WHAT EVERY 16 YEAR OLD SHOULD KNOW ABUT THE MASS MEDIA

GEORGE FOSTER INTRODUCES THE PROPOSALS OF A WORKING PARTY CONVENED BY THE SOCIETY FOR EDUCATION IN FILM AND TELEVISION

9l

At the end oftheir period ofcompulsory

schooling, English and Welsh pupils aged 16 + usually face eraminations organised either by local consortia ofUniversities, or by Regional Examination Boards. These exams are aimed at the 'top' 609o ofrhe abilitv range of 161'ear olds: the Universitt, system, called the General Certificale of Education Ordinary level (GCE 'O'Level) is aimed at the lop' 2090 ofthe abiliry rangej the Regional Examinarion Boards validare a Cenificate ofSecondary Education (CSE) which caters lor those lalling between the twentieth and sixtieih percenliles 'down'. The 'bottom' 4090 ofthe abilirv range are nor (in theory) catered lor by lhe examinaiion system ar all. A top grade ar CSE is accepred as rhe equivalent ofa passing grade at 'O' level. Because of the degree ofindependence until recently granted at a local level in the English and \flelsh education sysrems, and rhe

consequent regional identities of the Examination Boards, the national ctiteria in specific subjects have ah[ays been vague. The Boards have notionally comparable standards in each subject at each level, but in practice there have been notorious differences between them. The decentralised nature ofthe British education system has made questions ofnational standards

difficult to

pose.

Rationalisation ofthe whole system by having one Examination Board per region ard one common standard lor all 16+ pupils has been on Ihe agenda for some time. Despite the recent Tory decision (May 1982)to postpone the introduction ofthe common system (known, for want ofanything better, as l6+), this is clearly only a matter of time now. However) this does not implj' the wholesale abandonment ofthe various GCE and CSE exams and syllabi rhat exist ai the moment: the conlinuaiion ofa degree

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ofindependence granied Io schools and colleges has meant that the proposed new boards will be expected to cope with a variety ofcorrses and syllabi within any one subject area. In short, a large part oftheir function wiil be to validate courses already in existence or proposed to them at laler dates. Subject panels were set up not to produce national syllabi but to set the national , riteria under which loLJl s\llJbi .ould be accepted, and therelore vaiidared. V/hat follows is therefore not a set ofsyllabus proposais, but a set ofcriteria which (hopefully) could be used to
assess specific syllabus proposals

the lollowing proposals are offered as a draft lor development. We welcon,e comn,ent on them, and intend tha! they be discussed at a conference to be held in l-eicesrer on May 7 1983. The draft emerging from that conlerence will be lormally submitted to the Examination Boards as a proposal lor National Criteria.

t6+ Media Studies Final Draft Proposals

AIM: To enable candidates to analyse examples of nledia products in detail, to describe in outline the rechnologies and iob roles used to produce these, the ownership and financing ofmedia producrion and the circulation of media products to audiences, and to explain the importance of social contexts upon an audience's reception and consumption of media products. ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVES: Bv rhe rime they complete a l6+ course in Media Studies students should be able tol L identify the processes ofmedia production, describing in broad terms the professional and techniul pra.rLe. involved tthe orgrnisction. selection and recording ofmaterial lor a television or radio propiramme, the production of a film, the galhering, selection'l hyout and
a newspaper). 2. demon.trure rhrough rhe analysis ol particular media products an understqnding of the main furms and convenlions the media use in selecting or combining words, musicJ sounds and intages to produce meanings. 3. describe and enplain ho$ individuals, social groups and events are depicted in media products, horv audiences may receive and understand these representations and how their understanding may influence attitudes ind

in Media/Film

and

TV Studies. As might be expected, none of

the subject panels set up Io construct these

nalionalcrileriJ hrd Medil Studies urthin rt.

brief: the English prnel's report understandably cxpresses the viev.r that Media Studies are of crucial importance, but too large an area lor them to begin to deal with.

The Briiish Film Institute's conlerence on Media Studies, held in November 1981,r rvas extremelv concerned with the lack of consideration given by the new system to Media/ Film/TV Studies. All present exams in the subject area lall under the Mode I scheme.l
Courses are accepted, moderated and validated by the Boards, but there is no general agreement as to which subject sub-committee ofthe present Boards should handle exams in Media Studies: different Boards use different subject panels. Since no national proposal was planned under lhe new system of l6+, lhcre appeared to be a real danger of Media Studies slipping through the net. The BFI conference set up a working group which SEFT then conrened, and the following proposals fur national criteria are the result. They have not been solicited by, or senl to, any Examination Board. There are numerous areas ofdeba!e and disagreement within the Media Studies field, but

printing ofmaterial in

behaviour.
describe the dominant patterns ofownership and control ofthe diflerent media and compare and contrast commerciaLlv operated and public.-rll1 finlncrd medir. orliniug uav: rn which such patterns ofownership and control influence media production. Candidates should also be able to oulline actual or possible
,1.

) lledia Erlxcation

ConJercnce 1981,

Frln1 InsfiIute Education

A Rcpon,Btitish Deprrtmenl, 1982.

thc u\rr bo d5 hdle J mode, ol ex"m,nrrion. -\lode I srllabi are exrernalll, ser, eramined and
.\lode 2 syllNbi:re set by schools and colleges bur ll\1de

alernrlive model5 of medla organi\irion. CONTENT: It is neither possible nor valuable

to deflne a comprehensive 'bod1, ofknowledge' which might conslitute rhe conrent of Media Srudies. This is because anl' such knoNledge is in the process ofconstanl change and such a listing would therelore rapidly date. I{ore

.:::ieJ b!

(a

lerv common form) are set, examined and rhe school or college bui are externallv

imporranrly, ir is ro be hoped thar any crireria established for Media Studies at 16+ could take
account ofmuch

CORE CONCEPTS: The fundamental

similarity between courses in Media Studies consists not ofparticular factual content but of concentration upon ce ain'core concepts'
relating to the aims and assessment objectives. These are as st out below, with possible examples from dillerent media as illustrations of what is intended in terms oflevel ofknowledge and understanding: FORMS: This could include broad types used to define media productsr and the overall characteristics of such types: Newspapers - darly , local, weekly, 'popular', 'quality' together with the typical formal divisions oftheir conrenr such as edirorial, letters, home news, foreign news, human interest, financial, sports, leisure etc; Rddio-public service, commercial, national, Iocal, programmes, coniinuity, together wirh charactedstic broadcasts suc(ps news bulletins, magaz{ne programmes, quizzes, relays of sporting events. currenr aflbirs. disc jockey music programmcs. plays, situation comedies etc; FrTn J - feature films, documentaries, shorts, animated lilms. newsreels, together with broad calegories such as narrative, realist/anti-re"list, independent film and different genre$ ofmainstream cinema. CONVENTIONS: This would include both the conventions governing the ways in which content is represented through the formal means ofany pardcular medium and the conventions of representing individuals, groups and events operated across the media. The former mighr include the layout, size ofheadline and use of photograph in a newspaper, choice ofcamera angle and framing in any photograph, the style ofpresentation and choice ofrunning order in a television news bulletin, the length of tracks and type ofinstrumentation on a recordl the latter would include such elements as the use of costumes, settings and accents to construct the social identity offictional characters in films or television plays, rie slecrion ofpeople to be interviewed and to make comments on radio, television or newspapers, the kinds ofqueslions asked ofthem and the atrirude adopred by rhe interviewer. MEDIATION: This would invblve examining lhe way. in whrch the media rhrough their choice of lorms and convention5 do nor simpr) mirror or relay any pre-existent social reality but inevitably construct versions of supposed social realirv which hale an actir e part in influencing

ofthe range ofexisting

examinations in this subjecr fleld. At presenl some courses concentrate upon a single medium (for instance, Film Studies). Arguments about whar mighr constitute the subjebt content for courses involve difllcult issues of 'breadth'-a number oImedia-versus'depth -learning concepls through concentralion upon a single medium or a limired number. Equally the present Mode 3 syslem at 16+ is intended to enable schools and colleges to construct courses which take accounr oftheir facilities (the availability, for example, ofa television studio) and ofthe parricular interests and expertise of staff For these reasons it would be a mistake to seek to impose any rigid'body ofknowledge' upon every corrIse. However the stated aims and objectives should be seen as establishing very clearly the approaches any course would be expected to adopt towards its chosen area or aspect ofmedia. Thus a course intended solely to develop practical production skills in media would not fall within the proposed criteria. Equally a course concentrating simply upon lhe description and appreciation of media 'texts' (flms, newspapers, television programmes or whatever), on a parallel to the srudy ofliterary rexts wouid also be excluded by these criteria, even though much ofthe work ofany course is likely to consist ofthe study ofsuch media 'texts'. Definitions ofthe Media are notoriously slippery. Any course of Media Studies would involve the study ofaspects ofone or more ofthe following different media. Each presents either visual, aural and graphic informadon, recorded or transmitted through photochemical, electromagnedc or printed means and made available to large audiences through broadcasring, multiple copying and widespread distribution: Films, Magazines and Newspapers, Popular Fiction, Popular Music, Photography, Radio, Television. It is crucial that the above be studied in relation ro the appropriate social institutions -Cinema, the Press etc. Courses constructed on particular practices common to several media, such as Advertising, or News. or study ofaspects ofmedia such as the rprsentation olwomen or ethnic groups would
be acceptable.

attitudes and behaviour (for example) the manner in which women are represented within advertisements. magazine arlicles and ilction films and plays; the presentation of images and explanations ofThird World countris through the mediaj the documentary rpofting, current affairs discussion and television dramatisation of issues of'law and order'). TECHNOLOGY; This would include the technical means by which different media record, reproduc or reiay inlormationJ the possible characteristics ofeach medium as it has been developed and used. and the possible alternative ways in which such technology might be used (differences between broadcast lelevision, videorecording and cable-television, use ofvideo editing, colour separation overlay, Quantel, ENG, possilrilities oflocal cable operation, of broadcasting portable video recordings; technology ofmulti-rrack recording, use of synthesisers and record pressing; development and use ofcolour) sound, widescreen, different filmstocks, animation and special effecrs within
the cinma).

CIRCULATION: This would explore the dissemination of media products via broadcasting, physical distribution aad sales, hire, payment for admission erc. It would also be
concemed with the ways in which audiences are constructed and with the manner in which media products draw upon meanings previously produced by other media products and

incorporate these as likely'points ofsale'.

(Examples ofthis would include awareness of broadcast, satellile and cable television systems as means ofcirculating products differently, together with the impacr ofvideo recording, and lhe efTecrs ofrhe lalrer on cinema exhibilion, or rhe differing circulations oflocal and national radio. Examples ofthe 'circularion ofideas' mighr include the consrruclion ofcelebri!ies across newspapers, magazines) radio and television: thus a person noted for atarticular achievement, for example in sports, may be used first to dtlract audiences, lhen as an elemenl in advertisementsJ then as a 'personality' in, say, television quiz shows.)

PRODUCTIONT This would cover in oudine the various stages through which any media product would go from inception to the form in which it is presented to audiences, together with the division oflabour into various specialist roles which characterises media production (the roles of journalis$, special reporters) sub-editors, section editors and production manager on a newspaper, together with rhe printing jobs invol\ed: rhe role ofproducer. script edrtor. writers, designers, directors and cast in a
television drama series). FINANCE: This would be concerned with the sources and amount offtnance typicaily involved in a media product, the raising and recoupment of llnanceJ marketing, associated produclsr and the manner in which such flnancial considerations influence the production. It would also involve considerarion offinance through licence, through advertising revenue and through direcl subscrrpr ion (sources of fi nance lor film production, cost offilm distribution and exhibition, amount ofmoney spent on advertising, cost oftickets and likely audience size, sales to television and video-hire, .4mmercial radio franchises. cosls of equipmenr.

CONSUMPTION: This would be linked to Finance and Audience in stressing both the commercial basis on which mott media products are predicated and the consequent linking of these to leisure pursuits and 'entertainmenf. lt wouid consider the marketing ofproducrs and media-related 'hardware' such as cassette radios, video recorders, cameras, and sound systems) and the possible relationship betwen media products and the purchasing power ofdifferent sections ofthe public. With Audience it would study the possible sociological eflects on
behaviou and'lifestyle'. AUDIENCE: This would consider the
construction ofaudiences and the varying reception ofmedia products \ehich may result from the social composition and contex! of different audiences. It would examine ih
differnces oflocation (cinema versus home viewing, live concefi/disco versus record played individually) and the 'social uses' associated with different media (cinema as a place for young

:d\ eilising income) costs ofproduction,

:qreemenls on 'needle time').

adults to go 'away ftom home'). This aspect of the study ofmedia would also consider the ways in which media products 'address' audiencesJ that is offer them both representations of themselves and accounls ofhow thy might understand the world. PRACTICAL WORK: It is essential that any

ofMedia Studies should contain a practical element. By this we do not mean solel! the production of media by studenrs, bur also a number ofother possible activiries. These would include simulations and photoplays (the compiling on paper of a possible television news broadcasr based upon an examination ofa morning's newspapers); exercises involving media equipment (srudents recording a prepared radio script on audio-Iape or putting rogerher existing slides against differenl music ar diflerent rhythms to explore rhe resultant effecrs), scripting and storyboarding; as well as acrual media production in such media as video, audiotape, photography and prinr, film, tape-and-slide,
course poster.
Srress should be placed upon rhis practical

$ritlen accounrs ot-!he indi\.idual sruden!'s inlohenrenr. eirher in rhe lbrln ofa diarr or a comnenr aiier lhe practical sork is finished. ln
anv group Nork the conrriburion ofindi\ iduals must be clearlr idenrifiable. 2. Assessment of practical work should include an element for the display ofpracrical skills and presentation, but also an element lor the stated intentions and analytic approach adopred b]' rhe student. 3. Agreement will have to be made wirh a moderator as to which technical aspects students are expected to control and which are reasonablv under the supervision ofa teacher or technician (students might or might not, lor erample, be responsible for setting sound levels in a TV or

95

radio studio, or for developing photographic

negarives).

work lor tvo main reasons: since many ofthe media rely not solell on written words bul on speech) sounds and images, it is important for studenls to explore the ways in which the
juxraposition and conlbinarion ofthese may construct meanings. .\lso such activity, conducred in groul\.,.r'ill be borh a verl necessary stimulus Io learning and a means of insight into the group situations in which mosr media products are acrually produced.

PROJECT WORK: Project Woi( mav be

desirable but it should be oprional ro an), syllabus. here project work is offered ir should include the possibiliry ofusing audio and visual

means ofpresentation as well as

writren work.

ORAL EXAMINATION: Since much work on

any Media Studies course shpuld involve group drscussion and analysis ofmedia producrs, ll ls highly desirable for examinations ro include an oral element. \fle wouLd see this as including

Relationship between Assessment Obiectives and Content

In an1, syllabus entuled 'Media Studies' rhe element ofpractical Nork should comprise at least 2070 and nor more rhan 50qo ofrhe roral mark. Such a srllabus should include a clear indication as Io \hich media or aspects of media it proposes lor studt and how lhe proposed study will rn-orprrate core concepls sumcient to enable studen!s ro nee! the stated Assessmen!
Objectiles.

The assessment of Media Studies should be concerned Less t ith the recall ofspecific factual kno$ledge and more with the abiliry to apply rhe core concepls to the media products which studenrs experience in their daily lives. It is imporlanl to assess studenls' awareness and understanding ofthese concepts rather than their abilities at written English. Any course should therefore be assessed by more methods than Final Examination.

ofa topic with rllustrations, rogerher wirh participation in group discussion of orhe rs' presentat ions . OTHER COURSE WORK: This could include both extended essays and also shorter analyses ofsuch items as a magazine cover, a record sleeve, two newspaper accounls ofthe same incident, an advefiisement etc. Any course work requirement should be set ar a realistic level, which would nor be likely ro be more rhan the equivalent ofren essays of350-500 words. FINAL EXAMINATION: It is not essnrial for courses to ha|e a finaleramination. \{'here such an examinalion is included as a method, it should no! be based on memorr oflacts but on the
each student's presentation

response ofstuden!s to slimuli prolided as part

ot_the e\Nnr

(ior

e\a

ple, anahsis ofvisual or

print or rurrrl materill sho\rn or

pLal.ed Io studen!s in the eranr). \\'here an\' course inaludes r toJ\. oi IeahnicaL kno\\ ledge as part of !rs aonrer:. it is aFpropriare ro eramine this bv

PRACTICAL WORK:
L Practical work may be by individuals or a group. In both cases the.e should be brief
b1

.u-h (innl.lu<. -. ru-lrrple chot.equesrions,

single senrence ans\\'ers or bv the labelling dragrams.

of

course of Media Studies should contain a practical elemenr. By this we do not mean solely the production of media by students, but also a number ofother possible activities. These would include simulations aod photoplays (the compiling on paper ofa possible television news broadcasr based upon an examination ofa morning's newspapers); exercises involving media equipment (students recording a prepared radio script on audio-tape or putting together existing slides against different music at different rhythms to explore the resulmnt effects), scripting and storyboardiDgj as well as actual media ploduction in such media as video, audiotape, photography and print) film, tape-and-slide, poster. Stress should be placed upon this practical work for two main reasons: since many ofthe media rely not solely on written words but on speech, sounds and images, it is important for students to explore the ways in which the juxtaposition and combination ofthese may construct meanings. Also such activity, conducted in groups, will be both a very necessary stimulus ro learning and a means of insight into the group situations in which most media products are actually produced.

written accounts ofthe individual student's involvement, either in the form ofa diary or a comment after the practical work is finished. In any group work the contribution ofindividuals
must b clearly identifiable.
2. Assessment ofpractical work should include an element for the display ofpractical skills and presentationr but also an element for the stated intenrions and analylic approach adopted by the

s5

student. 3. Agreement will have to be made with a moderator as to which technical aspects students are expected to control and which are reasonably under the supervision ofa teacher or technician (students might or might not, for example, be responsible for setting sound levels in a TV or radio studio, or for developing photographic
negatives).

PROJECT WORK: Project Wgtl< may be desirable but it should be optional to any syllabus. Vhere project work is offred it should
include the possibility ofusing audio and visual means ofpresentation as well as written work. ORAL EXAMINATION: Since much work on any Media Studies course should involve group discussion and analysis of hedia products, ir is highly desirable for examinadons to include an oral element. We would see this as including each studnt's presntation ofa topic with illustrations. together with participation in group discussion of others' presentations. OTHER COURSE WORK: This could include both extended essays and also shofier
analyses

Relationship between Assessment Obiectives and Content In any syllabus entitled 'Media Studies' the
element ofpractical work should comprise al least 2070 and not more than 50q0 ofthe total mark. Such a syllabus should include a clear indication as to which media or aspects ofmedia it proposes for study and how the proposed study will incorporate core concepts suffrcient to enable students lo meet the stated Assessment Objecdves, The assessment of Media Studies should be concerned less with the recall ofspecific factual knowledge and more with the ability to apply the core concepts to the media products which students experience in their daily lives. It is important to assess students' awareness and understanding ofthese concepts rather than their abilities at written English. Any course should therefore be assessed by more methods than

ofsuch irems

as a magazine coverr a

Final Examinarion.

PRACTTCAL WORK:

I. Practical work
a group.

In both

cases Ihere

may be by individuals or b1 should be brief

record sleeve, two newspaper accounts ofthe same incident, an advertisement etc. Any course work requirement should be set at a realislrc level, which would not be likely to be more than the equivalent often essays of 350-500 words. FINAL EXAMINATION: It is not essential lor coutses to have a final examination. IJ{/here such an examination is included as a method, it should not be based on memory offacrs but on the resporNe ofstudents to stimuli provided as parl ofthe exam (for example, analysis ofvisual or print or aural material shown or played to students in the exam). Where any course includes a body oftechnical kno$ledge as part of its content, it is appropriate lo examine lhis by ru.h rechnrques ". multiple choice que:tions, single sentence ansrvers or bl the labelling of
diasrams