Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
Market Development
for Solar Thermal Applications in Thailand
(SolTherm Thailand)
Implemented by
The Joint Graduate School of Energy and Environment (JGSEE)
King Mongkuts University of Technology Thonburi
International Institute for Energy Conservation (IIEC)
and
Institute for Solar Energy Systems (FRAUNHOFER ISE)
July 2007
A project co-financed by the EU-Thailand Small Projects Facility
ii
STAFF
The Joint Graduate School of Energy and Environment (JGSEE)
King Mongkuts University of Technology Thonburi
Asst. Prof. Dr. Chumnong Sorapipatana Project Director/ Solar Expert
Prof. Dr. Ing. Christoph Menke Project Leader/ Solar Expert
Prof. Dr. R.H.B. Excell Solar Expert
Dr. Peter du Pont Solar Expert
Asst. Prof. Dr. Sirichai Thepa Solar Expert
Dr. Naris Pratinthong Solar Expert
Dr. Surachai Sathitkunarat Project Manager
Asst. Prof. Dr. Navadol Laosiripojana Project Associate
Mr. Kofoworola , O.F. Project Assistant
Ms. Kulakarn Suntornwat Project Administative
Mrs. Kanyarat Nitheswitthayanukul Project Administative
Ms. Montree Srilundai Project Administative
Ms. Kanchana Augsonsom Project Administative
Ms. Sirilak Ovarakul Project Administative
International Institute for Energy Conservation (IIEC)
Mr. Sommai Phon-Amnuaisuk Project Coordinator
Ms. Sirikul Prasitpianchai Researcher
Ms. Kullakant Chertchutham Research Assistant
Institute for Solar Energy Systems (FRAUNHOFER ISE)
Dr. Hans-Martin Henning Project Coordinator
Dipl.-Phys. Edo Wiemken Solar Thermal Expert
iii
EXCUTIVE SUMMARY
The Thai Solar Thermal Industry Outlook
Solar Thermal applications in Thailand is currently limited to water heating
application in the residential sector while the large market potential in the commercial
and the industrial sector remains untapped. Presently there are approximately 15 to
20 active Solar Thermal (ST) companies in the market, however, only few companies
have intensive experience and are capable of providing design and installation for
large solar systems. The outlook of the Thai solar thermal market over the past recent
years has been positive due to the recent fuel price escalation. It was estimated that
the sales of solar water heater was around 6,800 m
2
in 2005 and 8,500 m
2
in 2006.
The key local industry players estimate an average market growth of about 10% per
year.
The SolTherm Thailand Project
the Market Development Solar Thermal Applications in Thailand project (SolTherm
Thailand) is funded by the EU-Thailand Economic Cooperation Small Project Facility
(EU-SPF) and jointly implemented by the Joint Graduate School of Energy and
Environment (JGSEE), the International Institute for Energy Conservation (IIEC), and
the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems (ISE). The project aims at
identifying all related technical and non-technical barriers prohibiting the effective
development of the SWH market in Thailand through detailed situation analysis, and
developing a set of solutions, guidelines, measures and recommendations for related
government agencies and industry stakeholders. The project also aims to enhance a
mutual market access for existing European, Thai and EU-Thai joint-venture ST
companies as well as stimulate and facilitate more EU-Thai partnerships and
investments in ST technologies in Thailand.
The SolTherm Thailand project activities were successfully implemented during the
course of one-year project implementation, April 2006 March 2007, and the project
activities can be classified into two broad categories:
1. Information research and verification activities conducted through questioners,
interview and site visits.
2. Information analysis and dissemination activities were organization of
meetings and seminars throughout the project implementation. The project
website (www.soltherm-thailand.net) has also been the key channel of
information dissemination.
To fulfill extensive information required, the project team comprehensively reviewed
past studies and demonstration as well as undertook numerous field trips to twenty
(20) commercial and industrial facilities in seven (7) larges provinces throughout the
country. Additional 6 meetings/workshops were also organized to solicit more
information and verify usefulness of the findings.
iv
Approaches Involved in the Project Activities
With the aim to remove barriers for SHW market development, the project has
conducted a through review of past studies and other project activities that have
implemented in the past 25 years history of solar hot water market development in
Thailand. The project team also further investigated and assessed technical barriers
through a series of site visit to exiting installations. Non-technical barriers which
involve policy measures and economical barriers were identified and analyzed when
the project team conducted interview with financial institutions, policy makers, solar
companies and customers. Research methodologies used in this project are listed
below:
- Review of past studies
- Questionnaire through phone interview
- Personal interview
- Survey of potential sites
- Visit to existing solar installations
Major Findings
The Thai Solar Water Heater Market and Industry
Development of SWH in commercial application in Thailand was initiated by the
government 25 years ago by installing SHW systems on public hospitals. The
campaign has somewhat triggered the market that several private hospitals and hotels
installed SWHs during that time. The equipments were mainly imported until 10 years
later, local fabrication of solar collectors became a cheaper option, though less
efficiency, to Thai customers. Origins of the solar collectors were mainly from
Australia until recently the imported SHW parts and collectors have shifted to China,
Germany and Israel. The CIF import values have been increasing over the past couple
of years in line with rising of crude oil price in world market.
The existing market of SHW in Thailand is relatively small and only limited number
of SHW suppliers is available. Moreover, SHW is not a core business for most
suppliers. A study by NEPO/DANCED reported that there were 12 companies involve
the SHW market in 1995. After the economic crisis in 1997, there were only 9
companies could remain active. Our recent market survey found that currently there
are approximately 20-25 companies operating in the market.
Technical and Non-Technical Barriers
- Technical barriers
System design and sizing: many solar companies are small and sometime
specialize in other area i.e. import. These companies often install solar systems
without knowledge of proper system design and sizing resulting poor
performance of the solar system that can not serve the actual hot water demand.
Quality and selection of materials: wrong selection of materials that when
soldering together cause corrosion and result in water leakages at joint and
seeming of tank and pipes. Cheap material used in the system could also
shorten the system life time.
v
Water quality: some areas of Thailand, well water are a major water supply for
even tourist cities like Chiang Mai and Phuket. Sediments from water have
been a major problem for solar hot water with open-loop configuration
installed in these areas.
Installation: small companies often hire installers which sometime do not have
knowledge in solar water heater or even plumbing. Wrong installation mostly
fails the solar system instantly in just days after first operation. In many cases,
owners who have no technical knowledge are not aware that their systems are
not operating.
- Non-technical barriers
High investment cost and long pay-back period: due to limited size of market,
solar companies need to mark up cost at high price in order to cover for the
companys expense. The cost of SHW in Thailand is relatively high as compare
to countries that have success solar hot water installations.
Lack of quality control scheme: Thailand does not have sufficient standards,
testing and certification or any other scheme that could control quality of solar
water heater in the market. Poor quality of systems and improper installations
lead to system failure and customers unsatisfactory and untrusting of the solar
thermal technology.
Lack of effective policy support from the government: the Thai government,
from time to time, supported solar hot water in forms of demonstration and
subsidies to limited number of systems. However, these financial supports did
not link with quality control and only resulted in more solar systems failure.
Other policies that can result in a more lasting and steady support to the market
such as tax incentives and awareness campaign have not been introduced.
Quality and Standard Issue
Europe experience
Quality of installation
In European countries, safety requirements are imposed on mechanical and
electrical components of solar thermal systems. As solar systems provide
service hot water, hygienic regulation requires that water has to be regularly
heat up to 60C to avoid Ella bacteria. Apart from training to designers,
installers, manufacturers, and users that regularly offered for quality design and
installation, some European countries e.g. Germany and Austria has specific
trainings for certified solar planner and certified solar installer which
extend regular planners and installers towards higher level of expertise in the
solar thermal systems. The certification program in Germany is voluntary,
however, the certified installers is required in France. Commercial simulation
programs e.g. TSOL and POLYSUN are widely applied in the planning phase
for the optimization of solar system.
Test standards
In the European countries, there are several independent institutes to perform
mechanical load tests and performances tests on solar thermal collectors in
accordance with national standards and European standards. Until 1994, a
harmonization of European standards was carried out based on existing
vi
standards and recommendation e.g. ISO 9806. Current standards practiced for
solar thermal collectors and systems are listed as follow:
EN 12975 Solar Collectors
Part 1: General requirements; Part 2: Test methods.
EN 12976 Factory Made Systems
Part 1: General requirements; Part 2: Test methods.
TS 12977 Custom Built Systems
Pat 1: General requirements; Part 2: Test methods; Pat 3: Storages
In some European countries, standards are tied to public funding scheme i.e.
only collectors tested according to the EN 12975 are approved for funding in
Germany.
Quality label and certification
In 2003, a uniform European quality label for solar thermal products, the Solar
Keymark, was established as a tool for customers to easily identify quality solar
thermal products. After the initiation, there are more than 100 Solar Keymark
licenses issued to qualified products, an indication of successful quality scheme.
Furthermore, Germany is considering connecting its public funding for solar
thermal to the quality label. More information on the Solar Keymark and
approved certification laboratories may be found at the website if the European
Solar Thermal Industry Federation (ESTIF) www.estif.org.
Thailand experience
Quality of installation
The lack of training courses to system designers, installers, manufacturers, and
users in Thailand has resulted in slacked quality of installation. Our project
survey of existing systems installed in many hotels found that many systems are
wrongly configured i.e. most of the storage tanks are placed in horizontal
position instead of a vertical position that allow stratification. Open looped
configuration is often applied to minimize investment cost; however, poor
quality of water has caused corrosion in tanks. Most systems are also lack of
safety components such as air vent and weather protection for pumps. The
percentage of system failure shortly after installation in Thailand is remarkably
high. It is recommended that Thailand initiates a program for improving local
knowledge and capacity and raises the awareness of quality installation to
prevent more solar thermal systems failure in the future.
Equipment standards
In Thailand, there is a standard related to solar thermal collector issued by the
Thai Industrial Standard TIS 899-2532. However, it is clear, that the standard is
being applied to local and imported collectors available in the market.
Test standards
There are 4 test facilities for indoor and outdoor solar thermal collector the
following academic institutions.
1) Asian Institute of Technology (AIT)
2) King Mongkuts University of Technology Thonburi (KMUTT)
3) School of Renewable Energy Technology (SERT), Phitsanulok
4) Chiang Mai University (CMU)
vii
The test facilities are not continuous in operation due to the low national
production level of collectors and commitments from manufacturers.
Quality label and certification
Presently, quality label and certification for solar thermal are not available in
Thailand.
Economic and Financial Feasibility
Economic of solar thermal system
Criteria for design and optimization of solar thermal systems which is crucial for
the economic viability of solar hot water are
Solar radiation: Thailand has an average solar radiation at 4.5-4.7 kWh/m
2
per
day which is higher than the economic profitability figures for solar thermal
systems. Monsoon season cause seasonal variation of solar energy that should
be taken into account when designing a solar system
Load pattern and continuity of demand: applications that have demand during
daytime and operate all year round gain most economic benefit. Some
industrial applications fall in this criterion that could have return on
investment as soon as 3 years.
Working temperature and types of collectors: working temperature below 70C
can use low-efficiency collectors that are economically suitable for solar
systems. Three types of solar collectors available in Thailand are unglazed,
flat plate and evacuated tubes can be used at this working temperature.
Solar fraction: solar fraction is a percentage or portion of annual energy
demand meet by solar energy. It is recommended that solar systems are design
not higher than 60% of solar fraction for the most cost effective
implementation.
Pay back period
A market survey by the SolTherm-Thailand project team reported that average
system cost for domestic SHW is 29,000 baht/m
2
and 23,000 baht/m
2
for large
systems in commercial and industrial applications. The pay back periods for solar
systems are varied depends on types of fuel replaced and applications. Calculation
of pay back periods based on the survey system cost and the current fuel prices are
shown in the table below.
Table E.1 Pay back period for difference fuel types in 3 applications
Pay back periods (years) Sectors
Electricity LPG Fuel Oil
Residential 5-6 - -
Commercial 3-5 7-8 6-8
Industrial - - 4-8
Sensitivity analysis
There are several economic factors that have impacts to year-to-positive cash flow
or pay back time. Analysis of the impacts lead us to more understanding of how
pay back time can be shorten to an acceptable range among Thai investors and
what financial measures are needed to achieve the target. Three parameters are
viii
selected for the analysis: energy delivered from solar system, initial cost and
annual operating cost. Results from sensitivity analysis show that reduction of
initial cost has the most impact to pay back time. The only case that the solar
system can pay back within 4 years is replacing electric heater in hotel
applications. Other applications require more than 4 years for return on
investment. In order to achieve 5 years target pay back time, a reduction of system
cost are needed as 30% of residential and 50% of the present cost of commercial
and industrial systems.
Potential of Solar Water Heater in Thailand
Energy demand at low-medium temperature (60-150C) in 3 economic sectors in
Thailand is estimated around 1,200 ktoe/year, a 1.9% of the total final energy
consumption in Thailand in 2005. Assuming market penetration for solar water heater
are 20% in residential and commercial sectors and 10% in industrial sector, a potential
market size is estimated at 1.5 million square meter of collector area.
Table E.2 Technical and economical potential of solar thermal energy in Thailand
Sectors
Energy
demand in
low-medium
temperature
(ktoe)
%
penetra
-tion
Potential
of solar
hot water
(ktoe)
Electri-
city
(GWh)
LPG (kg) Fuel oil
(liter)
Collector
area (m
2
)
Residential 314 20 62.8 730.36 608,637
Commercial 18.5 20 3.7 12.91 2,158,333 22,872
Industrial 874 10 87.4 92,856,232 847,052
Total 1,206.5 153.9 743.27 2,158,333 92,856,232 1,478,561
The economic potential of 1.5 million m
2
of solar collector can save energy
approximately 153 ktoe and 500,000 tons of carbon emission can be avoided per year.
Solar Thermal Related Policies and Measures
Many energy and greenhouse gas reduction related policies are results of national and
international commitments to reduce energy and greenhouse gas to the target goal
such as a recent European Council meeting has announced a target to increase a share
of renewable energy to 20% of primary energy consumption in Europe by 2020. To
achieve the objectives, there are measures being implemented as follow:
- Financial incentives such as subsidies and grant are mostly needed to boost up
the market at the initial phase. A success case of growing solar market in
Greece has shown the influence of the subsidy measure.
- Tax incentives e.g. tax credit and import duty exemption can help bring the
cost down particularly for imported products. The classifications of solar
water heater components that are currently grouped together with other
electric equipments have made it difficult to exempt import duty. The Thai
Customs Department has recommended that solar water heater should have a
separate code; however, this would require changes at a global level.
Importers of solar products in Thailand pledge that should the import duty be
exempted, the cost of solar system can be lower as much as 20%.
ix
- Regulations are often tied to building code such as mandatory installation of
solar water heater in new buildings. A sample of success implementation of
the measure is Israel where solar water heater is required for buildings higher
than 27 meters.
- Quality assurance can ensure sustainable growth of solar thermal market.
Standards and testing requirements can be tied to government incentives to
assure that only quality systems will be installed. Success cases are Germany,
Austria and Israel.
- Demonstration projects can effectively promote solar thermal systems in the
country or area that have low acceptance of the technology.
- Research and development is available in many countries, mostly through
academic or research institutions to improve efficiency of solar collector and
innovative design that could ultimately lower the cost of the technology.
- Awareness campaign in raising concern of the energy cost saving and
greenhouse gas reduction can bring attention from public and remove the
misconception of technology ineffectiveness.
Key Recommendations
To establish a sustainable solar thermal market in Thailand, the following policies are
recommended.
Policy measures Addressed problems Measures / Schemes
1. Quality assurance - Substandard quality of materials -Training for
manufacturers
- Improper design and sizing -Training for system
designers
- Quality of installation - Training for installers
- Lack of maintenance - Training for users
2.Financial
incentives
- High investment cost
- Long pay back period
- Subsidy for investment
cost.
-Tax incentives i.e. credit
for income tax, corporate
tax
-Tax exemption i.e.
import duty, VAT
3.Awareness
campaign
- Unaware of cost effective energy
saving potential
Misconception of the technology
-Awareness campaign
through advertisements
and other media.
4. Demonstration - Unaware of technological
potential
- Demonstrations of solar
hot water systems in
different applications
x
CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE Page
STAFF ii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY iii
CONTENTS x
LIST OF FIGURES xii
LIST OF TABLES xv
1 PROJECT OVERVIEW 1
1.1 RATIONALE 1
1.2 PROJECT TASKS AND ACTIVITIES 1
1.3 FOLLOW-ON ACTIVITIES AFTER COMPLETION 3
2 THE THAI SOLAR WATER HEATER INDUSTRY 4
2.1 MARKET OVERVIEWS 4
2.2 SWH SYSTEM COMPONENT 13
2.3 MARKET CHARACTERISTICS AND SUPPLY CHAIN 17
3 BARRIERS 20
3.1 INTRODUCTION 20
3.2 MAIN TECHNICAL BARRIERS 23
3.3 OTHER TECHNICAL BARRIERS 25
3.4 NON-TECHNICAL BARRIERS 26
3.5 SUMMARY OF BARRIERS 26
4 QUALITY AND STANDARDS 28
4.1 QUALITY OF INSTALLATION 28
4.2 EQUIPMENT STANDARD 33
4.3 STANDARD TESTING 37
4.4 QUALITY LABEL AND CERTIFICATION 41
4.5 OPTIMIZATION OF STANDARD AND SOLAR THERMAL
TESTING CENTER IN THAILAND
44
5 ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL 47
5.1 ECONOMIC OF SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEM 47
5.2 PAY BACK PERIOD 54
5.3 SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS 57
6 FINDINGS FROM SELECTED SITE VISITS 60
6.1 FACULTY OF NURSING, KHON KAEN UNIVERSITY 60
6.2 WHALE HOTEL 61
6.3 THAI-DENMARK DAIRY FACTORY 65
xi
CHAPTER TITLE Page
6.4 PATONG MERLIN HOTEL 72
7 POTENTIAL OF SOLAR WATER HEATER 76
7.1 POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS FOR SOLAR THERMAL
TECHNOLOGY
76
7.2 ENERGY SAVING POTENTIAL 77
7.3 MARKET POTENTIAL 83
7.4 CARBON EMISSION REDUCTION POTENTIAL 85
8 POLICY AND FRAMEWORK 87
8.1 INTERNATIONAL POLICY 87
8.2 DIFFERENT POLICY ACCOMPANYING MEASURES HAVE
BEEN APPLIED SO FAR ON AN INTERNATIONAL LEVEL, TO
ACCELERATE THE MARKET GROWTH OF SOLAR THERMAL
APPLICATIONS
94
8.3 RECOMMENDED POLICY AND FRAMEWORK 100
9 CONCLUSION 103
APPENDIX
A. TRIP REPORTS 104
B. RECOMMENDED STANDARD FOR THAILAND 134
C. THAI INDUSTRIAL STANDARD FOR FLAT PLATE SOLAR
COLLECTOR (TIS 899-2532)
154
D. REMARKS ON ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT 156
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURES TITLE PAGE
2.1
Non-Electric Heater Trade Flow for Thailand during 1990-
1996
9
2.2
Non-Electric Heater Trade Flow for Thailand during 2001-
2006
9
2.3 Glazed Flat Plate Collector 15
2.4 Evacuated Tube Collector 15
2.5 Storage Tank Thermosyphon System 16
2.6 Different Storage Tank Designs in Force Circulation Systems 16
2.7 Storage Tanks in a Closed-Loop Force Circulation System 16
2.8
Service and Product Flow Diagram within the SWH Market
in Thailand
18
3.9 Picture of a neglected solar system In Thailand 25
4.1
Quality measures are required at different levels in the
installation of a solar thermal hot water system.
29
4.2
Example of solar thermal system layouts for large hot water
preparation systems with an additional reservoir in order to
have always a sufficient amount of domestic hot water free
of legion Ella by minimizing the demand on auxiliary heating
energy. The layouts were developed within the large German
demonstration programme Slolarthermie2000plus. Figures
extracted from Grosse Solaranlagen zur
Trinkwassererwrmung, German BINE information service,
Info III/2002
30
4.3
Typical layout of Thai large solar thermal systems for hot
water preparation, found during the site visits within the
SolTherm project
31
4.4
Left: air vents are a rare item in the visited installations. The
lack of air vents may cause serious maintenance and service
problems. Right: typically, the insulation of the ducts shows
signs of disintegration already in systems, installed a few
months ago only. Probably, under the Thai climatic
conditions, encasing the insulation with jackets is more
appropriate in order to avoid thermal losses
32
4.5
Internal corrosion of a flat-plate collector due to water
penetration. The corrosion is forced, if no ventilation holes in
the collector frame are existing and the wetted insulation
causes a permanent wet atmosphere in the collector. Photo
taken at a collector System of the River Hotel, Bangkok,
equipped with Chromagen collectors (Israel)
33
4.6
Broken control unit and wrong temperature control
installation
34
4.6a System control unit MES from the German company 35
xiii
FIGURES TITLE PAGE
Paradigma for large solar thermal plants. Also available:
remote control for the unit
4.6b
Programmable system control unit UVR 1611 from the
German company TA
35
4.6c
System control unit UVR 1611 from the German company
SOREL GmbH.
36
4.6d
System control unit Thermius from the Danish company
AllSun A/S
36
4.7
Components of the TS 12977 Custom Built Systems.
Figure from German BINE information service, Info II/2001.
38
4.8a
Outdoor solar thermal collector test facility at Fraunhofer
ISE (part of the Test Centre for Solar Thermal Systems).
Left: tracking rig for computer controlled automated
collector tests; right: mechanical load test facility
39
4.8b
Indoor solar thermal collector test facility at Fraunhofer ISE
(part of the Test Centre for Solar Thermal Systems) for
collectors with liquid heat transfer medium and for air
collectors.Between collector and lamp array, an artificial air-
cooled sky area is installed
39
4.9 Experimental test system 40
4.10 a SERT experiment 41
4.10 b CMU experiment 41
4.11
The European Solar Keymark quality label for solar thermal
products
41
4.12
Overview on the steps, necessary to obtain the European
Solar Keymark quality label for solar thermal products.
Described by the Solar Thermal Test Center at Fraunhofer
ISE, one of the certified test institutes in Germany
43
4.13
The success story of the European Solar Keymark. Since
October 2006, the number of keymark licenses has grown to
approx. 100 items
44
5.1
Solar radiation in Bangkok, Phuket, Chiang Mai and Khon
Kaen
48
5.2
Optimum collector area determination from the slope of the
Vs AC thermal performance curve
50
5.3 Solar fraction and number of solar collectors 51
5.4 A comparison of system efficiency and tank sizes 51
5.5 Load profile for typical hot water demand in Thai hotels 52
5.6 Effect of increasing the value of the parameter 58
6.1
Schematic diagram of SHWS at faculty of nursing, (1)
collector arrays, (2) the sediment deposited inside the
collector, (3) pipe connection, (4) auxiliary heater, (5) water
draining system, (6) insulation on pipes
60
6.2 Collector array and vertical storage tanks 61
6.3 Schematic diagram of SHWS installed at Whale hotel 62
xiv
FIGURES TITLE PAGE
6.4
The system components for the building B at Whale hotel,
upper left: collector array, a few of collectors show internal
corrosion. Upper right: storage tanks of which steel jacket
disintegrated. Lower left: the temperature gage seems to be
out of order as it indicated the temperature of water at 5
o
C.
Lower right: the setting point for controlling the system is
not clear.
64
6.5
Three HFO-boilers (7 bar each) of the dairy factory. The
preheat oil tank is located between the boiler no.1 and no.2
66
6.6
Overview of processes of dairy products, pasteurized milk,
UHT milk drink and pasteurized fermented milk drink
67
6.7
Simplified sketch of the process heat supply system at the
Diary Farm One of the possibilities to apply solar heat for
fuel saving by pre-heating the condensate from 80C to any
higher temperature is indicated (dotted).
69
6.8
Simplified sketch of the process heat supply system at the
Diary Farm One of the possibilities to apply solar heat for
fuel saving by pre-heating the fresh water from ambient
temperature to 70
o
C (dotted)
70
6.9 Patong Merlin Solar water heater system diagram 73
6.10
Electric and water consumption in January 2006 at Patong
Merlin
74
6.11
T-Sol
, to simulate performance
of solar collectors under weather conditions in 4 major cities representing 4 regions in
Thailand (central, north, northeast, and south). The energy produced is in the range of
1,000-1,300 kWh/m
2
for water temperature demand at 60C which shows that at low
temperature, efficiency of collector is not a key factor. Users should select the most cost
effective collectors according to demand temperatures.
Table 5.1: Energy produced by 3 types of collectors for water at 60C
kWh/m
2
Weather data
Unglazed Flat plate Evacuated
Bangkok 1,134 1,237 1,312
Chiang Mai 1,052 1,218 1,308
Khon Kaen 1,078 1,193 1,264
Phuket 1,057 1,173 1,243
5.1.4 Solar fraction
Solar fraction is a percentage or portion of annual energy demand meet by solar energy. A
hundred percent solar fraction means that all of the energy demand is supplied by solar
system. However, larger size of solar system requires higher investment cost. Proper solar
fraction that uses least investment cost while gives highest performance is the key to
economic viability for large solar thermal systems.
F-chart method is generally used for the analysis for an optimum size of solar collector
and tank. From Duffie and Beckman (1991), the optimum collector area can be
determined by plotting the solar fraction to the annual thermal performance. The optimum
area is where the slope of thermal performance is P
2
C
A
/P
1
C
F1
L.
L C P
C P
A
f
F
A
C 1 1
2
=
c
c
Equation 5-1
Where
| = fraction of solar energy to annual heat load
A
c
= collector area
P
1
= ratio of the life cycle fuel cost savings to the first year fuel cost savings
P
2
= ration of the life cycle expenditures incurred because of the additional capital
investment to the initial investment
C
F1
= first year fuel cost without a solar system
50
Figure 5.2 Optimum collector area determination from the slope of the | || | Vs A
C
thermal performance
curve. From Duffie and Beckman (1991).
The analysis use life cycle cost method which takes into account all future expenses. The
method provides a means of comparison of future costs with todays costs by discounting
all anticipated costs to present worth value. Detail of the analysis involves complicated
mathematic equations. Alternately, we use software tools that can perform the economic
analysis. Two simulation software tools are used in this study, Retscreen
, developed by
Retscreen International Clean Energy Support Center, Natural Resource Canada and T-
Sol
,
developed by Dr. Valentin EnergieSoftware GmbH. Both of the software gives
similar results when simulate with the same parameters. Only T-Sol
gives more
graphical results in technical analysis while Retscreen
.
Parameters for simulation
Application: Hotel
Load: Hot water for 180 Rooms, 70% occupancy rate
Fuel replaced: Electricity 3.9 Baht/kWh escalation at 8%/year
Collector: 22 collectors, Glazed, efficiency 78%
Tank: 5,000 liter
Solar fraction: 58%
Simulation results
- RE delivered 27.24 MWh
- Initial cost 1,006,940 Baht
- Annual cost 1,520 Baht (pump running cost)
- With the electricity cost at 3.9 Baht/kWh, pay back period is 3.4 years.
Using a typical hotel application for the sensitivity analysis, the results are shown in the
next page. With the same fuel cost at 3.9 baht/kWh, reducing initial cost 20% from its
original cost resulted in pay back time at 2.8 years. Further reduction to 40%, the pay
back period can be greater decrease to 2.1 years. While increasing RE energy delivered
which can be done by using higher efficiency collectors or higher number of collectors
can decrease the pay back time to only 2.5 years. This shows that initial cost is the key
parameter to reducing the pay back time.
58
Table 5.8 Sensitivity Analysis for Year-to-positive cash flow
Electricity
Avoided cost of heating energy (THB/kWh)
RE delivered
2.3400 3.1200 3.9000 4.6800 5.4600
(MWh) 789%
-40% -20% 0% 20% 40%
16.34 -40% 7.9 6.3 5.3 4.5 4.0
21.79 -20% 6.3 5.0 4.1 3.5 3.1
27.24 0% 5.3 4.1 3.4 2.9 2.5
32.68 20% 4.5 3.5 2.9 2.4 2.1
38.13 40% 4.0 3.1 2.5 2.1 1.8
Avoided cost of heating energy (THB/kWh)
Initial costs
2.3400 3.1200 3.9000 4.6800 5.4600
(THB) 7.9
-40% -20% 0% 20% 40%
604,164 -40% 3.4 2.6 2.1 1.8 1.6
805,552 -20% 4.4 3.4 2.8 2.4 2.0
1,006,940 0% 5.3 4.1 3.4 2.9 2.5
1,208,328 20% 6.1 4.8 4.0 3.4 3.0
1,409,716 40% 6.9 5.5 4.5 3.9 3.4
Avoided cost of heating energy (THB/kWh)
Annual costs
2.3400 3.1200 3.9000 4.6800 5.4600
(THB) 7.9
-40% -20% 0% 20% 40%
912 -40% 4.1 3.7 3.4 3.1 2.9
1,216 -20% 4.1 3.7 3.4 3.1 2.9
1,520 0% 4.1 3.7 3.4 3.1 2.9
1,824 20% 4.1 3.7 3.4 3.1 2.9
2,128 40% 4.1 3.7 3.4 3.1 2.9
Impact on Year-to-positive cash flow
Effect of increasingthe value of the parameter
S
o
r
t
e
d
b
y
t
h
e
i
m
p
a
c
t
-0.800 -0.600 -0.400 -0.200 0.000 0.200 0.400 0.600 0.800
Annual costs
REdelivered
Avoided cost of heating energy
Initial costs
Figure 5.6 Effect of increasing the value of the parameter
59
Although replacing electric water heater with solar water heater in residential application
has a long pay back period of 6.2 years, the same fuel replacement in commercial
application require only 3.4 years. This is partly due to lower cost of collectors in larger
systems and higher hot water demand in commercial application.
As compare to countries where solar thermal technology is successfully implemented,
Thailand pay back time for DSHW is relatively long because the initial cost is high while
fuel price particularly electricity is low. Since change of fuel price will have impact to the
country economic, left the initial cost of solar system the only option that we can
interfere. Table 5.9 compares variation for the percentages of initial cost reduction.
For the current domestic solar system cost at 29,000 Baht/m
2
(or 58,000 Baht for a
system), pay back period is 6.2 years for replacing electricity. In order to make solar
systems more appealing to customers, pay back time should not be longer than 5 years.
Hence a 30% reduction of initial cost is needed for the economic feasibility in domestic
hot water heater.
For commercial applications, replacing electric water heater in hotel/hospital can already
be feasible within 5 years. The case shown here is calculated for replacing LPG where
pay back time is still up to 8.2 years. The industrial application is based on a solar system
that would require a storage tank and glazed collectors in a case of replacing fuel oil.
With the initial cost of 23,000 Baht/m
2
, solar systems for commercial and industrial
applications need more than 6 years to pay back the investment. In order to reduce the
pay back period to less than 5 years, a 50% initial cost reduction is needed, which is
higher percentage than the residential application required due to low price of fuel even
they are escalated at 10%/year. The potential of future increase of LPG price due to
ceasing of government subsidy on the fuel may make the pay back period shorter than the
current price. There are financial incentives can make this initial cost reduction possible
such as tax privilege, tax incentives, tax credit, subsidy or other policies. Reviews of
international policy in success countries and recommendations for Thailand will be
illustrated in Chapter 8.
Table 5.9 Pay back periods for the reduction of initial cost
Current Percentage of initial cost reduction
Sectors Pay
back
time
Initial cost
(Baht/m
2
)
50% 40% 30% 20% 10%
Residential
1
6.2 29,000 3.5 4.1 4.7 5.2 5.7
Commercial
2
8.2 23,000 4.9 5.6 6.3 7 7.6
Industrial
3
7.7 23,000 4.5 5.3 5.9 6.6 7.2
Note
1. Residential solar system replacing electricity
2. Commercial solar system replacing LPG
3. Industrial solar system replacing fuel oil
60
6 FINDINGS FROM SELECTED SITE VISITS
This chapter outlines findings from potential and existing SWH applications in four
facilities where the project team visited during the project implementation. Detailed
analysis of data gathered during the site visits is also included in each case study. Brief
description of each facility and findings are captured in the following sections:
6.1 FACULTY OF NURSING, KHON KAEN UNIVERSITY
Faculty of Nursing, Khon Kaen University is located in the northeast of Thailand, 450 km
away from Bangkok. The SWH system was installed by DEDE in 1986 on the overhang
for car parking facing to the south, as shown in figure 6.2.
Existing solar hot water system
The schematic diagram of the system is shown in figure 6.1. The solar collector was
made in Thailand, and the collector array consists of 20 collectors, 2 m
2
each, arranged as
2 banks in series of 10 collectors each in parallels. The system was also equipped with air
vent, pressure and temperature gage. It included two vertical storage tanks and an electric
heater backup. The purpose of using hot water was for shower with a daily consumption
of 1.5 2 m
3
. The system produced hot water at 50
o
C. In 1991, hot water produced by
the system was piped to use in another building, 50 m away.
Figure 6.1 Schematic diagram of SHWS at faculty of nursing, (1) collector arrays, (2) the sediment
deposited inside the collector, (3) pipe connection, (4) auxiliary heater, (5) water draining system, (6)
insulation on pipes
61
Figure 6.2 Left: collector arrays installed over the car park. Right: two vertical storage tanks
Status, overall appearance and problem occurred
The SWH system has been abandoned for 2 years. The system failed two years ago and
the administrative unit of faculty decided not to retrofit this 20-year-olds system basically
due to high retrofitting cost with the new SWH system. Hot water demand in the nursery
today is met by electric water heaters.
Overall appearance and problems found are as follows:
1. Severe corrosion found on the piping system
2. The insulation on pipes came off
3. The insulation at the back of collector panel failed
Summary
The system by record was installed and in operation for over 20 years, and it was not
operated for two year due to the system failure. At that time, there was not available data
analysis result, thus the manager of faculty believed that renovating the SWH system to
produce hot water was not worth in comparison with electric heaters. He then decided to
install electric heaters instead. To promote SWH again for the faculty of nursing, the
data analysis result regarding economic comparative assessment of the systems must be
presented to the manager. The following scenarios should be done.
1. Renovate the existing SWH system and hybrid with the existing electric heaters
2. Install a new SWH system
6.2 WHALE HOTEL
Whale hotel, a three-star hotel, is located in Nakorn Prathom province, 60 kilometers
West of Bangkok. The hotel consists of 4 buildings (A, B, C and D). Solar hot water
systems were installed in building A, B and D and the installation was done in 1992,
1989 and 1993, respectively. Among three buildings, building D contains the largest
62
number of rooms. The size of collector array in each building varies according to the
number of rooms. The demand period of hot water is usually in the early morning (6:00-
8:00) and in the evening (19:00-20:00) but consumption data of hot water are not
available to the project team during the site visit.
Solar collectors
The collectors are of flat plate type with a panel size of 2 m
2
. The brands of collector are
LORDAN and CHROMAC from Israel. For LORDAN, the cover is made of glass
having low reflection losses. The collector frame and absorber were probably aluminium
and the insulation was supposed to be mineral wool. There was no ventilation hole. The
collector was faced south with an approximate tilt angle of 20 degree. There was no
serious shading on solar collectors.
Existing solar hot water system
For the building B, the system contains two storage units mounted in horizontal position.
The circulation of water between the solar collector and the storage tank no.1 (collector
loop) was performed using an electric pump. The hot water from the upper of storage
tank no.1 will discharge through pipe to the bottom of the storage tank no. 2 where the
immersion electric heater was installed to serve as an auxiliary heat source, as shown in
figure 6.3. The storage tanks were equipped with insulation and metal jacket. The total
volume of storage tanks was around 12 m
3
. The temperature different controller was used
in controlling the system, but the setting point for triggering the pump was not clear. The
system data were summarized and presented in table 6.1
Figure 6.3 Schematic diagram of SHWS installed at Whale hotel
Table 6.1 The SHWS of Whale hotel
Building A Building B Building D
1. No. of rooms 128 89 179
2. Average occupation rate 60 % 60 % 30 %
3. Daily water consumption N/A N/A N/A
4. Year of installation 1992 1989 1993
5. Period of using hot water 6:00-8:00
Electric
heater
RETURN
SUPPLY -HW
Solar Collector
Storage
tank 1
Feed water
63
19:00-20:00
6. Hot water temperature desired N/A N/A N/A
7. Solar collector size / panel 2 m
2
8. No. of collector panels 44 32 48
9. Collector brand CHROMAC
(Israel)
LORDAN
(Israel)
N/A
7. Orientation South South South
8. Inclination of collector array 20 degree 20 degree 20 degree
9. Capacity/type of storage tank 2 horizontal
tanks
8 and 4 m
3
2 horizontal
tanks
6 and 4 m
3
2 horizontal
tanks
8 and 4 m
3
10. Backup system Immersion
electric heater
Immersion
electric heater
Electric heater
100 W
Status, overall appearance and problem occurred
Since the temperature sensors do not function properly and the setting point temperature
was not clear, the collector loop of the building B was obviously in stagnation during
inspecting the system.
The insulation of storage tank was completely degraded through heavy corrosion of the
steel jacket and disintegration of the foam insulation to a large extent (figure 6.4). In the
other systems, the storage jacket was made of stainless steel. As two storage tanks were
installed in horizontal position, the temperature gradient especially on the top and the
bottom of the tank was probably low. There was no available data on temperature
distribution in the tanks.
For reasons of accessibility of the roofs at first visit, only the collectors of the first
systems (Building B) were inspected (consisting of 32 collectors). The appearance of
most of the collectors is comparatively good with little signs of corrosion. A few
collectors show clearly internal corrosion of the absorber plate, caused by contents of
humidity which could not be removed from the collector.
The foam insulation of the collector pipes is likewise disintegrated, as they are not
protected by a jacket. Some water had apparently leak from the pipes.
The pumps are, likewise to other inspected systems, mounted below the collector area
without any further protection against weather impact.
The control board is equipped with an electricity meter for the auxiliary electrical heaters,
but no readings have been applied. The control of the systems is decentralised, e.g., in
one of the systems, the auxiliary heater was replaced or supported by 2 additional
electricity heaters, either started manually or by their own internal control. These
additional heaters are designed for domestic inside use, but were installed outside close to
the storage without any weather protection.
The inspection of the systems by the technicians is done by checking for sufficient hot
water output temperature of the systems, without tracing the origin of the heat (solar or
electrically produced).
64
In inspecting the system at second visit, the SHWS for the building A still worked but the
system efficiency by calculation was quite low, approximately 10-15 %. The problem of
low water temperature obtaining from SHWS significantly effects on hotel customers,
especially in the winter.
The system still worked for the building D but functioned not well. Even the numbers of
customers in this building were less than those of other buildings; the electric heaters
were installed additionally. For reasons of difficulty of access to the roof, the systems
were roughly inspected.
There are no available data on system cost and annual electricity cost for the systems.
Figure 6.4 The system components for the building B at Whale hotel, upper left: collector array, a
few of collectors show internal corrosion. Upper right: storage tanks of which steel jacket
disintegrated. Lower left: the temperature gage seems to be out of order as it indicated the
temperature of water at 5
o
C. Lower right: the setting point for controlling the system is not clear.
Summary
The hotel manager realized on energy saving, but she did not know how to take care and
evaluate the system. The Watt-hour meter was installed to measure energy consumption
65
of auxiliary electric heater but no reading has been applied. The inspection of the system
by the technicians was done by checking only for sufficient hot water output temperature,
without tracing the origin of the heat (solar or electrically produced).
The experience made at the Whale hotel is of special interest, since the solar systems
were installed nearly 20 years ago and are still in operation. Part of the collectors show
corrosion, but the array at a whole may still contribute to the hot water supply.
The problems in the systems are addressed mainly to all system controls. It would be
worth to apply a retrofit to the system, focusing on:
- Exchange of control units of all systems by advanced control units with
electrical meters.
- Exchange and improvement of pipe insulation
- Exchange of degraded/damage parts by the new ones
- Training of technicians in order to detect the system operation efficiently
- Rising the awareness of hotel management to hot water and electricity
consumption figures to assess the benefits of the solar hot water systems
6.3 THAI-DENMARK DAIRY FACTORY
Thai-Denmark factory is located in Saraburi province, around108 km North of Bangkok.
At the factory, about 170 tons of raw milk is prepared for dairy products such as
pasteurized milk, fermented milk, UHT flavored milk, yoghurt etc., Monthly
consumption of water, and heavy fuel oil and electricity are 16,520 m
3
, 57,700 liters and
314 MWh respectively.
Steam production and processes
To produce the dairy products, the steam is needed in the processes. Steam is produced
using three HFO boilers (7 bar each) as shown in figure 6.5. They were alternately
operated. Normally, the boiler no.1 and no.2 are operated simultaneously with a total
steam production of 4.2 tons/hr, while the boiler no.3 usually operated at 3.3 tons/hr is
reserved.
The steam is basically used in the two production steps as shown in figure 6.6
- Pasteurising process, the milk is heated to a temperature level 80 C for 22 sec.
Subsequently, the finished milk so-called pasteurized milk is packaged and cooled
down to 5C, using electrically driven compression chillers. Likewise the pasteurized
milk, the pasteurized fermented milk drink is produced at temperature level 85
o
C for
15 min, and cooled down to 4-8
o
C.
- Sterilizing process of producing Ultra high treatment (UHT), the milk is heated to a
temperature level 138
o
C for 3 second. It is subsequently stored at 25C.
In addition to these processes, the steam and condensate are used for the cleaning purpose
e.g. cleaning vessels and machines when the models of products are changed, cleaning
milk containers on trucks, cleaning floor after work and preheating HFO. After using
66
additionally of condensate in the processes, the condensate is finally returned at a
temperature level of 80
o
C to the boiler. It was mentioned that make-up fresh water a day
for producing steam is approx. 27-30 m
3
.
Figure 6.5 Three HFO-boilers (7 bar each) of the dairy factory. The preheat oil tank
is located between the boiler no.1 and no.2
2
1
3
Preheat
HFO
tank
67
Figure 6.6 Overview of processes of dairy products, pasteurized milk, UHT milk drink and
pasteurized fermented milk drink
System analysis
As a large amount of steam is needed in the processes of producing diary products, the
energy saving should be realized. Integration of solar hot water system in the steam
production is one of strategies to save energy. The possibilities to include solar energy for
fuel saving are as follows:
1. Direct steam generation at the requested system pressure in concentrating solar
thermal collectors, e.g., parabolic trough collectors with one-axis tracking. Under the
68
prevailing meteorological conditions, this would probably lead to considerably large
collector installations with additionally required steam storage to smooth power
fluctuations
2. Pre-heating of the condensate from 80C towards 100C (or more) in a high-
efficiency collector system, using pressurised water as heat medium. As collector
type, vacuum tube collectors may be use, but high-efficiency flat plate collectors
(e.g., double-glazed with non-reflective coating) can be considered as well.
3. Pre-heating of the fuel oil from ambient temperature (30C) to any temperature until
100 C. Thus, the condensate from the steam supply system will be less used for fuel
pre-heating and returns into the boiler with a temperature above 80C, thereby saving
fuel for steam generation. This requires a well designed collector system as well, but
not necessarily vacuum tube collectors. The heat could be used for cleaning purpose
as well. Due to the daily delivery rate of fuel, this solution would probably lead to the
smallest solar thermal installation and thus smallest investment cost, but consequently
to the smallest potential for fuel saving as well. Figure 6.7 shows a possible solar
thermal application for pre-heating the condensate.
4. Since the steam and condensate lost from the system is replaced with approx.27-20
m
3
of fresh water, it is possible to preheat a large amount of fresh water from ambient
temperature to 70
o
C using simple SHWs before entering the boiler. The schematic
diagram of simple preheat water is shown in figure 6.8
The possibility 1) will be not really suggested here, since a concentrating solar process
heat supply system should be first subject to a pilot plant, before applying this technology
to a commercial process.
The possibilities 2), 3) and 4) should be subject to a feasibility study, considering
different collector technologies, collector system sizes and storage volumes, in order to
find an optimised system configuration with respect to the exploitation of the solar
system, to the saved primary energy and to the investment costs and payback time.
A preliminary calculation on preheating water by SHWS (possibility no.4) was carried
out using T-Sol simulation program. The analysis was done based on the following
economic factors: an average cost of package deal for construction work, life span of the
system of 20 yr, interest rate of 5 %/yr and price increasing rate-running cost of 3 %/yr.
There is no any additional cost in installation when using the existing water storage tank.
The technical input parameters including with cost had been tabulated in table 6.2. The
simulation results showed that daily preheating 30 m
3
of fresh water from ambient
temperature to 70
o
C with 250 m
2
of solar collectors yielded a 3 yrs payback period. The
annual fuel saving is about 44 m
3
of HFO. The summarized outputs are shown in table
6.3.
69
Figure 6.7 Simplified sketch of the process heat supply system at the Diary Farm One of the
possibilities to apply solar heat for fuel saving by pre-heating the condensate from 80C to any higher
temperature is indicated (dotted).
70
Figure 6.8 Simplified sketch of the process heat supply system at the Diary Farm One of the
possibilities to apply solar heat for fuel saving by pre-heating the fresh water from ambient
temperature to 70
o
C (dotted)
Boiler 3
Boiler 3
Boiler 3
Storage
Process
Storage
Fuel (30
o
C)
Fuel
(100
o
C)
Feed fresh water
Steam
(7 bar)
Condensate
(100
o
C)
Hot water
(70
o
C)
Pasteurizing,
Sterilizing
Cleaning, etc
Collector array
71
Table 6.2 Input parameters for calculating energy saving by preheating fresh water (the possibility 4)
Input parameter
i) Preheat fresh water
-Average diary consumption: 30 m
3
-Desire temperature: 70
o
C
-Load profile: Constant (6:00-19:00)
-Cold water temperature 24
o
C winter
29
o
C summer
ii)System components
- Collector loop
-Type: European standard panel
(FR(UL) 3.74 W/m
2
.K, FR() 78.7 %)
-Total surface area: 250 m
2
-Inclination (avoid dust deposition on col): 25
o
-Azimuth: 0
o
-DHW Standby Tank
-TSol Database Volume: 2 x 5 m
3
-Length for inside of building: 0 m
-Length for outside of building: 50 m
-Heat loss/per meter 0.3 W/m.k
-Pump and Piping: -Power of pump 200 W
iii) Costs and economic
factor
- Investment cost
Solar collector: 6,000 baht/m
2
(whole sale package for a large system, some parts of collector cost are included
in the installation cost)
Installation: 329,000 baht
Storage tank (existing one): 0 baht
Interest rate: 5 %/yr
Subsidy: 0 baht
Life span: 20 yr
- Operation and energy cost
Price increase rate running cost: 3%
LPG: 15 baht/kg
Heavy oil C: 15 baht/L
Electricity: 4 baht/kWh
Table 6.3 The simulation results obtaining from T-Sol program
Simulation Results
Heavy Fuel Oil
DHW Solar fraction
System efficiency
44 %
49 %
Solar contribution to DHW (annual) 243 MWh
Annual Fuel Savings 44 m
3
Amortization period
3 years
Summary
The plant manager of the dairy factory is really interested and enthusiastic in applying a
solar thermal system for fuel saving. A payback period of three years is highly
appreciated in his opinion, but five years would be still acceptable.
Since the solar collector system is expected to be a large one and operates at temperature
levels up to 100C, monitoring and accompanying research of this system is mandatory
for at least three years. Manufacturers, planner and installer should give sufficient
72
warranties and support and may participate from the project results and experiences in
order to raise their interest in a successful running project.
6.4 PATONG MERLIN HOTEL
Patong Merlin Hotel is one of the 4 hotels in the Merlin Group comprisingof 3 hotels in
Phuket and 1 hotel in Khaolak, Pang-nga, owned by a Thai family. Patong Merlin is a 3-
4 star hotel of 386 rooms in 6 low-rise buildings. The hotel was first built in 1986, started
with one building and completed its 6th building in 1992. Upon requirement of the hotel
owner, the solar water heaters were incorporated during the architectural design of the
hotel providing sufficient flat space on the south facing roof and easy access for
maintenance. A summary of the solar hot water systems for each building are shown
below in table 6.4.
Table 6.4 Solar hot water systems in Patong Merlin hotel
Building Year No. of rooms Other function No. of collector
1 1986 80 - 65
2 1988 56 Kitchen, laundry 60
3 1990 72 - 72
4 1990 56 Staff kitchen 42
5 1991 32 - 18
6 1992 93 Kitchen 60
Existing solar hot water system
Due to availability of the data, only building#2 which have sufficient information is
reviewed in this section.
Solar Collector:
Manufacturer: Lordan
Country: Israel
Type: Flat plate
Efficiency: 67%
Aperture area: 1.8 m
2
/ collector
Year of Mfg: 1988
System Configuration
73
Figure 6.9 Patong Merlin Solar water heater system diagram
Control system
- Solar collector: circulation of water in the collector array is control by differential
controller which set to start the circulation pump when temperature between hot and cold
sensor is more than 9C and stop when temperature difference is lower than 4C.
- Auxiliary electric heater: a temperature sensor is placed at half water level inside the
storage tank. When water temperature drops below 50C, the thermostat triggers the
magnetic contactor to turn on the electric heater.
- Circulation pump: the circulation pump is controlled by a thermostat which turns on the
pump when water temperature in return pipe from the building is lower than 35C.
Status, overall appearance and problem occurred
All of the solar collectors are in pretty good condition for an 18 year-old system, no glass
cover broken although some collectors show sign of slightly corrosion. There are a few
spot of water leakages from 2-3 pipe connections between collectors and pipe from tank
to collector array. Pipe insulation (Aeroflex 1 wall x 1 1/8 diameter) is mostly still
intact although condition of the insulation is pretty much degraded from years of heated
under the tropical sun. Hot water pipes (between collectors and outlet pipe from collector
to tank) are copper and cold water pipes are PVC. The overall condition of the system is
serviceable and serving hot water all year round.
Patong Merlin has a relatively good recording system for its water and energy
consumption. Technicians take daily reading for water and electric meter of the solar
system and recording of weather condition of the day. Below is plot of water measured at
hot water storage tank outlet and electric consumption (pumps and auxiliary electric
heater in solar system) in January 2006.
74
Electric and water consumption in January 2006
0
20
40
60
80
100
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29
Day of month
Water (m3)
Electric (kWh)
Figure 6.10 Electric and water consumption in January 2006 at Patong Merlin
In figure 6.10, the weather conditions were recorded as cloudy during the days where the
electric consumption is high (day 1-5, 6-13 and 23-25). On cloudy days, the electric
demand for water heating was approximately 2-5 kWh per one cubic meter of water. On
sunny days, electric consumption was average at 1-2 kWh per m
3
. This pattern of
electric/water and weather provide us a primary assumption that the solar fraction of the
system was approximately 80-90%.
System analysis
In order to analyze the solar system cost effectiveness, we use T-Sol software to simulate
system performance using Phuket weather data. The annual simulation result in shown
figure 6.11.
Figure 6.11 T-Sol
software
In order to analyze the solar system cost effectiveness, we use T-Sol software to simulate
system performance using Phuket weather data. The annual simulation result in shown in
figure 2.
Figure A8 T-Sol
134
B. RECOMMENDED STANDARDS FOR THAILAND
STANDARDS FOR SOLAR THERMAL COLLECTORS
SUGGESTIONS FOR THE ADAPTATION AND MODIFICATION OF CURRENT STANDARDS FOR
THE APPLICATION IN THAILAND
The following recommendations are made on base of the European Standard for Solar
Thermal collectors EN 12975, mainly part 1 (general requirements) and part 2 (test
methods), as well as on base of the Australian / New Zealand Standard AS/NZS
2712:2002.
Requirements on material (chapter 1), stagnation temperature (chapter 2) and on
performance tests (chapter 3) have been combined within one part. Subsequently, in
chapter 4, a template is provided as example for the durability and reliability test report
sheets.
The thermal performance test procedure is not described here, since this procedure may
be defined and included by the involved Thai institutes with respect to the prevailing
meteorological conditions and existing test facilities (e.g., dynamic test procedure).
Main focus of the recommendations is solar thermal flat plate collectors with a fluid as
heat transfer medium. Parts of the recommendations are in general valid for all types of
collectors (vacuum tubes, air-collectors, etc.).
MATERIAL
The operational ability and long lifetime of solar collectors depend on the correct choice
of appropriate materials.The materials of collector components should be selected and
constructed so, that they can withstand the maximum temperature which may occur at
stagnation conditions and the thermal shocks they may be exposed to during periods with
high temperatures and high solar irradiance. Therefore the use of non-combustible
materials should be preferred. Furthermore, the material should be resistant to exposure to
ultraviolet radiation and in cases where materials selected are not so, they should be
protected against incident and reflected ultraviolet radiation.
The construction of the collector should ensure that no undue stress is built up in the
cover, even at the maximum stagnation temperature of the collector.The components and
the materials of the collector should be able to withstand the mechanical loads resulting
from the heating up and cooling down of the collector. They should also be resistant to
environmental stress from outdoor climate caused by factors such as rain, wind, high
humidity and air pollutants.
The collector box should be water-tight to prevent penetration of rain water. It should be
constructed in such a way, that condensed water does not accumulate in the collector, as
this might impair its functional capability and durability. For that purpose the collector
should be properly designed to enable ventilation of air through the collector box.
The collector shall as well provide for safe installation and mounting. Sharp edges, loose
connections and other potentially dangerous features shall be avoided.
135
If the weight of the empty collector exceeds 60 kg, an anchorage for a lifting device shall
be included, except for the collectors that are assembled on the roof. Ducts leading
through the box should be constructed so, that no leakage can occur caused by thermal
expansion. The collector box bushings should withstand any damage, if they have to be
soldered for assembly. The design of the collector should be such, that heat bridges
between the collector box and the absorber are avoided.
In case other than pure water is applied as heat transfer fluid, the heat transfer fluid used
should not be toxic, seriously irritant to the human skin or eyes, or water polluting and it
should be fully biodegradable. Collectors filled with a heat transfer fluid irritant to human
skin or eyes, or toxic shall carry a warning label.
It is helpful to label the collector with a visible and durable label bonded onto the casing.
The following data may be used:
Name of manufacturer
Type
Serial number
Year of production
Gross area of collector
Dimensions of collector maximum operation pressure
Stagnation temperature at 1000 W/m
2
incident radiation and 35 C ambient air
temperature
Volume of heat transfer fluid
Material and quality of cover (e.g., Solar glass, tempered glass, 4 mm)
Weight of empty collector
Made in ...
It is also helpful to accompany solar collectors by an installer instruction manual, if
traded as stand-alone components. When they are part of a complete system, the system
installation manual can cover the complete system. In that case no separate manual for
the collector shall be required.
The instruction manual shall at least contain the following information:
dimensions and weight of the collector; instructions about the transport and
handling of the collector;
description of the mounting procedure;
recommendations about lightning protection;
instructions about the coupling of the collectors to one another and the connection
of the collector field to the heat transfer circuit;
if water is used as heat transfer fluid: recommendations on the quality and purity of
the water in order to avoid blocking of the fluid through the absorber;
in case other than pure water is applied as heat transfer fluid: recommendations
about the heat transfer media which may be used (also with respect to corrosion)
and precautions to be taken during filling, operation and service;
the maximum operation pressure; the pressure drop and the maximum and
minimum tilt angle;
permissible wind load
maintenance requirements.
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ABSORBER
Absorbers should be made from suitable materials to cope with mechanical and thermal
requirements of the application. The compatibility of the absorber material shall also be
guaranteed within the collector unit so that accelerated chemical degradation does not
take place. The application of absorbers made of steel should be avoided. The effect of
the manufacturing processes like cutting, brazing, soldering etc., on the properties of the
absorber should be considered. Where fabricated from copper alloy, the absorber shall be
resistant to the effects of dezincification and stress corrosion cracking.
The absorber ducts which guide the flow of the heat transfer fluid, including the
connection lines, should be designed and constructed in such a way that venting can be
effected in the installed condition, thus ensuring the functional capability of the collector.
Absorbers should be dimensioned on the basis of a calculation pressure corresponding to
the permissible working overpressure specified by the manufacturer taking into
consideration a safety factor of 1.5. The properties of the heat transfer medium should be
considered as well.
The material used should have a surface having the property of high absorptance to solar
radiation. A low thermal emittance may also be desirable and may be achieved by a
selective surface treatment.The effect of the maximum temperature (stagnation
temperature) of the absorber should be considered in the selection of material. In the case
of materials with strength characteristics, which vary appreciably with the temperature
and/or ultraviolet exposure, the evaluation criteria should be determined individually in
each case.The inside of the absorber ducts should withstand corrosion under normal
operating conditions and taking into account the admixture of possible additives to the
heat transfer fluid. (Swimming pool collectors connected directly to swimming pool water
shall be resistant to the additives used for the treatment of the swimming pool water.)
Absorber coatings should retain their optical properties under stagnation temperature,
high humidity and condensate
TUBING
For solar water heaters where the fluid ways of the absorber are formed from tubing, as
opposed to being formed integrally with the absorber plate, the tubing shall be one of the
following:
(a) copper tubing of appropriate material standard
(b) stainless steel tubing of appropriate material standard
(c) tubing of other materials provided that such tubing is not inferior with regard to
corrosion, pressure rating and durability, under the conditions of use, to that specified
in items (a) and (b) above.
Where solar water heaters are intended to be suitable for use with water having a high
chloride concentration, special attention should be given to the materials used.
Where the fluid ways of the absorber are formed from tubing as opposed to being formed
integrally with the absorber plate, the tubing shall be permanently and firmly bonded to
the absorber plate. The junction between the tubing and the absorber plate, either welded
or soldered, shall be capable to withstand the stagnation temperature of the absorber
without any degradation.
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THERMAL INSULATION
Thermal insulation materials shall be such that it will not deteriorate in service or become
compressed and leave uninsulated voids during transportation or installation. Insulation
materials should withstand the local temperature reached by the absorber under maximum
stagnation conditions. At this temperature no melting, shrinkage or outgassing of the
insulation with consequent condensation inside the collector cover, or absorber
performance reduction or corrosion of metallic surfaces should occur to the extent of
seriously reducing the collector performance. The insulation shall be placed and
contained so that its efficiency is maintained, contact with wiring terminations or
temperature controls has to be prevented and attack by vermin has to be deterred.Where
the design of the collector unit is such that insulating material will be exposed to sunlight
under operating conditions, it shall not be adversely degraded by ultraviolet radiation.
Transparent insulation materials or Teflon layers used should not deteriorate appreciably,
both mechanically and optically, during the service life of the collector due to ultraviolet
radiation, as well as due to high temperature and humidity.
Water or humidity absorption by the insulation material may shortly or permanently
reduce the insulation performance of the material and supports corrosion of the absorber.
If compatible with respect to the stagnation temperature achieved in the collector,
insulation material with low water absorption properties may be preferred (closed pores).
Thermal expansion of the material used in the collector due to the wide range of
temperatures should also be taken into consideration because of different thermal
expansion coefficients. For the collector insulation no materials should be used which
have been manufactured under the use of CFCs or which contain CFCs.
DIFFUSION BARRIERS
Diffusion barriers are materials used between absorbers and insulation material to prevent
diffusion into or out of the insulation material. They should be able to withstand the
absorber high temperatures and the incident ultraviolet radiation without shrinking and
the high humidity or condensate accumulated remaining tight.
COLLECTOR CASING
The collector casing and mountings shall be fabricated from either
(a) metal or other material having durability properties under the conditions of use not
inferior to those of hot-dip zinc-coated steel sheet; or
(b) any material suitable for the purpose, which is a material used as external cladding
or roof covering of buildings.
The connecting material between collector glazing and casing shall be leak-proof.
Nevertheless, due to the heavy monsoon rain and generally high air humidity, it is
recommended to locate an adequate number of drain holes at the lowest point of the
collector casing, so that ingress of water can be avoided. Thereby the invaded water and
humidity can escape more easily.
REMARK Definitely, materials should be suitable for climatic conditions in Thailand.
Collector casings made of aluminium or stainless steel is recommended, but which
material composition is most preferable, has to be discussed with respective industry
or research groups in material. An Austrian collector manufacturer equips collectors
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with a wooden frame with positive experience in all climates, but consequently the
rear side of the collector has to cover more mechanical load.
COLLECTOR GLAZING
Solar collectors are generally covered with glass or transparent plastic glazing made of
polymers. The transparency of the covers should not deteriorate appreciably during the
collectors service life. The covers should be resistant to ultraviolet radiation, air
pollution, high humidity and condensate as well as to high temperatures depending on the
collector design. The durability of glass and tempered glass (toughened glass) under the
service conditions found in solar collectors is good, but the resistance of plastics and glass
treated with a special coating to the combined effects of UV-radiation and temperature
may be poor. There may be significant degradation with time, and in the case of a reduced
transmission in the solar wavelengths, this will finally lead to degradation in the collector
performance.
A reduction in the tensile strength or impact strength of a cover material may lead to a
failure of the collector cover. Therefore, for a glazed collector the glazing material shall
be securely fastened and sealed to make provision for thermal expansion and contraction
of the glazing material and the collector. It has to be considered that broken glass should
not be a safety hazard. Glass should either break into small pieces, as with tempered
glass, or be safely retained, preferably within the collector area. For the application on
facades, appropriate safety standards for building construction, especially for facade
elements, are to be met by the collector. Solar glass for a higher transmission in the
visible spectral range increases the performance and cost, but does not contribute to more
safety. For higher temperature applications than domestic hot water production, solar
glass is recommended. In general, split glass covers have to be avoided. The usual
thickness of glass used for glazed collectors shall be between 3.5 and 4 millimetres.
REFLECTORS
Reflectors, either diffuse or specular, are reflecting surfaces used to increase the incident
radiation on the absorber. Outside the collector box reflectors should resist mechanical
loads through wind and hail, and the reflecting surface should be resistant to
environmental influences such as air pollution and to corrosion through humidity or rain,
whereas inside reflectors should withstand high temperatures.
STAGNATION TEMPERATURE
All solar water heater systems shall be designed to resist damage due to stagnation.
The typical high stagnation temperatures occur during periods of no useful heat removal
from the collector, with high solar radiation (total radiation on the plane of the collector >
1000 W/m) and high ambient temperatures (ambient air temperature > 35C), when the
collector is
empty during installation,
empty during its service life or
filled with fluid but not being used in peak summer conditions
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Having passed the stagnation temperature conditions,
there shall be no evidence of catastrophic or partial structural failure of the
collector, or of the collector cover without magnification when visually examined
(other than using normal eyeglasses);
there shall be no failure likely to impair the serviceability or durability of the
collector;
there shall be no evidence of any burning, scorching or heat shrinkage of any part
of the collector and
there shall be no degradation in the thermal performance of the collector.
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PERFORMANCE TESTS
Test methods for validating the durability, reliability and safety requirements for liquid
heating collectors are specified below.
As a result of these methods there shall be no:
absorber leakage or such deformation that permanent contact between absorber and
cover is established;
breaking or permanent deformation of cover or cover fixing;
breaking or permanent deformation of collector fixing points or collector box;
vacuum loss;
accumulation of humidity in form of condensate on the inside of the transparent
cover of the collector exceeding 20% of the aperture area.
The results of the inspection of the collectors shall be reported.
INTERNAL PRESSURE OF THE ABSORBER
The absorber shall be pressure-tested to assess the extent to which it can withstand the
pressures which it might meet in service.
Inorganic absorbers shall be pressure-tested at ambient air temperature within the range of
20C to 40C.
The test pressure shall be 1.5 times the maximum collector operating pressure specified
by the manufacturer.
The test pressure shall be maintained for 15 min.
Meanwhile the collector shall be inspected for leakage, swelling and distortion.
EXPOSURE TEST
The exposure test provides a low-cost reliability test sequence, indicating operating
conditions which are likely to occur during real service and which also allows the
collector to "settle", such that subsequent qualification tests are more likely to give
repeatable results.
The collector shall be mounted outdoors, but not filled with fluid. All except one of the
fluid pipes shall be sealed to prevent cooling by natural circulation of air. One shall be
left open to permit free expansion of air in the absorber.
Corresponding climate parameter values are:
30 hours of global solar irradiance on collector plane, G > 850 W/m2
(in sequences with a minimum of 30 minutes or longer)
at least 30 days with a global daily irradiation on collector plane, H > 14 MJ/m2
(interruptions allowed)
surrounding air temperature, ta > 15 C
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The collector shall be inspected for damage or degradation.
HIGH TEMPERATURE RESISTANCE TEST
This test is intended to assess rapidly whether a collector can withstand high irradiance
levels without failures, such as glass breakage, collapse of plastic cover, melting of plastic
absorber, or significant deposits on the collector cover from outgassing of collector
material. The collector shall be mounted outdoors or in a solar simulator, and shall not be
filled with fluid. All of the fluid pipes except for one shall be sealed to prevent cooling by
natural circulation of air.
A temperature sensor shall be attached to the absorber to monitor its temperature during
the test. The sensor shall be positioned at two-thirds of the absorber height and half the
absorber width. It shall be fixed firmly in a position to ensure good thermal contact with
the absorber. Furthermore the sensor shall be shielded from solar radiation. (When testing
collectors, such as evacuated tubular collectors, the temperature sensor should be placed
at a suitable location in the collector, and this location should be clearly described with
the test results.)
Corresponding climate parameter values are:
global solar irradiance on collector plane, G > 1000 W/m2
surrounding air temperature, ta 20 40 C
surrounding air speed < 1 m/s
The test shall be performed for a minimum of 1 h after steady-state conditions have been
established, and the collector shall be subsequently inspected for signs of damage such as
degradation, shrinkage, outgassing or distortion.
EXTERNAL THERMAL SHOCK
Collectors may be exposed to sudden rainstorms on hot sunny days, especially in months
of monsoon, causing a severe external thermal shock. This test is intended to assess the
capability of a collector to withstand such thermal shocks without a failure. The collector
shall be mounted either outdoors or in a solar simulator, but shall not be filled with fluid.
All except one of the fluid pipes shall be sealed to prevent cooling by natural circulation
of air. One shall be left open to permit free expansion of air in the absorber.
A temperature sensor may be optionally attached to the absorber to monitor its
temperature during the test. An array of water jets shall be arranged to provide a uniform
spray of water over the collector. The collector shall be maintained under a high level of
solar irradiance for a period of 1 h before the water spray is turned on. It is then cooled by
the water spray for 15 minutes before being inspected.
The collector shall be subjected to two external thermal shocks.
The corresponding solar irradiation level is:
global solar irradiance on collector plane, G > 850 W/m2
The water spray shall have a temperature of less than 25 C and a flow rate in the range of
0.03 kg/s to 0.05 kg/s per square metre of collector aperture.
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If the temperature of the water which first cools the collector is likely to be greater than
25 C (for example if the water has been sitting in a pipe in the sun for some time), then
the water shall be diverted until it has reached a temperature of less than 25 C before
being directed over the collector.
The collector shall be inspected for any cracking, distortion, condensation, water
penetration or loss of vacuum.
INTERNAL THERMAL SHOCK
Collectors may from time to time be exposed to a sudden intake of cold heat transfer fluid
on hot sunny days, causing a severe internal thermal shock, for example, after a period of
shutdown, when the installation is brought back into operation while the collector is at its
stagnation temperature. This test is intended to assess the capability of a collector to
withstand such thermal shocks without failure.
The collector shall be mounted either outdoors or in a solar simulator, but shall not be
filled with fluid. One of its fluid pipes shall be connected via a shutoff valve to the heat
transfer fluid source and the other shall be left open initially to permit the free expansion
of air in the absorber and also to permit the heat transfer fluid to leave the absorber. If the
collector has more than two fluid pipes, the remaining openings shall be sealed in a way
that ensures the designed flow pattern within the collector.
A temperature sensor may be optionally attached to the absorber to monitor its
temperature during the test. The collector shall be maintained under a high level of solar
irradiance for a period of 1 hour before it is cooled by supplying it with heat transfer fluid
for at least 5 minutes or until the absorber temperature drops below 50 C.
The collector shall be subjected to two internal thermal shocks.
The corresponding solar irradiation level is:
global solar irradiance on collector plane, G > 850 W/m2
The heat transfer fluid shall have a temperature of less than 25 C. The recommended
fluid flow rate is at least 0.02 kg/s per square metre of collector aperture (unless otherwise
specified by the manufacturer).
The collector shall be inspected for any cracking, distortion, deformation, water
penetration or loss of vacuum.
RAIN PENETRATION TEST
This test is applicable only for glazed collectors and is intended to assess the extent to
which glazed collectors are substantially resistant to rain penetration. They shall normally
not permit the entry of either free-falling rain or driving rain. Collectors may have
ventilation holes and drain holes, but these shall not permit the entry of driving rain. The
collector shall have its fluid inlet and outlet pipes sealed (unless hot water is circulated
through the absorber), and be placed in a test rig at the shallowest angle to the horizontal
recommended by the manufacturer. If this angle is not specified, then the collector shall
be placed at a tilt of 20 to the horizontal. Collectors designed to be integrated into a roof
structure shall be mounted in a simulated roof and have their underside protected. Other
collectors shall be mounted in a conventional manner on an open frame or a simulated
roof.
The collector shall be sprayed on exposed sides, using spray nozzles or showers.
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The collector shall be mounted and sprayed while the absorber in the collector is kept
warm (minimum 50 C). This can be done either by circulating hot water at about 50 C
through the absorber or by exposing the collector to solar radiation. The heating up of the
collector should be started before the spraying of the water in order to ensure that the
collector box is dry before testing. In cases of collectors having wood in the backs (or
other special cases), the laboratory must take all necessary measures during the
conduction of the test so that the final result will not be influenced or altered by the
special construction of the collector. The collector shall be sprayed with water at a
temperature lower than 30 C and with a flow rate of more than 0.05 kg/s per square
metre of sprayed area. The duration of the test shall be 4 hours. The water pressure shall
be 300 kPa. The collector shall be inspected for water penetration. The results of the
inspection, i.e. the extension of water penetration and the places where water penetrated
shall be reported.
The penetration of water into the collector shall be determined by inspection (looking for
water droplets, condensation on the glass cover or other visible signs) and by one of the
following methods:
weighing the collector before and after the test: the determined water quantity shall
be less than 50 gr/m collector area;
measuring the humidity inside the collector (standard uncertainty better than 5%)
or
measuring the condensation level, which shall be less than 20 % of the transparent
cover and the quantity of the water that come out of the collector when tipping it
shall be less than 50 gr/m collector area.
Due to the heavy monsoon rain and generally high air humidity, it is recommended to
locate an adequate number of drain holes at the lowest point of the collector casing, so
that ingress of water can be avoided. Thereby the invaded water and humidity can escape
more easily.
MECHANICAL LOAD TEST
Positive pressure test
This test is intended to assess the extent to which the transparent cover of the collector
and the collector box are able to resist the positive pressure load due to the effect of wind.
The collector shall be placed horizontally on an even ground. On the collector a foil shall
be laid and on the collector frame a wooden or metallic frame shall be placed, high
enough to contain the required amount of gravel or similar material. The gravel,
preferably type 2-32 mm, shall be weighed in portions and distributed in the frame so that
everywhere the same load is created (pay attention to the bending of the glass), until the
wanted height is reached. The test can also be carried out loading the cover using other
suitable means (e.g. water), or a uniformly distributed set of suction cups. As a
further alternative, the necessary load may be created by applying an air pressure on the
collector cover.
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The test pressure shall be increased at maximum steps of 250 Pa until a failure occurs or
up to the value specified by the manufacturer. The test pressure shall be at least 3200 Pa.
REMARK The value 3200 Pa corresponds to requirements in areas with high danger
of occurrency of tropical cyclones, e.g., like in Caribbean areas. In Europe,
recommended values are between 1000 and 2400 Pa.
A failure can be the destruction of the cover and also the permanent deformation of the
collector box or the fixings.
The pressure at which any failure of the collector cover or the box or fixings occurs shall
be reported together with details of the failure. If no failure occurs, then the maximum
pressure which the collector sustained shall be reported. The maximum positive pressure
is the pressure reached before a failure occurs. The permissible positive pressure is the
maximum pressure divided by the safety factor (SFpositive = 1.5).
When the test is done with an on-roof mounting system the test results is also valid for the
roof integrated mounting system.
Negative pressure test
This test is intended to assess the extent to which the fixings between the collector cover
and collector box are able to resist uplift forces caused by the wind.
The collector shall be installed horizontally on a stiff frame by means of its mounting
fixtures. The frame which secures the cover to the collector box shall not be restricted in
any way. A lifting force which is equivalent to the specified negative pressure load shall
be applied evenly over the cover. The load shall be increased in steps up to the final test
pressure. If the cover has not been loosened at the final pressure, then the pressure may be
stepped up until a failure occurs.
The time between each pressure step shall be the time needed for the pressure to stabilise.
Either of two alternative methods may be used to apply pressure to the cover:
Method 1
The load may be applied to the collector cover by means of a uniformly distributed set
of suction cups.
Method 2
For collectors which have an almost airtight collector box, the following procedure
may be used to create a negative pressure on the cover. Two holes are made through
the collector box into the air gap between the collector cover and absorber, and an air
source and pressure gauge are connected to the collector air gap through these holes.
A negative pressure on the cover is created by pressurising the collector box.
For safety reasons the collector shall be encased in a transparent box to protect
personnel in the event of failure during this test.
During the test, the collector shall be visually inspected and any deformations of the
cover and its fixings reported. The collector shall be examined at the end of the test to
see if there are any permanent deformations.
The test pressure shall be increased in steps of 250 Pa until a failure occurs or up the
value specified by the manufacturer. The test pressure shall be at least 2400 Pa. A
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failure can be the destruction of the cover and also the permanent deformation of the
collector box or the fixings.
A permanent deformation is to be assigned to a load value, while it is completely
relieved after every load increment of 250 Pa and the distortion is measured compared
to the beginning of the test sequence. The value of an inadmissible permanent
deformation amounts to max. 0.5 %. (Example: 10 mm distortions at 2 m length of
collector frame)
The pressure at which any failure of the collector cover or the box or fixings occurs
shall be reported together with details of the failure. If no failure occurs, then the
maximum pressure which the collector sustained shall be reported.
The maximum negative pressure is the pressure reached before a failure occurs. The
permissible negative pressure is the maximum pressure divided by the safety factor
(SFnegative = 2).
IMPACT RESISTANCE TEST
Collectors shall sustain no significant damage, cracking, breakage or puncture of any
glazing, or the absorber in an unglazed collector, when affected by hail.
This test is intended to assess the extent to which a collector can withstand the effects of
heavy impacts caused by hailstones. Where hail guards are provided, it is recommended
that they are located not less than 50 mm from the surface of the glazing of glazed
collectors, or the absorber surface for unglazed collectors.
The collector shall be mounted either vertically or horizontally on a support. The support
may be stiff enough so that there is negligible distortion or deflection at the time of
impact. Steel balls (diameter: 25.4 mm) shall be used to simulate a heavy impact. If the
collector is mounted horizontally then the steel balls are dropped vertically, or if it is
mounted vertically then the impacts are directed horizontally by means of a pendulum. In
both cases, the height of the fall is the vertical distance between the point of release and
the horizontal plane containing the point of impact.
The point of impact shall be no more than 5 cm from the edge of the collector cover, and
no more than 15 cm from the corner of the collector cover, but it shall be moved by
several millimetres each time the steel ball is dropped.
A steel ball shall be dropped onto the collector 10 times from the first test height (0.2 m),
10 times from the second test height (0.4 m), etc. until the maximum test height (2.0 m) is
reached. The test has to be stopped when the collector sustains some damage or when the
collector has survived the impact of 10 steel balls at the maximum test height.
The collector shall be inspected for damage. The results of the inspection shall be
reported, together with the height from which the steel ball was dropped and the number
of impacts which caused the damage.
REMARK The occurrence of hail in the Thai region and thus the importance of this
performance test has to be assessed.
FINAL TEST
When the full test sequence has been completed, the collector shall be dismantled and
inspected. All abnormalities shall be reported and accompanied by a photograph.
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DURABILITY AND RELIABILITY TEST REPORT SHEETS
COLLECTOR IDENTIFICATION
Collector Reference Number:
Manufacturer:
Brand Name:
Serial Number:
Year of Production:
Collector Type: Unglazed
Glazed
Evacuated
Collector Surface Area: m (Gross); m (Absorber); m
(Aperture)
Material of glazing and thickness:
Material of absorber and type of coating (selective or not):
Material of absorber ducts:
Material of casing:
Material of insulation:
No. and position of drain holes:
Schematic Drawing:
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SUMMARY
All significant damage to the collector, including rain penetration, should be summarised
in Table C1.
Full details should be given in the individual test result sheets.
Table B1 All significant damage to the collector, including rain penetration
Date Test
Start End
Main Results
Internal Pressure Absorber
High Temperature Resistance
Exposure
First External Thermal
Shock Second
First Internal Thermal
Shock Second
Rain Penetration
Mechanical Load
Impact Resistance
Final Inspection
Remarks:
..
INTERNAL PRESSURE TEST FOR INORGANIC ABSORBERS
Collector Reference Number:
Collector Type: Glazed
Unglazed
Maximum collector operating pressure specified by manufacturer: ............................kPa
Test conditions:
Test temperature: ...................................................................................................... C
Test pressure: ........................................................................................................... kPa
Test duration: .......................................................................................................... min
Test results:
148
(Details of any observed or measured leakage, swelling or distortion.)
HIGH TEMPERATURE RESISTANCE TEST
Collector Reference Number:
Method used to heat collector:
Outdoor Testing
In Solar Irradiance Simulator
Test Conditions:
Collector tilt angle (degrees from horizontal): ...............................................................
Average irradiance during test: ............................................................................. W/m2
Average surrounding air temperature: ........................................................................ C
Average surrounding air speed: .
m/s
Average absorber temperature: .................................................................................. C
Duration of test: ...................................................................................................... min
Additional Information:
(Especially for evacuated tubular collectors, the temperature of the collector was
measured at the location shown in the drawing below.)
Test results:
(Details of any observed or measured degradation, distortion, shrinkage or outgassing.)
EXPOSURE TEST
Collector Reference Number:
Test Conditions:
Collector tilt angle (degrees from horizontal): .
In Tables B2 and B3 full details should be given of the climatic conditions for all days
during the test, including:
daily global irradiation, H (MJ/m2);
149
periods when the global irradiance G and the surrounding air temperature (ta) have
values greater than those specified in the corresponding climate parameter values;
surrounding air temperature, ta (C);
rain (mm).
Table B2 Detail of of the climatic conditions
Date H
MJ/m
Ta
C
Rain
mm
Total: days in which H > MJ/m
Table B3 Detail of of the climatic conditions
Date G
W/m
Ta
C
Time Periods
min
Total: .. min in which G > 850 W/m
Test Results:
EXTERNAL THERMAL SHOCK TEST
Collector Reference Number:
Test performed: Outdoors
In Solar Irradiance Simulator
Test Conditions:
Collector tilt angle (degrees from horizontal): ...............................................................
Average irradiance during test: ............................................................................. W/m2
Minimum irradiance during test: ........................................................................... W/m2
Average surrounding air temperature: ........................................................................ C
Minimum surrounding air temperature: ..................................................................... C
Period during which the required operating conditions were maintained
prior to external thermal shock: ................................................................................ min
Flow rate of water spray: ................................................................................ kg/(s*m2)
Temperature of water spray: ...................................................................................... C
Duration of water spray: .......................................................................................... min
Absorber temperature immediately prior to water spray: ............................................ C
Additional information:
150
(Especially for evacuated tubular collectors, the temperature of the collector was
measured at the location shown in the drawing below.)
Test Results:
(Details of any cracking, distortion, condensation, water penetration or loss of vacuum.)
INTERNAL THERMAL SHOCK TEST
Collector Reference Number:
Test performed: Outdoors
In Solar Irradiance Simulator
Test Conditions:
Collector tilt angle (degrees from horizontal): ................................................................
Average irradiance during test: ..............................................................................W/m2
Minimum irradiance during test: ............................................................................W/m2
Average surrounding air temperature during test: ...................................................... C
Minimum surrounding air temperature: ..................................................................... C
Period during which the required operating conditions were maintained
prior to internal thermal shock: .................................................................................min
Flow rate of heat transfer fluid: ....................................................................... kg/(s*m2)
Temperature of heat transfer fluid: ............................................................................ C
Duration of heat transfer fluid flow: ..........................................................................min
Absorber temperature immediately prior to heat transfer fluid flow: ........................... C
Additional information:
(Especially for evacuated tubular collectors, the temperature of the collector was
measured at the location shown in the drawing below.)
Test Results:
(Details of any cracking, distortion, condensation, water penetration or loss of vacuum.)
151
RAIN PENETRATION TEST
Collector Reference Number:
Collector mounted on: Open frame
Simulated roof
Test Conditions:
Collector tilt angle (degrees from horizontal): ...............................................................
Method used to keep absorber warm: Hot water circulation
Exposure of collector to solar radiation
Water spray flow rate:
...g/(s*m2)
Duration of water spray:
...h
Test Results:
Area with visible sign of water penetration
(expressed as a percentage of aperture area): ..%
Give details of water penetration, reporting the places where water penetrated and the
time the sign of rain penetration took to vanish.
MECHANICAL LOAD TEST
Collector Reference Number:
Positive pressure test of the collector cover
Method used to apply pressure: Loading with gravel or similar material
Loading with water
Suction cups
Pressurisation of collector cover
Test Conditions:
maximum pressure load:
.Pa
152
Test Results:
(Details of any damage to the collector cover after the test, reporting the value of
pressure load which caused the damage.)
NEGATIVE PRESSURE TEST OF FIXINGS BETWEEN THE COVER AND THE
COLLECTOR BOX
Method used to apply pressure: Suction cups
Pressurisation of collector box
Test Conditions:
maximum pressure load:
.Pa
Test Results:
(Details of any damage to the collector cover or cover fixings after the test,
reporting the value of pressure load which caused the damage.)
IMPACT RESISTANCE TEST
Collector Reference Number:
Test performed using: Vertical impact (dropping ball)
Horizontal impact (pendulum)
Test Conditions:
Diameter of ball:
..mm
Mass of ball:
..g
Test Procedure:
Drop Height
m
Number of Drops
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
153
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
Test Results:
(Details of any damage.)
FINAL INSPECTION
Collector Reference Number:
Date of inspection: ...
Table B4 Final Inspection
Collector Component Potential Problem Evaluation
Collector Casing and
Fasteners
Cracking/ Warping/
Corrosion/ Rain penetration
Mountings/
Structure
Strength/ Safety
Seals/ Gaskets
Cracking/ Adhesion/ Elasticity
Cover/ Reflector Cracking/ Crazing/ Buckling/
Delamination/
Warping/ Outgassing
Absorber Coating
Cracking/ Crazing/ Blistering
Absorber Tubes and Headers
Deformation/ Corrosion/
Leakage/ Loss of bonding
Absorber Mountings
Deformation/ Corrosion
Insulation
Water Retention/ Outgassing/
Degradation
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C. THAI INDUSTRIAL STANDARD FOR FLAT PLATE SOLAR COLLECTOR (TIS 899-2532)
This Thai Industrial Standard specifies types, components, required characteristics, label,
samplingand judging criteria, and testing of solar collector with exposure area larger than
0.5 m
2
.
1. Types
Solar collector can be divided into 4 categories according to the production
processes of absorbing plates.
Type 1: The solar collector consists of an absorber plate which is produced by
electroplating technique.
Type 2: The solar collector consists of an absorber plate which is produced by
chemical process.
Type 3: The solar collector consists of an absorber plate which is produced by
painting technique.
Type 4: The solar collector consists of an absorber plate which is produced by
other techniques.
2. Components
Generally, the solar collector consists of frame, transparent plate, absorber plate,
tubes located inside the solar collector, insulator, and container and backing plate
3. Required characteristics
3.1 Solar collector performance
3.1.1 Leakage
3.1.2 Tolerance of temperature change
3.2 Materials for solar collector
3.2.1 Transparent plate
3.2.1.1 Glass used as a transparent plate should be complied with
TIS 54 or tempered glass
3.2.2 Absorber plate
3.2.2.1 Optical property
Solar absorptance and emittancemust be complied with the
label.
3.2.2.2 Tolerance to the weather
There must be visible crack or flake at the surface of the
absorber plate no more than 1% of the whole surface.
3.2.2.3 Adhesion
The surface of the absorber plate that is peeled off with the
glue strip should be no more than 5 mm2.
3.2.3.4 Tolerance to corrosion
There must be no corrosion or swelling at the surface of
the absorber plate and there no rust should be found at
the metal base.
3.2.3 Container and backing plate
3.2.3.1 Tolerance to the weather
There must be no visible crack or flake at the surface of the
container and the backing plate.
3.2.3.2 Tolerance to corrosion
There must be no visible corrosion or swelling at the weld.
155
3.2.4 Insulator
Changes of mass and dimensions of the insulator must not be larger
5%.
4. Signs and labels
There must be, at least, numbers, letters or signs indicated on the solar collector plates
visibly and permanently as follows:
1) wording Flat Plate Solar Collector
2) Types
3) Dimensions, total area and exposure area
4) Mass of solar collector in kg
5) Maximum working pressure in kPa
6) Minimum absortance and maximum and emittance
7) Plots of thermal efficiency
8) lot number
9) Name of manufacturer or registered trade mark
10) Country of manufacturing
5. Sampling and judging criteria
Sampling and judging criteria can be done for one particular lot with no more than 300
plates, and with the same type, materials, production process, and trading period.
5.1 Sampling and acceptance for performance testing of the solar collector
5.1.1 Random Sampling from the same lot for 1 plate.
5.1.2 The sample must be identical to item 3.1. Therefore, solar collectors in
that lot can be qualified. If any of the sample does not follow item 3.1,
another plate should be sampled for double-check.
5.2 Sampling and acceptance of the testing of absorber plate, container and backing
plate, and insulator
5.2.1 A sample of the absorber plate, container and backing plate, and insulator
are cut off from the solar collector that has been passed the performance
test and absorber plate testing.
5.2.2 The sample must be complied with the material standard for solar
collector.
5.3 Judging criteria
Samples must be complied with the sampling criteria and the standard of
material, which can be chosen as the material for a solar collector. If the
samples are qualified, that lot of solar collectors can be regarded as the solar
collectors approved by the TIS.
156
D. REMARKS ON ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT
This is just an example for a possible economic assessment of a given solar application;
other approaches may be applied as well.
Simple economic assessment by annuity method
A Solar supported system
- Investment cost, sum of
- collector
- collector support
- storage
- hydraulics
- auxiliary system
- installation
- control
- planning
- ..
- Subsidy
- Calculation of annuity factor from final total investment cost (Investment cost
Subsidy)
- Calculation of annual cost
= total final investment cost * annuity factor
+ annual fuel & electricity cost
+ annual cost for maintenance, inspection
B Reference system (non-solar conventional system)
Repeating the annual cost calculation for the reference system
Application:
Comparison of specific costs, e.g. heat generation costs (annual cost / annually produced
heat) between solar assisted system and reference system
Difference in annual cost may be related to annual primary energy savings, CO
2
savings,
etc. See following example:
157
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Speichervolumen, l/m
2
e
i
n
g
e
s
p
a
r
t
e
P
r
i
m
r
e
n
e
r
g
i
e
500
650
800
950
1100
1250
1400
0,00
0,05
0,10
0,15
0,20
0,25
0 50 100 150 200
Speichervolumen, l/m
2
K
o
s
t
e
n
e
i
n
g
e
s
p
a
r
t
e
P
E
,
/
k
W
h
500
650
800
950
1100
1250
1400
Example:
Upper figure: annually saved primary energy (difference in percent between primary
energy consumption of reference system and solar assisted system) as a function of the
storage volume (horizontal axis; liter per m collector area) and of the collector size
(different curves; size in m). Excerpt from a calculation of a large solar cooling system.
Figure below: specific costs of saved primary energy of the system as a function of the storage
volume (horizontal axis) and of the collector size, given in m (different curves).
The specific costs are calculated from the difference in annual cost (solar system reference
system) and divided by the annual saved primary energy [t/kWh
savedPE
]. A flat cost minimum
appears in this application of large solar cooling system at collector areas > 1000 m, leading to
annually primary energy savings of > 20% in the range of an optimised storage size.
Static payback time
(Investment cost (solar assisted system) Investment cost (reference system))
/ (annual O&M (reference) annual O&M (solar))
In the example above, a payback time is not given, since the system (unfortunately often
the case in solar cooling systems) is under the applied cost figures not economic
beneficial