VESNIK

39/2012

2012.

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CONTENTS
ays and Features

Milo Jevti /
GOLD PREHISTORIC PECTORAL FROM THE VICINITY OF BOR

/ Sofija Petkovi
VIA MILITARIS KO
Roman road Via militaris in Davidovac by Vranje
Miroslav Vujovi / M
FEW CONTRIBUTIONS ON THE LATE ROMAN HELMETS FROM IRON GATE

/ ore Jankovi
7.
Dubovac Discovery of the Serbian pottery from the 7th century

21

29

45

/ Iliji Goran
: 17.

Art in the Service of War: Artillery of the 17th Century and a Habsburg Regimental Cannon in the
Collection of the Military Museum in Belgrade
/ Branko Bogdanovi
1867
Green Alteration Breech-Loading Percussion System - Fiction and Fact
, / Ivan Mijatovi, Neboja oki

Garrison and siege Artillery of the Army of Principality and Kingdom of Serbia
/ Ognjan Petrovi

( )
Military aircraft of Kingdom of Yugoslavia
(Modernization unsuccessful purchasings and minor aircraft types)

57

89

101

121

149

, / Predrag Miladinovi, Aleandr Kolo

19421955
Aviation Insignia of New Yugoslavia 19421955

165

185

191

201

215

Articles

/ Ljubica Dabi

Ottoman warriors in works of French masters
, / Duanka Marii, Ljubomir Stevovi
18151865.
Medals of 50. aniversary from Second Serbian Insurrection 18151865
/ Vuk Obradovi

English navy blunderbuss pistol with spring loading bayonet

/ Olivera Dumi

Gun making in Serbia


Destroyer Dubrovnik Vessel under three Flags

/ Neboja oki
/ 20.

229

Fighter aircrafts of Kingdom of SCS/Yugoslavia until 1930s

, / Ljubomir Stevovi, Dragan Niki

255

Pupin Medal for service to the Nation of Columbia Universty in New York

Conservation

, / Aleksandar Joksimovi, Mirko Pekovi

1954. 1980.

263

The development of preventive conservation and analysis of the Military Museum in Belgrade from the
annual reports published in the Vesnik from 1954 to 1980

Reviews exhibition

/ Marijana Joveli

,
/


/ Nataa Tomi


/ Marijana Mraovi

K K
/ Dejan Milivojevi

271

273

275

276

277

Reviews edition

/ Ivan Mijatovi
(18781960), 2011, . 412

279

/ Boica Mladenovi
, ,
1941. , 2011, . 130

281

FEW CONTRIBUTIONS ON THE

LATE ROMAN HELMETS FROM
IRON GATE
Miroslav B. Vujovi,
Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Philosophy,
Belgrade

Abstract: The paper deals with the finds from the

Iron Gate sites Gospodjin Vir (Manastir) and Rtkovo
the author determines as parts of the Late Antique
helmets. Both findings have been published without
specific identification. In the light of recent research
of the late Roman weapons there are clear indications that these objects actually represent the remains
of Intercisa type helmets (Ridge helmets). Fragmented copper alloy gold-plated application with the
stamped Chi-Ro symbol originates from the site Manastir, located in the vicinity of Gospodjin Vir. Previously interpreted as a pendant, it more likely represent an ornament and prophylactic symbol originally
attached to the high crest of iron helmet of the Intercisa type. It has a good analogy in the findings from
the river Maas, Sisak, Richborough and Koblentz.
The second finding comes from site Glamija at Rtkovo. It has been published with no clear attribution,
roughly attributed amongst the objects of unknown
use. Judging by the shape and characteristic cross
section, this find probably was a part of the helmet
mentioned by M. Gabrievi in the review report
from the excavations of the Late Roman and Early
Byzantine fort at Rtkovo. Despite the strong corrosion both shape and dimensions of the iron sheet fit
into the common form of the late Roman composite
helmets neck guards. Similarly shaped neck guards
occur on the helmets from Intercisa and other sites
(Augst, Koblentz). Appearance of iron helmets with
composite bowl with prominent longitudinal ridged

strip in the Tetrarchic armies has been explained as

a result of different influences - the oriental and
Mediterannean weaponry making skills (Greece, Persia, Syria, Egypt), as traditional weapons and warfare
techniques of Danubian warlike peoples (Sarmatians,
Dacians) but predominantly by economic (in)conditions that led to changes in organization of the Roman armament production. The establishment of
specialized state-run workshops for weapons mass
production (fabricae armorum), in early fourth century, was followed with a gradual adoption of new
techniques and models that enabled the fast and
economical manufacture of iron helmets of the extremely practical but solid structure that could be
made in large series and adapted to different use.
Keywords: Rtkovo, Gospodjin Vir, Roman weapons, Roman army, helmets, Ridge helmets, Late Antiquity, Intercisa, Christogram, Iron Gate
Original scientific article

Miroslav Vujovi

UDC: 904:623.445.2"652"(497.11)

Faculty of
Philosophy

Received:
ika Ljubina 1820
rch 27, 2012
Accepted:
April 17, 2012

29

11000 Belgrade
mvujovic @ f.bg.ac.rs

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mvujovic @ f.bg.ac.rs

FEW CONTRIBUTIONS ON THE LATE ROMAN HELMETS FROM IRON GATE

rchaeological research conducted in

the Iron Gates from mid sixties to the
late eighties of the 20th century on the
occasion of the construction of two
hydroelectric power plants on the Danube near
Karata and Prahovo, yielded very interesting re
sults, enriching the Serbian and European archaeol
ogy with number of exceptional archaeological dis
coveries. Particular importance had archaeological
research of a Roman road cut through the Gorge and
dozens of Roman and Early Byzantine forts that
composed a military frontier system on the border
with Dacia and Barbaricum. Erected along the right
bank of the Danube at the beginning of the 1st cen
tury AD the forts in Iron Gates followed the history
of the Roman limes until its collapse in late 6st cen
tury. In addition to the significant remains of a Ro
man military architecture significant number of
movable finds have been discovered, that testify to
life, religious practices, supply, trade and organiza
tion of military units on the Danube frontier. Par
ticular significance have the finds of arms and mili
tary equipment that might reveal types of Roman
military units stationed on the Danube limes, as well
as the changes in armament and warfare that fol
lowed the altered historical circumstances. As ob
served in other sectors of the Roman limes in Eu
rope, weapons and military equipment excavated
within the Roman forts are not numerous, espe
cially in comparison to other types of archaeological
finds. They are mainly reduced to the accidental loss
of the military gear, hoards, grave offerings or finds
from destruction layers in forts and settlements.1
Reasons for this are various, from the strict military
laws that sanctioned negligent attitude towards
arms, metal recycling and, when question Iron Gates
limes, incomplete exploration of certain fortresses
due to the accelerated investigations dictated by the
construction of hydropower plants and the raising
the level of Iron Gate Lake.2 This all points to the
exceptional care in the research and publication of
every last finding. This paper is precisely devoted to
such objects which remained unnoticed in previous
studies of Roman weapons and military equipment
from the Iron Gates. Both of these findings, in our
opinion, may represent parts of the Late Roman
helmets that are seldom recorded in this area.
The first find in question originates from the site
Manastir located in the upper section of the Iron
Gate Gorge between Gospoin Vir and downstream
sites Padina and Pesaa (Map. 1).3 Site Manastir was
settled in a long narrow bay surrounded with high
1

Map 1. Roman and Early Byzantine fortifications in Iron Gates

1.

Fig. 1. Application with Chi-Ro motive: 1. Manastir; 2. Viminacium; 3. Sremska

Mitrovica (redrawn after: 1984)
.1. : 1. ; 2. ;
3. ( : 1984)

rocky slopes of the Dojka hill and broadly open to

ward the Danube to the east. Along the river bank
the large prehistoric settlement have been explored.4
On the northern part of the site ivestigations re
vealed the remains of a Roman watchtower - speculum, similar to those spoted in the nearby Gospoin
Vir and on the sites Padina and Pesaa located on the
distance of cca 1 km downstream.5 Such close
proximity was conditioned by the characteristics of
terrain in the Gorge enabling each tower to be in sight
of the next in the line and system of signalling used
between them. Made of roughly cut stone and mor
tar, the architectural remains of watchtower on the
site Manastir have been detected. The tower was
situated at the very entrace to the bay in order to
control the passage through the valley and protect

Bishop, Coulston 1993, 2337.

Most of the fortresses had to be investigated for up to 5 years and

reduced to archaeological excavations of the ramparts and major
buildings in the interior to determine the original dimensions.
Research of oldest layers (early first century AD) was often
prevented the rapid growth of the groundwater.
2

1984.

31

Brukner 1968; Brukner 1969; Mini 1969, 140.

Mini, Kovaevi 1968, 101102; 1984b.

Miroslav B. Vujovi

century.8 At the far southern part of the site the in

vestigations detected a Roman necropolis which
served for the burial of towers military crew.9 Hoard
of Early Byzantine coins found in the vicinity of the
ancient road and necropolis indicates that the crews
of military fortifications in this part of the Gorge
have experienced mid 6th century barbarian inva
sions, probably Kutrigurs breakthrough in 544.10 The
site Manastir has been occupied during the medieval
period as well.11 All results of the research testify
about multi-layered archaeological site. It arose in
the hidden, rather small but very favorable place for

Fig. 2. Application with Chi-Ro motive from Viminacium (photo: S. Redi)

. 2. (: .
).

the section of the Roman road from ancient Cupae

to Taliata. The remains of the road that folowed the
Danube, were found near the tower and allong the
valley. Several structures located hundred meters
downstream the Roman speculum have been re
vealed. Buildings had light timber construction with
flooring made of horizontally laid bricks. The wood
en construction of the walls probably rested on the
stone and mortar socle preserved sporadicly.6 It have
been assumed that watchtower crew lived in these
simple buildings, similar to those observed next to
the speculum on the site Pesaa.7 Based on the find
ings of coins issued by emperors Aurelian and Con
stantine the Great, bricks with the stamp SCHER
MOGEN and other portable archaeological finds
from the tower and settlement structures, it was
concluded that the buildings have been used from
the second half of the 3rd century and during the 4th
6

Fig. 3. Applications with Chi-Ro motive: 1-4 unknown site (after: Miks 2008), 5,
7. Sisak (after: Kocsis 2003); 6. Alsoheteny (after: Kocsis 2003), 8. Szombathely (after: Kocsis 2003), 9. Richborough (after Lyne: 1994)
. 3. : 1-4 (:
Miks 2008), 5, 7. (: Kocsis 2003); 6. X (: Kocsis 2003);
8. (: Kocsis 2003); 9. (: Lyne 1994)
8
Bricks bearing the stamp of Hermogenes, ripa praepositus of the
Legio VII Claudia are known from several Iron Gate late Roman forts:
ezava (Novae), Saldum, Boljetin (Smorna), Ravna (Campsa), Donji
Milanovac (Taliata) and Prahovo (Aqvae). They are dated to the final
decades of the 3rd and the beginning of the 4th century, when commander
Hermogenes was active in restoration of Danubian frontier forts.
Mirkovi 1968, 107; Mirkovi 1996, 118; Jeremi 2009, 4950.
9
This was assumed according to the fact that in Roman and Late
antique graves at Manastir only male individuals were buried:
1984, 154.
10
The hoard consisted of folles and semi-folles minted from
emperors Anastasius to Justinian I with the last coins struck in
Cyzicus 544/5. 1984, 154; Popovi 1978, 610.

Mini 1969, 140.

7
At the site Pesaa square-shaped Late Roman watchtower
(measuring 7.5 x 7.5 m) was found. Tower had an entrance on the
southern wall (width 1.2 m) and stone furnace built by the towers
outer wall with a lots of iron slag. The tower was later integrated
into the wider area (about 36 x 34 m) surrounded by a stone walls
(width 1.2 m): 1984b.

11
Since 14th and the 15th centuries the settlement with the
accompanying necropolis was developed and eventually expanded
over the area with Roman graves. Small cemetery church (13 x 5.8
m) built in addition to the medieval necropolis and subsequently
restored in course of the 15th and the 16th centuries.

32

FEW CONTRIBUTIONS ON THE LATE ROMAN HELMETS FROM IRON GATE

Fig. 4. Scene of the battle. rch of Constantine, Rome

. 4.

human habitation and important strategic point

along the route of the ancient and medieval road laid
through the Iron Gate following the Danube.
Systematic research of the tower, settlement struc
tures and necropolis, revealed the diverse objects which
provided a partial insight to the chronology and char
acter of the tower (Pl. I). Weapons and military equip
ment were hardly recorded, with exception of one iron
arrowhead found in the towers substructure (Pl. I / 6),
several iron knives, a couple of copper alloy fibulae (T
I / 12, 14) and belt buckles (Pl. I / 8-10). The fibula
from the grave no. 37a represent the later variant of the
Black Sea extremely profilated fibulae (Petkovi 14/
A1) dated the 2nd -3rd century (Pl. I / 12).12 Cruciform
fibula from the grave no. 20 belongs to the variant with
faceted bulbs and whith concentic circles adorned foot
(Petkovi 34 / D2) which corresponds to the period
from the reign of Valentinian I and Valens up to Theo
dosius I (364380 AD).13 Belt buckle from the grave no.
29 (Pl. I / 10) with a triangular fitting and B-shaped
buckle belongs to the late Roman belt garnitures that
are predominantly dated in the fourth century.14 Al
though few in number, certain finds as cruciform fibu
la, can be used as a confirmation of the military char
acter of the necropolis used quite certainly from the
3rd and until the end of the 4th centuries.15
Among the findings from the site Manastir one
copper alloy object stands out in particular (Fig. 1/ 1;
Pl. I/ 13). It has been found within the late Roman
necropolis in one of the graves with inhumated indi
12

Petkovi 2010, kat. 529, 9596.

13

Petkovi 2010, 26 no. 6.

14

Vujovi 1998, 179, T LI/1; T LIII/20, 21.

viduals.16 The small oval plate (length 2.3 cm) had

gilded surface and stamped Chi-Ro motive on the
front side. Partialy preserved extension on the upper
part initially led Duica Mini, the researcher of this
site, to the assumption that finding was a bronze pendant with the monogram of Christ. Correctly point
ing out to the analogous finding from Sisak, she
concluded that find from Manastir should be dated
in the 4th century.17
Additional two similar objects were also found in
Serbia.18 First represent a find from Viminacium
(Fig. 1/2; Fig. 2) and the other one comes from
Sremska Mitrovica (Fig. 1/ 3). Find from Viminacium,
presently treasured in the Roman-byzantine collection
of National museum in Poarevac, have been found by
chance in 1991.19 The only information on the place of
find is that application originate from the site air a
modern toponime for the brother area where legionary
camp and urban centre of Viminacium was located.
Besides the circular plate with stamped Christogram,
Viminacium find has the the remains of the fastening
rivet on the upper part decorated with grooves. Ac
cording to the shape of the upper part and the ChiRo letters with emphasized serifs, it is similar to the
specimens from Heteny and Siscia (Fig. 3/6, 7).
16
Data on the conditions and place of discovery is taken from the
field inventory for 1969 (inv. no. 87) which is kept in the
Archaeological Institute in Belgrade. The object was found... on the
left shoulder of the skeleton ... during the research of one of the
tombs (numeration of tomb is unknown). Since the late antiquity
necropolis area was used for the burial of deceased during the
Middle Ages as well, there is possibility that Chi-Ro application
might have originated from soil which the burial pit was filled in.
17

1984, 154.

Unfortunately, the accurate data on the archaeological context

of these findings we could not establish.
18

For the use of cruciform fibulae in the Late Roman army see:
2001, 195196.
15

19

33

National museum in Poarevac, Inv. no. 02/2014.

Miroslav B. Vujovi

The character of this and similar findings, whose

number has increased over the past several decades,
has become a subject of particular interest. Some au
thors stated that the Chi-Ro plates actually represent
parts of the late Roman fibulae, the opinion which is
not widely accepted.22 The information that the find
from the site Manastir was found inside the tomb, on
the left shoulder of buried individual, could eventu
ally support such an interpretation, but it is unlike
ly.23 However, detailed analysis of the late Roman
helmets and contexts of their finds, showed that
these decorative plates actually represent helmet parts.
Among the helmet fragments from the Maas val
ley in the southern Netherlands there was a com
pletely preserved Chi-Ro application which found to
be fastened at the front of the high crest (Fig. 5).24
Analysis of the roman weaponry from the late an
tique fortress in Richborough indicated that among
the parts of a helmet existed one plate with the
monogram of Christ (Fig. 3/9).25 Plates with Chi-Ro
motifs were also detected in Siscia (Fig. 3/5, 7),
Heteny (Fig. 3/6) and Szombathely (Fig. 3/8).26 Sev
eral specimens from unknown sites, now kept in
private collections in Munich, certainly belonged to
the same type (Fig. 3 / 14).27 Alike the Manastir
finding they are all made of copper alloy and gilded.
Regarding the chronology of these findings, it is
assumed that they are not earlier than the 312 AD.
Christian tradition takes the victory of Constantine
over Maxentius at the Milvian bridge in Rome as a
turning point not only for the legalization of Chris
tianity but also for the emergence and selection of
labarum as new imperial and military insignia with
Christogram as the central motif. Christian apolo
getic writers depict the events related to the Con
stantines vision, supposed conversion and marking
of his troops with the sign of Christ. Eusebius and
Lactantius transmit the story of Constantines dream
on the eve of the battle on October the 28th in 312
AD and his command to the troops to draw a
Christogram on their shields - sign under which his
victory was prophesied.28 On the contemporary rep
resentations of soldiers from the arch of Constan
tine both the labarum and Christogram are lacking.
Nevertheless, dracones are depicted fluttering over
the Constantine victorious cavalry in the battle

Fig. 5. Reconstructed helmet from river Maas, Netherlands

. 5. ,

Fig.6. Silver multiplum.Ticinum, 315 AD

. 6. , , 315.

Narrowed lower part is ribbon-shaped and appar

ently snapped. Denticulation on the upper edge is for
now unique on the Chi-Ro helmet applications, but
relatively common on various military equipment
elements (horse harness and belt fittings).
The second find (Fig. Fig. 1/ 3), discovered during
the archaeological excavations in Sremska Mitrovica
(Sirmium) has strip extensions and circular plate
which originally have had a relief decoration.20 Un
fortunately, the motif is heavily eroded and can not
be clearly defined. Based on the general impression
and pearl-shaped frame line partially preserved
within a circular plate, basic resemblance with most
of Chi-Ro applications (Fig. 2) might be assumed.21
20

22

Migoti 1999, 14.

23

See the note no. 16.

24

Prins 2000; Kunzl 2008, 133.

25

Lyne 1994, 104105, Fig.2.7.

Radman-Livaja 2004, 75, kat.br.129, T 72.129 (Siscia); Kocsis 2003,

Fig. 58 (Heteny, Szombathely).
26

27

Miks 2008, 5253, Abb.112.

Euseb. Vit. Const. I, 28-30; Euseb. Hist. Eccl. VIII. 2, Lact. De

mort. pers. XLIV. Eusebius, for example, states that Constantine
marked with a cross the crest of his gold plated helmet adorned with
precious stones (Euseb. Vit. Const. I, 31, 4). This is later confirmed
by the words of Prudentius: ..ardebat summis crux addita cristis (Prud.
Contra Symm. I, 489).
28

Museum of Srem, Inv. no. Z 2360.

However, we would rather leave the accurate identification of

Sirmium application uncertain.
21

34

FEW CONTRIBUTIONS ON THE LATE ROMAN HELMETS FROM IRON GATE

Fig. 7. Findings from the late Roman fortification at Rtkovo - Glamija: 1.

neckguard ; 2. shield boss (after: Gabrievi 1986; pehar 2010)

Fig. 8. Late Roman helmet from Rihborough (after: Lyne 1994, Fig. 1)
. 8. (: Lyne 1994)

. 7. : 1.
; 2. (: Gabrievi 1986; pehar 2010)

helmet application in the second and third decades

of the 4th century.33 This period is characterized by
extensive renovation of the previous fortifications in
this part of the Danube gorge (Smorna, Campsa,
Taliata) and the construction of new camps (Novae,
Diana), quadriburgia particularly (Sapaja, Poreka
Reka, Tekija, Sip).34
Nevertheless, general chronology of Chi-Ro helmet
applications is later in date. Specimens that could have
been determined by the context of find were broadly
dated in the second half of 4th and first decade of 5th
century. Helmet fragments from the valley of Moose
have been dated by numismatic finds from the same
hoard between 395 and 411 AD.35 Find from Heteny
(Fig. 3/ 6) originates from the hoard of helmet silver
sheeting dated in the period from 375/80 AD until the
beginning of the 5th century.36 Most parts of the late
Roman helmets finds from Richborough originate
from the layers with traces of fire, pillage and de
struction accompanied by skeletal remains that
pointed to the violent death. These layers present
the end of the final Roman phase dated to the time
of Constantine III (died in 411 AD), or the begin

scenes of Verona siege and Milvian bridge fights

(Fig. 4). There is no specific mention of labarum as
military insignia in relevant historical sources as
well.29 Christogram, however, soon appeared in im
perial iconography of Constantine coins, particu
larly on the helmets.30 One of the most picturesque
representations is present on silver multiple struck
in Ticinum on 315 AD (Fig. 6).31 Constantine is
shown here with a luxurious helmet whose elaborate
crest is adorned with a rosette bearing the sign
identified as Christs monogram.
The emergence of Chi-Ro symbol in clearer or
more simplified form occurs on of Constantines
helmeted portraits on coins until the 324 AD, indi
cating a definite and the formal acceptance of this
symbol as a victorious sign that later gets a deeper
Christian connotation.32
Constantine coin from a watch-tower at Manastir
roughly indicates the earliest time of use of Chi-Ro
29
Ammianus Marcellinus, one of the most competent writers of
the late Antiquity, as the military insignia mentions only aquila and
a draco but not labarum. Among the military signs Vegetius states
aquila, imago, and, indirectly, the dracones. For signiferes carrying
military signs he states: ... quos nunc draconarios vocant...,
emphasizing that they are now called draraconarii: Veg. Epit. II, vii.

33
According to the description from the field inventory can be
concluded that Constantinian era coin found in the tower is folis
minted in Siscia in 319 AD. RIC VII, 433, 47, 58, 62.

30
Christogram is shown on helmets at Constantines follis struck in
Siscia 319 AD: RIC VII 61 RIC VII, 433, No. 61; Alfldi 1963, 141.
31
32

34

Petrovi, Vasi 1996, 2122.

RIC VII, 62-63, 364, no. 36; Alfldi 1963, 146.

35

Prins 2000.

Alfldi 1932; Alfldi 1963, 14; RIC VII 61; 2010, 156157.

36

Kocsis 2003.

35

Miroslav B. Vujovi

Fig. 9. Late Roman Ridge helmets: 1. ugust, 2. Worms, 36. Intercisa (after James 1986)
. 9. Ridge helmets ( James 1986): 1. , 2. , 3 6.

ning of V century.37 This leads to the conclusion that

Manastir find might be later. The epoch of Valentinians
limes reconstruction (364378/380 AD) ended with
the catastrophic breakthrough of Goths following the
roman defeat at Hadrianopolis (378 AD) comes first in
mind.38 The second and most likely possibility is the
time of Theodosius reign (379395 AD), or the period
that follows immediately after his death, concluding
with the Hunnic invasion in 443 AD that leaved the
majority of roman Iron Gate fortresses in ruins.39
Following find (Fig. 7/ 1) we would like to point out
originates from site Glamija located 3 km from Rtkovo
betveen villages Korbovo and Velika Vrbica (Map 1/
2). On a steep and high Danube bank which makes on
this spot the most prominent strategic point, remains
of late Roman and early Byzantine forts have been
discovered. They were partially investigated in the
early 80s of the 20th century, and nowadays flooded
with the Iron Gate Lake.40 Excavations revealed small
fortified late Roman watchtower (18,5 18,5 m) subse
quently surrounded with Early Byzantine quadribur
gium (55 51 m). Four masonry piers on which
37

rested the watchtower were discovered within the

older fortification. Numerous finds of iron joints,
nails and roof tiles have indicated that the tower had
a wooden structure with a roof covered with tiles.
Numismatic and other movable findings revealed
that the original fort, intended primarily as frontier
observation post, was built at the time of Valentinian
I (375383 AD) and lasted until the early 5th century,
when burned to the ground. In the preliminary re
port which published the research results and the
archaeological material M. Gabrievi identified
basic chronological guidelines for this site. The older
fortress with a watchtower was built in the late 3rd
century and destroyed in the early 5th. Later Early
Byzantine fort was partially constructed in the second
half of the 6th century but never finished.41
Finds of weapons and military equipment men
tioned in the report are mainly iron knives, arrow
and spear tips and spear-buts. One fragmented
shield boss and a part of the helmet, both made of
iron, are particularly singled out (Fig. 7/2). Unlike
the shield boss illustrated properly on that occasion,
a drawing of the helmet fragment discovered inside
a small fort lacked, and nothing was known about
its appearance. New details on the find from the
site Rtkovo-Glamija emegred thirty years later in

Lyne 1994, 104105, Fig.2.7.

This is confirmed by the layers of destruction and frequent

numismatic hoards in some Iron Gate forts: Tomovi 1996, 79 (Ravna
- Campsa); Jeremi 2009, 225 (Saldum).
38

39

Vasi, Kondi 1986, 555.

41
The earliest coins from this construction phase was struck by the
Valentinian I (364375 AD) and the latest by Arcadius (395-408
AD). Construction of larger early Byzantine fort started within the
Byzantine restoration of the Danube limes in the 6th century, but
once interrupted it was never completed. The later horizon is dated
by the coins of Anastasius I (491-518 AD) and Justinian I (527-565
AD): Gabrievi 1986, 72

Investigations on site Rtkovo-Glamija were conducted by Martin

Gabrievi from 1980 until 1982. During this short period of time
detailed excavation of late Roman fort with remains of watch-tower
was only possible. Archaeological research of larger early Byzantine fort
built at the same place by the end of 6th century, included detection of
walls and four circular towers: Gabrievi 1986.
40

36

FEW CONTRIBUTIONS ON THE LATE ROMAN HELMETS FROM IRON GATE

dissertation devoted to material culture of Early

Byzantine forts in the Iron Gate.42 Even though it
was not identified, author of this study for the first
time properly published drawing of the iron object
(Fig. 7/1) which, in our opinion, most certainly
represent the find of helmet mentioned by M
Gabrievi in his report.43 The basic shape of ob
ject, its profilation and dimensions (height 12.5 cm,
width 10 cm) match the form, size and proportions
of Late Roman helmet neck guards. Resemblance is
evident by comparison with neck guard atributed to
one of the Richborough helmets (Fig. 8).44 This
form of neck guards is well known from Intercisa
helmets - especially helmet no. 4 (Fig. 10/6), as well
as helmets from Augst and Worms (Fig. 10/1, 2).45
The only difference exists in clearly defined perfo
rations along the edges used for the leather lining
stiching. The absence of peripheral perforations on
the Rtkovo neck guard can be explained by strong
corrosion layers still unremoved.46
The characteristic form of Rtkovo neck guard and
the time of the Late Roman fortress destruction
(early 5th century), definitely suggest that it was a
part of the late Roman composite helmet known as
Intercisa type or Ridge helmet. They are usually di
vided into two variants: lighter and heavier.47 The
first would represent simpler helmets of modest ap
pearance from Augst, Worms and Intercisa.48 It was
assumed that this version of helmet belonged to in
fantry troops. Heavier variant of Late Roman helmet
(Fig. 10) was characterized not only by more complex
construction but also the luxurious accessories as
gilded silver plating, rich stamped decoration and
the use of glass inlays or semi-precious stones. The
best known are the splendid helmets from Berkasovo,
Jarak, Budapest, Deurne and Conceti.49 This heavier
variant of Late Roman helmet is believed to represent
the equipment of elite Roman cavalry troops.50
42

Fig. 10. Late Roman helmets Berkasovo type: 1-2. Berkasovo; 3. Deurne; 4.
Budapest; 5. Burg Castle (after James 1986)
. 10. ( James 1986):1-2.
; 3. ; 4. ; 5. ; 6.

It is assumed that helmets with composite struc

ture originate from the east, most probably from
Persia, where they were borrowed by the Romans
during the age of Tetrarchy.51 The main reason for
this was economic. Production of helmets composed
of several parts was far suitable for mass production
since did not require the work of highly skilled arti
sans, significantly faster and therefore cheaper. All
this entirely fits into the working principles of the
new state-run arms factories (fabricae armorum)
founded by Diocletian and supported by Constan
tine within their reforms of the Roman army. The
need for constant and more efficient arming of troops
have influenced gradual abandonment of the earlier
principles of army supply with weapons produced in
private or military manufactures. By foundation of
specialized workshops under the direct supervision
of the state administration, the process of production
and distribution of weapons was better organized,
controlled and directed in areas of particular impor
tance. The economic superiority of the eastern prov
inces and the continuous wars with Persia necessi
tated the constant presence and effective arming of
the Roman troops while skills of local masters
gradualy changed the production method and ap
pearance of certain parts of weaponry.52

pehar 2010.

Find was classified under the category of various objects of

unknown purpose: pehar 2010, 132, 133, cat. no. 746; XL T / 746.
43

44

Lyne 1994, 9799, Fig. 1/ 1.

Thomas, 1973, 3948 (Intercisa); Klumbach 1973

(Worms); 115117 (August).
45

111114

46
The possibility that neckguard was still unfinished is less likely
since no serious metallurgical activity was observed at the site
Rtkovo - Glamija.
47

Klumbach, 1973, note 1; James 1986, 111112.

Manojlovi-Marijanski 1964 (Berkasovo); Klumbach, 1973 (Deurne);

Dautova-Ruevljan, Vujovi 2011.
48

49
Manojlovi-Marijanski 1964 (Berkasovo); Klumbach, 1973 (Budapest,
Deurne, Conceti); Dautova-Ruevljan, Vujovi 2011 (Jarak).
50
This opinion is supported by pieces of horse harness found
along with helmets from Berkasovo, and by inscription mentioning
the cavalry unit (STABLESIA VI) on the helmet from Deurne.
However, the remains of silver sheet metal found on the Intercisa
iron helmets indicates that lighter Late Roman composite helmets
could have also been coated with precious metal. The question of
their more specific determination in cavalry or the infantry helmets
remains open.

51
For composite helmet bowls as traditional weapons of Danubian
warlike peoples (Sarmatians, Dacians) see: James 1988, 128131.
52

37

James 1988, 271273; Feugre 1994, 145146.

Miroslav B. Vujovi

Neck guard from Rtkovo and the Chi-Ro applica

tion from Manastir and Viminacium could be catego
rized as parts of lighter variant of Late Roman
composite helmet used in the arming of frontier
troops. Their bowls were mostly composed of two
half-sculls riveted lengthwise with iron ridge strip
(Fig. 9). Some specimens, such as helmets from In
tercisa (Fig. 9/6) or Richborough (Fig. 8), could have
a high crest or bowl decorated with embossed motifs
of apotropaic character (eye, crescent, cross, star),
bearing imitations of gems and military unit sym
bols.53 These helmets are characterized by separately
forged neck guards and cheek-pieces, stiched to the
bowl or buckled with leather straps.
The appearance of composite helmets finds along
the Iron Gate Danube frontier corresponds to the
general situation in post Tetrarhic Roman army and
the chronology of occurrence and use of this distinc
tive type of arms in the Late Roman weponry of 4th
and the beginning of 5th century. Most European
finds originate from the frontier areas and are re
lated to the respective military units intended for
their defense. Dominate military reforms, especially
those implemented by Constantine and his succes
sors, are charcterized with division of the army into
stationary and mobile troops. The first limitanei,
were predominantly infantry troops stationed in the
frontier forts and former - comitatenses, mainly com
posed of mobile infantry and cavalry troops, located
in the interior of the Roman territory. Although less
paid than comitatenses, limitani were professional
soldiers in the full sense, engaged in border surveil
lance, escort and the maintenance of inland and
waterway transport, but well trained and prepared to
oppose small scale enemy incursions.54
Remains of rural civilian settlements with houses
made of light wooden construction similar to those
located at sites around the Manastir and Pesaa, have
been observed in the vicinity of some Iron Gate late
Roman forts.55 These settlements, dated from the end
of the 3rd and during the 4th centuries, were usually
interpreted as a result of aforementioned Tetrarhic,
i.e., Diocletians concept of limes defense that Con
stantine continued and improved introducing the
stationary frontier troops generally known as milites
ripenses or milites limitanei. For the period of Con
stantines reconstruction of Danube frontier it is

Pl. I Finds from Manastir

. I

more likely that border was controlled by milites

ripenses - troops under the command of praepositus
ripae, such was Hermogenes, commander whose
name is stamped on bricks from Manastir, Saldum
and other Iron Gate fortifications.56 Ripenses are first
mentioned in orders of Constantine in 325 AD where
they are distinguished from the comitatenses - the field
army.57 Ripenses ranked just below the comitatenses,
but above the soldiers of the auxiliary troops serving in
alae and cohorts. They obtained exemption from the
poll tax (tributum capitis) for themselves and their
wives after twenty-four years service, but were less
privileged than the comitatenses.
For the period in which the majority of composite
helmets were dated (late 4th and the first decade of
the 5th century) the term milites limitanei may be
considered with greater certainty.58 It was used to
distinguish the territorial units from the frontier sta
tionary troops under the command of a dux limitis. It
has been concluded that limitanei lived along with

53
On the iron Late Roman helmet bowl fragment from the
Museum of Slavonia in Osijek (Mursa) occurs reprsentation with
two antithetically posted animal heads, probably goats (RadmanLivaja 2010, 236, cat. no. 6). This very symbol, displayed in Noticia
Dignitatum (ND OC. Index V / 1417, 4951, 59) appears on the
shields of several infantry units of Auxilia Palatina, consisted mostly
of Germanic warriors (Cornuti seniores, Brachiati seniores, Petulantes
seniores, Celtae seniores). The same emblem was recognized on the
shields of Constantine troops depicted at the Arch of Constantine in
Rome (Speidel 2004, 47) and on the Early Byzantine steelyard
weights reprsenting the Emperor Constantine on the throne
(Alfldi, Ross 1959, 169183, Pl. 1 , 46).
54
55

56

See note no. 8.

Goldsworthy 2003, 203; Goldsworthy 2000, 172; Elton 1996, 99.

57

CTh 7, 20, 4.

Petrovi, Vasi 1996, 22; Rankov 1986, 186.

58

It is first recorded in an official document in 363: CTh 12, 1, 56.

38

FEW CONTRIBUTIONS ON THE LATE ROMAN HELMETS FROM IRON GATE

BIBLIOGRAPHY /

their families settled near the forts and, in addition

to comon military activities (observation and de
fense of the border) directed to agriculture, fishing,
livestock breeding and various other types of activi
ties. This interpretation of limitanei as a type of low
class border militia consisting of farmer-soldiers, es
pecially their economy and supply in the period
from late 3rd to the second half of 5th century, have
been disputed.59 However, certain objects discovered
in the Late Roman fortifications in Rtkovo also lead
to the presumption on existence of civilian settle
ments in the immediate vicinity of the Late Roman
frontier posts from the second half of the 4th and
early 5th century.60 Is it about settlements of soldiers
families or rural population concentrated in the en
vironment of military camps for security reasons
and/or to supply frontier crews with food and other
essentials, represent an issue which deserves more
detailed attention and special study.
Although fragmentary preserved and scarcely
distributed on the Danube limes in Serbia, the finds
of composite helmet fittings from Manastir, Vimina
cium and Rtkovo represent modest but significant
insight into the character of military frontier units
and weapons used during the final decades preced
ing the Hunnic destruction of Danube limes.

Alfldi, A., The helmet of Constantine with the

Christian monogram, Journal of Roman Studies 22
(1932), 918.
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A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S

Elton, H., Warfare in Roman Europe, AD 350

425, Oxford 1996.

I would like to express my gratitude to colleague

Saa Redi who drew my attention to the finds
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Poarevac).

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de la Basse Epoque, III (Cahiers des
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(Translated by Miroslav Vujovi)

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Goldsworthy, A., Complete Roman Army, Lon
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59
The first source that indicates that limitanei worked their own land,
assigned to them by the authorities, dates to 443 AD. Isaac 1988, 146-147.

Jeremi, G., Saldum, Roman and Early Byzantine

fortification, Belgrade 2009.

60
It concerns such finds as earrings, bracelets, pins and spindle whorls
that are generally associated with female population adornment and
activities: Gabrievi 1986, 72.

39

Miroslav B. Vujovi

Klumbach, H., Sptrmische Gardehelme, Munchen

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40

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(. 1/ 1, I/ 13)

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43