Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
Key aim is to generate power by: (1) Generating a large short circuit current, Isc (2) Generate a large open-circuit voltage, Voc (3) Minimise parasitic power loss mechanisms (particularly series and shunt resistance).
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
in
f le
t io
t u
r in
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
Absorption of photons: Eg
A photon in a solar cell can generate an electron-hole pair if it has an energy greater than the band gap Photons with Eph < EG are not absorbed and are lost If a photons has energy above EG, the excess energy above EG is lost as heat.
energy
1 2
Eg
Absorption process
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
Absorption of photons: Eg
Value of band gap determines maximum possible current
Photons can be absorbed in solar cell
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
Generation of carriers
Generation, G, depends on (1) absorption coefficient of material , (2) incident wavelength, , (3) thickness of material, x, and (4) number of photons.
N ph = N s e
Where
Nph is the number of photons Ns is photons at the surface is the absorption coefficient x is distance in the material
G=
dN ph dx
= N s e x
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
Absorption coefficient,
of a material determines generation as a function of wavelength small for photons with energy below EG no absorption below band gap. For photon energies above EG, will determine the thickness
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
Absorption coefficient
Absorption coefficient strongly affected determined by type of band gap.
Phonon emission
EC
EG + Ep Phonon absorption
EC
h 1
h2
EG -- Ep
EV
EV
Crystal momentum, p
Crystal momentum, p
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
Thickness of material
The thickness of the material determines how much light is absorbed. Absorption depth is thickness requires to absorb ~60% (1 1/e) of incident light
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
Increasing Absorption
Light trapping increases the optical thickness of a material Physical thickness can remain low Allows carriers to be absorbed close to the junction
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
Collection probability
A light generated minority carrier can readily recombine. If it the carrier reaches the edge of the depletion region, it is swept across the junction and becomes a majority carrier. This process is collection of the light generated carriers. Once a carrier is collected, it is very unlikely to recombine.
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
Recombination Revisited
In solar cells, two addition recombination mechanisms exist which have a large impact on the devices: Surface recombination and defect (grain boundary) recombination: Both are surface or localized phenomena rather than bulk phenomena. The physical cause of these recombination mechanisms is the interruption of the crystal lattice. Surface and/or interface recombination affects the entire region associated with that surface since there is a diffusion current towards the recombination site.
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
Collection probability
Collection probability is the probability that a light generated carrier will reach the depletion region and be collected. Depends on where it is generated compared to junction and other recombination mechanisms, and the diffusion length.
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
Collection probability
Collection probability is low further than a diffusion length away from junction
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
Current Collection
Need to maintain high diffusion lengths, or the collection probability is reduced. Diffusion length strongly related to type of starting material Single crystalline FZ Single crystalline CZ Multicrystalline Nanocrystalline materials
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
Collection probability
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
Collection Summary
A carrier has a high probability of being collected if it is generated closer to the junction than to a recombination site and if it generated within a diffusion length of the junction
Difficult to achieve high collection near front surface (and also rear, but fewer carriers generated there). Emitter junction is usually fairly thin.
Minority carrier diffusion length (and surface recombination) are key parameters for high collection.
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
n G ( x) d 2 n( x ) = 2 dx n Dn Dn
The solution to this differential equation is simple only when G = constant. In this case, the carrier concentration is:
n( x) = Ae
Ln
+ Be
Ln
+ G n
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
qV Dn Dp J = q n p0 + q pn 0 e Lp Ln
kT
1 qG (Ln + L p + W )
where:
J = J 0 e qV
kT
1 J L
(same as a diode)
J L = qG (Ln + L p + W )
Dn ni2 D p ni2 J0 = q + Ln N A L p N D
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
Quantum Efficiency
Collection probability difficult to measure, so instead use quantum efficiency, defined as ratio of photons incident to carriers collected.
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
diffusion
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
J = J 0 (exp(qV / nkT ) 1) J sc
qDe ni2 S h cosh (W N Lh ) + Dh Lh sinh (W N Lh ) qDh ni2 S e cosh (W P Le ) + De Le sinh (W P Le ) I 0 = A L N D L cosh (W L ) + S sinh (W L ) + L N D L cosh (W L ) + S sinh (W L ) h h N h h N h h D e e P e e P e e A
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
High Voc
Must have low dark current, and hence low recombination as seen by carriers injected from edges of depletion region not necessarily the same region where light generated carriers are, but closely related. Must have minority carrier diffusion length, low surface recombination, thin devices, and high doping. Above list are incompatible with each other or with high Jsc, so need trade-offs.
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
R=
l
A
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
Why it worlds physically: Each type of carrier under steady state excitation thermalize with each other such that they approximate a Boltzman distribution
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
Maximizing efficiency
Band gap places a maximum value on efficiency
Efficiency (%)
50 40 30 20 10 0
0 1 2 3 Band Gap (eV) 4 5
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
Maximizing efficiency
=
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
n ++ p-type p+
metal
metal
SEM of a PERL (Passivated Emitter Rear Locally diffused) solar cell. Schematic of a screen printed solar cell.
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
High efficiency solar cell schematic. SEM of a PERL (Passivated Emitter Rear Locally diffused) solar cell.
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
30
Typical commercial solar cell efficiencies
20
10
0 1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
Starting material for single crystalline solar cells (CZ material). The ingot can be 30 cm in diameter and several meters long.
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
SiO2
p+
metal
Buried contact solar cells used in building-integrated application at G8 Summit Building, England.
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
Buried contact solar cells used in Olympic Village. All houses were solar powered.
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
Solar Cell testing and sorting Connection of mismatched cells reduces performance of module
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
Tandem devices consist of two or more solar cells with different band gaps on top of one another
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
Design of different top and rear band gap materials is a critical issue.
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg
ELEG620: Solar Electric Systems University of Delaware, ECE Spring 2008 C. Honsberg