IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY

University Extension

Beef Ration and Nutrition Decision Software

Standard & Professional Editions
Cow Module Heifer Module Breeding Bull Module Growing Bull Module Feedyard Module Stocker Module

Table of Contents

Introduction / Quick Start Excel Trouble Shooting Guide Settings Quick Start Weather / Production Settings Producer Files File Utilities Files Created by BRaNDS Feeds and Feed Library Quick Start -Professional Edition Quick Start -Standard Edition Mineral Bioavailability Feed Library Abbreviations Nutrition Overview Cow Module Quick Start Reports Heifer Module Breeding Bull Module Growing Bull Module

4 7

10 12 13 14 15

16 17 22 26 27

40 47 54 ________________________56 ________________________56

Feedyard Module ________________________ Quick Start 57 Details of Operation 57 Reports 65 Stocker Module ________________________ Quick Start 66 Details of Operation 67 Reports 70 Custom Mix Module Quick Start

72

Appendix Equations Example + Explanations __________________78 __________________88

Protein Equations Explained ________________ 93 Inputs References _________________ 96 __________________97

Note to the user of BRaNDS 07: 1. BRaNDS 07 is saved and will be installed in the compatibility mode. This allows the program to be used with earlier versions of Excel. You may wish to optimize your program to the *xlsm mode only if you are running Excel 07 on your computer. Do this by choosing Program Brands Application (see below). Select BRaNDS target with RIGHT mouse button and then select PROPERTIES from the list that appears. In the target line change BRaNDS.xls to BRaNDS.xlsm. Select OK to finish. 2. Brands 07 will not run until you enable macros. With Excel 07, users must access the Trust Center to do this. After enabling close the program and restart. The enabled settings should be saved automatically when you do this. Target Line

Introduction
The Beef Ration and Nutrition Decision Software has been designed as an upgrade to the Iowa State University beef ration evaluation spreadsheet, MCS-series. The guidelines set forth by the 1996 NRC publication, Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle, Seventh Revised Edition and subsequent updates provide the basis for this upgrade. The program itself is broken down into modules, and each module is discussed in further detail in this documentation. The Beef Ration and Nutrition Decision Software is available in professional and standard editions. The Standard Edition allows for ration evaluation, batch sheet report generation and specifies supplement nutrient requirements. The Professional Edition does all of this, in addition to providing least-cost formulation of rations and supplements and projections on feedyard and stocker cattle.

System Requirements
The Standard Edition requires a version of MS (Microsoft) Excel or another spreadsheet that is capable of reading an MS Excel version 5.0 or beyond spreadsheet. The Professional Edition requires a spreadsheet capable of reading MS Excel 2000 or beyond. BRaNDS 07 Professional Edition was upgraded from the earlier versions to accommodate MS Office 07 users as well. All copies of the BRaNDS program are distributed in compatibility mode. For users of Excel 07, the copy of BRaNDS, after installation, can be saved in the *.xlsm format. Earlier editions of BRaNDS Professional will not work satisfactorily with Excel 07 systems.

Check for software patches that are available from Microsofts Web site for your version of Windows and Excel. These patches are free upgrades from the company and may be accessed at http://support.microsoft.com. If using Excel 07, be sure to check for and download the latest patches; otherwise, graphics might become disorientated when viewing the screens.

Features
Multiple, extensive feed library storage. (Professional Ed.) Multiple ration scenarios without multiple spreadsheets. (Professional Ed.) Cow, heifer, breeding bull, growing bull, feedyard and stocker modules. (Professional Ed.) Extensive performance projection capability for feedyard and stocker cattle based on ration provisions. (Professional Ed.) Extensive dietary mineral evaluation, along with updated energy, protein and fiber requirements. Custom supplement formulation capabilities. (Professional Ed.) Practical batch and blending report outputs.

Quick Start/Program Flow

1. Be sure to have a copy of MS Excel installed on your computer 2. Install the program on to your hard drive and run. (Run BRaNDS.EXE from the program CD.) 3. Go to the Settings page and update / save necessary information. 3. Select Feeds tab Provide / update the feed analysis information 4. Select the feeds you wish to use. (Number 1 15) 5. Select the module button you wish to transfer feed to and work. (Cows tab) 6. Provide the required inputs for the animal. 7. Provide feed amounts and evaluate. 8. Comment boxes appear describing the inputs and outputs to resolve questions. At the start of each chapter, the words in green provide the short-cut steps required for operation of that section.

Before you start, you will need to have MS Excel installed on your computer. Install your version of Excel using the Custom Installation rather than the Typical Installation option because the basic installation option will exclude some necessary files used in running the BRaNDS program. If you do not know whether the Custom or Typical installation was performed, re-install the program at this time.

tabs

edition

available modules

Troubleshooting
Comment boxes
The captions describing an input and an output are described by comment boxes that appear when placing the mouse pointer over the top of the caption. If these comment boxes do not appear, fix the problem by: (From Excel menu select) Tools Options View select the View tab select Comment indicator only. (Excel 07 ) MS Office button Excel Options Advanced Display Indicator Only, Comment on Hover

Feed Library disappeared

Professional Edition If the feed library is not saved, or if the directory where your version of Excel is removed from your hard drive, the feed library will disappear. The default feed library, which originally came with your program, also is copied to the BRaNDS directory on the hard drive. Copy the file named feedmill.iaj and paste this file in the default directory Excel would save your work to. This directory is shown on the Settings page.

Macros/Program does not do anything

Because this is an Excel spreadsheet, there are many embedded security issues to address prior to operating this program. Therefore, be sure to select Enable Macros when the program is started. Then choose not to update any established links to other programs. Security levels set on your particular system might be set too high. This will prevent this program from functioning. Set the security level at medium in order to allow the macro code to function. To do this, shut down the program, then: (From Excel menu select) Tools Macro Security select the Security Level tab select Medium. (Excel 2002 menu select) Tools Options Security tab select the Macro Security button select Security Level of Medium. Now start the program and be sure to choose Enable Macros as the program starts.

(Excel 07 ) MS Office button Excel Options Trust Center Trust Center Settings Enable all Macros (select even though this selection is not recommended). Also Check box below Trust Access to the VB project model

Missing Files Excel Files

Professional Edition When starting your program, if a file is missing that is required, you will be promptly notified. All of the necessary program files are available to you on your MS Excel or MS Office installation software. To get these files in place, you may need to: OPTION A from Windows, select Control Panel Add / Remove Programs select MS Office or MS Excel select Add /Remove components and follow the directions. Some versions of Windows may give you the option to re-install or restore rather than Add/Remove components. OPTION B packaged with your program, copies of some of the more problematic files are included. If one of these files is missing or not up to date, manually copy the file from the program CD to the appropriate location. Copy these files to: C:\win\system folder or C:\winnt\system32 folder. Disk Mngt. Snap-In Object Library = DMVIEW.OCX Forms2.0 Object Library = FM20.DLL OLE Automation = STDOLE.TLB Copy these files to: C:\Program Files\Microsoft Office\Office MS Office 9.0 Object Library = MSO9.DLL MS Excel9.0 Object Library = EXCEL9.OLE Copy this file to C:\Program Files\Common Files\Microsoft Shared\VBA\VBA6 Visual Basic for Applications = VBE6EXT.OLB Note that most of this applies to the Professional Edition. Note also that the 9.0 editions could be used in place of 8.0 editions if compatibility issues arise. Copy this file to the C:\BRaNDS directory. Solver = SOLVER.XLA

Be sure to copy the appropriate solver file to the BRaNDS directory based on the version of Excel that you are running, 2000 versus 2002, etc. The solver file already should be on your hard drive. Search for it by doing a file search, then copy it to your BRaNDS directory. The solver for versions 2000 and 2002 also can be found on your BRaNDS program CD in the Excel Add On folder under Excel 2000 or Excel 2002.

Missing Files Saved Files

Files that were previously saved do not appear in the file list boxes. This problem can occur if the directory that the files were saved to changes. On the Settings page of the program look at the text box labeled Data files stored in: Your BRANDS program will use the BRANDS directory as the default directory, however MS Excel may set this directory to the My Documents directory unless you change it manually in the Excel Tools Options General location. Occasionally, if you are using Excel for some other application and then switch to the Ration program the Excel version may start considering the directory containing the ration program to be the default and show this directory as the Data files stored in directory. To fix this, shut down all Excel applications and Excel itself. Next restart the BRaNDS program and everything should resume back to normal.

Screen View
Depending on the computer screen resolution, your view of the program may be compromised. To orientate the program, start by: (From Excel menu select) View Zoom select the percent of zoom (i.e. 85%). Now, drag the boarders of your screen to where you wish them to be set and save your settings (File-Save).

Note that the standard editions are designed to be compatible with many versions of Excel. When saving workbooks that do not need to run on any computer other than your own, save your work in the version of Excel that you have. This will significantly reduce the memory requirements for storing files.

10

Settings
Quick Start Steps: 2 parts 1st part1. Select Settings tab. 2. Scroll down to the bottom half of the Settings page (see figure below). 3. Review weather and cattle settings at the bottom of the page and update where necessary based on local data. 4. Select Save Settings button to save these changes. 5. Scroll to the top half of the screen for part 2.

This only needs to be done on the first running of the program, but it can be updated whenever necessary. Figure A - Settings page bottom half

11

2nd part Professional Edition 1. On the top half of the Settings page, consultant data can be indicated if necessary. (This information is saved when Save Settings button is selected.) 2. Select New Producer button. 3. Indicate the name of the producer to set up a file on. 4. Select the Save button.

If no producer file is set up, for instance if you run rations only for yourself, all ration data will be put into the BRaNDS folder and not into a named file, as would be the case if a producer account was established.

Once producer names are added and saved, the name can be selected from the drop down list to open a producers file. Figure B Settings Page Top Half

12

Settings Page Details of Operation

A page labeled as Settings is available for both Professional and Standard editions to customize weather, mature cow weight, mature bull weight, customize milk weights, calf weights and pregnancy reports. Provide these settings prior to your first run of the program, then select Save (File-Save) from the Excel menu on top of the page (or Save Settings button in the Professional Edition). Settings only need to be entered once and saved. Settings may be changed whenever necessary.

Production/Weather Settings (Figure A)

The weather and production settings installed with your BRaNDS program are based on central Iowa data. These values will differ in different locations and should be updated. Entries should be made in the white-colored input boxes. The values in the tan areas are the original program default values and will remain intact in case they need to be referred to or reset. The Quick Start step (indicated at the start of this chapter) outlines what is required to update these values. There are Web links provided on this page that assist in locating historical, local weather data. Noteworthy items: Rainfall Express snowfall in rainfall equivalents. In general, 9 inches of snow is roughly 1 inch of rainfall. Calf weight An entry for small, medium and large birth weight calves can be indicated in terms of average weights. Since some pregnancy determination is accomplished with ultrasound, if twin pregnancies are detected, you may want to use one of these categories for multiple births and use the other two for high and low birth weights. For example, small birth weight = 70 lbs (for groups bred to calving ease bulls), medium = 95 lbs (for non calving ease bred groups) and large = 150 lbs (for animals determined to be carrying twins). Mature weights Mature weights are average weights at a body condition score of 5 and an age of 5 years. Days pregnant This data is used with the Developing Heifer Module and breaks down the trimester based on the day entered for reporting nutritional requirements. The settings provided on this page will be used for all producers listed.

13

Producer File Setup (Figure C) Professional Edition

BRaNDS 07 allows for better organization of multiple producers than the previous versions. Producer Files can be established by selecting the New Producer button from the Settings page and providing the contact information on the given producer. After providing this information and selecting the Save button, a folder in the BRaNDS directory on your hard drive is established (see Figure D) and a copy of the default feed library file, feedmill.iaj, is also copied to this folder. Notice in Figure C that the producer selected is Roy Rogers, and in Figure D, Roys folder can now be seen. Each time that work is done for Roy after establishing his folder, Roys name is selected from the drop-down list first so it appears, then proceed to the Feed Library or ration balancing modules.

Note that every time the Settings screen is viewed, the producer information box is cleared. Therefore, it is necessary to re-select the producers name from the list before advancing through the program. Whenever no producer is selected from the list, all ration data is saved to the general BRaNDS directory. This information can be moved manually to a folder if it was mistakenly saved in the general directory. To do this, open the C:\BRaNDS directory and select the file that needs to be moved. Then drag it with your mouse into the appropriate folder. If you have already done some rations in a previous version of BRaNDS and wish to move these files into a given producers folder after his folder is established, simply open the BRaNDS directory folder on your hard drive (C:\) and drag the feed library and rations associated with the given producer into his folder. If you are using a feed library or ration for multiple producers who now have individual folders, copy and paste these files to each producer folder involved. To make corrections to producer contact information: Corrections or additions to a particular producers information can be done by selecting the producer from the list, typing or re-typing the information and selecting the Save button. However, note that the name itself cannot be corrected this way. If the name must be corrected, choose to Add a new producer. Then, after saving, manually copy the files from the old folder into the new/corrected folder. To delete producer folders: Manually delete folders of producers by opening the C:/BRaNDS directory and selecting this folder and deleting it.

14 An area for name, address, phone number, etc., is also available on this page for individuals who prepare and evaluate rations for producers. This data will appear on all printed reports and is saved after selecting the Save Settings button. Figure C

File Utilities (Figure C) Professional Edition This Settings area also allows for data backup, data transfer and producer file setup with the Professional Edition. The Back-up procedure will not delete the data on the source drive after copying. The Transfer will copy and then delete the source data records. The Restore function will place the backup or transferred data back onto the original source drive. To use these utilities, simply indicate the drive to which these files are to be sent in the input box, then select the OK button next to the box. Each ration file is about 1 kilobyte in size. A feed library is about 46 kilobytes. These routines will work with a flash drive or a 3-inch floppy disk. A rewritable CD can be used in some situations, but it may not always work since some CD writers are not capable of being invoked remotely by another application. ISU Feedlot Monitor users also can tie-in with the BRaNDS program in terms of transferring the feed library from the Feedlot Monitor into the BRaNDS program and then transferring rations from the BRaNDS program back to the Feedlot Monitor.

15

Modifications to the feed library used for the Feedlot Monitor must be done first in the Feedlot Monitor before the library is moved to the BRaNDS program. Rations that you wish to transfer can be selected from the Transfer Ration list. Files created by BRaNDS Professional Edition Custom mixes *.xim Feed libraries *.iaj Cow rations *.woc Heifer rations *.fqf Breeding Bull rations *.bqb Growing Bull rations *.gqb Feedyard the series names *.fyd the ration name *.fyr Stocker the series name *.stk the ration name *.skr Figure D

16

Feed Library
Quick Start - Professional Edition 1. Select Feeds tab to open library page. 2. Select Feed Library from drop-down list. 3. Select Restore button to bring up data. 4. Make corrections or additions, if necessary, to feedstuff nutrient profiles. 5. Indicate the feeds you want to use in a ration by numbering them in an order appropriate for adding to a mixer if one is used. (1 to 15 feeds may be placed into a ration; 1 to 20 may be placed into a custom mix supplement.) 6. Select the button that indicates the type of ration you are to formulate (Cow, Heifer, Feedyard, ) 7. If you are only editing the library and not formulating a ration, be sure to select the Save button after making any changes. Rations are not automatically updated if the nutrient content is changed.

Feed Library Professional Edition

17

Quick Start Standard Edition 1. Select Feeds tab to open library page. 2. Make corrections or additions, if necessary, to feedstuff nutrient profiles. 3. Observe the number in the first column preceding the feed name; use this number to indicate the feed to be used in the ration on the Cows, Heifers, Feedyard, etc., page. 4. Changes are saved when the spreadsheet is saved.

Feed Library Standard Edition

18

Feed Library Details of Operation

There is room for 180 feeds in a feed library, but the Professional Edition of the program does not limit the number of feed libraries that can be stored. Therefore, in cases where one individual may assist a number of producers or a producer has animals in different remote locations, a separate library can be maintained for each. BRaNDS 07 Professional Edition will make a copy of the default feed library, feedmill.iaj, and place this copy in each producer folder when the producer is added. This file can then be modified within the producers folder and be renamed. All of a producers feed libraries will be kept together and viewable when his name is selected on the Settings page. Feed libraries can be manually copied from the producers folder and be placed into other producers folders. To do this, open the BRaNDS directory, find the source folder and file within that folder, copy the file, find the destination folder and paste the file into that folder. Unlike the Professional Edition, where one library may be accessed by any module, the Standard Edition modules can only refer to the attached library. A given library, however, can be copied and pasted into each module manually. Use Copy-Paste Special- then Values when moving data between libraries or from one row to another within a library.

Inputs
A default feed library is provided. Update, rearrange or replace with correct information as needed. Inputs with an asterisk (*) next to the caption are required inputs. Open columns can be used to specify user-defined nutrients or additives. (Professional Edition) Limit feed names to 15 characters if you plan on saving the feed library. Some nutrients can be excluded from reports by unchecking the box above the caption (see Figure E). Desired levels and maximum levels of the user-defined items can be indicated above the open columns. See example in Figure E where an ionophore has been entered for a cattle supplement. The desired level was set to 200 mg, and the maximum level was set to 325 mg. User-defined Analysis Open Columns In addition to the normal items of the analysis, such as protein, energy, calcium, etc., there is the provision for the user to add additional areas to evaluate. These areas are labeled as open.

19

One of these open spots is designed for items presented in a percentage form. Another one of these areas is for grams per ton. The other two are designed for a ppm form. In the columns labeled as open, a particular item can be included in analysis. For example, if chromium is a concern, type chromium over the word open and then indicate the level of this item in the feed and water source. Chromium will then be part of the ration evaluation.

Figure E Scrolled right in Professional Edition Feed Library

20

Save, Restore and Delete Feed Libraries

Professional Edition To save a given feed library, provide an eight-character or eight-space (or less) name in the list box at the top and select Save from the file utility buttons. To restore a library, from the list at the top of the feed module, type in the name or select the library from the drop-down list. Select the Restore button or select Restore from the file utility buttons. To delete a feed library, follow the steps involved to restore a feed library. Then select the Delete button from the file utility buttons. The feed library name will disappear, but the screen will stay intact until another feed library is restored. At this point, the existing library date can be renamed and saved as a new library.

Be sure that you do not delete a feed library that is being used by a saved ration. Standard Edition The Standard edition does not allow for the flexibility of storing feed libraries that the professional version does. What is seen on the Feeds page is what is saved when the workbook is saved. These items can be modified, cut or pasted to other workbooks manually. Use the Copy Paste Special Values when pasting information to a feed library.

Using Feeds in a Ration

1. Standard Edition: Select the feeds that you may feed. Each feed has its own number; use this number on the cow, heifer or whatever module you will use. 2. Professional Edition: Number these feeds from 1 to 15 in number column. If feeds will be put into a mixer and delivered, number the feeds in the order they would be added. 3. Professional Edition: If the feeds are going to a cow ration, select the Cows button at the top. The feeds will be transferred in the order they were numbered.

21

4. Professional Edition: If the feeds are to be used in the Heifer or Bull, etc., Module, you would select one of these buttons instead of Cows.

Professional Edition: Every time you make an adjustment to a feed in the library, be sure to select the Cows, Heifers, transfer button in order that new analysis is also transferred to the ration you are currently evaluating.

Water (Professional Edition) A water analysis can also be included in the ration evaluation. Water does not need to be numbered to be included. Provide analysis values of dissolved minerals and nitrogen in water in the Feed Library. Note that the units that the concentrations are to be recorded as may not always directly correspond to the units provided in a water report. Consult the comment boxes in the column heading to assist in the unit conversion. Appendix A of the program may also be helpful for making the conversions.

Pasture nutrient analysis entry is an issue to consider since the feed is somewhat unstable when evaluated. Generally there is a 5 to 10 percent loss in dry matter during dry down after cutting due to sugar loss from plant respiration. Because of this along with animal selectivity, energy content of the feed should be increased around 10% from a laboratory report value.

Adapted from Hoglund, 1964

22

Mineral Bioavailability
Guidelines for mineral bioavailability are listed below. Factors such as previous mineral status, water solubility and feed intake have some impact on the bioavailability as well. Minerals dissolved in a water source also have some impact on mineral nutrition, but the impact in terms of bioavailability is not well documented, except for salt (NaCl), which is about five times more bioavailable than dry rock salt when dissolved in water prior to ingestion. Generally, mineral availability is source dependant; oxide forms are usually less available than sulfate forms, and sulfate forms are usually less available than organic forms. Use the following table as a guideline.

Calcium
Limestone Calcium chloride (dihydrate) Dicalcium phosphate (21%) Dicalcium phosphate (18%) Monocalcium phosphate Ca(CO3) CaCl2(H2O) Ca2(PO4) Ca2(PO4) Ca(PO4)

Relative Percent Percent Availability Used

36.00 31.00 21.00 18.00 17.00 90.00 125.00 110.00 110.00 130.00 32.40 38.75 23.10 19.80 22.10

Phosphorus
Monocalcium phosphate Ca(PO4) Dicalcium phosphate (21%) Ca2(PO4) Dicalcium Phosphate (18%) Ca2(PO4) 17.00 21.00 18.00 130.00 85.00 85.00 22.10 17.85 15.30

Sodium
Sodium chloride Sodium bicarbonate NaCl Na(CO3)2 40.00 27.00 100.00 95.00 40.00 25.65

Sulfur
Elemental Sulfur Sulfate forms S variable 100.00 variable 100.00 120 100.00

Potassium
Potassium Chloride Potassium Sulfate KCl K2(SO4) 53.00 45.00 100.00 110.00 53.00 49.50

Magnesium
Magnesium Magnesium Magnesium Magnesium Oxide basic carbonate sulfate acetate MgO MgCO3 MgSO4 MgC2O2H4 55.00 31.00 20.00 29.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 110.00 55.00 31.00 20.00 31.90

23

Cobalt
Cobaltous Carbonate Cobaltous Oxide Cobaltic Oxide Cobaltous Sulfate CoCO3 CoO Co3O4 CoSO4(H2O)7 47.00 70.00 73.00 21.00 110.00 55.00 20.00 100.00 51.70 38.50 14.60 21.00

Copper
Cuprous acetate Cupric chloride (tribasic) Cupric sulfide Cupric oxide Cupric sulfate Copper Lysine Copper EDTA CuC2O2H3 Cu2(OH)3Cl CuS CuO CuSO4(H2O)5 variable variable 51.00 58.00 66.00 75.00 25.00 20.00 variable 100.00 51.00 115.00 66.70 25.00 16.50 15.00 11.25 100.00 25.00 100.00 20.00 95.00 variable

Iodine
Sodium iodide NaI Potassium iodide KI Calcium iodate Ca(IO)3 Pentacalcium orthoperiodate Ca5(IO6)2 Diiodosalicyclic acid C7H4I2O3 Ethylenediamine dihydriodine C2H8N2(HI)2 84.00 69.00 64.00 39.00 65.00 80.00 100.00 100.00 95.00 100.00 15.00 105.00 84.00 69.00 60.80 39.00 9.75 84.00

Iron
Ferrous sulfate heptahydrate Ferrous carbonate Ferric citrate Ferric EDTA FeSO4(H2O)7 FeCO3 variable variable 20.00 38.00 20.00 variable 100.00 20.00 10.00 3.80 110.00 22.00 95.00 variable

Manganese
Manganese monoxide Manganese dioxide Manganese carbonate Manganese sulfate Manganese methionine MnO MnO2 MnCO3 MnSO4(H2O) variable 60.00 63.00 46.00 30.00 20.00 60.00 35.00 30.00 100.00 125.00 36.00 22.05 13.80 30.00 25.00

Selenium
Sodium selenite Selenium (1.6%) Selenium (0.16%) Cobalt selenite Selenomethionine Selenoyeast Na2SeO3 n.a. n.a. variable variable variable 45.00 1.60 0.16 variable variable variable 100.00 45.00 100.00 1.60 100.00 0.16 105.00 variable 245.00 variable 290.00 variable

Zinc
Zinc carbonate ZnCO3 56.00 60.00 33.60

24

Zinc oxide ZnO Zinc sulfate ZnSO4(H2O) Zinc methionine variable Adapted from Ammerman et al., 1995 and NRC, 1998

72.00 36.00 20.00

100.00 100.00 120.00

72.00 36.00 24.00

KC Olson, Commercial Agriculture Program University of Missouri

Feed Analysis Inputs

Generally, our best estimate of nutrient content within a given feedstuff comes from sending the feed sample to a commercial laboratory and running an NIR analysis on the sample. Other analysis methods may be more accurate, but considering cost and timely turnaround, it is very difficult to beat this system for obtaining a relatively reasonable nutrient content profile of a given feed at any given point of time. For stored feeds, the values provided from the lab analysis are probably just fine as they are reported. For pasture samples, though, it may be wise to make some adjustments to the lab results. Pasture samples, unlike most stored feed samples, are not cured; therefore, they are not as stable. The result is carbohydrate loss due to plant respiration and moisture loss due to drying during transport from the pasture to the lab. Air temperature, humidity and time are involved and will cause variability, but since our goal is to get a close estimate, use the report values and make small adjustments to the dry matter content (decrease value by 1 or 2 percent) and energy values (increase TDN, NEm, NEg by 5-10 percent). The other issue that is present in both stored feed and even more so in pasture is that feed nutrient content changes over time. Variability is not necessarily a bad thing, but it is something we need to consider. The following example shows this situation with Kansas tallgrass prairie pasture (Example A), Oklahoma wheat pasture (Example B), and Wisconsin alfalfa (Example C). Stored feeds that are put up quickly and pastures that are maintained at a certain stage of maturity by a grazing rotation are much less likely to show the extreme variability. Example A
Nutrient Analyses for Burned Tallgrass Prairie Forage - Esophageal Masticate Month January February March April DM (%) 55 60 65 25 NDF (%) 73.68 72.59 73.62 67.72 ADF (%) 48.16 53.06 48.84 45.42 CP (%) 3.77 4.83 4.47 9.65

25

May June July August September October November December

25 25 30 35 35 40 45 50

68.07 74.13 80.83 75.91 68.75 69.47 74.14 73.54

42.93 49.5 44.78 46.04 48.45 46.76 51.03 48.24

15.61 10.88 8.95 6.6 6.24 6.04 4.57 3.54

Example B
Oklahom a Daya -7 0 20 29 46 62 83 97 125 139 153 174 Wheat Date 11/12/1998 11/20/1998 12/9/1998 12/18/1998 1/4/1999 1/20/1999 2/10/1999 2/24/1999 3/24/1999 4/7/1999 4/21/1999 5/13/1999 Pasture DM% 17.5 -19.2 18.8 37.5 40.7 26.7 28.1 24.8 22.3 25.6 26.2 OM% 88 -91.9 88.8 89.4 89 87.5 89.2 90.1 90.7 91.7 90.9 IVOMD% 90.9 -90.6 87.7 84.7 87.1 88.6 89.2 90.7 88.8 82.4 79.7 CP% 30.6 -29.5 26.9 27.4 24.1 27.2 22.9 24.9 23.6 16.9 13.6 RDP (% of CP) 77.2 -78 76.8 75.3 76.6 75.7 79.2 77.5 75 79.3 75.8 Sulfur 0.454 -0.387 0.318 0.32 0.276 0.323 0.283 0.29 0.269 0.208 0.176

Example C
Wisconsin Alfalfa RFQ 220 210 200 180 170 160 145 140 135 RF Q CrPro% 29 26 24 23 21 19 17 16 15 Height (in.) 19 20 22 24 27 28 31 32 34 Stage Veg. Veg. Veg. Bud Bud Bud Bloom Bloom Bloom

5/14/2007 5/17/2007 5/21/2007 5/24/2007 5/29/2007 5/31/2007 6/4/2007 6/7/2007 6/11/2007

(Relative Forage Quality)

26

Feed Library Abbreviations TDN = total digestible nutrients NE m = net energy maintenance NE g = net energy growth CP = crude protein DIP = rumen degradable intake protein Sol. = CP solubility in water NDF = neutral detergent fiber ADF = acid detergent fiber eNDF = effective neutral detergent fiber (% of NDF processed or ground up) NFC = nonfiber carbohydrate Salt = Na + Cl Ca = calcium P = phosphorus Mg = magnesium K = potassium S = sulfur Se = selenium Zn = zinc Cu = copper Mn = manganese Co = cobalt I = iodine Fe = iron

27

Nutrition Overview
The following is a condensed general overview of the nutritional elements we would consider when balancing a diet for ruminant animals animals with a four-compartment stomach, such as cattle, sheep, deer and goats. Protein Protein is used for bodily structures. Protein is made up of amino acids, and what sequence the amino acids are tied together accounts for the difference between proteins. Generally, we are not as concerned about amino acid supply with ruminants as we are with nonruminants, since the microorganisms in the rumen degrade much of the protein consumed from the diet and synthesize new amino acids and proteins. This degraded protein is referred to as degradable intake protein. The protein that is later made is called microbial protein. There is a symbiotic relationship between the animal and the microorganism in this case, since the microbial proteins are of high quality and are readily used by the animal. In fact, when the proper substrates are provided to the microorganisms, actual protein is not required by the ruminant animal. For instance, a nitrogen source, such as urea or ammonia, can be supplied along with a fermentable carbohydrate source to facilitate the production of protein in the rumen by the microorganisms for the animals use. There is some adaptation time required whenever the diet is changed or if a situation like the one just referred to is implemented because a microorganism population needs to be developed to effectively utilize the feed substrate. Adaptation times vary, but three weeks is a bare minimum for minor diet adjustments. Occasionally, some merit can be recognized by providing specific amino acids to ruminant animals. Highly productive animals, in terms of growth and milk production, or young animals respond to amino acid inclusions that bypass the rumen degradation process. This is called non-degradable intake protein or bypass protein. When one considers this bypass protein fraction, the amino acid profile is of concern. Those amino acids that are in the lowest quantity relative to animal use requirements are called limiting and thus, sources of the limiting amino should be considered when providing a supplement. The most limiting amino acid is both animal and feedstuff dependant. In general, under the conditions animals experience most often in the USA, the sulfur-containing amino acids are the most limiting in antler growth and milk production, while lysine is the most limiting amino acid for body growth. Protein in feed is most often described in terms of crude protein percent, which in fact is a measure of nitrogen contained in the sample. Based on the premise that protein is approximately 16% nitrogen, the crude nitrogen value is converted to protein or potential protein in the feed, which we call crude protein. In the past, crude protein was used to describe an animals requirement for protein, but because not all crude protein is protein or is capable of being digested and used by the animal, the concept of metabolizable protein has been implemented. Metabolizable protein takes into account both degradable

28 and by-pass fractions and is what the name implies, that protein which can be metabolized, or used, by the animal. Our goal is to meet the metabolizable protein requirement. We can meet this requirement with different amounts of degradable and bypass protein fractions, but to do this with the least amount of crude protein, it is good to supply the degradable protein requirement first. This requirement is dependent on fermentable carbohydrate intake. Then, the addition of non-degradable protein is done to finish satisfying the overall requirement. Excess degradable protein is excreted in the urine as urea and ammonia. Excretion of excess nitrogen in this manner has an energy requirement and can result in an overall increase in the maintenance energy requirement. A shortage of degradable protein will promote a situation called nitrogen recycling. This process captures nitrogen in urine and moves it to the rumen via the blood. Crude protein solubility is another term that is used in this mix and refers to the extent the crude protein can be dissolved into solution (water). It does not necessarily refer to rumen degradability, but it can affect blood pH. Energy Energy is a common term familiar to most, yet it seems that studying energy metabolism is similar to studying faith in that we do not see energy as it is we only see the effects energy brings about. Often we describe feeds or diets in terms of their energy content per unit of weight, or we describe different nutrients such as protein, fat, carbohydrate and fiber in terms of the energy they contain. The energy is not the feed, but the bonding strength between the elements making up the feed. It is difficult to address this issue since we cannot see these bonds, but we can arrive at a value to account for this strength based on the heat that is produced when these bonds break. The more heat, the more energy is the principle. Heat is then measured in calories, and nutrients are described in terms of the calories generated. Requirements are expressed in terms of calories. Smaller animals have requirements described in kilocalories (calorie x 1,000), and large animals use megacalories (calorie x 1,000,000) to describe a requirement. The heat generated is simple, but it is not a complete means of determining the energy value of food. The issue that needs to be addressed is the digestibility of the feedstuff by the animal, meaning the potential of the animal to utilize this bond energy. An example would be the comparison between a bushel of corn and a block of oak wood. Both would have a similar energy value based on heat production when burned, but for the animal, the energy value of the corn would be much higher than that of the oak log because the animal has a difficult time digesting the oak log. Because of this issue of digestibility, earlier research work used the term Total Digestible Nutrient (TDN) to provide a unit of measure for usable energy. Currently, we are more likely to use energy terms such as net energy and metabolizable energy to more accurately describe an energy requirement. Net energy is the energy retained in tissue after something has been eaten.

29 Metabolizable energy is retained energy, like net energy, but includes heat energy released due to digestion and metabolism. Both terms are utilized, and the quantity of energy from a given feed will differ based on the animal that consumes it. For instance, a ruminant can utilize fibrous feeds much better than other animals and derive a sizable amount of energy from them through the fermentation process the feed undergoes in the rumen. In general terms, fat is the most energy-dense feed; alcohols and volatile fatty acids are next in energy density; nonstructural carbohydrates (starch, sugar, pectin) and proteins rank next; and then fiber, or structural carbohydrates as they are sometimes referred to, rank toward the end of this list. As noted earlier, protein requirements exist, but the protein also can be used for energy. As for the other energy-producing feeds, there also are requirements. The fatty acid linolenate is one fatty acid that is needed for fiber levels of some magnitude based on the animal to maintain normal digestion and production of essential nutrients, like vitamins, by the animal through the digestion/metabolism processes. When fiber is addressed in terms of requirement, we are concerned not only with the quantity of fiber, but also with the chewability or effectiveness of the fiber. Processing reduces the effectiveness of the fiber; for instance, dry hay is 90-100% effective. If this hay is chopped coarsely, it is about 60% effective. If the hay is chopped to 1-inch particle length, it is about 30% effective. If it is ground and pelleted, it becomes about 5% effective. Previously, nutritionists dealt with crude fiber when expressing a fiber requirement, but currently, neutral detergent and acid detergent fiber are the terms used. These terms are based on the chemical process used to calculate the fiber percentage of the feedstuff. The acid detergent fiber is a fraction of the neutral detergent fiber composed of cellulose and lignin. An estimate of the digestibility of the fiber can be determined by comparing the acid detergent fiber fraction relative to the neutral detergent fiber fraction. The closer this ratio is to 1.00, the less digestible the fiber will be to the animal.

Vitamins Vitamins are used for a variety of bodily functions, primarily in the role of coenzymes. Vitamins are broken down into two classes: fat-soluble vitamins, which include vitamins A, D, E, K; and the water-soluble vitamins, which include vitamin C, biotin, folic acid, cyanocobalamin (B12), choline, niacin, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine (B6), thiamin (B1) and riboflavin (B2). The animal requires all of these, but we do not need to supply many of them especially in the case of healthy ruminants because the rumens microorganisms can synthesize these vitamins.

30 Occasionally, sick or young ruminants do require some supplementation, or maybe it is better said that stressed ruminants show a good response to the water-soluble vitamins. Supplementation of these vitamins requires either injection into the tissue or rumen protection through encapsulation to ensure they are kept intact for absorption and utilization. Vitamins that must be supplemented in the diet of ruminants are vitamins A and E. Vitamin D would need to be supplemented if the animal did not receive natural sunlight regularly. Vitamins A and E are found in very large quantities in green plants. Animals that graze in abundant pastures do not require further supplementation of these nutrients. Animals fed stored feeds would require a supplemental vitamin A or E provision in the diet. For short-term feeding of stored feeds, this supplement may not be necessary at the full level since the animal can store these vitamins in body tissue, such as the liver. During long-term feeding, though, it is advisable to supplement these vitamins fully.

Minerals Minerals are necessary to include in the diet of all living organisms. Some minerals are required in large quantities, thus referred to as macrominerals, and others are required at trace levels, which are called trace minerals. The feeds an animal consumes are the primary source of these minerals in the diet. However, issues can arise because a given feedstuff of plant origin will contain a variable level of the mineral due to: the maturity of the plant when harvested; the soil-plant interactions based on soil pH and soil mineral concentration; and season-climate interactions on the plant. To add to this quandary of issues, some plants concentrate certain elements in their tissues, while others are resistant to this phenomenon. This issue can result in mineral toxicities to the animal that consumes the plant, or it can result in unfavorable imbalances because each element demonstrates interactions with other nutrients. The body regulates absorption of minerals and does store minerals in bone or tissue, such as the liver, for later use when intake is limited. During different stages of production, the absorption, storage and utilization of these minerals is modified. Pregnancy, lactation, age, gender, environmental temperature, sunlight/darkness hours, sexual maturity and work will cause the changes. Please note that both soil concentration, soil pH, mineral form in soil and plant type are the key factors in how much mineral an animal will receive naturally from a given feedstuff grown in a given area. Data by county regarding mineral concentrations in soil can be accessed at the following site: http://tin.er.usgs.gov/geochem/doc/averages/countydata.htm

31

The following soil maps are compiled from the United States Geological Survey Data And provide a sense of variability of soil mineral concentrations.

Macro Minerals
Calcium Used in bones, muscle and milk Seems to be absorbed by plants in higher pH soils Works with phosphorus, vitamin D, magnesium and protein Excess may interfere in iodine absorption Usually does not need to be supplemented on all forage diets, but it is supplemented when the diet has a large grain fraction Data given as a percentage below

32

Phosphorus

Used in bones, muscle, milk and energy metabolism Works with calcium and in many of the same bodily systems Some forms of phosphorus have strong anionic properties and can enhance changes in blood pH and form kidney stones. More available to plants/animal in soils near neutral pH Usually does not need to be supplemented in grain diets Data given as a percentage below

Magnesium

Used in bones, muscle, milk and neurological function Often found with calcium in nature (rocks) and in the animal More available to plants/animals in soils near neutral to basic in pH Data given as a percentage below

33

Sodium & Chloride

Used in a number of bodily functions for many things, but are especially important for maintaining blood +/- ionic charges (electrolyte) Usually supplemented Data given as a percentage below

34

Sulfur

Component in proteins at the amino acid level Sulfur in the form of sulfate has the pH effects as described with phosphorus More available to plants/animals in soils near neutral to basic in pH Usually does not need to be supplemented if all-natural proteins are used Data given as a percentage below (seems to be adequate in soil where acid rainfall occurs) Groundwater may also be a sulfur source and often is associated with elevated iron levels in some water sources.

35

Potassium

Used as a cation (electrolyte) in body fluids Used in muscle and milk More available to plants/animals in soils near neutral to basic in pH Usually does not need to be supplemented because of adequate levels in common feeds Data given as a percentage below

36

Trace Minerals In many situations, routine evaluation of trace-mineral levels in feedstuffs is not done due to the cost of evaluation. Therefore, minimal levels based on the NRCs guidelines are often supplemented in areas where a trace element is known to be low. Cobalt Required by rumen microbes and in the production of vitamin B12 Atlantic states may show deficiency Higher concentrations in legumes than grasses Works with zinc, but excessive levels interfere with dietary iron Usually supplemented, but usually adequate in grazing animals Data given as ppm below

Iodine

Low in recently glaciated areas, more abundant in ocean states Calcium, iron, bromine, fluorine, percholates, manganese and cobalt Nitrate can reduce uptake Usually supplemented in all states No map available

37

Copper Needed for body enzymes More available in acidic soils Low concentrations in southeast and west-central states Less available in organic soils or when calcium carbonate, molybdenum, iron or sulfur levels increase Usually supplemented, except for sheep Data given as ppm below

Iron

Used for hemoglobin in blood Soils generally have an abundance of iron, but occasionally a deficiency occurs because of other influences, such as excess copper or basic pH. Iron uptake in plants is greater in acidic soils Usually should not supplement; data given as a percentage below

38

Manganese

Used for metabolism and bone Excess calcium, phosphorus or iron will decrease availability More available to plants/animals in acidic soils Usually supplemented Data given as ppm below

Molybdenum Used in some enzymes; used to regulate copper availability in sheep Higher in western soils More available to plants/animals in soils basic in pH Usually does not need to be supplemented Data given as ppm below

39

Selenium

Used for muscle metabolism, works in conjunction with vitamin E More available to plants/animals in soils basic in pH Some plants accumulate toxic levels of selenium, but cereal grains seem to resist this situation Usually supplemented, except in western states outside of pacific NW Data given as ppm below

Zinc

Used for many growth and health processes in animal, works with vitamin A More available to plants/animal in acidic soils Excess calcium, cadmium, iron, selenium, lead and chromium decrease availability Usually supplemented; data given as ppm below

40

Cow Module
The Cow Module is designed for cattle after having their first calf (first-calf heifers) through mature, aged cows. Refer to the Heifer module for females younger than 24 months of age or females prior to parturition. Quick Start 1. Refer to Settings and Feed Library Quick Start steps. 2. Provide a ration name (File Name). 3. Provide / update the inputs. ( See Figures F & G) 4. The Formulate button can be pressed to formulate the ration in a least cost manner (Professional Edition) or amounts of feeds can be typed in directly. 5. Review ration statistics and choose to Save the ration. 6. Supplement specifications can be formulated or a custom supplement can be formulated. 7. Reports can be printed.

Figure F Standard Edition Cow Inputs

41

Figure G Professional Edition Cow Inputs

Inputs
File Name or name of the ration scenario can be any length. Professional Edition names/ration file will be stored in the same location where the feed libraries are stored on the hard drive but will be given a different extension (*.woc) from the feed libraries (*.iaj), heifer files, etc. Feeding Period Start & End dates Indicate the time duration the ration is balanced for based on the production phase of the cows. Keep duration to 3 months or less. Mature size Based on Settings page input. Younger animals are scaled down from a mature size equivalent in terms of body weight and milk production. Growth requirements are calculated from this value as well. First calf at 85% mature weight, second calf at 92% mature weight. Current condition score 1 (thin) to 9 (fat) system Breed type Is used since a given animal can be composed of a pure breed or a number of unknown combinations. Specify the animal based on the strongest general breed feature. Maintenance, hide thickness and milk production will refer to the breed type. Milk production can be specified in the Professional

42

Edition for each breed type. The follow correspond to the maintenance factor and hide thickness of breed type. Breed type Milk (lbs) 15 20 20 25 15 35 17 Maint. Adj. 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 0.95 1.2 1.1 Hide thickness very thick average average average thin thin average

British_lower _milk British_higher_milk Exotic_lower_milk Exotic_higher_milk Brahman_X* Very_high_milk Club_cow

* Brahman_X maintenance requirement is increased 15% during cold weather. Desired condition score change Select from the list the level of condition that you desire your cows to attain per month from where they are currently. Production stage Lactating, gestating, etc. Calf birth weight Based on Settings page inputs. Wind exposure Affects maintenance requirement. Normal means the animals can move to a different area to break the full force of the wind even though they are outside. Hair condition Affects maintenance requirement. More mud and wetness has a greater impact. Hair coat Affects maintenance requirement. Deals with seasonal changes to coat and breed effects. Temperature Normal indicates a value as listed on the Settings page. Maintenance adj. (Professional Edition) Allows provisions for extra maintenance requirements due to some management stress, for example disease, transportation, mixing animals, etc. This maintenance provision will be added to the already calculated provisions (shown in italics).

43

Ration Balancing Standard Edition

Figure H shows the ration balancing screen. Apart from the ration evaluation statistics, there are six input areas on this screen: the head count you are balancing for, the feed library numbers for the feeds you are using in the ration, the approximate pounds of each feed you would be delivering on a daily basis, the estimate of feed waste, the TMR mix inclusion and the Feed Quick List. Figure H Standard Edition Ration Balancing Screen

Feed Quick List Numbers of frequently used feeds from the Feed Library can be put here for quick reference. Feed Waste Percentage of feed delivered, but not eaten (wind/mud loss). TMR mix column Column to the right of the percentage waste column. A value of 1 would allow inclusion of the feedstuff in the Batch Mix Determination (TMR mix sheet). A value of 0 would exclude the feed from the mix sheet; for instance, a self-fed, big-bale feeding program would exclude the big bale from the TMR mixer sheet. A value of 2 would indicate a constant inclusion rate for the feed in the mix; for instance, if a mineral is to be fed at .15 lbs per head per day, one could use this designation to hold the level steady even though intake increases or decreases.

44

Ration Balancing Professional Edition

Figure I shows the ration balancing section of the Cow Module of the Professional Edition. The Professional Edition allows the user to view how a given ration will work with the first calf, second calf and mature cows simultaneously or individually. The inputs used in this area include: Feedstuffs Imported from the Feed Library (see Feed Library Quick Start) Lbs/day Pounds of each feed fed. These values can be input directly or may be calculated automatically by selecting the Formulate button. This calculation is done in a least-cost approach with the feeds that are chosen.

Amounts of each feed can be put in on a percent basis as well. When amounts are put in this way, select the % button to convert these values to As-Fed pounds. By selecting the \/ or /\ buttons, all feed weights will be decreased or increased by 2% each click. When the letter a is put into the TMR column and these buttons are selected, only those feeds with the letter a in the TMR column will be adjusted down or up. Waste % Feed delivered but not consumed due to wind loss, mud, etc. When feeds are transferred into a ration, a default feed waste of 5% is also transferred. There is always some waste, and this waste needs to be included when formulating a ration. Update this value as necessary. TMR mix To include a feed on a TMR batch sheet, provide the letter x in this column. To exclude a feed from the batch, clear the x from the column. To include the particular feed in a batch mix, but hold its level constant despite increasing or decreasing batch size, provide the letter h in this column. If the letter b is put in this column, the feeds with a b can be put into a blend recipe report. This report would be used in a situation where a number of ingredients are blended together at a feed mill and then fed to the animals to supplement the forage, as one might supply a creep feed to calves. eNDF level This input allows for a minimum level of effective fiber to be included in the ration formulation when the Formulation button is pressed. Consumption ratio This input allows the formulation to increase or decrease feed intake estimates that result from pressing the Formulation button. A value of 1.10 would result in a 10% increase in dry matter intake estimates. Energy Supplement Drop-down lists allows the user to choose from the currently selected feeds which feed to use if extra energy is needed. The number of pounds required to balance energy needs is then shown in the ration evaluation area.

45

Figure I Professional Edition Ration Balancing Screen

Scale Intake Checkbox that allows for the simultaneous evaluation of a ration for different ages of cows under similar conditions. When checked, the feed delivered corresponds to the feed consumed by the mature animal. The younger cows generally eat proportionally less, and the amounts are reduced accordingly. If unchecked, feed delivery corresponds to all groups. When balancing a ration for a particular cow age group, uncheck this box and focus only on that age group in the evaluation. Other age categories can be turned off by unchecking the check boxes at the bottom of the age column labeled as Include on printout summary (see Figure J). Water Can be included in ration formulation and evaluation if the check box next to the Water caption is checked. Do not check this box if you wish to omit water data.

46

Figure J Professional Edition Ration Balancing Screen

Ration Statistics Results regarding the formulated ration can be viewed in a number of ways. Some results are expressed in terms of percentage of requirement satisfied by the ration (energy, protein, Ca, P); others are described as a concentration in the ration. Minerals and vitamins are also listed in units provided over units required. In the situation where the supply is below the requirement, the status line will indicate this as low; if the level supplied is beyond the window of safe supplemental levels, a warning will appear. The warning does not mean the level supplied is toxic, but it does indicate that problems may arise if the supplied level is maintained for extended periods of time. Print Supplement Requirement and Feeding Rate When a ration does not provide all that is needed nutritionally, a report can be generated that indicates the levels of the deficient nutrients still needed. By indicating the Feeding Rate, for instance a half pound, a calculated concentration of nutrients can be specified on this report.

47

Formulate Custom Supplement This button will transfer ration details to the Custom Mix page, and based on the difference between provisions and requirements, a custom-blended supplement may be formulated. (See Custom Mix Module for more details in making a custom mix.)

Figure K Professional Edition Report Utilities

Reports
Figure K provides a view of the area in the Cow Module-Professional Edition where a number of reports can be generated. Reports in the Standard Edition involve selecting the appropriate tab at the bottom of the screen and then selecting the print function from the Excel menu. Many of the reports are similar between both editions.

Batch Mix Sheet

Batch Mix Sheet (TMR sheets) Report provides a TMR batch sheet printout that can be in terms of animal numbers or batch weight. Select the type of printout you would like to see and then select those feeds, if any, that would not be going into the mixer wagon. These feeds can be checked in the column to the right of the boxes indicating the pounds of each to be fed.

48

To exclude a feed from a TMR batch sheet, clear the associated x or h in the TMR Mix column. To hold a feed steady while allowing others to vary according to batch weight, type an h into the TMR Mix column across from the appropriate feed. For a batch based on head count, provide a value of 2 for twice-a-day feeding, a value of 1 for everyday feeding,0.5 to indicate every-other-day feeding or 0.33 for every-third-day feeding.

Formulation Printouts
Ration Summary Summary report will match inputs provided on Input section of screen. Ration Summary Lists feeds provided and amounts provided on an as-fed basis per head per day. The amount delivered and amount consumed shown at the bottom of the list represent the difference between feed delivered and feed consumed. Balance Dry Matter Intake Actual feed inputs correlate to the Mature Cow column when the user chooses to scale the intake. Estimated DMI Means dry matter intake that is estimated for a given animal based on NRC guidelines. Consumption Means the actual dry matter intake is presented as a percent of the estimated DMI. Net Energy Requirement The percent of the total energy requirement satisfied by the diet. Metab. Protein Requirement (MP) The percent of the total metabolizable protein requirement of the animal satisfied by the diet. Degradable Protein Requirement (DIP) The percentage of the degradable protein/nitrogen that is required to be supplied directly by diet. When results are less than 1 (100 %), refer to the MP requirement. If MP is less than 100%, then more protein is required, and the type of protein should preferably be degradable in this case. If MP is 100% or more, no more protein is required since nitrogen recycling is supplying the DIP shortage.

49 Regarding DIP and MP, in a perfect world, we would target this for 100% in each category. This would optimize the crude protein use from the diet. When this isnt practical or possible due to protein sources, be sure that the MP level hits 100. What happens when the DIP is less than 100 is that it takes more crude protein to meet the MP requirement. In a high corn finishing ration, as is typical in Iowa, we generally end up with less than 100% DIP in the final ration because of all of the corn and corn byproducts being used, but we end up using more crude protein in the diet to reach the MP=100. Some individuals will recommend meeting DIP at all costs. Sometimes, this is for N-pollution control, but more likely, this is from a rate of fermentation viewpoint. This especially is the case when a carbohydrate source that is more rapidly fermentable (wheat, steam-flaked grain or potato waste) is being used. Corn, along with whole or lightly processed grains, ferment slower and generally provide adequate time for the excess UIP breakdown with N-recycling to cover the initial DIP shortfall. Add This line in the Professional Edition states the pounds of the selected primary supplemental energy source that are required to supply the necessary NE to satisfy the remaining energy requirement of the animal. If the diet is adequate in energy, nothing will appear here. Calcium rqmt The percentage of the calcium requirement satisfied by the diet. Phosphorus rqmt The percentage of the phosphorus requirement satisfied by the diet. Projected Performance 30 day BCS change The body condition score change after 30 days on a diet. The 9-point system is being used in this program. Desired ADG The desired average daily gain. This desired value includes gain required for normal growth plus any gain required to increase the body condition score to a desired level. Cow wt. Gain The projected pounds per day of weight gain (excluding gut fill) based on ration inputs for the cow described above pregnancy. Excess prot.-NE adj The adjustment to the available net energy in the diet due to the feeding of excess protein. A value such as .6, for instance, would indicate a .6 megacalorie loss of total dietary net energy. Total protein fed, protein degradability, TDN and production all have impact on this value.

50 Feed Cost Values Feed cost is broken down on a per-head, total-per-group basis in the Professional Edition.

per-day basis and a

Ration Statistics Dry Matter % The dry matter percentage of a ration. Crude protein The percentage of crude protein of a ration. Degradable CP The percentage of crude protein in the diet that is rumen degradable. CP solubility The percentage of crude protein that is soluble. Urea is 100 % soluble. Dry hay is generally less than 25% soluble. This value reflects the rate at which protein goes into solution. Solubility has some influence on the rate of protein degradability and the overall extent of protein degradability, but note that not all soluble protein is rumen degradable. NE m M/lb Net energy of maintenance, megacalories per pound of dry matter NE g M/lb Net energy of gain, megacalories per pound of dry matter TDN% Total digestible nutrients, percent of dry matter. NFC% Nonfiber carbohydrate, percent of dry matter. A measure of starch, sugar, pectin, This value reflects the concentrate or rapidly fermentable percentage of a feed excluding protein, mineral and fat. eNDF% Effective neutral detergent fiber percent (chewable NDF) of the diet. NDF Neutral detergent fiber percent of the ration. Salt, Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Potassium, Sulfur A chart comparing pounds provided per head per day and pounds required per head per day is provided. This chart will not flag excessive levels. See the Feed Analysis or Mineral Printouts for this information.

Mineral & Vitamin Report Professional Edition Provides a summary of current mineral requirements and provisions, along with some mineral ratio guidelines.

Nutrient Graph Professional Edition

51 Illustrates the mineral provisions using the percent of the requirement satisfied. Ration Adequacy Professional Edition Provides the ration evaluation as it currently stands and then looks three production phases ahead to evaluate how the current ration would stand up. Generally, changes in maintenance, milk and gestation are evaluated. Ration Adequacy Graph Professional Edition Illustrates the timeline report using protein and energy requirements versus the stage of production. Blend mix Sheet Professional Edition Use to print out a mixing recipe of selected feedstuffs used in a ration. Feeds labeled b in the TMR column would be the ones included in the blend. Feed Analysis A three-page printout (two pages in the Standard Edition) breaking down the nutrient contribution of the ration ingredients. Ration Plan Professional Edition Allows the user to map out a feeding strategy over a period of time. Each print out shows up to three rations and quantities of feed required for the specified number of head over the specified time. This report could be used to indicate the cow ration to be fed in the late fall, early winter and late winter, for instance, thus providing not only feeding instructions, but feed requirements as well. Feed storage waste also can be factored into this estimate. The feed waste estimate indicated in the Feed Requirement for Period area is the percentage of feed storage loss used here. (See Figure L)

Feed Requirement for Period

Feed Usage Professional Edition Gives an estimate of feed use for the current scenario balanced for above. (See Figure L)

52

Figure L Professional Edition Feed Usage

Save, Restore and Delete Cow Rations/Scenarios

Professional Edition Follow the guidelines given when saving, restoring and deleting feeds. The name that you can give a scenario, unlike the feed libraries, can be longer than 8 characters. Note there is virtually no limit on the number of scenarios one can save. Cow rations will be identified by the file extension *.woc, while feed libraries are identified with the *.iaj extension. A ration and associated feed library can be e-mailed to other users of the Professional BRaNDS program to evaluate a ration on their own computer. BRaNDS 07 also maintains separate files of each producers rations. These files can be copied into other producer folders and used as well, but remember to include the feed library if it is unique to the ration that was formulated. To copy these rations, open up the C:\BRaNDS folder and follow normal copy/paste Windows protocol.

53

Remember, each time you go to the Settings page, the producers file is closed automatically and needs to be reopened, which is done by selecting the producers name from the drop-down list. Standard Edition Saving cow ration scenarios with the Standard Edition involves saving the entire worksheet as would be done with other Excel spreadsheet applications. For instance, if you make a winter ration for your first-calf heifers from the menu along the top of the screen, select File - Save As - name the scenario such as firstcalf heifers03, and the ration you just worked on is saved as an independent worksheet that you can access at another time. The difference is that the name is firstcalf heifers03 rather than Cow 1.1, and the location that you choose to save the file may be different than the BRaNDS directory. So, remember where you put your files! Detailed Requirements To the right of the Feed Requirement (scroll right) is a figure, as shown below, that details the energy and metabolizable protein required for each of the various functions required of the animal. These details allow the user to determine what a deficiency in these components may mean in terms of compromised performance, as well as simply providing a clearer illustration of the basis for the requirements.

54

Heifer Module
The Heifer Module operates in the same manner as the Cow Module. Read through the Cow Module chapter before reading this chapter, since this chapter only deals with the aspects unique to the Heifer Module. Figure M below shows the input area of the Heifer Module Professional Edition. The Standard Edition has similar inputs, but they are arranged in the Standard Edition format. Figure M Heifer Module Professional Edition

55

Inputs
As mentioned regarding the Cow Module, you can update and refine mature cow size, weather data and calf birth weight on the Settings page. It also is possible to modify the gestation days represented on reports in the Professional Edition. The first trimester is reported at day 60, the second at day 155 and the third at day 240. Change these numbers if you wish. Current Live Weight, Target Weight Gain, Birthdate These inputs work together in building the calendar and provide a note regarding minimum weight gain for the feeding period. The outputs listed in this area, weight at end of period and midpoint weight, also are derived from this information. Weight Spread Professional Edition is also requested for baby calves and growing animals. The weight spread is the number of pounds between the heaviest and lightest in a group. This allows for a more thorough ration evaluation across the pen.

The reason for the midpoint weight output on this screen is to determine the midpoint weight for the feeding period. Once this midpoint weight is determined, the ration can be rebalanced at this weight as a current weight in order to better estimate the feed use for the feeding period.

Heifers on a feedyard ration would be more accurately projected using the Feedyard Module.

Ration Evaluation
The evaluation breaks down the given ration based on the production stage selected. The middle column corresponds with the feed intake values and production stage directly. The Professional Edition also provides the left- and right-hand column to correspond with an earlier stage of production and a later stage of production for bred heifers. Growing animals and baby calves show the extremes of the weight spread between these two columns. A weight spread in the group breaks apart the feed balance area into the low end, heavy end and average for the group of animals on feed.

56

Like the Cow Module, daily weight gain values are provided in suggested gain and average daily gain. Desired ADG is the weight gain above pregnancy. The projected ADG is the probable gain based on actual feed intake above pregnancy. Excess prot.-NE adj. Like the cow module, the energy loss due to excess protein metabolism is calculated. This value, however, is not calculated on baby calves.

Save, Restore and Delete Heifer Rations / Scenarios

Professional Edition See Cow Module guidelines. Note that heifer rations will be identified by the file extension *.fqf. The other areas of the Heifer Module are similar to the Cow Module. See the Printout area in the Cow section above to determine the meaning of outputs.

Breeding Bull Module

Inputs, Outputs, Printouts
See the Cow Module for a description on details regarding these issues.

Growing Bull Module

Inputs, Outputs, Printouts
The Growing Bull Module should be used for young sire development and feedlot bulltest ration formulation. This module has characteristics of both the Heifer Module and the Feedyard Module; consult these two areas for issues pertaining to the Growing Bull Module.

57

Feedyard Module
The Feedyard Module is designed for cattle placed on high-energy diets with a terminalend point goal. Quick Start Select Quick Start 4 (voice tutorial) from BRaNDS directory for more help. 1. Refer to Settings and Feed Library Quick Start steps. 2. Provide a Series/Pen name (see details in Feedyard Operation details). A series can have one or more rations. 3. Provide/update the inputs. (See Figures N) 4. Move to Ration Balancing section of screen. 5. Indicate the ration number in the series (1 = 1st ration fed, 2 = 2nd ration fed, etc.) 6. Indicate the name of the ration fed (if the ration already was entered and saved, select it from the list followed by the Recall button). 7. Indicate how long you plan to feed the ration indicate the date or weight of the animal. 8. Scroll down and formulate the ration. The Formulate button can be pressed to formulate the ration in a least-cost manner (Professional Edition) or amounts of feeds may be typed in directly. 9. Review ration statistics and choose the Save/Next button to save the ration. This will advance the ration number automatically. (See step 5) 10. If you need to redo the ration just entered, be sure to put the ration number back to the number associated with the ration you will redo. The tan list box in the Inputs area above shows the rations + number saved for the Pen/Series. 11. Before putting in the next ration of the series, go to the input area above and update the current weight and hair coat details if necessary. Then, return to the balancing section to enter the next ration as done for the previous ration.

Feedyard Details of Operation

The above steps describe the Professional Edition. By putting in the series of rations under a given Pen/Series name, a projection also can be generated to along with the regular reports involved in balancing a ration. Feedyard series names are stored as files ending as *.fyd. Feedyard rations named and saved end in the letters *.fyr. The Feedyard Module of the Standard Edition is shown in the following Figure O. It, like the other BRaNDS Standard Editions, is set up as a ration evaluator for a given time and animal, similar to the former ISU Feedyard Ration Evaluation MCS 7 spreadsheet.

58

Figure N Feedyard Module Professional Edition

Pen/Series Name Unlike the other modules, the Feedyard Module (and Stocker Module) is set up with a two-part file structure. Each pen of cattle can be set up with a series name. A series can be composed of one or more rations. The series is saved when the first ration that is listed under the series is saved. Ration Name When rations are entered and saved in the Ration Balancing section of the module, the name of the ration as well as the order it was added/fed appears in this list. To recall both the ration and inputs associated with the ration, provide the number in the white box above the lists number column and select the Restore button above. File Utilities Restore & Delete These buttons allow for restoring saved series information and deleting an entire series. When using these buttons, select the series from the list above, then select the button. When restoring, if no particular ration number/step in the series is specified, the first will be shown.

59

Figure O Feedyard Module Standard Edition

Inputs
Inputs follow the same meanings as those used for the other modules apart from the following cases. Feeding Period Start Only the first day in the feeding period is asked for. Weather data is used based on the month in this date. In the case of projections, the weather data automatically will be taken from your weather data summary on the Settings page based on the day in the projection. Weight @ 50% Choice There is a box with a ? label that can be used to arrive at this value since age, gender and implant will have bearing on it. For cattle started on feed as mature cows or bulls, use the mature weight at a condition score 5 for this value. This weight would probably be lighter than the slaughter weight. The probable weights at 50% choice in the Standard Edition are listed at the bottom of the Settings page. Facility Essentially, this is the same as wind exposure in the other modules.

60

Hide thickness The other modules calculate this automatically based on breed type. Brahman X cattle and dairy cattle are calculated as thin hides for the other modules. Feedyard cattle that are moved from distant locations may have some adaptation issues to contend with for instance, cattle that are being moved from Florida to Iowa in the fall. Therefore, it may be advantageous to indicate cattle that are moving from a warm to cold climate as thin hide, (the program will calculate higher maintenance requirements then) or cattle moving from a cold to warm climate as thick hide. Implant If these additives are used, check the box. The implant will have an effect on the feed intake estimation (increases DMI estimation). Consult the help box labeled as ? to adjust for the impact implants have on Wt @ 50% Choice. Ractopamine (ractopamine hydrochloride) A feed additive that should be approved and released for beef cattle in 2004. It will increase the weight at 50% choice by 4% and is calculated automatically, if checked, during the last two months on feed. MGA Effect is calculated as a 6% increase in the rate of gain on heifers.

If you are using additives, such as MGA, Optaflexx, antibiotics, etc., use the open columns in your Feed Library to indicate their use and levels in supplements.

Ration Balancing
Figure P shows the Ration Balancing portion of the Standard Edition Feedyard Module. Apart from the results expressed in terms of allowed weight gain from protein or energy, it closely resembles the other Standard Modules. The Professional Edition does differ from the Standard Edition in this area and is shown in Figure Q. Reports Standard Edition Select the Summary, Batch or Analysis tabs at the bottom of the sheet to see printouts for Standard Edition. Then, select the printer icon from the Excel menu to print the page. Professional Edition See the Cow Module for a description of the details regarding reports other than the Projection Report.

61

Figure P Ration Balancing Standard Edition

A. Number of head the amounts of feed provided are being balanced for. B. Provide the number of the feed to be used here. (Get number from Feed Library.) C. Provide the pounds of each feed here on an as-fed basis. D. Indicate the percent of feed waste here. (Indicate 2% as a 2.) E. Indicate if provided in a TMR mix batch sheet. 1 = include, 0 = exclude, 2 = hold level constant across weights in mixer. F. Mineral summary information. Details in terms of actual amounts may be seen by scrolling to the right.

62

Figure Q (top) Ration Balancing Screen Professional Edition A B C D E F G H I J

A. Indicate whether the ration will be fed until a given weight or a given date. B. Indicate the name of the ration or select the ration you wish to use from the list. If using a ration that you already saved and is on list, select the ration and select the Recall button. C. Indicate the order that the ration will be fed in the series. The number will correspond with the number above labeled as Record in Series. D. The Save/Next button will save the ration to a series and will allow other rations to be added. E. Recall and Delete buttons recall or delete a ration based on the name of the ration described in B. F. Formulate button will calculate a least-cost per pound gain ration based on feeds selected, consumption ratio and eNDF fiber specifications.

63

G. The /\ button will increase the amount of feed pounds by 2%. The \/ button will decrease the amount of feed pounds by 2%. The % button will convert feeds entered from a percent into pounds. H. The Body Weight area shows the average weight per head in the pen that the ration is balanced for, as well as the weight spread between the smallest and heaviest animals and how the ration performs for these outside limits. I. Intake Actual dry matter intake appears based on ration formulation over estimated intake based on NRC estimation equations. The percentage of actual intake relative to the estimated intake is the consumption ratio. Always use actual intakes for balancing if they are known. If they are not, use the estimated intake as a guideline. J. ADG is based on the smaller of these two values: energy or protein. When energy is greater than protein, the MP requirement will be less than 100. Although not always possible, the goal is to match energy and protein gain values. DIP ratio is the value that indicates how well degradable intake protein matches rumen available energy intake. When the MP is less than 100 and the DIP is less than 1, a degradable protein source should be provided. K. Open is a term that fills unused columns in the feed library and will appear on reports as such. Use these open columns for additives; for instance, if an antibiotic is in the feed, type the name and amount in the feed library and this name and the concentration will appear on the reports.

64

Figure Q (bottom)

A. Feeds in ration, see the Feed Library section on how to transfer feeds. B. Amount of feeds to be provided. C. Percentage of feed wasted between delivery and consumption. D. x = include on a TMR batch sheet, h = include but hold level steady on batch sheet in terms of weight in a batch based on a total weight. Clear this box to exclude a feed from a batch sheet. E. Percentage of an ingredient in a ration on a dry-matter basis and as-fed basis. F. When a supplement is to be made, this input allows the user to specify how many pounds per head per day should be provided. G. These check boxes allow for turning on or off the given weight columns.

65

H. DMI:Wt is the dry matter intake expressed as a percentage of live weight. I. DMI:ADG is feed to gain on a dry-matter basis. On the ration summary sheet, this value would not include feed waste or feed fed to cattle that died or were removed. On the projection printout, the effect that dead cattle would have is included. J. Maintenance ratio is the calculated maintenance energy requirement divided by the base maintenance requirement for a beef type steer. Weather, breed type, gender, feed intake and environment will impact this value. K. Nutrient statistics are nutrient quantities supplied to an animal by a ration, as well as excretion estimates.

Projection Report
A projection can be generated for a lot and printed. On this report, it asks for an estimate for death loss, interest rate, cattle value per head, yardage and sale price. A feeding summary is generated based on the initial inputs and the series of rations described. The effect of death loss is calculated as such: 1. There is no rounding to the nearest whole animal, but it will work with a percent since this is only a projection based on feedyard historical data. 2. Feed use and total cost information is calculated for the whole lot halfway through the projection and on the projected living animals only for the remainder. 3. Total animal and other charges are figured up front. Interest is calculated on half the feed, half the yardage and the total cattle value.

66

Stocker Module
The Stocker Module is designed for young, growing cattle placed on high forage/grazing diets (Professional Edition). The Stocker Module is set up in a similar manner to the Feedyard Module. Read through the operation of the Feedyard Module before reading this section. Stocker series files end in the letters *.stk. Stocker rations are stored with the *.skr file extension. Quick Start 1. Refer to Settings and Feed Library Quick Start steps. BE SURE TO NUMBER THE PASTURE AS FEEDSTUFF #1 IN THE FEED LIBRARY. Other feeds/supplements, if fed, should be numbered after the pasture. 2. Provide a Series/Pen. A series can have one or more rations. 3. Provide/update the inputs. (See Figure R) 4. Move to the Ration Balancing section of screen. 5. Indicate the ration number in the series (1 = first ration fed, 2 = second ration fed, etc.) 6. Indicate the name of the ration fed. If the ration was already entered and saved, select it from the list followed by the Recall button. 7. Indicate how long you plan to feed the ration indicate the date the animal will be moved to a different ration. 8. Scroll down and formulate the ration. The Formulate button can be pressed to formulate the ration in a least-cost manner (Professional Edition) or amounts of feeds can be typed in directly. 9. Review ration statistics and choose the Save/Next button to save the ration. This will advance the ration number automatically (see step 5). 10. If you need to redo the ration just entered, be sure to put the ration number back to the number associated with the ration you will redo. The tan list box in the Inputs area above shows the rations + number saved for the Pen/Series. 11. Before putting in the next ration of the series, go to the input area above and update the current weight and hair coat details if necessary. Then, return to the balancing section to put in the next ration as done for the previous ration.

67

Stocker Details of Operation

The Stocker Module operates in a manner similar to the Feedyard Module. There are a number of slight differences regarding inputs and outputs, though. Refer to Figures R, S and T for the details on these differences. Figure R Stocker Module Professional Edition A B C

A. Frame size Instead of the Weight @ 50% Choice input an approximate animal frame score is to be provided. The caption-comment will provide the yearling height to frame size correlation. B. The Stocker Module uses the Series concept as the Feedyard Module. Thus a group of cattle are given a Series name and to this series, rations are saved and projections can be generated. C. Rainfall is factored into the projection since it has an impact on pasture productivity. Normal rainfall is described on the Settings page.

68 Figure S Stocker Module Professional Edition A B C D E F

A. The ration number and ration name concept is the same as the Feedyard Module. B. Only a date can be used to indicate the end of a ration feeding period. The Feedyard Module allows either a weight or date. C. Current pasture yield in terms of tons of dry matter per acre is required for cattle growth projection. (Current amount of vegetation present per acre DM basis.) D. Typical pasture productivity in terms of dry matter produced per year. This is the total amount (grazed + trampled). Determine from harvested hay ground. E. Animal Unit Days per acre Similar as head days per acre, but adjusted to a constant live body weight of 1200 pounds. F. Pasture Type category allows for modifications to the plant growth curve based on air temperature changes.

69

G. Feedstuffs are transferred to the sheet as they are in all other modules. Be sure to number the pasture feedstuff as number 1 from the Feed Library. H. Based on headcount and pasture provisions, a pull date is calculated, along with an animals weight at this date. I. Pasture area is the number of acres that cattle will be given access to for the current ration scenario. J. Months allowed for growth is the time measured in months over which the typical pasture productivity is estimated to be over. K. All other outputs match those of the Feedyard Module.

70

Reports
Figure T Stocker Module Professional Edition

A. Batch sheets for a TMR mix can be printed out as other modules for situations where pasture supplementation or yard feeding occurs. B. Other reports generated from this module will have similar formats to those already described in this document. C. A pasture disappearance chart is displayed based on the ration, headcount and pasture inputs provided. This chart breaks down the feeding period by date from the start of feeding the ration, corresponding cattle weight, DMI estimate per head, total pasture consumption per day by the group and per head on an as-fed basis. D. Interval is the time in days a record is to be generated on the disappearance report below it. A value of 7 results in a weekly summary, a value of 1 is a daily summary. The smaller the value, the closer the pull date will be to the actual

71

forage disappearance estimate. The pull date is based on the first depression in feed intake due to reduced forage availability. E. Forage use percent. A value of 55 indicates 55% of available forage is grazed, 45% would be lost to trampling. Rotated pastures can increase this value by 1020%.

72

Custom Mix
Custom batch sheets can be assembled manually or automatically by a least-cost formulation. This module can be used after putting together a base ration on the Cow, Heifer, Feedyard, Stocker or Bull module to formulate a supplement. Custom mixed supplements are saved with the *.xim extension. (Professional Module only) Quick Start 1. Formulate the base diet balancing for protein and energy proper to DMI. 2. Save the ration (do this now in order to preserve what was accomplished up to this point). 3. Refer to Figure U. Select the button that says Formulate Custom Supplement at the bottom of the Ration Composition screen. This will transfer data associated with the animals diet to the Custom Mix module. Figure U

73

Figure V Custom Mix Module Professional Edition

feeds selected from library nutrients provided in diet already screen split tabs 4. Next, go to the feed library and select the library you want to use for making the supplement. Note that this does not need to be the same library that was used for the original ration. 5. Select the feeds from the library by numbering them in the order you wish to see them displayed on a paper printout; then select the Custom Mix button. 6. Note that feeds are listed on the Custom Mix screen; the amount provided already from the diet is listed along the top, and the amount required of the selected nutrients is listed below this on a per-head basis. 7. Balance the ration now to provide adequate levels of the nutrients by indicating the pounds or fraction of a pound of the given feedstuff needed. This may be done manually by typing in the amounts of each ingredient or automatically by selecting the Calculate button.

74

8. Since there are many items that do not fit on the screen, you may wish to split the screen by dragging the split screen tabs into position with your mouse as shown below. (See figure W split screen) 9. As feed is added, the rows along the bottom will indicate if the current level is short or in excess. 10. Generally, provide enough of the feedstuff that the nutrient is not short and slightly in excess. In most cases, it is advisable to keep the excess close to zero. 11. If you need only to make a custom mix, and do not need to be concerned with the ration of a given animal, follow the steps listed here starting at step number 3. Note that the concentration of a given nutrient in the mix will be listed in the first row under the feed/amount provided area. The actual quantity of the nutrient will be below this row. 12. Printouts of the mix recipe can then be done with the option to include or not include a price and analysis on the sheet.

75

Figure W Custom Mix Screen Split Screen

amount short amount in excess limit of excess status based on excess/limit

concentration in mix amount provided by mix

Steps to Make a Supplement Review

1. Assemble the base ration on the appropriate Cow, Heifer, etc., page and SAVE the ration. 2. Select the FORMULATE CUSTOM SUPPLEMENT button. The provisions and remaining requirements will be transferred to the CUSTOM MIX page. 3. Go to the FEED LIBRARY. Select the feed library that you will use to formulate the supplement and RESTORE.

76

4. Choose (number) the most likely feeds from the library to use in the supplement. It is best to number feeds in the manner where all those ingredients that tend to be used in the smallest quantities are chosen first or last. 5. Remember to include carriers, mixing oils or flavors if used when numbering feeds. 6. Select the CUSTOM MIX button from the FEED LIBRARY to transfer the feed and analysis to the CUSTOM MIX screen. 7. On the CUSTOM MIX screen, select the CALCULATE button. This is a leastcost formulator and will give you an estimate of the quantities for each ingredient to use on a per-head basis.

Note that if you wish to ignore balancing for a specific nutrient on the Custom Mix page, in the Requirement row, delete the quantity noted as required. 8. Check work. Notice the rows that indicate AMOUNT DEFICIENT, AMOUNT EXCESS, LIMIT, and STATUS. Manually fine tune the calculated amounts above to address any issues occurring here. Generally, you will want to have a little excess in each category. 9. Now manually fill in the amounts of carrier, mixing oil or other additive that would have been omitted in the least-cost calculation. 10. Name the supplement and select SAVE. 11. Go to the FEED LIBRARY and RESTORE the feed library that you want to place the supplement in. 12. On the line in the restored feed library that you want the supplement to appear, type the number 100. Then go back to the CUSTOM MIX screen and select the TRANSFER button. If you go to this restored feed library, you will see that the analysis for the supplement has been transferred. SAVE this feed library now. You can repeat steps 10 and 11 to place this supplement in other feed libraries. 13. Now go back to the original base ration that you assembled and select the RESTORE button. This will restore the inputs and base ration, in addition to renumbering the correct feeds in the FEED LIBRARY.

77

14. In the FEED LIBRARY, number the supplement now, as well and hit the appropriate transfer button. 15. Provide the amount of supplement that needs to be fed and re-SAVE the ration.

Occasionally, there may be some slight rounding error and an indication of a nutrient may still be low. This can occur when a mineral requirement is based on a level of feed intake or if the supplement contains protein that when provided boasts weight gain significantly. Scroll to the right toward the NUTRIENT ANALYSIS display to see how far off the nutrient is from the desired quantity. In many cases, the difference is small enough to ignore. If it is not, go to the CUSTOM MIX page and recall the supplement to make the adjustments. Next, follow the steps previously outlined to save and bring this into the ration.

78

Equations

Metabolizable Protein Feed / Rumen Yield

MP feed (CPI - DIP) x 0.80 CPI = grams crude protein intake DIP = grams rumen degradable crude protein (degradable intake protein) MP microbe MCP x .64 MCP = microbial crude protein (smallest of following 2 values) MCPTDN MEFF x gTDN x NDFEadj

MEFF = microbial efficiency If TDN>=64 MEFF = 0.13 Else MEFF = (0.29 x TDN - 5.9) x 0.01 gTDN = grams total digestible nutrient intake TDN = percent total digestible nutrient NDFEadj = adjustment if inadequate neutral detergent fiber IF NDFe>20 NDFEadj = 1 Else NDFEadj = (1 - ((20 - NDFe) x 0.022))) NDF = percent effective NDF MCPDIP DIP DIP ratio = DIP adequacy analysis

79 MCPDIP / MCPTDN Recycled N 121.7 12.01xpCP + 0.3235 x pCP^2 pCP = percent crude protein If DIP ratio < 1 and recyled N is not limiting MP feed is reduced to supply DIP as: MP feed dDIP , MCPTDN is then used to calculate MP microbe. Total MP is then recalculated. dDIP = deficient DIP

Requirements
MP maintenance 3.8 x WT^0.75 WT = shrunk body weight MP pregnancy ((DP x (0.001669 - 0.00000211 x CBW) x 2.71828182845904^((0.0278 - 0.0000176 x DP) x DP)) x 6.25) / 0.65) DP = days pregnant CBW = calf birth weight (kg) MP milk (MWT x 0.035) / 0.65 x 1000 MWT = milk weight per day (kg) see breed info (Cow Module) on default milk weights. MP growth [RG x (268-(29.4 x (RE / RG)))] / 0.492 RG = required body gain (kg/day)

80 Calculated automatically with cow and breeding bull module based on mature size. This value can be over-ridden with growing heifer and bull modules. RE = retained energy (Mcal) 0.0635 x EQE^0.75 x (0.956 x RG)^1.097 EQE = equivalent body weight 0.891 x [WT x (SRT / FWT)] SRT = 478 FWT = mature shrunk weight (kg) MP reserves * Note that the MP requirement for body reserves is not as easy to base on a visual appraisal of an animal as the MP requirement for the other topics just addressed. Therefore, when adding body condition, formulate diet DIP to follow diet TDN levels to ensure adequate protein for body reserves. Baby Calf Maintenance (crude protein) [6.25 x (((1/0.75) x (0.2 x (WT^0.75) + DMI x 3 )) - DMI x 3)] / 0.8 Growth (crude protein) [ADG x (187.5 / 0.7)] / 0.8

Net Energy Requirements

NE maintenance [WT^0.75 x ((0.077 x BT x LAC x G x COMP) + PT)] x RES x ION BT = breed type (values range 0.95 to 1.2) LAC = lactation (yes = 1.2, no = 1.0) G = gender of animal (1.0 = females, and castrated males, 1.15 = males) COMP = growth compensation .8 + (cBCS 1) x 0.05

81

cBCS = current body condition score ( 1 to 9 system) RES = respiration rate adjustment for heat/pneumonia (1.05 for mild stress, 1.12 for stress) ION = adjustment for ionophore in growing animal diet (0.893)

NE cold stress (0.09 x (WT x 0.96)^0.67) x (LCT - AT) / INS x kM LCT = lower critical temperature 39 (INS x HE x 0.85) HE = ration heat (MEI - REg) / (0.09 x (WT x 0.96)^0.67) MEI = metabolizable energy intake REg = energy remaining for weight gain after maintenance

AT = average air temperature (degrees Celcius) INS = insulating properties of coat Mature animal = 5.25 + (0.75 x BCS) + EI Yearling = (5.1875 + 0.3125 x BCS) + EI Calves = 6.5 x EI BCS = body condition score (1 through 9 system) EI = external insulating value (7.36-0.296 x WD + 2.55 x HT) x HC x HD WD = effective wind speed (KM / hr) HT = hair thickness (summer = 0.5, transition = 0.8, winter = 1.27, heavy winter = 2.0) HC = hair condition (clean/dry = 1, mud = .8, matted = .5)

82 HD = hide thickness (thin = .8, average = 1.0, thick = 1.2) breed dependant.

NE pregnancy CBW x kM / 0.13 x (0.05855 - 0.0000996 x DP) x 2.71828182845904^((0.032330.0000275 x DP) x DP)) x 0.001)

NE milk (0.092 x 4 + (0.049 x 8.3) - 0.0569) x MWT x MWTadj MWTadj = milk weight adjustment (1.0 = mature cow, 0.88 = 2nd calf cow, 0.74 = 1st calf cow) NE growth (RG / (13.91 x (WT x SRT / FWT)^-0.6837))^1.096972356

NE body reserves 1 body condition score point (BCSP) FWT x 0.067

Mcal NE per body condition score point (TEP) 207 / 500 x FWT Mcal per kg of body condition weight TEP / BCSP 1 Mcal NE m from feed= 1 Mcal NE m for retained energy 1 Mcal NE m retained energy = 0.8 Mcal NE m for mobilization

Excess Protein-NE adjustment (Urea Cost) [ {(DIP x .72 ^ IR - TDNMCP) / 6.25 -Recycled N } x .0133] + [(MPp - MPr ) / 6.25 x .0113] DIP = total degradable intake protein **** IR = intake ratio = actual intake/estimated **** TDNMCP = microbial crude protein produced based on TDN intake ****

83

**** kA, kB1, kB2, kB3, C fractions on the feedstuffs as the Cornell program requires for this step to arrive at peptideNH3 balance. What is done is an adjustment for rate of passage. DIP would be total degradable protein possible, so if intake is normal, I use .72 times this value to reduce total degradation down somewhat if rate of passage normal (comparable to the concept of adjusting NE values based on 2x or 3x maintenance intake). If passage is slowed or increased, I adjust the .72 value down or up using the intake ratio. Therefore lower intake-slower rate of passage-more extensive rumen degradation. Recycled N = recycled N equation MPp = Met protein provided by diet MPr = Met protein required by animal

Baby Calf Maintenance WT^0.75 x 0.086 x TFAC TFAC = temperature factor (less than 2 months old) AT > 15 = 1 AT 10 - 15 = 1.13 AT 5 10 =1.27 AT 0 5 = 1.4 AT 5 0 = 1.54 AT 10- -5 = 1.68 AT 20 - -10 = 1.9 AT < -20 = 2.3

(over 2 months old) AT > 5 = 1 AT 0 - 5 = 1.13 AT -5 0 =1.27 AT -10 -5 = 1.4 AT 15 -10 = 1.54 AT 20- -15 = 1.68 AT 30 - -20 = 1.8 AT < -30 = 2.0

84

Growth 10^(LN(ADG) / 0.833) - LOG(1.19 / (0.69 x WT^0.338))) LN = natural log or e LOG = logarithm, base 10

Minerals & Vitamins Calcium (grams)

Maintenance 0.0154 x WT / 0.5 Pregnancy (last 90 days) CBW x (13.7 / 90) / 0.5 Lactation MWT x 1.23 / 0.5 Growth RPN x 0.071 / 0.5 RPN = grams retained protein (MP growth)

Reserves 5 grams Baby calf 0.65% of diet

Phosphorus (grams)
Maintenance 0.016 x WT / 0.68 Pregnancy (last 90 days) CBW x (7.6 / 90) / 0.68 Lactation

85 MWT x 0.95 / 0.68 Growth RPN x 0.045 / 0.68 Reserves 2 grams Baby calf 0.42% of diet Other mineral and vitamin requirements are based on a percentage of feed intake and are displayed on mineral printouts contained in the program.

Feed Intake
DMI estimation growing cattle (kg) (WT^0.75 x (((0.2435 x NEm) - (0.0466 x NEm^2) - SF) / NEmadj)) x TA x HCT x Padj * Badj DMI estimation 2 years and beyond (((WT^0.75 x (0.04997 x NEmadj^2 + 0.0384) / NEmadj) TA x HC + 0.2 x MWT)) x HCT x Badj

SF = age factor (Yearling or younger = 0.1128, older than 12 months = 0.0869) NEmadj =net energy for maintenance concentration adjustment (NE m < 1 = 0.95, NE m >= 1 = NE m) TA = temperature intake adjustment AT > 25 = 0.9 AT 15 - 25 = 1 AT 5 15 = 1.03 AT 5 5 = 1.05 AT 15 - -5 = 1.07 AT < -15 = 1.16 Padj = pregnancy adjustment (if DP > 210 then 1 + ((210 - DP) x 0.0025)

86 Madj = milk production adjustment MWT x 0.2 Badj = breed adjustment for intake (1.08 = very high milk, 1.04 = exotic high milk or club cow, otherwise = 1) HCT = 1 for clean conditions, .85 for muddy yard, and .75 for very muddy yard. Adjustment to DMI with low protein diet (use with diets below 7.5% crude protein) PBWT = .36 x CP PBWT = DMI as a percent of body weight. DMI Estimate for Stocker Module (Adapted from K.C. Olsons Forage Intake by Grazing Livestock PowerPoint presentation) DMI as % of body weight = (3.47 (.02 x NDF%) ) + FDA + PA Fiber Digestibility Adjustment (FDA) Used to adjust for less digestible fiber source If ADF / NDF > .65 then FDA = (.65 ADF / NDF) x 4 Otherwise FDA = 0 Protein Adjustment (PA) Used to adjust for lower levels of degradable intake protein (DIP). UIP = undegradable intake protein. If ration DIP% > or = 12% then PA = 0 Otherwise: If UIP% > 4% then UIPA = (UIP % - 4%) x 0.5 Otherwise UIPA = 0 [(UIPA + DIP%) 12 ] x .02

Conversions
ME to NE or kM tNEm / (tTDN x 4.4 x 0.82) tNEm = Mcal of net energy maintenance in diet

87

tTDN = kg of total digestible nutrients in diet TDN% to NE m (Mcal/kg) (0.0495 x TDN) - (0.0001804 x TDN^2) + (0.000000496 x TDN^3) - 1.12 TDN% to NE g (Mcal/kg) (0.05138 x TDN) - (0.000227 x TDN^2) + (0.000000576 x TDN^3) - 1.65 ADF% to TDN% A + (B x ADF)
Feedstuff Legume Mixed forage Grasses Corn silage <40% DM Corn silage >40% DM Small grain silage Forage/grain mix Ear corn Shelled corn Small grains A 98.65 102.56 102.33 86.84 80.84 76.16 93.53 99.72 92.22 88.09 B -1.069 -1.14 -1.113 -0.658 -0.658 -0.309 -1.03 -1.927 -1.535 -0.712

[Crude protein + Ether extract + Crude fiber + Nitrogen free extract] to TDN% (0.0504 x CP + 0.077 x EE + 0.02 x CF + 0.000377 x NFE^2 + 0.011 x NFE -0.152) / 0.0441

88

Example and Explanations

The following example is done using the Heifer Module from the Professional Edition. Although there are differences between modules and editions regarding inputs and outputs, there are some general guidelines that apply to all variations on this program. Below is an example of inputs that have been provided for a group of weaned heifer calves. Note that the feeding period is listed as Oct. 1 through November. The feeding period could be any length you want. However, as feed, weather or stage of production change, there is obviously going to be a change in diet requirements. Therefore, it is wise to retrieve and re-evaluate the last ration that you formulated each time common sense would recognize a change. The following example recognizes that these just-weaned spring calves are now in a feedyard during the fall. In two months, the season will change to winter and whether these animals will be kept back as replacements, sold or fed out will probably be a little clearer. The diet can be re-formulated at that time.

89

The Professional Edition also gives you the opportunity to look at a group of animals over a range of age (Cow and Breeding Bull Modules), or weight as the growing animal module shows above. The basis of the weight range is the weight spread, which is the difference between the heaviest and lightest in the group (an estimate may work well if you do not have exact numbers). Generally, it is the animals with the greatest requirement in the group that you need to balance for. It is your call to then determine if it is advisable to break the group and manage them separately.

The values of the Ration Composition correlate with the middle column for the growing animal in the Ration Evaluation. The values of the Ration Composition would align themselves with the mature animal in the Cow and Breeding Bull Module when intake is scaled. The check boxes at the bottom of the Ration Evaluation screen allow you to limit or increase the view of the ration as it is being balanced. The individual items described in the Balance are explained by the associated comment boxes (indicated by the red flag in the corner). If you do not see the comment box, refer

90

to the troubleshooting portion of this manual. Nutrient provisions are expressed as a percentage of the requirement. For instance, in the example above, the Net Energy Requirement is at 98% for all the groups. The background calculations are as such: Animal 445 lb. 520 lb. 595 lb. Mcal NE provided 6.344 7.119 7.895 Mcal NE required* 6.493 7.296 8.071 (NE maintenance) (4.351) (4.889) (5.407) (NE growth 1.25 lb/d)* (2.142) (2.407) (2.664) Result: 97.71% 97.57% 97.82% *NE g is converted to equivalent NE m in the given ration to arrive at the total NE. Tighter groups and intake estimates based on energy densities result in fairly little variation. Protein requirements are quite sensitive even with tight groupings, though. The primary protein value to concern yourself with when balancing is the metabolizable protein percent. This MP requirement deals directly with the animals protein requirement. The degradable protein value relates to the rumen microfloras requirement for N. This value does have merit when troubleshooting performance since a lack of rumen degradable protein impairs digestion. Likewise, an excess can impair performance in terms of lost energy or in worse cases, ammonia toxicity. There is a fair amount of tolerance with this degradable protein value when formulating. Situations indicating a lack of degradable protein may be overcome within the animal by nitrogen-recycling mechanisms. Excessive levels can be excreted. The equations, which explain these instances, are provided in the Equations section of this appendix. An adjustment to available net energy occurs when these levels, along with MP, become overly excessive. The extent of this energy adjustment is displayed as the Excess prot.NE adj. This value is similar to the Urea Cost explained in the Cornell Model; however, since the feeds being used are not described in the A, B1, B2, B3 and C fractions that the Cornell Model requires, a conservative variation on this theme has been applied and is also described in the Equations section of this appendix. Mineral nutrition also is included in all modules. The example shown above uses some default minerals for demonstration purposes only. Be sure to provide the analysis of the actual mineral that you are using. The mineral analysis of the other feeds in your feed library apart from the macro minerals is limited primarily because if mineral nutrition is an issue, then you need to get an accurate evaluation of the feeds you are using. From a practical standpoint, formulation generally follows the trend where after the macro mineral contribution from the primary feeds is taken into account, the additional macro minerals required along with the vitamins and trace minerals are provided in a commercial mix. Natural sources do exist, even though they may not be listed in the

91

library. Therefore, how one should proceed in terms of mineral supplementation is ultimately up to the herdsman. As you look at the printouts, note that the mineral evaluation printouts indicate the suggested level; if the amount provided is low, the printout will indicate this. Likewise, an excessive level also will be indicated with the word Warning. If the level you provide meets the requirement and is not too excessive, the printout will indicate this with OK. The illustration on the following page shows the mineral summary on the screen while using the program. Refer to this picture and the associated key for explanations. This screen view of the calculations can be seen by scrolling to the right of the Ration composition/evaluation area. A B C D

A = Concentration of the nutrient in the selected feeds given in the order the feed was placed in the diet.

92

B = Concentration of the nutrient in the diet. This concentration would be as described in the header. C = Quantity of nutrient received by the animal. Select the comment flag to see the units in which this quantity is expressed. D = An open slot. In the Feed Library, user-defined nutrients or additives items may be listed in a given feed. These items would appear in these open columns. E = Requirement per head per day. This is the quantity of the nutrient in terms of grams, pounds, etc. F = Status of the diet in regards to satisfying the requirement. Low means inadequate level, Warning means the level is too high and may cause problems. OK means the amount provided appears to be adequate and probably not so excessive that it would cause a problem. G = Maximum tolerable level per head per day. The units would match those of line E. H = Maximum tolerable concentration in diet. This would represent line G in terms of percent, ppm, etc. I = Desired concentration of nutrient/additive in diet. J = Inputs for user-defined nutrients and additives. In these spaces, provide the maximum tolerable concentration and below this, the desired concentration for user-defined nutrients and additives. Note that in the ionophore column, these are being used. Different ionophores would have different values; therefore, update when necessary.

93

Protein Calculation Explanation

A feed analysis test will provide a crude protein content and an adjusted crude protein content value. The adjusted crude protein content, or available crude protein as it is sometimes labeled, would be crude protein that is available in feed. Use the adjusted crude protein value for ration balancing. Adjusted crude protein is then divided into either rumen degradable protein or DIP (degradable intake protein), and rumen bypass protein, called UIP (undegradable intake protein). DIP is expressed as a percent of the feeds crude protein content. DIP and UIP fractions can vary within a given feed based on the rate of passage and overall rumen function. Since a laboratory would not be able to provide prompt data regarding these values, consult the values already listed in the feed library about what value should be used. A DIP value, like effective NDF (eNDF), is necessary for the program to work, but a general approximation is all that is required. UIP is then expressed in metabolizable protein (MP) as UIP x .8 ( MPf). DIP is converted to microbial protein, and microbial protein when converted to metabolizable protein, in essence, is approximately DIP x .64 (MPb) if the dietary TDN intake is adequate. For instance, consider a sample of hay. First crop mixed grass alfalfa hay sample Adjusted crude protein = 12.18% on an as-fed basis (84% DM) 14.5% on a 100% dry matter basis Based on similar types of feeds in the feed library of the program DIP = 80% Therefore: 11.9 lbs of hay would equal 10 lbs of dry matter. 10 lbs of dry matter concerning this hay would yield: 14.5% x 10 = 1.45 lbs of crude protein 1.45 x 80% = 1.16 lbs of DIP 1.45 x 20% = 0.29 lbs of UIP

94

DIP requirement
The DIP requirement is based on the crude protein demand of the rumen microbes (mDIP). A calculation describing this demand is as follows: mDIP = Microbe efficiency x TDN consumed x effective fiber adjustment Microbial efficiency = .13 = [0.29 x TDN% - 5.9] x .01

if TDN% is 64 or greater. if TDN% is less than 64%.

Effective fiber adjustment = 1.0 if eNDF% is 20 or greater. = 1 {[20 eNDF%] x .022} if eNDF% is less than 20%. A comparison is made between the microbial DIP demand (mDIP) and the DIP in the feed (fDIP). A ratio is displayed in the program calculated as fDIP / mDIP. An excess of fDIP is expressed as a percent greater than 100, a shortage would be less than 100. A shortage of fDIP may be resolved to some extent through nitrogen recycling in the animal. Nitrogen recycling is addressed in the following manner: If mDIP is larger than fDIP then: MPf [mDIP fDIP] What occurs here is that MPf is reduced from pool. This portion of MPf, which is reduced, will factor in to the MPb fraction at the lower efficiency level now (multiplied by .64 rather than .8) when being converted to MP. The result in a diet is that when the DIP level is not matched, the overall protein requirement will increase. There are some liberties taken with this approach currently, but the methodology is spelled out to provide a starting place for revision if necessary. The cow, heifer, and bull modules address the recycling issue from the described adjustment to MPf. The Feedyard Module does not follow the MPf adjustment in the calculation primarily because of the difference in diet and subsequent rumen function (or decrease in function due to ration characteristics).

Total MP available from the diet = MPf + MPb

95

Excessive Protein Effect

Excess metabolizable protein and the effect this has on the energy requirement is described by an equation modified from the Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein Model. The results of excess protein based on this modified model work from the growing stage forward and on the lower concentrate diets. The concept, called the excess protein NE adjustment (PEa), is described in the program as such: {[f DIP intake x .72 IR ] mDIP} x .16 - %CP recycled x .01 x CP intake / 6.25 } x .0133 + {[ MP provided by diet MP required ] / 6.25 x .0113} MP required is a function of growth, maintenance, pregnancy and lactation. .72IR is an adjustment made to allow for rate of passage and rumen degradation of crude protein IR = dry matter intake/estimated dry matter intake %CP recycled = = Summary: Higher concentrate will reduce PEa High MP intake will increase PEa High fDIP intake will increase PEa in the case where mDIP is held back due to diet High quality forage generally will have a PEa, but they also contribute enough energy that the net effect is still a positive gain. PEa is decribed in Mcal of NE m. 6% if CP% is greater than 20%, otherwise {121.7 [ 12.01 x CP%] + [ .3235 x CP%2]} / 100

96

Inputs and their Effects

This section summarizes the effect inputs have on outputs in the program. Additives Optaplexx: will increase rate of gain by essentially increasing wt @ 50% choice during last months on feed. Implant: will increase feed intake estimate. This also effects wt @ 50% choice, but this effect should already be indicated in the input box asking for wt. @ 50% choice. MGA: melengestrol acetate increases rate of gain in heifers. Average birth date Used to provide suggested target rates of gain for heifers and growing bulls. Breed type Impacts maintenance requirement. Milk production, hide and air temperature effects will factor in with the breed type. Calf birth weight Impacts pregnancy requirements for energy, protein and some minerals. Current condition score Has effect with feed utilization efficiency in satisfying requirements. This also has internal insulation implications when calculating the maintenance requirement during the cold. Current weight Impacts feed intake and growth potential when taken into context with the estimated mature size. Desired condition score Impacts the requirement for weight gain above normal growth. Facility Has the same effect as wind exposure. Impacts the external insulating value of the hide and, therefore, the overall maintenance. Hair coat Impacts the external insulating value of the hide and, therefore, the maintenance requirement. Bigger effect with thin, small cattle. Hair condition Impacts the external insulating value of the hide and, therefore, the maintenance requirement. Bigger effect with thin, small cattle. Hide Impacts the external insulating value of the hide and, therefore, the maintenance requirement. Is somewhat breed dependant and is therefore calculated based on breed type automatically, except with Feedyard Module where it is an input. It is kept as an input with the Feedyard Module since this allows for an adjustment for acclimatization when cattle are transported from warm to cold areas.

97

Mature size Directs the growth pattern, energy requirements, protein requirements and feed intake estimations. Production stage Adjusts the nutrient requirements and feed intake estimations. Target weight gain Adjusts the nutrient requirements. Temperature Affects maintenance in context of the internal and external insulating value of the hide. Weight @ 50% Choice Refers to the mature size and will direct the growth pattern accordingly. Weight spread The difference between upper and lower weights in a pen. This provides the basis of the breakdown when viewing ration adequacy for a pen of growing animals. Wind exposure Has the same effect as facility. Impacts the external insulating value of the hide and, therefore, the overall maintenance.

Other References
Alberta Agr., Food and Rural Development. Winter Feeding of Bulls. www.Agric.gov.ab.ca/livestock/beef/feed01.html. Boyles, S. Bull Nutrition and Management. www.beef.osu.edu/library/bullnutr.html Lardy, G. et. al. 2003. Suggested Inputs and Guidelines for Use of the 1996 NRC Model. Mathis, C. 2000. Protein and Energy Supplementation to Beef Cows Grazing New Mexico Rangelands. NM State Cooperative Extension Service. Circ. 564. NRC. 2000. Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle, 7th rev. ed. NRC. 1996. Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle, 7th rev. ed.