal movement, T
1
only.
Early thermal movement and seasonal variation combined, i.e. T
1
+ T
2
.
The section is also evaluated at ultimate limit state by considering the combined effect of
bending moment and tensile force, i.e. M
ULS
+ T
ULS
.

Up to four sets of bars are calculated for slab sections. Each set has a different diameter and
spacing to comply with the crack width requirements. A fifth column is provided where you
could enter a bar configuration of choice.
For beams, up to four sets of bars are calculated. Each set of bars consists of a number of bars
of not more than two different diameters. The bar diameters are chosen to not differ by more
than one size.

Calcsheets
The crack width design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to
pictures.

If you enable the Data File option before sending a calcsheet to Calcpad, you can later recall it
by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in Calcpad is saved
as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the design module as well.


Concrete Section Design
The Concrete Section Design module is a simple utility for designing concrete sections for
combined bending, shear and torsion. Rectangular and T-sections are accommodated.

The following text gives an overview of the application of the theory.
Design scope
The program performs reinforced concrete design of rectangular and T-sections to resist
bending moment, shear and torsion.
Codes of practice
ACI 318 - 1995.
BS 8110 - 1985.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CSA A23.3 - 1993.
Eurocode 2 - 1992.
SABS 0100 - 1992.
List of symbols
Section dimensions
B : Width of the web (mm).
B
f
: Width of the flange (mm).
D
ct
, D
cb
: Distance from the top or bottom face to the centre of the steel (mm).
H : Overall height of the section (mm).
H
f
: Depth of the flange (mm).
Material properties
f
cu
: Concrete cube strength (MPa).
f
y
: Main reinforcement yield strength (MPa).
f
y
: Shear reinforcement yield strength (MPa).
Design output

A
s
: Bottom steel required for bending (mm
2
).
A
s
: Top steel required for bending (mm
2
).
A
nom
: Nominal flexural reinforcement (mm
2
).
A
sv
: Required shear reinforcement (mm
2
/mm).
A
svn
: Nominal shear reinforcement (mm
2
/mm).
M
u
: Ultimate moment capacity for bottom reinforcement only (kNm).
v : Shear stress (MPa)
v
c
: Allowable shear stress (MPa).
v
t
: Torsional shear stress (MPa).
Calculation of flexural reinforcement
The normal code formulae apply when calculating flexural reinforcement for rectangular
sections and for flanged sections where the neutral axis falls inside the flange. If the neutral
axis falls outside the flange, the section is designed as two separate sub-sections:
The first sub-section consists of the flange without the central web part of the section and
the remaining central portion defines the second sub-section.
By considering the total section, the moment required to put the flange portion in
compression can be calculated using the normal code formulae. This moment is then
applied to the flange sub-section and the required reinforcement calculated using the
effective depth of the total section.
The same moment is then subtracted from the total applied moment, the resulting moment
applied to the central sub-section and the reinforcement calculated.
The tension reinforcement for the actual section is then taken as the sum of the calculated
reinforcement for the two sub-sections. If compression reinforcement is required for the central
sub-section, it is used as the required compression reinforcement for the entire section.
Calculation of shear reinforcement
The program assumes that shear is resisted by the web portion of the section only. Shear
stress, v, is therefore calculated using the web area and checked to not exceed the ultimate
allowable shear stress given in the code. The shear capacity, v
c
, is calculated using the required
bending reinforcement, A
s
, and the shear reinforcement calculated using the normal code
formulae.

Calculation of torsion reinforcement
Depending on the option chosen, torsion can be resisted by the section as a whole or by the
web portion only. For flanged beams, the torsion is calculated separately for the flange and
web along the guidelines given in the code. The torsional shear stresses are checked so as not
to exceed the ultimate allowable shear stress. Reinforcement requirements are also evaluated
separately for the flange and web using the normal code formulae.

Input
The section geometry and ultimate loading are entered using the single input table. The
following should be kept in mind:
If the values for B
f
and H
f
are left blank, a rectangular section is assumed.
A positive moment is assumed to cause compression in the top flange.
The program puts the flange at the top. To model the case where the flange is at the bottom
or where the flange is in tension, enter a rectangular section without a flange. The effects
of bending and shear will still be evaluated correctly. In the absence of a flange, the
torsion checks will however be conservative.

Tip: You can use the mouse to click on the picture and stretch certain section dimensions,
e.g. flange width or overall depth.

Design
Press Analyse to design the section for the entered moment, shear and torsion. The following
results are given:
The moment capacity of the section using tensile reinforcement only. The tabled flexural
reinforcement values are the required values at the top (compression) and bottom (tension)
and the nominal reinforcement.
Shear stress in the web and the shear capacity of the section together with the required and
nominal shear reinforcement.
For torsion in the web and flanges, values are tabled for the torsional shear stress and
required shear and longitudinal reinforcement.
Some reinforcement configurations are also suggested:
Number and diameters of
reinforcement bars to resist
bending only.
Links to resist shear only in
the web.
Links to resist torsion only
in the web and flange.
Longitudinal reinforcement
bars to resist combined
bending and torsion in the
web. The bottom and top bar
configurations are chosen to
exceed the required flexural
reinforcement at that
position plus half the total
longitudinal torsional reinforcement.
Note: The suggested reinforcement configurations are given as guidelines only. You can use
the tabled values for required reinforcement to determine rebar layouts more suitable to your
requirements.

Calcsheets
The section design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.

If you enable the Data File option before sending a calcsheet to Calcpad, you can later recall it
by double-clicking the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file embedded in Calcpad is saved
as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the design module as well.

6-199

Punching Shear Design
The Punching Shear Design module designs flat slabs for punching shear at edge, corner or
internal columns. Only reinforced concrete slabs are designed to design pre-stressed concrete
slabs for punching shear, use the Pre-stressed Beam/Slab Design module, Captain, instead.

Design scope
The program designs reinforced concrete flat slabs for punching shear at edge, corner and
internal columns.
Codes of practice
ACI 318 - 1995.
BS 8110 - 1985.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CSA A23.3 - 1993
Eurocode 2 - 1992.
SABS 0100 - 1992.
List of symbols
Slab geometry
A : Horizontal column dimension, as shown on the screen, or diameter of circular
column (mm or in).
B : Vertical column dimension, as shown on the screen (mm or in).
D
eff
: Average effective depth of the slab (mm or in).
X : Horizontal distance, as shown on the screen, from the column centre to the slab
edge (mm or in).
Y : Vertical distance from the column centre to the slab edge (mm or in).

Material properties
f
cu
: Concrete cube compressive strength (MPa of psi).
f
y
: Yield strength of flexural reinforcement (MPa or psi)
f
yv
: Yield strength of shear reinforcement (MPa or psi).
Slab reinforcement
A
sx1-4
: Average area of main steel parallel to the X-axis crossing each of the four
perimeters (mm or in). The first perimeter denotes the innermost perimeter.
A
sy1-4
: Average area of main steel parallel to the Y-axis crossing each of the four
perimeters (mm or in).
Design output
A
sv
: The total area of stirrups to be provided within 1.5D
eff
inside a perimeter (mm
or in).
U
crit
: Length of critical perimeter (mm or in).
v
c
: Allowable punching shear stress (MPa or kip).
V
c
: Shear force capacity at a stress of v
c
(MPa of psi).
V
eff
: The effective shear force as a function of V
t
, M
tx
and M
ty
(kN or kip).
Applied loads
M
tx
: Ultimate bending moment about the X-axis (kNm or kipft).
M
ty
: Ultimate bending moment about the Y-axis (kNm or kipft).
V
t
: Ultimate vertical load on column (kN or kip).
Effective shear force
The effective shear force, V
eff
, is calculated using the code formulae. The following minimum
values are assumed:
Internal columns: 1.15V
t
.
Edge columns: 1.25V
t
, irrespective of the direction the column is bent.
Corner columns: 1.25V
t
.

Edge, corner and internal columns
The following rules are used to determine whether a column should be considered an internal,
edge or corner column:
If one edge is closer than five times the effective slab depth, i.e. 5 D
eff
, from the column
centre, the column is considered to be an edge column.
If two edges are closer than five times the effective slab depth from the column centre, the
column is taken to be a corner column.
If all edges are further than five times the effective slab depth from the column centre, the
column is analysed as an internal column.
Reduction of design moments
The program assumes that the design forces are obtained from an equivalent frame analysis
that incorporates pattern loading. As allowed for by the codes, the values of the ultimate
moments, M
tx
and M
ty
, are subsequently reduced by 30% prior to calculating the effective
shear force, V
eff
.
Shear capacity
The program calculates the shear capacity in the X and Y-directions, v
cx
and v
cy
, based on the
main reinforcement in those directions and the average effective depth. The design shear
capacity, v
cx
, is then taken as the average of the values in the X and Y-direction.
Circular columns
Given modern design trends, e.g. the approaches by ACI 318 - 1995 and Eurocode 2 - 1992,
the use of circular perimeters seems a more rational approach to evaluating punching shear for
circular columns. The program recognises this and uses the following design approach for
checking punching by circular columns:
As in the case of a rectangular column, the shear capacity v
c
is taken as the average of v
cx

and v
cy
. Put differently, one could consider an imaginary square shear perimeter when
determining v
c
.
The shear force capacity, V
c
, is calculated using the actual circular perimeter. The shorter
circular perimeter (compared to a rectangular perimeter) yields a lower (conservative)
shear force capacity.

Input
The slab geometry and loading is entered using the single input table. The following
parameters may require special attention:
The reinforcement values A
sx
and A
sy

represent the minimum amount of main
reinforcement crossing each perimeter in
the X and Y-directions. For a perimeter
edge on both side if the column, e.g. y
1
in
the sketch, you should use the minimum
of the amount of reinforcement crossing
the left edge and the amount crossing the
right edge. For a perimeter edge on one
side only, e.g. y
2
in the sketch, use the
amount of reinforcement crossing that
single edge.
By careful choice of the values for X and
Y, you can force a column to be
considered as an edge, corner of internal
column. See page 6-9 for detail.
The program assumes pattern loading and
subsequently reduces M
tx
and M
ty
by 30%.
Note: If the ultimate moments, M
tx
and M
ty
, do not incorporate pattern loading, their values
should be increased by 30% to ensure a correct analysis.

Design
The design procedure includes the following steps:
The effective shear force, V
eff
, is calculated. See page 6-9 for an explanation of the
assumptions that apply.
The program chooses four shear perimeters. The first perimeter is taken a distance
1.5 D
eff
away from the column face. Subsequent perimeters are spaced at 0.75 D
eff
. The
perimeters are chosen to be as short as possible, extending to the slab edge when
necessary.

For each perimeter, the allowable stress, v
c
, is taken as the weighted average of the values
calculated for the X and Y-directions, using the flexural reinforcement ratio for the
respective directions. Refer to page 6-9 for more detail.
The required shear reinforcement for each perimeter is then calculated using the normal
code formulae. The calculated reinforcement should be supplied within a distance 1.5 D
eff

inside the relevant perimeter.

Calcsheets
The slab design output can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to Calcpad.

is saved as part of a project and therefore does not need to be saved in the design module as
well.

Concrete Design Guide in 40 Characters

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Concrete Design 6-1

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