DC Motor

Speed Control of DC motor
INDEX
Page No 1. INTRODUCTION 2. WORKING PRINCIPLE 3. DESIGN PROCEDURE 3.1 Microcontroller 3.2 LCD 3.3 power supply 3.4 motor driving circuit 3.5 Buzzer 4 RESULT 5 APPLICATIONS, ADVANTAGES 6 CONCULSION 7 ALP PROGRAM BIBLIOGRAPHY
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01 10
14 32 36 39 42 61 64 66 69
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
One of the first electrmagnetic rotary motors was invented by Michael Faraday in 1821 and consisted of a free-hanging wire dipping into a pool of mercury. A permanent magnet was placed in the middle of the pool. When a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in school physics classes, but brine is sometimes used in place of the toxic mercury. This is the simplest form of a class of electric motors called homopolar motors. A later refinement is the Barlow's Wheel. The modern DC motor was invented by accident in 1873, when Znobe connected a spinning dynamo to a second similar unit, driving it as a motor.
DC motor
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Speed Control of DC motor Dc motor is an electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical motion. The reverse task that of converting mechanical motion into electrical energy, is accomplished by a generator or dynamo. In many cases the two devices are identical except for their application and minor construction details. DC motors are used when there is positioning requirement and also changes in load and torque. DC motors can be conveniently interfaced to Bipolar DAC, or MPUs can generate PWMs to control them.
The classic DC motor has a rotating legature in the form of an electromagnet. A rotary switch called a commutator reverses the direction of the electric current twice every cycle, to flow through the armature so that the poles of the electromagnet push and against the permanent magnets on the outside of the motor. As the poles of the armature electromagnet pass the poles of the permanent magnets, the commutator reverses the polarity of the armature electromagnet. During that instant of switching polarity, inertia keeps the classical motor going in the proper direction. (See the diagrams below.)
Asimple DC electric motor. When the coil is powered, a magnetic field is generated around the armature. The left side of the armature is pushed away from the left magnet and drawn toward the right, causing rotation. 5
The armature continues to rotate.
When the armature becomes horizontally aligned, the commutator reverses the direction of current through the coil, reversing the magnetic field. The process then repeats
Wound field DC motor

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Speed Control of DC motor The permanent magnets on the outside (stator) of a DC motor may be replaced by electromagnets. By varying the field current it is possible to alter the speed/torque ratio the motor. Typically the field winding will be placed in series (series wound) with the armature winding to get a high torque low speed motor, in parallel (shunt wound) the armature to get a high speed low torque motor, or to have a winding partly in parallel, and partly in series (compound wound) for a balance that gives steady speed over a range of loads. Further reductions in field current are possible to gain even higher speed but correspondingly lower torque, called "weak field" operation.
Speed control
Generally speaking the rotational speed of a DC motor is proportional to the voltage applied to it, and the torque is proportional to the current. Speed control can be achieved by variable voltage source, resistors or electronic controls. The direction of a wound field DC motor can be changed by reversing either the field or armature connections but not both, this is commonly done with a special set of contactors (direction contactors). Effective voltage can be varied by inserting a series resistor or by an electronicallycontrolled switching device made of thyristors, transistors, or, historically, mercury arc rectifiers. In a circuit known as a chopper, the average voltage applied to the motor is varied by switching the supply voltage very rapidly. As the "on" to "off" ratio is varied to alter the average applied voltage, the speed of the motor varies.
The rapid switching wastes less energy than series resistors. Output filters smooth the average voltage applied to the motor and reduce motor noise. Since the series-wound DC motor develops its highest torque at low speed, it is often used in traction applications such as electric locomotives, and trams. Another application is starter motors for petrol and small diesel engines.
Universal motors
A variant of the wound field DC motor is the universal motor. The name derives from the fact that it may use AC or DC supply current, although in practice they are nearly always used with AC supplies. The principle is that in a wound field DC motor the current in both the field and the armature (and hence the resultant magnetic fields) will alternate (reverse polarity) at the same time, and hence the mechanical force generated is always the same. In practice the motor must be specially designed to cope with the AC current (impedance must be taken into account), and the resultant motor is generally less efficient than an equivalent pure DC motor. The maximum output of universal motors is limited, and motors exceeding one kilowatt are rarely operated on commercial power frequency.The advantage of the universal motor is that AC supplies may be used on motors which have the typical characteristics of DC motors, specifically high starting torque and very compact design if high running speeds are used. The negative aspect is the maintenance and short life problems caused by the commutator. As a result such motors are usually used in AC devices such as food mixers and power tools, which are 8
Speed Control of DC motor only used intermittently.
Continuous speed control of a universal motor running on AC is very easily accomplished using a thyristor circuit while stepped speed control can be accomplished using multiple taps on the field coil. Household blenders that advertise many speeds frequently combine a field coil with several taps and a diode that can be inserted in series with the motor (causing the motor to run on half-wave DC with half the RMS voltage of the AC power line). Unlike AC motors, universal motors can easily exceed one revolution per cycle of the mains current. This makes them useful for appliances such as blenders, vacuum cleaners, and hair dryers where high-speed operation is desired. Many vacuum cleaner and weed trimmer motors will exceed 10,000 RPM, Dremel and other similar miniature grinders will often exceed 30,000 RPM. A universal motor allowed to operate with no mechanical load will overspeed, which may damage it. With the very low cost of semiconductor rectifiers, some applications that would have previously used a universal motor now use a pure DC motor, usually with a permanent magnet field. This is especially true if the semiconductor circuit is also used for variablespeed control. 9
Speed Control of DC motor The advantages of the universal motor and alternating current distribution made installation of a low-frequency traction current distribution system economical for some railway installations.
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CHAPTER-2
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Operation principle of Speed control of DC motor

In this system, a micro controller is interfaced with a LCD, Keypad and DC motor driver. The Micro controller is used for controlling the DC motor by produsing the PWM pulses. These pulse widths are produced according to the key pad register values which are allotted by MC. The LCD is used for user interface. Linear power supply is used to provide operating voltages (+5V & +12V).
When we switch on the power, Micro controller (MC) is reset by power through the reset circuit. It produces one high pulse and continues low pulse. During the high pulse the program counter is set to 0000h. During low pulse the program counter starts its count and the remaining operations are executed.
First the MC sends the signals to the LCD to display the message, such as project title etcthis also indicate the reset of MC to the user. Next it monitors the keypad.
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If the up or down key is pressed by the user the MC update the corresponding registors .
If not it will take the existed values of register and produce PWM signals to DC motor driver circuit . the DC motor circuits transistor will on\off according to PWM pulses.the MOSFET ON when the transistor is off state and it is in off condition when the transistor is in on state. Here by rapid switching of MOSFET, the effective voltage is created and used to run the DC motor, which is given through MOSFET. The resultant effective voltage is vary according to the duration of the ON period of the each pulse.if the ON pulse is decresses ,the effective voltage will decreases so, speed of the DC motor will decreases and vise versa. The pulse width is depending on the up and down keys registers value. User edits these values by pressing the keypad. The process is continuous.
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Block diagram of Speed control of DC motor
LCD
DC Motor driver circuit 89C51 Micro Controller
DC Motor
Keypad
Block diagram Description of Speed control of DC motor:

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Speed Control of DC motor In this project at89C51 micro controller is used as speed controller. In this block diagram we are using one keypad, LCD, one driver circuit for DC motor and DCMotor. Here the keypad is used for adjusting the speed of DC motor i.e. one key for incrementing and one for decrementing.
CHAPTER-3
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DESIGN PROCEDURE
8 bit micro controller

Looking back into the history of microcomputers, one would at first come across the development of microprocessor i.e. the processing element, and later on the peripheral devices. The three basic elements-the CPU, I/O devices and memory-have developed in distinct directions. While the CPU has been the proprietary item, the memory devices fall into general-purpose category and the I/O devices may be grouped somewhere in-between.
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Speed Control of DC motor The AT89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 4K bytes of Flash programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM). The device is manufactured using Atmels high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard MCS-51 instruction set and pin out. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C51 is a powerful microcomputer, which provides a highly flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications. The AT89C51 provides for 4k EPROM/ROM, 128 byte RAM and 32 I/O lines. It also includes a universal asynchronous receive-transmit (UART) device, two 16-bit timer/counters and elaborate interrupt logic.
Lack of multiply and divide instructions which had been always felt in 8-bit microprocessors/micro controllers, has also been taken care of in the 89C51- Thus the 89C51 may be called nearly equivalent of the following devices on a single chip: 8085 + 8255 + 8251 + 8253 + 2764 + 6116. In short, the AT89C51 has the following on-chip facilities: 4k ROM (EPROM on 8751) 17
Speed Control of DC motor 128 byte RAM UART 32 input-output port lines Two, 16-bit timer/counters Six interrupt sources and On-chip clock oscillator and power on reset circuitry.
Description
The AT89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 4K bytes of flash programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM). The device is manufactured using Atmels high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry standard MCS-51 instruction set and pinout. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C51 is a powerful microcomputer which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications.
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The above circuit is the pin configuration of AT89c51.
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Internal Block diagram
Fig 5.4 AT89C51 internal block diagram 20
Salient features
The 89C51 can be configured to bypass, the internal 4k ROM and run solely with external program memory. For this its external access (EA) pin has to be grounded,
which makes it equivalent to 8031. The program store enable (PSEN) signal acts as read pulse for program memory. The data memory is external only and a separate RD* signal is available for reading its contents. Use of external memory requires that three of its 8-bit ports (out of four) are configured to provide data/address multiplexed bus. Hi address bus and control signals related to external memory use. The RXD and TXD ports of UART also appear on pins 10 and 11 of 8051 and 8031, respectively. One 8-bit port, which is bit addressable and, extremely useful for control applications. The UART utilizes one of the internal timers for generation of baud rate. The crystal used for generation of CPU clock has therefore to be chosen carefully. The 11.0596 MHz crystals; available abundantly, can provide a baud rate of 9600. The 256-byte address space is utilized by the internal RAM and special function registers (SFRs) array which is separate from external data RAM space of 64k. The 00-7F space is
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Speed Control of DC motor occupied by the RAM and the 80 - FF space by the SFRs. The 128 byte internal RAM has been utilized in the following fashion: 00-IF: Used for four banks of eight registers of 8-bit each. The four banks may be selected by software any time during the program 20-2F: The 16 bytes may be used as 128 bits of individually addressable locations. These are extremely useful for bit oriented programs.
30- 7F: This area is used for temporary storage, pointers and stack. On
reset, the stack starts at 08 and gets incremented during use.
The list of special function registers along with their hex addresses is given :
Addr. 80 81 82 83 88 89 8A 8B 8C 8D 90 98 99 A0 A8 B0 B8 Port/Register P0 (Port 0) SP (stack pointer) DPH (data pointer High) DPL (data pointer Low) TCON (timer control) TMOD (timer mode) TLO (timer 0 low byte) TL1 (timer 1 low byte) TH0 (timer 0 high byte) TH1 (timer 1 high byte) P1 (port 1) SCON (serial control) SBUF (serial buffer) P2 (port 2) Interrupt enable (IE) P3 (port 3) Interrupt priority (IP) 22
Speed Control of DC motor D0 E0 F0 Processor status word (PSW) Accumulator (ACC) B register Table AT89C51 SFR
Hardware details
The on chip oscillator of 89C51 can be used to generate system clock. Depending upon version of the device, crystals from 3.5 to 12 MHz may be used for this purpose. The system clock is internally divided by 6 and the resultant time period processor cycle. The instructions take mostly one or two processor cycles to execute, and very occasionally three processor cycles. The ALE (address latch enable) pulse rate is 16th of the system clock, except during access of internal program memory, and thus can be used for timing purposes. becomes one
AT89C51 Serial port pins:

PIN P3.ORXD P3.ITXD P3.2INTO P3.3INT1 P3.4TO P3.5T1 P3.6WR P3.7RD ALTERNATE USE Serial data input Serial data output External interrupt 0 External interrupt 1 External timer 0 input External timer 1 input External memory write pulse External memory read pulse Table AT89C51 serial port pins SFR SBUF SBUF TCON-1 TCON- 2 TMOD TMOD ------------
The two internal timers are wired to the system clock and prescaling factor is decided by the software, apart from the count stored in the two bytes of the timer control registers. One 23
Speed Control of DC motor of the counters, as mentioned earlier, is used for generation of baud rate clock for the UART. It would be of interest to know that the 8052 have a third timer, which is usually used for generation of baud rate.
The reset input is normally low and taking it high resets the micro controller, In the present hardware, a separate CMOS circuit has been used for generation of reset signal so that it could be used to drive external devices as well.
Writing the software

The 89C51 has been specifically developed for control applications. As mentioned earlier, out of the 128 bytes of internal RAM, 16 bytes have been organized in such a way that all the 128 bits associated with this group may be accessed bit wise to facilitate their use for bit set/reset/test applications. These are therefore extremely useful for programs involving individual logical operations. One can easily give example of lift for one such application where each one of the floors, door condition, etc may be depicted by a single hit. The 89C51 has instructions for bit manipulation and testing. Apart from these, it has 8-bit multiply and divide instructions, which may be used with advantage. The 89C51 has short branch instructions for 'within page' and conditional jumps, short jumps and calls within 2k memory space which are very convenient, and as such the controller seems to favor programs which are less than 2k byte long. Some versions of 8751 EPROM devices have a security bit which can be programmed to lock the device and then the contents of internal 24
Speed Control of DC motor program EPROM cannot be read. The device has to be erased in full for further alteration, and thus it can only be reused but not copied. EEPROM and FLASH memory versions of the device are also available now.
Memory unit
Memory is part of the micro controller whose function is to store data. The easiest way to explain it is to describe it as one big closet with lots of drawers. If we suppose that we marked the drawers in such a way that they cannot be confused, any of their contents will then be easily accessible. It is enough to know the designation of the drawer and so its contents will be known to us for sure. Memory components are exactly like that. For a certain input we get the contents of a certain addressed memory location and thats all. Two new concepts are brought to us: addressing and memory location. Memory consists of all memory locations, and addressing is nothing but selecting one of them. This means that we need to select the desired memory location on one hand, and on the other hand we need to wait for the contents of that location. Besides reading from a memory location, memory must also provide for writing onto it. This is done by supplying an additional line, called control line. We will designate this line as R/W (read/write). Control line is used in the following way: if r/w=1, reading is 25
Speed Control of DC motor done, and if opposite is true then writing is done on the memory location.Memory is the first element, and we need a few operation of our micro controller.
Pin Description
VCC Supply voltage. GND Ground.
Port 0 1.Port 0 is an 8-bit open-drain bi-directional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high impedance inputs. 2.Port 0 may also be configured to be the multiplexed low order address/data bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode P0 has internal pull-ups. 3.Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming, and outputs the code bytes during program verification. External pull-ups are required during program verification. Port 1 1.Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and verification. Port 2 26
Speed Control of DC motor 1.Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins they are pulled high by the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pullups. 2.Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external data memory that use 16-bit addresses (MOVX @DPTR). In this application, it uses strong internal pull-ups when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that use 8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register. Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash programming and verification. Port 3 1.Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins they are pulled high by the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pullups. 2.Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the AT89C51 as listed below:
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Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification. RST Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the device. ALE/PROG Address Latch Enable output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming. In normal operation ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency, and may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is skipped during each access to external Data Memory. If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in external execution mode. 28
PSEN Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external program memory. When the AT89C51 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data memory. EA/VPP External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset. EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming, for parts that require 12-volt VPP. XTAL1 Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit. XTAL2 Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.
Oscillator Characteristics
XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier which can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator, as shown in Figure 1. Either a quartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the device from an external clock source, XTAL2 should be left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven as shown in Figure 2.There are no requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the input to the internal clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but minimum and maximum voltage high and low time specifications must be observed. Idle Mode 29
Speed Control of DC motor In idle mode, the CPU puts itself to sleep while all the onchip peripherals remain active. The mode is invoked by software. The content of the on-chip RAM and all the special functions registers remain unchanged during this mode. The idle mode can be terminated by any enabled interrupt or by a hardware reset. It should be noted that when idle is terminated by a hard ware reset, the device normally resumes program execution, from
where it left off, up to two machine cycles before the internal reset algorithm takes control. On-chip hardware inhibits access to internal RAM in this event, but access to the port pins is not inhibited. To eliminate the possibility of an unexpected write to a port pin when Idle is terminated by reset, the instruction following the one that invokes Idle should not be one that writes to a port pin or to external memory.
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Power-down Mode In the power-down mode, the oscillator is stopped, and the instruction that invokes powerdown is the last instruction executed. The on-chip RAM and Special Function Registers 31
Speed Control of DC motor retain their values until the power-down mode is terminated. The only exit from powerdown is a hardware reset. Reset redefines the SFRs but does not change the on-chip RAM. The reset should not be activated before VCC is restored to its normal operating level and must be held active long enough to allow the oscillator to restart and stabilize. Program Memory Lock Bits On the chip are three lock bits which can be left unprogrammed (U) or can be programmed (P) to obtain the additional features listed in the table below. 1.When lock bit 1 is programmed, the logic level at the EA pins sampled and latched during reset. If the device is powered up without a reset, the latch initializes to a random value, and holds that value until reset is activated. It is necessary that the latched value of EA be in agreement with the current logic level at that pin in order for the device to function properly.
Programming the Flash The AT89C51 is normally shipped with the on-chip Flash memory array in the erased state (that is, contents = FFH) and ready to be programmed. The programming interface accepts either a high-voltage (12-volt) or a low-voltage (VCC) program enable signal. The lowvoltage programming mode provides a convenient way to program the AT89C51 inside the users system, while the high-voltage programming mode is compatible with conventional thirdparty Flash or EPROM programmers. The AT89C51 is shipped with either the high32
Speed Control of DC motor voltage or low-voltage programming mode enabled. The respective top-side marking and device signature codes are listed in the following table.
The AT89C51 code memory array is programmed byte-byte in either programming mode. To program any nonblank byte in the on-chip Flash Memory, the entire memory must be erased using the Chip Erase Mode.
Programming Algorithm Before programming the AT89C51, the address, data and control signals should be set up according to the Flash programming mode table and Figure 3 and Figure 4. To program the AT89C51, take the following steps. 1. Input the desired memory location on the address lines. 2. Input the appropriate data byte on the data lines. 3. Activate the correct combination of control signals. 4. Raise EA/VPP to 12V for the high-voltage programming mode.
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Speed Control of DC motor 5. Pulse ALE/PROG once to program a byte in the Flash array or the lock bits. The bytewrite cycle is self-timed and typically takes no more than 1.5 ms. Repeat steps 1 through 5, changing the address and data for the entire array or until the end of the object file is reached. Data Polling: The AT89C51 features Data Polling to indicate the end of a write cycle. During a write cycle, an attempted read of the last byte written will result in the complement of the written datum on PO.7. Once the write cycle has been the next cycle may begin. Data Polling may begin any time completed, true data are valid on all outputs, and after a write cycle has been initiated. Ready/Busy: The progress of byte programming can also be monitored by the RDY/BSY output signal. P3.4 is pulled low after ALE goes high during programming to indicate BUSY. P3.4 is pulled high again when programming is done to indicate READY. Program Verify: If lock bits LB1 and LB2 have not been programmed, the programmed code data can be read back via the address and data lines for verification. The lock bits cannot be verified directly. Verification of the lock bits is achieved by observing that their features are enabled. Chip Erase: The entire Flash array is erased electrically by using the proper combination of control signals and by holding ALE/PROG low for 10 ms. The code array is written with all
1s. The chip erase operation must be executed before the code memory can be reprogrammed. Reading the Signature Bytes:
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Speed Control of DC motor The signature bytes are read by the same procedure as a normal verification of locations 030H, 031H, and 032H, except that P3.6 and P3.7 must be pulled to a logic low. The values returned are as follows. (030H) = 1EH indicates manufactured by Atmel (031H) = 51H indicates 89C51 (032H) = FFH indicates 12V programming (032H) = 05H indicates 5V programming
Programming Interface
Every code byte in the Flash array can be written and the entire array can be erased by using the appropriate combination of control signals. The write operation cycle is selftimed and once initiated, will automatically time itself to completion. All major programming vendors offer worldwide support for the Atmel microcontroller series. Please contact your local programming vendor for the appropriate software revision.
Central Processing Unit

Let add 3 more memory locations to a specific block that will have a built in capability to multiply, divide, subtract, and move its contents from one memory location onto another. The part we just added in is called central processing unit (CPU). Its memory locations are called registers. 35
Registers are therefore memory locations whose role is to help with performing various mathematical operations or any other operations with data wherever data can be found. Look at the current situation. We have two independent entities (memory and CPU), which are interconnected, and thus any exchange of data is hindered, as well as its functionality. If, for example, we wish to add the contents of two memory locations and return the result again back to memory, we would need a connection between memory and CPU. Simply stated, we must have some way through data goes from one block to another.
Bus
That way is called bus. Physically, it represents a group of 8, 16, or more wires. There are two types of buses: address and data bus. The first one consists of as many lines as the amount of memory we wish to address, and the other one is as wide as data, in our case 8 bits or the connection line. First one serves to transmit address from CPU memory, and the second to connect all blocks inside the micro controller.
Input-output unit
Those locations weve just added are called ports. There are several types of ports: input, output or bi-directional ports. When working with ports, first of all it is necessary to choose which port we need to work with, and then to send data to, or take it from the port. When
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Speed Control of DC motor working with it the port acts like a memory location. Something is simply being written into or read from it, and it could be noticed on the pins of the micro-controller.
LCD
A general purpose alphanumeric LCD, with two lines of 16 characters. LCDs with a small number of segments, such as those used in digital watches and pocket calculators, have a single electrical contact for each segment. An external dedicated circuit supplies an electric charge to control each segment. This display structure is unwieldy for more than a few display elements. Small monochrome displays such as those found in personal organizers, or older laptop screens have a passive-matrix structure employing supertwist nematic (STN) or doublelayer STN (DSTN) technology (DSTN corrects a color-shifting problem with STN). row or column of the display has a single electrical circuit. The pixels are addressed at a time by row and column addresses This type of display is called a passive matrix because the pixel must retain its state between refreshes without the benefit of a steady 37
Speed Control of DC motor electrical charge. As the number of pixels (and, correspondingly, columns and rows) increases, this type of display becomes increasingly less feasible. Very slow response times and poor contrast are typical of passive-matrix LCDs.
For high-resolution color displays such as modern LCD computer monitors and televisions, an active matrix structure is used. A matrix of thin-film transistors (TFTs) is
added to the polarizing and color filters. Each pixel has its own dedicated transistor, which allows each column line to access one pixel. When a row line is activated, all of the column lines are connected to a row of pixels and the correct voltage is driven onto all of the column lines. The row line is then deactivated and the next row line is activated. All of the row lines are activated in sequence during a refresh operation. Active-matrix displays are much brighter and sharper than passive-matrix displays of the same size, and generally have quicker response times. The most common connector used for the 44780 based LCDs is 14 pins in a row, with pin centers 0.100" apart.
The pins are wired as: Pins 1 2 3 Description Ground Vcc Contrast Voltage 38
Speed Control of DC motor 4 5 6 7 - 14 "R/S" _Instruction/Register Select "R/W" _Read/Write LCD Registers "E" Clock Data I/O Pins
As you would probably guess from this description, the interface is a parallel bus, allowing simple and fast reading/writing of data to and from the LCD. This waveform will write an ASCII Byte out to the LCD's screen. The ASCII code to be displayed is eight bits long and is sent to the LCD either four or eight bits at a time.
If four bit mode is used, two "nybbles" of data (Sent high four bits and then low four bits with an "E" Clock pulse with each nybble) are sent to make up a full eight bit transfer. The "E" Clock is used to initiate the data transfer within the LCD. Sending parallel data as either four or eight bits are the two primary modes of operation. While there are secondary considerations and modes, deciding how to send the data to the LCD is most critical decision to be made for an LCD interface application. Eight bit mode is best used when speed is required in an application and at least ten I/O pins are available. Four bit mode requires a minimum of six bits. To wire 39
Speed Control of DC motor a microcontroller to an LCD in four bit mode, just the top four bits (DB4-7) are written .
The "R/S" bit is used to select whether data or an instruction is being transferred between the microcontroller and the LCD. If the Bit is set, then the byte at the current LCD "Cursor" Position can be read or written. When the Bit is reset, either an instruction is being sent to the LCD or the execution status of the last instruction is read back (whether or not it has completed).
The different instructions available for use with the 44780 are shown in the table below: R/S R/W D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 4 0 5 0 14 13 12 11 10 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 7 Pins 1 Clear Display 40 Instruction/Description
Speed Control of DC motor 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 * Return Cursor and LCD to Home Position
1 ID S Set Cursor Move Direction D C B Enable Display/Cursor * Move Cursor/Shift Display * Set Interface Length
1 SC RL * F *
1 DL N A A A * D
A A A A Move Cursor into CGRAM A A A A Move Cursor to Display * * * * Poll the "Busy Flag" Write a Character to the Display at the Current Cursor Position Read the Character on the Display at the Current Cursor Position
A A *
BF *
D D D
D D D D
D D D
D D D D
Power supply
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Power supply unit provides 5V regulates power supply to the systems. It consists of two parts namely,
1. Rectifier
2. Monolithic voltage regulator
Rectifier
Here the step down transformer 230-0v/12v-0-12v and gives the secondary current up to 1000mA, to the Rectifier. The Transformer secondary is provided with a center tap. Hence the voltage V1 and V2 are equal and are having a phase difference of 1800. So it is anode of Diode D1 is positive with respect to the center tap, the anode of the other diode d2 will be negative with respect to the center tap. During the positive half cycle of the supply D1 conducts and current flows through the center tap D1 and load. During this period D2 will not conduct as its anode is at a negative potential. During the negative half cycle of the supply voltage, the voltage on the diode D2 42
will be positive and hence D2 conducts.
Speed Control of DC motor The current flows through the transformer
winding, Diode D2 and load. It is to be noted that the current i1 and i2 are flowing in the same direction in load. The average of the two current i1 and i2 flows through the load producing a voltage drop, which is the D.C. output voltage of the rectifier. Using capacitor filters the ripple in the out waveform can be minimized. The voltage can be regulated by using monolithic IC voltage regulators.
Monolithic IC voltage regulator

A voltage regulator is a circuit that supplies a constant voltage regardless of changes in load currents. Although voltage regulators can be designed using op-amps, it is quicker and easier to use IC voltage regulators. Furthermore, IC voltage regulators are versatile and relatively inexpensive and are available with features such as programmable output, current/voltage boosting, internal short-circuit current limiting, thermal shutdown and floating operation for high voltage applications.
The MC78XX/LM78XX/MC78XXA series of three terminal positive regulators are available in the TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a wide range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shut down and safe operating area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver over 1A output current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents.
43
Speed Control of DC motor Typical performance parameters for voltage regulators are line regulation, load regulation, temperature stability and ripple rejection. Line regulation is defined as the change in output voltage for a change in the input voltage and is usually expressed in milli volts or as a percentage of Vo.
Temperature stability or average temperature coefficient of output voltage (TCVo) is the change in output voltage per unit change in temperature and is expressed in either milli volts/C or parts per million (PPM/C). ripple rejection is the measure of a regulators ability to reject ripple voltage. It is usually expressed in decibels. The smaller the values of line regulation, load regulation and temperature stability the better the regulation.
DC Motor driver circuit

44
The above circuit is for driving the DC motor .in this circuit the MOSFET is used as switch for DC motor with high current handling capacity. The transistor is used as switch for MOSFET to on or off according to the micro controller control signals.
MOSFET
The metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), is by far the most common field-effect transistor in both digital and analog circuits. The MOSFET is composed of a channel of n-type or p-typesemiconductor material (see article on semiconductor devices), and is accordingly called an NMOSFET or a PMOSFET.
45
Speed Control of DC motor (The 'metal' in the name is an anachronism from early chips where gates were metal; modern chips use polysilicon gates, but are still called MOSFETs).
Usually the semiconductor of choice is silicon, but some chip manufacturers, most notably IBM, have begun to use a mixture of silicon and germanium (SiGe) in MOSFET channels. Unfortunately, many semiconductors with better electrical properties than silicon, such as gallium arsenide, do not form good gate oxides and thus are not suitable for MOSFETs. IGFET is a related term meaning insulated-gate field-effect transistor, and is almost synonymous with "MOSFET", though it can refer to FETs with a gate insulator that is not oxide. The gate terminal is a layer of polysilicon (polycrystalline silicon; why polysilicon is used will be explained below) placed over the channel, but separated from the channel by a thin insulating layer of what was traditionally silicon dioxide, but more advanced technologies used silicon oxynitride. When a voltage is applied between the gate and source terminals, the electric field generated penetrates through the oxide and creates a so-called "inversion channel" in the channel underneath. The inversion channel is of the same typep-type or n-typeas the source and drain, so it provides a conduit through which current can pass. Varying the voltage between the gate and body modulates the conductivity of this layer and makes it possible to control the current flow between drain and source. 46
Operation of the circuit

When the output of the controller is high, the base current I flows in to base of the transistor, thus providing voltage drop more then 0.7V across the Ve junction, thus the transistor goes in to saturation mode. So the Ic is maximum and the voltage drop across the Vce junction is zero. I.e. the input to MOSFET is zero. So the MOSFET will not conduct and stepper motor coil will not energize.
If the output of the controller is low, the base current I is zero, thus providing voltage drop less then 0.1V across the Ve junction, thus the transistor goes in to cut-off mode. So the Ic is minimum and the voltage drop across the Vce junction is maximum. I.e. the input to MOSFET is almost Vcc. So the MOSFET will conduct and stepper motor coil get energized.
For driving of motor coils, we used IRF540 MOSFET, which are having low on-state resistance so that the dissipation is less, fast switching and low thermal resistance. 47
Speed Control of DC motor This MOSFET is driven by BC548 transistor. For each motor four MOSFET sections are required.
BUZZER
The buzzer is a sound-producing module it will generate continuous sound when the +5V is available. The transistor act as a switch and it follows the commands from MC. if the base of the transistor is low the buzzer in off condition due to transistor in cutoff state, and it will give sound when the base is in high logic due to transistor is in active state. Resistor act as a current limiter for transistor.
48
Speed Controllers
Introduction
The purpose of a motor speed controller is to take a signal representing the demanded 49
Speed Control of DC motor speed, and to drive a motor at that speed. The controller may or may not actually measure the speed of the motor. If it does, it is called a Feedback Speed Controller or Closed Loop Speed Controller, if not it is called an Open Loop Speed Controller. Feedback speed control is better, but more complicated, and may not be required for a simple robot design. Motors come in a variety of forms, and the speed controller's motor drive output will be different dependent on these forms. The speed controller presented here is designed to drive a simple cheap starter motor from a car, which can be purchased from any scrap yard. These motors are generally series wound, which means to reverse them, they must be altered slightly. Below is a simple block diagram of the speed controller. We'll go through the important parts block by block in detail.
Theory of DC motor speed control

The speed of a DC motor is directly proportional to the supply voltage, so if we reduce 50
Speed Control of DC motor the supply voltage from 12 Volts to 6 Volts, the motor will run at half the speed. How can this be achieved when the battery is fixed at 12 Volts? The speed controller works by varying the average voltage sent to the motor. It could do this by simply adjusting the voltage sent to the motor, but this is quite inefficient to do. A better way is to switch the motor's supply on and off very quickly. If the switching is fast enough, the motor doesn't notice it, it only notices the average effect. When you watch a film in the cinema, or the television, what you are actually seeing is a series of fixed pictures, which change rapidly enough that your eyes just see the average effect - movement. Your brain fills in the gaps to give an average effect. Now imagine a light bulb with a switch. When you close the switch, the bulb goes on and is at full brightness, say 100 Watts. When you open the switch it goes off (0 Watts). Now if you close the switch for a fraction of a second, then open it for the same amount of time, the filament won't have time to cool down and heat up, and you will just get an average glow of 50 Watts. This is how lamp dimmers work, and the same principle is used by speed controllers to drive a motor. When the switch is closed, the motor sees 12 Volts, and when it is open it sees 0 Volts. If the switch is open for the same amount of time as it is closed, the motor will see an average of 6 Volts, and will run more slowly accordingly. As the amount of time that the voltage is on increases compared with the amount of time that it is off, the average speed of the motor increases. 51
This on-off switching is performed by power MOSFETs. A MOSFET (Metal-OxideSemiconductor Field Effect Transistor) is a device that can turn very large currents on and off under the control of a low signal level voltage. For more detailed information, see the dedicated chapter onMOSFETS) The time that it takes a motor to speed up and slow down under switching conditions is dependant on the inertia of the rotor (basically how heavy it is), and how much friction and load torque there is. The graph below shows the speed of a motor that is being turned on and off fairly slowly:
You can see that the average speed is around 150, although it varies quite a bit. If the supply voltage is switched fast enough, it wont have time to change speed much, and the 52
Speed Control of DC motor speed will be quite steady. This is the principle of switch mode speed control. Thus the speed is set by PWM Pulse Width Modulation.
Inductors
Before we go on to discuss the circuits, we must first learn something about the action of inductive loads, and inductors. Inductors do not allow the current flowing through them to change instantly (in the same way capacitors do not allow the voltage across them to change instantly). The voltage dropped across an inductor carrying a current i is given by the equation
where di/dt is the rate of change of the current. If the current is suddenly changed by opening a switch, or turning a transistor off, the inductor will generate a very high voltage across it. For example, turning off 100 Amps in 1 microsecond through a 100 microHenry inductor generates 10kV!
PWM frequency
The frequency of the resulting PWM signal is dependant on the frequency of the ramp waveform. What frequency do we want? This is not a simple question. Some pros and cons are:
Frequencies between 20Hz and 18kHz may produce audible screaming from the speed controller and motors - this may be an added attraction for your robot! 53
Speed Control of DC motor RF interference emitted by the circuit will be worse the higher the switching frequency is.Each switching on and off of the speed controller MOSFETs results in a little power loss. Therefore the greater the time spent switching compared with the static on and off times, the greater will be the resulting 'switching loss' in the MOSFETs.
The higher the switching frequency, the more stable is the current waveform in the motors. This waveform will be a spiky switching waveform at low frequencies, but at high frequencies the inductance of the motor will smooth this out to an average DC current level proportional to the PWM demand. This spikyness will cause greater power loss in the resistances of the wires, MOSFETs, and motor windings than a steady DC current waveform.
This third point can be seen from the following two graphs. One shows the worst case onoff current waveform, the other the best case steady DC current waveform:
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Both waveforms have the same average current. However, when we work out the power dissipation in the stray resistances in our motor and speed controller, for the DC case:
and for the switching case, the average power is
Regeneration
In this circuit, energy can flow only one way, from the battery to the motor. When the speed demand of the motor drops suddenly, the momentum of the robot will drive the motor forwards, and the motor will act as a generator. In the circuit above, this power cannot go anywhere. Although this isnt a problem, it is desirable that this power be put 55
Speed Control of DC motor back into the battery. This is called regenerative braking and needs some extra components. The following circuit allows regenerative braking:
In this circuit, Q1 and D1 perform the same function as in the previous circuit. Q2 is turned on in antiphase to Q1. This means that when Q1 is on, Q2 is off, and when Q1 is off, Q2 is on. In this circuit, when the robot is slowing down, Q1 is off and the motor is acting as a generator. The current can flow backwards (because the motor is generating) through Q2 which is turned on. When Q2 turns off, this current is maintained by the inductance, and current will flow up through D2 and back into the battery. A graph of motor current as the motor is slowing down is shown below:
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If you are driving starter motors, or any type of series-field motor, regeneration is harder to make work. For a motor to work as a generator, it must have a magnetic field, generated by the field coil. In a series motor this is in series with the armature coil, so to generate a voltage, a suitable current must be flowing. The current that will flow depends on the load, which during regeneration is the battery, so it depends on how much the battery is charged up - how much current the battery will draw into it. Alternatively, a dummy resistive load can be switched in at the approriate time, but this is all a little too complicated for a robot!
Reversing
To reverse a DC motor, the supply voltage to the armature must be reversed, or the magnetic field must be reversed. In a series motor, the magnetic field is supplied from the supply voltage, so when that is reversed, so is the field, therefore the motor would 57
Speed Control of DC motor continue in the same direction. We must switch either the field windings supply, or the armature windings supply, but not both.
One method is to switch the field coil using relays:
When the relays are in the position shown, current will flow vertically upwards through the field coil. To reverse the motor the relays are switched over. Then the current will be flowing vertically downwards through the field coil, and the motor will go in reverse.
However, when the relays open to reverse the direction, the inductance of the motor generates a very high voltage which will spark across the relay contact, damaging the relay. Relays which can take very high currents are also quite expensive. Therefore this is not a very good solution. A better solution is to use what is termed a full-bridge circuit around either the field winding, or the armature winding. We will put it around the 58
Speed Control of DC motor armature winding and leave the field winding in series.
The full bridge circuit

A full bridge circuit is shown in the diagram below. Each side of the motor can be connected either to battery positive, or to battery negative. Note that only one MOSFET on each side of the motor must be turned on at any one time otherwise they will short out the battery and burn out!
Reducing the heat in the MOSFETs

When the MOSFETs in the diagrams above are on and current is flowing through them in a top-to-bottom direction, they have a very low resistance and are dissipating hardly any heat at all. However, when the current is flowing bottom-to-top through the intrinsic diodes, there is a fixed voltage across them - the voltage drop of a diode, about 0.8 volts. This causes quite a large power dissipation (volts x amps). A feature of MOSFETs is that they will conduct current from source to drain as well as drain to source, as long as the Vgs is greater than 10-12 volts. Therefore, if the MOSFETs that are carrying reversed current through their diodes are turned on, then they will dissipate a lot less heat. The heat will be dissipated in the wires and the motor itself instead. This extra switching is performed by the TD340 full bridge driver.
Generating PWM signals

The PWM signals can be generated in a number of ways. It is possible that your radio 59
Speed Control of DC motor receiver already picks up a PWM waveform from the handest transmitter. If there is a microcontroller on the robot, this may be able to generate the waveform, although if you have more than a couple of motors, this may be too much of a load on the microcontrollers resources. Several methods are described below.
Analogue electronics
The PWM signal is generated by comparing a triangular wave signal with a DC signal. The DC signal can range between the minimum and maximum voltagesof the triangle wave.
When the triangle waveform voltage is greater than the DC level, the output of the opamp swings high, and when it is lower, the output swings low. From the graph it can be seen that if the DC level went higher, the pulses would get even thinner. An example circuit for this is shown below. This uses a counter and weighted resistor ladder to generate the triangle wave (in fact it will generate a sawtooth, but you'll still get a PWM signal at the end of it). The actual resistor values which are unavailable (40k, 60
Speed Control of DC motor 80k) can be made up with 20k resistors, or close approximations can be used, which may distort the sawtooth somewhat, but this shouldn't matter too much. The 74HC14 is a Schmitt input inverter, which is connected to act as a simple oscillator. The frequency of oscillation is roughly f = 1/(2.PI.R.C) but it doesnt matter a great deal within a few tens of percent. This square wave generated feeds the 74HC163 binary 4-bit counter.
Interfacing to the radio control receiver

Many roboteers will be using commercial radio control sets. The receivers of these generally connect to servos, which respond to the radio signal (which may also be PWM)
You may be able to tap into the PWM signal which comes out of the radio receiver 61
Speed Control of DC motor before it goes into the servo, and use this to drive the input to the MOSFET driver. However, this gives you no choice of switching frequency. Alternatively, the potentiometer can generate a voltage to feed into the PWM generator. A more advanced method if you have a microcontroller on board the robot is to take the PWM signal from the radio receiver and connect it to a timer input of the micro. The microcontroller should be able to decode this waveform, and generate a proportional analogue output value (if it has ADCs, or if an external ADC is fitted). Another even more advanced method is to send serial communications data through the radio channel. The radio control handset will need to have a microcontroller in. The microcontroller should read the pots and switches on the handset, and send suitable commands out of its UART. This connects to the radio transmitter. At the receiver, the demodulated output is sent to the robot's microcontroller's UART, and the data is decoded.
Current limiting
Current limiting is absolutely essential. If the motor is stalled, it can take huge currents which would destroy the MOSFETs very quickly. The form of current limiting presented here is to measure the current that the motor is taking, and if it is above a preset threshold, turn the MOSFETs in the bridge off. If you have a microcontroller on board which generates the PWM ratio, it would be an advantage if the software could detect the over- current status, and reduce the PWM ratio by, say, 10%.
The shunt resistor

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Speed Control of DC motor The shunt resistor R7 in the cicuit must be a very low value if we want large currents to be able to flow, up to 100 Amps for example. It must not drop too much voltage, thereby robbing power from the motor, and it must be capable of dissipating the power without buring out when large currents are passed through. Some suitable resistors are available from Farnell, code 156-267. These are still too large a resistance (and too low power), so we can place eight in parallel. The power handling capabilty is then increased eightfold, and the resistance decreased eightfold.An alternative is to use a piece of wire of an appropriate thickness and length. The V5 threshold voltage was chosen to set a current limit of 30 Amps. The square wave is the PWM voltage and the slopey waveform is the drain (motor) current. The spikey bits at the top of the slopey waveform is when the current limiting is switching in and out.
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Speed Control of DC motor Some circuits you may see sample the current going through the main power MOSFET by placing a much lower power MOSFET in parallel with it. This works OK, but the problem is the actual limiting current is dependant on the value of Rds(on) of the MOSFET. If Rds(on) was only half the value we were expecting it to be, then twice as much current would flow before the
limiting circuit took effect. Also the Rds(on) value depends very much on the current that is passing through the MOSFET, and on the temperature. Any variation in Rds(on) will change the limiting current. The Rds(on) figure is quoted as a maximum value on the datasheet, but it is not a designsafe parameter. This means that it is not within defined limits which are published on the datasheet. For example, CMOS digital logic guarantees that the output voltage, Vo, will be between Vcc-0.5v and Vcc, and that figure can be used to design circuits which rely on that figure. However, with Rds(on), we only know that it will be between 0 and the
quoted value. We cannot rely on a minimum value of it, yet it is the minimum value which controls the current limit. Therefore, using a separate shunt resistor is a much safer method. One problem with the circuit presented above is that you may want to provide a larger current during acceleration, or in emergencies. This can be solved by disabling the 64
Speed Control of DC motor current limiting using a separate line from any onboard microcontroller, or by adding a circuit which allows an over-current condition for just a short time. The amount of time that this is allowed must be carefully calculated to prevent damage to the MOSFETs, and must take into account the cooling system that you have provided. An alternative to using the op-amp differential amplifier circuit used above is to use an integrated current sense monitor IC.
Current limited torque speed characteristics

If a DC motor is being driven by a speed controller with current limiting active, what happens to the torque speed characteristic graph. The DC Motors page describes the normal motor torque speed graph, and how the torque of a permanent magnet DC motor is proportional to the current. If the current is limited however, the torque must also be limited, at the value coincident with the limited current on the torque-current graph. The effect that this has on the torque speed graph is shown below:
65
Speed Control of DC motor As the load torque increases, the speed drops - we are following the line in the torque speed characteristic from the left hand side towards the right, drooping down. This is the same as the uncontrolled motor. The motor torque always equals the load torque when the motor is running at constant speed (this follows from Newton's first law - "An object in motion tends to stay in motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force." The motor torque and load torque must be balanced out if the speed is not changing).
Let's call the current limit value iL and the equivalent torque value on the torque-current graph at this current is TL. When the load torque exceeds TL, the motor can no longer create an equal and opposite torque, and so the load will push the motor backwards in the opposite direction - we are now following the line as it drops downwards into negative speed. Let's take an example; an opponent's robot is more powerful than ours (or his current limit is set higher), and we are in a pushing match. As each pushes harder, our speed controller reaches its current limit first. Our robot is now pushing at a constant force (since the motor torque is now constant at its highest value).
As the opponent pushes harder, our wheels start to rotate backwards, and the pair of robots accelerates backwards at a rate given by Newton's second law: 66
Speed Control of DC motor F=ma or a=F/m where F is the difference between the forces of the two robots pushing, and m is the total mass of the two robots.
Feedback Speed Control

To stop a robot swerving in an arc when you want it to go forwards, you need to have feedback control of the motor speeds. This means that the actual speed of each wheel is measured, and compared with all the other wheels. Obviously to go in a straight line, the motor speeds must be equal. However, this does not necessarily mean that the speed demand for each motor should be the same. The motors will have different amounts of friction, and so a stiffer motor will require a higher speed demand to go as fast as a more free-running motor.
A block diagram of an analogue feedback speed controller is shown below
The speed demand is a DC voltage, which is fed to the PWM generator for motor A. Drives motor A at a speed dependant on the demand voltage. The speed of motor A is sampled using an optical encoder. This has a frequency output, which is proportional to 67
Speed Control of DC motor the speed of the motor. If we assume that motor B is already running at some speed, then the optical encoder on its shaft will be producing a frequency also. The phase comparator compares the two frequencies, effectively comparing the speeds of the two motors. Its output is a signal which gets larger as the two input frequencies get further apart. If the two frequecies are the same, it has a zero output. The integrator adds the output of the phase comparator to whatever its output was before. For example, if the integrator output was previously 3 volts, and its input is 0 volts, then its output will be 3 volts. If its input changed to 1 volts, then its output would change to 2 volts. Lets assume that motor B is running slower than motor A. Then the output of the phase comparator will be positive, and the output of the integrator will start to rise.The speed of motor B will then increase. If it increased to a speed greater than that of motor A, then the output of the phase comparator would become negative, and the output of the integrator would start to fall, thereby reducing the speed of motor B. In this manner, the speed of motor B is kept the same as the speed of motor A, and the robot will go in a straight line (as long as its wheels are the same size!). This method can be expanded to use any number of wheels. One motor will always be the directly driven one (in this case motor A), and the others will have their speed locked to this one. Note that if the directly driven motor is faster, or more free-running, than the others, then when it is driven at its fastest speed (the PWM signal is always ON), then the 68
other motors will never be able to keep up, and the robot will still swerve. It is best, therefore, to directly drive the slowest motor. An analogue feedback speed controller such as this is quite difficult to make, and keep stable. It is easier to perform this function using software in an onboard microcontroller.
CHAPTER-4
69
RESULTS
The following steps are included in output of project:
When power is switched ON,LCD displays the output as shown.
70
When the input is given through keypad steps will be incremented,this indicates the speed of the motor as shown
When the final step given from the keypad
71
Our Project Kit is shown below
72
CHAPTER-5
73
APPLICATIONS
1.In robotics for moving the arms. 2.Used in Tape Drivers. 3.Used in Bar Graphs indicated in Recorders.
ADVANTAGES
1.Low power consumption. 2.Cost is low.

74
3.Easy to operate.
DISADVANTAGES
1.Torque is less
75
CHAPTER-6
CONCLUSION
The project Speed Control of DC motor using microcontroller by using
76
PWM has been successfully designed and tested. It is quite clear from the above discussion that Speed Control Of DC motor using microcontroller by using PWM may be a comprehensive system that controls the speed of a motor by giving instructions to the microcontroller to reduce the manual work. The technology saves money too and gives a return on investment. This system have a great deal in common with one another,12V is used in this process of speed control of dc motor.Implemenation of this process is easy.Using this technique,by changing some changes in the circuit we can implement this in industries. So by using micro controller we control the speed of a DC motor using MOSFET. By applying a PWM pulse to gate of the MOSFET, the speed of the motor varies.We used an LCD for displaying the varying speed of the DC motor and a keypad for varying the speed. If we press up or down key, micro controller varies the duty cycle of the PWM accordingly so that the average power will vary resulting variations in the speed.
Finally we conclude that this method is one of the best methods for controlling the speed of the DC motor.
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FUTURE SCOPE
Speed control of DC motor by using microcontroller can deal with robotics while moving their arms and joints.we can move their arms in whatever directions we want to move it.By just changing the power supply connections in the circuit we can move the arms of a robot in any direction.
This will become the more important technique used in robotics and plays a prominent role in their movement.within no time this will shows their importance in the industrial area by using this technique with changes in the circuit diagram.
78
ALP PROGRAM
; ;> ;> TITLE ;> TARGET ;> STARTED ;> ; ;> ;> INCLUDES $MOD51 ;> ; ;> ;> HARD WARE DETAILS : ;> ;> DISPLAY ENEBLE - P2.5 : : SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTOR USING PWM : AT89C51 : 28-02-2006
79

DEN ;> BIT P2.5 - P2.6
DISPLAY READ/WRITE DRW BIT P2.6
;>
DISPLAY REG SELECT DRS BIT P2.7
- P2.7
;>
FET FIRING CONTROL PLS1 - P2.0
FFC1 ;>
BIT P2.0 - P2.1
BUZZER CONTROL BUZ BIT P2.1 - P1.0 BIT P1.0 - P1.1 BIT P1.1 - P1.2 BIT P1.2
;>
KEY I/P 1 KEY1
;>
KEY I/P 2 KEY2
;>
KEY I/P 3 KEY3
;> ; ;> ;> FLAGS : BUSY_CHEK ;> ; BIT 00h
80

;> ;> VARIABLES : DATA 30H DATA 31H DATA 32H DATA 33H DATA 34H DATA 35H DATA 36H
INC_VAL VAL1 VAL2 CNL CNH
SPEED_CNL SPEED_CNH
TCNT TCNT1 ;> ; ;> ;> DEFINITIONS SPTR PSET PRSET COM DAT EOL : EQU
DATA 37H DATA 38H
65H
EQU 0FFH EQU 00H ; command ; data ; end of line ;display headers
EQU 0fch EQU 0fdh EQU 0feh
81
;> ; ;> ;> VECTOR ADDRESESS: ORG 0000H
ljmp RESET
ORG ;
0003H
; ZCD 1 INTR
lcall INT_0 reti
ORG clr clr reti
000BH TR0 FFC1
ORG
001BH
push ACC push PSW
82

setb FFC1 mov mov TL0, VAL2 TH0, VAL1
setb TR0 mov mov ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; inc mov TL1, #065H TH1, #0EDH TCNT A, TCNT
cjne A, #46D, READ_VAL mov inc mov TCNT, #00H TCNT1 A, TCNT1
cjne A, #30D, READ_VAL mov mov mov TCNT1, #00H SPEED_CNL, CNL SPEED_CNH, CNH
; ; ;
mov mov
CNL, #00H CNH, #00H
READ_VAL:
pop
PSW
83

pop reti ACC
;> ; ;> RESET: mov mov mov mov mov mov mov mov mov mov mov mov P3, #0FFH P2, #PSET P1, #PSET P0, #PSET sp, #SPTR VAL1, #00H VAL2, #00H TCNT, #00H TCON, #05H TMOD, #11H IE, #8Bh TL1, #065H ; reset interrupts ; init stack pointer
mov
TH1, #0EDH
setb TR1
84

mov mov mov clr mov INC_VAL, #00h TL0, VAL1 TH0, VAL2 BUZ dptr, #INITIALISE
lcall MESSAGE mov dptr, #NAME
lcall MESSAGE lcall DLY1
mov
dptr, #COLLEGE
mov
dptr, #NAME1
mov
dptr, #NAME2
mov
dptr, #HODD
85
mov
dptr, #CLRSCR
lcall MESSAGE mov dptr, #SPD0
lcall MESSAGE mov mov ;> ; ;> MAIN: lcall KBREAD lcall SELECT_SPEED SPEED_CNL, #00H SPEED_CNH, #00H
ljmp MAIN ;> ; ;> KBREAD: ; key board sub
86
jb
KEY1, HOLD_VAL_UP
SELECT_KEY1:
jnb
KEY1, SELECT_KEY1
setb BUZ lcall DLY clr inc mov BUZ INC_VAL A, INC_VAL
cjne A, #11H, HOLD_VAL_UP mov INC_VAL, #10H
setb BUZ lcall DLY lcall DLY lcall DLY clr BUZ
HOLD_VAL_UP:
jb
KEY2, HOLD_VAL_DOWN
SELECT_KEY2: jnb KEY2, SELECT_KEY2
87

setb BUZ lcall DLY clr dec mov BUZ INC_VAL A, INC_VAL
cjne A, #0FFH, HOLD_VAL_DOWN mov INC_VAL, #00H
setb BUZ lcall DLY lcall DLY lcall DLY clr BUZ
HOLD_VAL_DOWN:
jb mov
KEY3, STOP_DC_MOT INC_VAL, #00H
STOP_DC_MOT: ret ;> ; ;>
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INT_0: push ACC push PSW ; cpl BUZ
; ;
mov mov inc mov clr
TL0, #00H TH0, #60H CNL A, CNL C
DA mov jnc inc mov clr DA mov
A CNL, A SKIP_INC1 CNH A, CNH C A CNH, A
SKIP_INC1:
pop
PSW
89

pop RET ;> ; ;> SELECT_SPEED: mov A, INC_VAL ACC
cjne A, #00H, NEXT_SPEED1 mov mov mov VAL1, #00H VAL2, #00H DPTR, #SPD0
lcall MESSAGE NEXT_SPEED1:
mov
A, INC_VAL
cjne A, #01H, NEXT_SPEED5 mov mov mov VAL1, #0F0H VAL2, #43H DPTR, #SPD1 ; 75%
lcall MESSAGE NEXT_SPEED5: mov A, INC_VAL
90

cjne A, #02H, NEXT_SPEED6 mov mov mov VAL1, #0F2H VAL2, #0FH DPTR, #SPD2 ; 70%
cjne A, #03H, NEXT_SPEED7 mov mov mov VAL1, #0F4H VAL2, #0D7H DPTR, #SPD3 ; 65%
cjne A, #04H, NEXT_SPEED8 mov mov VAL1, #0F6H VAL2, #09FH ; 60%
mov
DPTR, #SPD4
91

cjne A, #05H, NEXT_SPEED9 mov mov mov VAL1, #0F7H VAL2, #067H DPTR, #SPD5 ; 55%
cjne A, #06H, NEXT_SPEEDA mov mov mov VAL1, #0F8H VAL2, #02FH DPTR, #SPD6 ; 50%
lcall MESSAGE NEXT_SPEEDA: mov A, INC_VAL
cjne A, #07H, NEXT_SPEEDB mov mov mov VAL1, #0F8H VAL2, #0F7H DPTR, #SPD7 ; 45%
lcall MESSAGE NEXT_SPEEDB: mov A, INC_VAL
92

cjne A, #08H, NEXT_SPEEDC mov mov mov VAL1, #0F9H VAL2, #0BFH DPTR, #SPD8 ; 40%
lcall MESSAGE NEXT_SPEEDC: mov A, INC_VAL
cjne A, #09H, NEXT_SPEEDD mov mov mov VAL1, #0FAH VAL2, #087H DPTR, #SPD9 ; 35%
lcall MESSAGE NEXT_SPEEDD: mov A, INC_VAL
cjne A, #0AH, NEXT_SPEEDE mov mov mov VAL1, #0FBH VAL2, #047H DPTR, #SPD10 ; 30%
lcall MESSAGE NEXT_SPEEDE: mov A, INC_VAL
cjne A, #0BH, NEXT_SPEEDF mov VAL1, #0FCH ; 25%
93

mov mov VAL2, #17H DPTR, #SPD11
lcall MESSAGE NEXT_SPEEDF: mov A, INC_VAL
cjne A, #0CH, NEXT_SPEED10 mov mov mov VAL1, #0FCH VAL2, #0DFH DPTR, #SPD12 ; 20%
cjne A, #0DH, NEXT_SPEED11 mov mov mov VAL1, #0FDH VAL2, #0A7H DPTR, #SPD13 ; 15%
cjne A, #0EH, NEXT_SPEED12 mov VAL1, #0FEH ; 10%
94

mov mov VAL2, #06FH DPTR, #SPD14
cjne A, #0FH, NEXT_SPEED13
mov mov mov
VAL1, #0FFH VAL2, #037H DPTR, #SPD15
; 05%
cjne A, #10H, NEXT_SPEED14 mov mov mov VAL1, #0FFH VAL2, #0E7H DPTR, #SPD16 ; 00%
lcall MESSAGE NEXT_SPEED14: ret ;> ;
95

;> DLY: mov r4, #05H r5, #3FH r6, #00H
GONE: mov OUT: mov IN:
djnz r6, IN djnz r5, OUT djnz r4, GONE ret
DLY1: mov r4, #1FH r5, #00H r6, #00H
GONE1: mov OUT1: mov
IN1: djnz r6, IN1 djnz r5, OUT1 djnz r4, GONE1 ret ;> ; ;> MESSAGE: ; sub for sending charactors to display
96

push acc MESSAGE1: lcall READY clr a ; Check weather display is ready ; Clr accumulator ; Load accumulator with the contents of dptr ; ; If the data is not end of line goto comd
movc a, @a+dptr inc dptr
cjne a, #EOL, COMD pop ret acc
; if the data is end of line stop sending
COMD:
; ; if the data is not command goto data
cjne a, #COM, DDATA
clr clr
DRS BUSY_CHEK ; goto message again
sjmp MESSAGE1
DDATA:
cjne a, #DAT, SENDIT setb DRS setb BUSY_CHEK sjmp MESSAGE1
; if the data is not data to be send goto comd
; goto message again
97
SENDIT: mov clr nop setb DEN clr DEN p0, a DRW
; ; place the data at port 1
; send enable strobe ; ; goto message again
sjmp MESSAGE1 ;> ; ;> READY:
; sub to check display busy
clr mov
DEN p0, #0ffh
; disable display buffer ; set port1 in read mode
clr
DRS
setb DRW WAIT: clr DEN ; ; send enable strobe ; ; if display is not send ready signal be in loop ; disable display buffer
setb DEN jb clr p0.7, WAIT DEN
98

jnb BUSY_CHEK, NO_DRS_SET
setb DRS NO_DRS_SET: ret ;> ; ;> DISP_LET: lcall READY setb DRS setb BUSY_CHEK mov clr nop setb DEN clr ret ;> DEN ; send enable strobe ; ; return to message P0, R7 DRW ; place the data at port 1 ; Check weather display is ready ; return to message
; ;> DISP_COM: lcall READY ; Check weather display is ready
99

clr clr mov clr nop setb DEN clr ret ;> ; ;> ;> ROM TABLE AREA ;> INITIALISE: db COM, 30h, 30h, 30h, 30h, 3ch, 06h, 0ch, 01h, EOL NAME: db COM, 80h, DAT, 'SPEED CONTROL OF', COM, 0C0H, DAT,' D.C. MOTOR ', EOL COLLEGE: db COM, 80h, DAT, ' SRTIST NAME1: db COM, 80h, DAT, 'PROJECT BY.. ', COM, 0C0H, DAT,'P.KISHAN ', EOL ', COM, 0C0H, DAT,' ', EOL DEN ; send enable strobe ; ; return to message DRS BUSY_CHEK P0, R7 DRW ; place the data at port 1
NAME2:
100

db COM, 80h, DAT, ' M.ARUN HODD: db COM, 80h, DAT, 'OUR HOD.... SPD0: db COM, 80h, DAT, 'MOTOR OFF EOL SPD1: db COM, 80h, DAT, 'STEP 1 @ 0100', COM, 0C0H, DAT,'-_______________', EOL SPD2: db COM, 80h, DAT, 'STEP 2 @ 0200', COM, 0C0H, DAT,'--______________', EOL SPD3: db COM, 80h, DAT, 'STEP 3 @ 0400', COM, 0C0H, DAT,'---_____________', EOL SPD4: db COM, 80h, DAT, 'STEP 4 @ 0600', COM, 0C0H, DAT,'----____________', EOL SPD5: db COM, 80h, DAT, 'STEP 5 @ 0800', COM, 0C0H, DAT,'-----___________', EOL SPD6: db COM, 80h, DAT, 'STEP 6 @ 1000', COM, 0C0H, DAT,'------__________', EOL SPD7: db COM, 80h, DAT, 'STEP 7 @ 1200', COM, 0C0H, DAT,'-------_________', EOL SPD8: db COM, 80h, DAT, 'STEP 8 @ 1400', COM, 0C0H, DAT,'--------________', EOL SPD9: db COM, 80h, DAT, 'STEP 9 @ 1600', COM, 0C0H, DAT,'---------_______', EOL ', COM, 0C0H, DAT,'START OPERATION ', ', COM, 0C0H, DAT,'Mr.LACHI REDDY', EOL ',COM, 0C0H, DAT,'K.HEMANTH ', EOL
101

SPD10:
db COM, 80h, DAT, 'STEP 10 @ 1800', COM, 0C0H, DAT,'----------______', EOL SPD11: db COM, 80h, DAT, 'STEP 11 @ 1900', COM, 0C0H, DAT,'-----------_____', EOL SPD12: db COM, 80h, DAT, 'STEP 12 @ 2000', COM, 0C0H, DAT,'------------____', EOL SPD13: db COM, 80h, DAT, 'STEP 13 @ 2100', COM, 0C0H, DAT,'-------------___', EOL SPD14: db COM, 80h, DAT, 'STEP 14 @ 2200', COM, 0C0H, DAT,'--------------__', EOL SPD15: db COM, 80h, DAT, 'STEP 15 @ 2300', COM, 0C0H, DAT,'---------------_', EOL SPD16: db COM, 80h, DAT, 'STEP 16 @ 2400', COM, 0C0H, DAT,'----------------', EOL CLRSCR: db COM, 01h, EOL ;> ; ;> END
102
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. kennedy,Electronic Communication Systems, McGraw-Hill Publ, 2001 2. D.Roy Chowdhury, Linear Integrated Circuits, New Age International (P) Ltd., 2003 3. Kenneth J.Ayala,The 8051 MicroController,Penram International, Second edition, 1997 4. Douglas V. Hall,Micro Processor and Interfacing, TMH, Second Edition. 5. A.K.Ray and K.M.Bhurchandi. Advanced Micro Processors and
Peripherals, TMH,2000. 6. The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded Systems Using Assembly and C , second edition Muhammad Ali Mazidi., Janice Gillispie Mazidi, Rolin D. McKinlay
Websites
103
Speed Control of DC motor 1. www.nationalsemicondutor.com 2. www.atmel.com 3. www.wikipedia.org 4. www.stepperworld.com 5. www.discovercircuits.com
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DC Motor

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DC Motor

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Speed Control of DC motor

Speed Control of DC motor

Speed Control of DC motor

Speed Control of DC motor

Speed Control of DC motor

The armature continues to rotate.

Wound field DC motor

Speed Control of DC motor

Speed Control of DC motor only used intermittently.

Speed Control of DC motor

Speed Control of DC motor

Operation principle of Speed control of DC motor

Speed Control of DC motor

Speed Control of DC motor

Block diagram of Speed control of DC motor

DC Motor driver circuit 89C51 Micro Controller

Block diagram Description of Speed control of DC motor:

Speed Control of DC motor

8 bit micro controller

Speed Control of DC motor

The above circuit is the pin configuration of AT89c51.

Speed Control of DC motor

Internal Block diagram

Fig 5.4 AT89C51 internal block diagram 20

Speed Control of DC motor

AT89C51 Serial port pins:

Writing the software

Speed Control of DC motor

Speed Control of DC motor

Speed Control of DC motor

Central Processing Unit

Speed Control of DC motor

Speed Control of DC motor 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 * Return Cursor and LCD to Home Position

Speed Control of DC motor

2. Monolithic voltage regulator

will be positive and hence D2 conducts.

Speed Control of DC motor The current flows through the transformer

Monolithic IC voltage regulator

DC Motor driver circuit

Speed Control of DC motor

Speed Control of DC motor

Operation of the circuit

Speed Control of DC motor

Theory of DC motor speed control

Speed Control of DC motor

Speed Control of DC motor

and for the switching case, the average power is

Speed Control of DC motor

One method is to switch the field coil using relays:

The full bridge circuit

Reducing the heat in the MOSFETs

Generating PWM signals

Interfacing to the radio control receiver

The shunt resistor

Current limited torque speed characteristics

Feedback Speed Control

A block diagram of an analogue feedback speed controller is shown below

Speed Control of DC motor

Speed Control of DC motor

When power is switched ON,LCD displays the output as shown.

Speed Control of DC motor

When the final step given from the keypad

Speed Control of DC motor