Conspiracy Theories as Ethnosociologies: Explanation and Intention in African American Political Culture Author(s): Anita M.

Waters Reviewed work(s): Source: Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 28, No. 1 (Sep., 1997), pp. 112-125 Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2784897 . Accessed: 01/10/2012 06:07
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CONSPIRACY THEORIES AS ETHNOSOCIOLOGIES Explanationand Intention in African American PoliticalCulture

ANITAM. WATERS
DenisonUniversity

Attributing social maladies to deliberate plotsby hostileconis tradition backtothe1760s, spirators anAmerican political dating with of beginning rumors a British toremove plan colonists' rights F. andcontinuing to through theJohn Kennedy assassination theohave ries.Mostrecently, conspiracy theories beenseenas prevalent as in theAfrican American for community,' general explanations the of cocaineandfor lackofoccupathespread AIDS andcrack for tionalandeducational opportunities Blacks,as well as explafor suchas the of nations more specific events, cover-up theory the case orLeonard of Jeffries' TawanaBrawley positing a Hollywood of to conspiracy promulgate denigrating images Blacks. theories notuniquetoAfrican are AmeriAlthough conspiracy theories byAfrican held Americans seekto that cans,2conspiracy are as ethnic of explain inequality intrinsically interestinga subset becausethey areasoftremendous theories conspiracy mayindicate In in relations. addition, uncertainty interethnic they may shape behavior providing for and in by parameters political socialaction In theories racialconflicts. short, conspiracy express deep-running whilethey influence directions interethnic the ethnic tensions of interaction. theories beenmetwith has The riseof conspiracy and dismay the from somesocialcommentators. is alarm Among concerns the
1997 112-125 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES, Vol.28 No. 1,September Inc. C 1997Sage Publications,

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whobelievein conspiracy that theories paraare possibility those and to lyzedbyparanoia areunable participate inmainstream fully thesetheories Others that of society. say encourage feelings vicand timization, powerlessness, pessimism. wisdomon conspiracy Conventional stemsfrom theories the work Richard of whosearticle "TheParanoid Hofstadter, Stylein American examined Politics" theories such right-wing conspiracy as those heldbytheJohn Birch For Society. Hofstadter (1971),the a paranoid style's exponents "regard 'vast'or 'gigantic' conspiracy as themotive events"(p. 6, emphasis the in forcein historical The paranoidstylewas theproduct "uncommonly of original). whose angry was minds," judgment "distorted" 2-3).Hofstadter (pp. was willing go so faras to makea moral to aboutthe judgment that the . paranoid and style, saying "ofcourse term. . is pejorative, it is meant be; theparanoid to has for style a greater affinity bad causesthan good"(p. 3). the of the of Following influence Hofstadter, adherents conspirseenas paranoid delusional; are and their acy theories often psybecomethefocusof scientific their chodynamics attention; averis sion to theidea of chancein history seen as an animism that attributes happenings thedirection "concealedforces" all to of of (Groh, 1987,p.7; Wulff, 1987).Thedelusion conspiracy theory in is assumed result an incapacity socialandpolitical to for action. Shelby Steele, forexample,sees this outcomeforconspiracy theories theAfrican in American He community. sees themas destructive beliefs causeadherents withdraw that socially to from society (DeParle,1990). As a result theattention psychopathology,conventional of to the literature conspiracy on theory emphasizes psychological miand crosociological factors, often takesas giventheincorrectness of and the conspiracy theories, discounts chances effective for politiof cal action thepart those on whoholdsuchtheories. variety A of strain to howadherents theory (Geertz, 1973)is calledforth explain come to holdconspiracy theories. Inglehart (1987) and Edelman to (1985) both to point theinability attain goalsas themainfactor in giving Hofstadter waytobelief conspiracy; (1971) cites"catasor of trophe thefear catastrophe."

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is In contrast an alternative perspective explored this in article, that a perspective callsfor treating conspiracy theories "ethnosoas ciologies."Withapologiesto Garfinkel (1967), who coinedthe to refer the ways in whichordinary term ethnomethodology to their peoplemanage day-to-day socialinteractions, ethnosociology refers thetheories to thatordinary peopleuse to explainsocial Whereas there fewamateur are phenomena. physicists chemists or and inoursociety driving taxicabs, running elevators, hosting radio that one are amateur shows, maynotice there many, many sociolohaveideas aboutwhythedivorce rateis gists.Theseindividuals high, whykidsdropoutof school,whytherichare richand the Whites haveso much poorarepoor, and,most important why here, The explanations theories these or and Blackshave so little. that are socialworlds what everyday peopleholdtomakesenseoftheir I call ethnosociologies. theories be understood oneclassofethnosoas Conspiracy may socialmisfortunes attributing tothe them ciology. Theyexplain by actions a particular of often of deliberate, secretly planned, group whoholdconspiracy theories people.As Groh(1987) putit,those as realization intentions" 3), of viewhistory "theundisturbed (p. not own. unfortunately their in conseSociologyhas longheldan interest theunintended attention intended quencesof socialaction, deflecting awayfrom has intenaction. socialtheory rediscovered orpurposive Although of in the not tionality, theconcept agency, idea is usually applied or Those inthefield ethnic "racial"stratification. theorists of who still to attempt explainethnic inequalities focuson unintended the structured theregulations prointo and consequences; racism results unequaloutcomes ethnic in for cesses of ourinstitutions without a or groups anyone expressingprejudiced thought intendof in act. inga discriminatory Thisneglect agency ethnic inequality later this in will article. theory be addressed as An approach conspiracy to theories ethnosociologies differs infour theethnosocithe from conventional approach ways.First, demands one reserve that aboutthetruth ologyapproach opinion theories. Rather treating conspiracy than all theories ofconspiracy followedhere is Davis' (1969) openas invariably mistaken,

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dictum claimsare "notnecessarily less minded thatconspiracy and thanother "disturbing unexreasonable" waysof explaining pected happenings" 4). (p. the itdeflects attention from socialpsychological Second, away in to muchas a new approach social movements the variables, not that memthat 1960sdemanded sociologists assume movement For or individuals. example, bers were frustrated disappointed Gasch,Poulson,Fullilove,and Fullilove(1991) see conspiracy of aboutAIDS as a logicaloutcome theprocess which by theories to the Americans struggling conceptualize are "urbanAfrican them. threatening ecologicaland social decay" thatsurrounds offer that theories by Conspiracy explanations arenotcontradicted theinner to of of available residents observations thesocialworld city. examination the social of Third,such an approach requires arises. on in the context which conspiracy Drawing Erving theory that "all necessitates we that observation role-playing Goffman's of sweet of within ourselves guilt conspirators" carry something the that in (quoted Davis, 1969,p. 25), Davis (1969) suggests periods of increase awareness "backsocialmobility ofturbulent general a and for spontaneity stagesecrets" create "yearning authenticity, one's own opennessand and naturalness" 28). "To contrast (p. of with secrecy artifice an antagonist and of sincerity motives the of waspartly matter tactics partly cultural a and a ritual reaffirming values"(p. 29). Tactically, provided escapefrom it an democratic theuncertainties role-playing; it of culturally, tappedintoa rich tradition perceived of that the conspiracies beganwith suspected on British revolution (see, conspiracies theeve of theAmerican e.g.,Bailyn, 1967). rather treating than politically, an Finally, believers paralyzed as demands that effects conspiracy the of ethnosociology approach belief political on action an empirical be not question, a given. News Usingdatacollected a New YorkTimes/WCBS-TV by this explores issues poll and an ethnosociology approach, article from secondand fourth the elements the conspiracy of arising as What sorts peoplebelieve of theory anethnosociology approach. in conspiracy Do theories? they differ skeptics demographifrom

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better educated informed skeptics? Are and than cally?Are they to with Are more less likely interact European or Americans? they and or pessimistic delusional, are they they political "dropouts," to the rational actorsattempting explainand affect social world them? around

THE DATA

poll Times-WCBS-TV were Thedatagathered the by NewYork the Consortium Political for and obtained through Inter-University was conducted June1990; the in The Social Research.3 survey consisted more of than questions, 50 belief in including instrument in of race relations general, approval leaders,and conspiracies, mediausage. in in theotapped belief conspiracy Threequestions thesurvey ifthey were the ries. each,respondents asked For thought statement be not is true might certainly true (2), (1), possibly true oris almost were these answered the questions by African (3). Thewayinwhich in is American respondentsdescribed Table 1. on of three items Forthepurpose thisanalysis, responses these a characterization into werecombined an index, creating summary "Believers" werethosewhoobtained scoresof oftherespondent. that all statements they 3 to5 onthis index, is,either believed three and or two weretrue, weretrue one was "possibly true,"4 onewas true. were those whoviewed and true twowere "Skeptics" possibly as not all orall butonestatement "almost "Agnoscertainly true." A of falls tics"werethosein between. plurality respondents into one the"agnostic" (22.9%) are category (52.8%); morethan fifth are and believers onefourth skeptics (24.3%).

FINDINGS

in in North Believers theslavepower conspiracy theantebellum socioeconomwerefound Davis (1969) to be unremarkable by or of not men.In terms education, ically, "clearly misfits marginal

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ResponsesofAfrican Americans Conspiracy to TheoryQuestions(N = 408) (in percentages)

True "Somepeoplesaythegovernment out deliberately singles andinvestigates officials discredit to Blackelected in do them a wayitdoesn't with 32 officials." White "Somepeoplesaythegovernment makessurethat deliberately drugs areeasilyavailableinpoorBlack to Blackpeople." 25 neighborhoods harm that "Somepeoplesaythevirus causesAIDS was deliberately in to created a laboratory infect Blackpeople." Might Possibly Almost Certainly Be True Is NotTrue Total

TABLE 1

45

16

93

35

34

94

10

19

63

92

self-confidence socialeffectiveness, and friendships, outgoing they elite of their were an intellectual generation" 64). Treating (p. leads to theexpectation theories ethnosociologies as conspiracy in in theories not special are a that believers conspiracy group terms of socioeconomic or status demographic variables. Manyindicawereabout torsin thedata support this.Believersand skeptics White equallylikelyto live in mostly Black,mixed,or mostly women menwerealmost and neighborhoods; equallyrepresented in each group; rangeof ages was virtually the no identical; clear was between belief relationship evident conspiracy theory and inwas differencereligious in come;andthere no significant affiliation. to that Contrary a psychopathology perspective treats conspiracy an theories delusions, ethnosociology as approach expectsthat will be better believers withthesocial factsthatare acquainted Unknown require explatheories: facts no explained conspiracy by nations. Indeed,thedata showthat believers better are educated andinformed aretheir than skeptical counterparts. Education was measured witha four-point item;as Table 2 indicates, believers werebyandlarge than better educated wereskeptics.

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American EducationLevelsofAfrican Index (N = 400) by Theory Respondents Conspiracy

Less HighSchool SomeCollegeor CollegeGraduate Education orMore Graduate TradeSchool ThanHighSchool Believers Agnostics Skeptics total Column
p <.05.

TABLE 2

13.5 54.0 32.5 18.9

19.8 53.0 27.2 35.9

31.1 51.9 17.0 26.7

25.9 55.1 19.0 18.5

in believers better evidence these datathat are Thereis further in to issuesofconcern thecommunity,addition to informed about thanskeptics. Respondents were education havingmoreformal persons: NelsonManaboutfiveinfluential askedtheir opinions Al and SonnyCarson, Charles dela,John O'Connor, Sharpton, J. between differences found were believers' Few significant Rangel. of are individuals. andskeptics' However, skeptics opinions these do to that than believers report they nothave are more much likely to about information theleaders makea judgment. enough thatare is inequality one of the phenomena Because ethnic of is awareness thisinequality theories, explained conspiracy by Arethey indeed believers. closer to among expected be heightened conflict are skeptics? data than The line to thefront of interethic as as Believers twice likely skeptics belong are to as indicate much. who "In tothat fifth respondents responded tothequestion: of yes of race orso,hassomeone a different calledyoubyan thelastyear to face?"(see Table3). racialterm your insulting Table3 itis clearthat believers were more than were From likely with to Americans. negatively European skeptics haveinteracted more On thepositiveside,however, theyare also significantly a with White in friends the to likely report spending socialevening past3 or4 months (Table4). showsa deeppessimism African American among The survey in race Believers, agnosregarding relations. respondents general are to race and equally likely perceive relations tics, skeptics about

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American Percentages African of Who Reported Respondents BeingInsulted, Conspiracy by TheoryIndex (N = 403)
Were Insulted? You Yes Believers Agnostics Skeptics Column total
p <.05.

TABLE 3

No 20.0 53.0 26.9 78.0

33.0 51.0 16.0 22.0

to Americans theQuestion: ResponsesofAfrican "Have You SocializedWitha WhiteFriend?" by Conspiracy Theory Index (N = 401)
Yes Believers Agnostics Skeptics Column total p < .05. 25.9 53.3 20.8 58.8 No 18.2 51.5 30.2 41.2

TABLE 4

as worsening thepreceding over about half eachgroup of year; say so. Only11.2%oftheAfrican American respondents perceived an in improvementracerelations. Attitudes African of Americans are usuallynot blamedforthecurrent stateof race relations. a To aboutthedegree which to Blacksdislike in question Whites genfew eral,almost 70% said that Blacksdislike Therewere Whites. no significant differences between believers skeptics these and on questions. as theories ethnosociologies Treating would leadone conspiracy topredict although that believers distrust government institutions, are This is they notpolitical dropouts. hypothesis supported the by of results several items. definition, believers conspiracy the in By

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Theyalsohavesignificantly government agencies. theories distrust in Although African no courts skeptics. than lesstrust policeandthe in American thesample that tougher Whites on thought policewere felt Whitesand Blacks were thanon Blacks,moreskeptics that the believers perceive treated aboutthesamebypolice.Similarly, than Blacksmoreharshly Whites moreoften than courts treating do skeptics. views aboutpolitical affiliation political and party Questions All detached. but6.3% of that are demonstrate believers farfrom believersnamed a specificpoliticalpartyaffiliation, whereas answered "don'tknow"or "none" fortheir 13.2% of skeptics Therewereno signficant differences affiliation. between political In on to question overall affiliation.response the groups political on more believers rated themselves significantly often political stand, as or as liberals; skeptics, moderate conservative. and in believers skeptics differ significantly the Furthermore, One asked officials. question viewthepowerofelected waythey a can about werean areathat mayor do something ifracerelations werefarmore the control. or ifthey beyond mayor's are Skeptics control. the as to likely see racerelations beyond mayor's that of theories Somediscussions conspiracy bring suggest they action. Believers were that hinders with a political them pessimism thanskeptics aboutthesedata. morepessimistic not uniformly or to than skeptics agnostics predict are are Believers morelikely New YorkCitywillbe a worseplace to live 5 or 10 yearsin that to all are thefuture. However, three groups aboutequallylikely of Predictions the about future theeconomy predict improvement. the didnotdiffer groups. among three significantly in of to differences emerged responses thequestion Suggestive in couldmakea difference thewayBlacks a whetherBlackmayor in are treated New YorkCity.Those who believein conspiracy view inclined take minority that having to the are theories more yes, does makea difference a Black mayor (Table 5). This is directly theories are to contrary the view thatbelieversin conspiracy withthe idea that It paralyzed powerlessness. is consistent by that officials can in havefaith elected believers conspiracy theory their ownintentions. effect

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"Can a Black MayorMake a Difference?" Index (N = 388) by Conspiracy Theory

Makesa Difference Believers Agnostics Skeptics total Column 32.1 53.5 14.5 21.2 NotMuchEffect 21.1 51.6 27.2 78.8

TABLE5

p <.05.

DISCUSSION

of The picture African of American advocates conspiracy theoone of uneducated, ries thatis painted thesedata is hardly by and isolated individuals distorted with uninformed, socially judgwho believein African Americans mentand political passivity. are educatedthanthosewho do not theories better conspiracy believe,theyare activepolitically, theyare in touchwiththe are are of and problems their community, they closerthan skeptics and line interethnic conflict cooperation. tothefront ofboth their of Whydo theseindividuals express understandingsocial in of andpolitical theories? literaThe processes terms conspiracy in tureon conspiracy theories general pointsto some answers. of Davis suggested periods turbulent that socialmobility increase of awareness role-playing hence and create needfor a authenticity and naturalness. is Americans usually Mobility amongAfrican in of measured terms economicmobility, indicated income. by education participationintegrated and in socialsettings Here, were the factors thatput African Americans the vanguard. in Those individuals may be mostlikelyto espouse conspiracy theories becausethey morekeenly are awareofthecontinuing disparities between BlacksandWhites. Pinkney As (1984) points Blacks out, of themiddleclass are actually morelikelyto encounter racism because of their increased contact withWhites(p. 109). These individuals also cognizant the are of wayinwhich powerful people can actually "theundisturbed enjoy realization [their] of intentions" (Groh,1987,p. 3).

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belief African in Americans conspiracy In theprevalent among of theories be found can whatDavis (1969) called "truth a most as revealing kind"(p. 6). Race maybe everless salient a statistical of indicator future chances, therising life but socioeconomic status of Blacks seems to have revived, thanrelieved, African rather of intentions. Americans' most direfears Whites' genocidal mistaken unrealisis Treating conspiracy theories invariably as in societies where tic concerted secretly and planned socialaction is aneveryday of agenaccomplishmentindustries government and cies. In explaining ease with the which contemporary conspiracy are to theories embraced, documented journalists point numerous ofthepast,from covert the Federal BureauofInvesconspiracies civilrights workers theTusto tigation (FBI) operations against in treatment withheld was kegee,Alabama,syphilis study which 400 1990).Hoffrom sickBlackmen(DeParle,1990;Treadwell, out theorists often start out stadter (1971) pointed that conspiracy whatfollows defensible with"certain judgments" 7), making (p. believable. all themore all as social theory mistaken, Rather thantreating conspiracy of can scientists perhaps processto applytheir knowledge group of The theories. social weightheplausibility different conspiracy often burdened thetaskofdeciding is with if movement literature in social change;one might groupactionhas resulted concrete for reverse analysis thestudy conspiracy this of theories. and on officials "conspiraCallingAIDS, drugs, attacks elected The choice of that thanliteral. cies" may be moremetaphoric serves corrective thewayinwhich as to ethnic inequality language American writers theoutcome as is often of treated European by inexorable social and politicalprocessesforwhich accidental, The noonecan,orshould, heldaccountable. use oftheconspirbe is men 1964) acymetaphor a wayof"bringing backin"(Homans, of to thediscussion ethnic inequality. the in One case that illustrates use ofconspiracy a metaphor as is of leveledin a petition discourse thecharge genocide political in Nations filedby theCivil Rights Congress 1951 to theUnited its William (Civil RightsCongress, 1951). Although composer Paul did to and Patterson presenter, Robeson, notintend convey

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the Americans a secret that they attribute socialills ofAfrican to planbya smallgroup Whites, usedthe of they language conspirof that -the lynchings, acy to suggest theoutcome forced sterilizain of and tion, reduction lifespans Blackpeople- was as systematic as itwouldhavebeenhaditbeenplanned. Rather thanpromoting social withdrawal political and quiestheories cence,conspiracy mayat times foster political mobilizathe of in tion. Simmel (1950) described advantage simplicity such he "avoiddetours. processes. "Mass actions," wrote, Successfully their ornot, attack aimsbytheshortest route. they Theyalwaysare an dominated oneidea,andbyas simple ideaas possible" 34). by (p. idea as The simpleand straightforward of history "realization of intention" chameleon-like has across properties, adjusting easily in to as differences theconstituency be mobilized well as across over should conditions time. avoidlumping changing Sociologists all conspiracy as unbelievable should and theories together equally of explanation the both context the and effects evaluate, instead, the of the explanation. "ethnosociologies," As conspiracy theories of advance perspective society is notnecessarily a that pessimistic and conducive withdrawal; to instead, theymaybe seen as the of in and ultimate recognition agency socialaction allow, therefore, for maximum with "tinkering" socialprocesses.

NOTES
1. The evidencethat African Americans increasingly are turning conspiracy an to as explanation comesfrom popular culture, as John such Singleton's "BoyzN theHood" film Pictures, 1991]ortherapgroup GangStarr's "Conspiracy;" Records, [Columbia [Chrysalis 1992]from credibility the the of conspiracy theory about Los Angeles the PoliceDepartment in the0. J.Simpson trial; from promulgations culturally by influential individuals suchas LouisFarrakhan SpikeLee; andfrom and booksandarticles published African by Americans (e.g.,Cost,1991).The survey dataexplored thisarticle in havealso revealed belief that in is African Americans. conspiracies substantial among that are 2. It is incorrect assume, to theories anymoreprevalent however, conspiracy as be from Americans thanamongEuropean amongAfrican Americans, might inferred of rates acceptance of in Americans indicate statements thepress. Studies European of high conspiratorial "ethnosociologies" (Campion, 1989;Glock,1988;Vanderfort, Warner, 1989; 1987).

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3. WCBS-TV News/The New York Times. WCBS-TV News/New YorkTimesRace Relations Poll,June1990 [Computer file].New York:CBS News [producer], 1990.Ann for Arbor, Inter-University MI: Consortium Political SocialResearch and (ICPSR) [distributor], 1991.Specialthanks Mark to Morgan ICPSR for of invaluable assistance with data the of consisted adults set.The universe aged 18 andoverin New York City;stratified random of digit dialing was used.Thetotal number caseswas 1,047, whom wereBlack. of 408 4. Thosewhoresponded sure" "don't "not or considered know" were equivalents those of that is the and with "possibly the accepting possibility a conspiracy theory true areincluded true" group.

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University) Ph.D. Columbia College;M.A., (B.A.MaryWashington Anita Waters M. Granville, atDenisonUniversity, ofsociology/anthropology is an assistantprofessor and Caribbean/Latin American BlackStudies with Ohio,and is affiliated Denison's and American African African interests concern Her research Programs. primary Symbols: author Race,ClassandPolitical of She cultures. is the Caribbean political Books, NJ: Politics (NewBrunswick, Transaction and Rastafari ReggaeinJamaican Research of DenisonUniversity with support the was 1989). Thisarticle written the of Fundand theOffice theProvost.