4.

PROCESE TEHNOLOGICE DE PRELUCRARE A MATERIALELOR

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cementarea, nitrurarea,

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turnarea n forme vidate.

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superioare;

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greutatea pieselor.
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controlul calitativ al pieselor turnate.

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1 2

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1 - semimodel superior; 2 - P UFL  - VXSUDID D GH VHSDUD LH  - semimodel inferior.

semimodele. Dimensiunile modelului sunt mai mari

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lemnul,

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odelele se

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aliajele metalice,

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masele plastice se folosesc ca nlocuitori ai lemnului.

PLH]XULORU FDUH VH DHD] vQ FDYLWDWHD IRUPHL vQ ORFDXUL HVWH

&RQIHF LRQDUHD PLH]XULORU *ROXULOH LQWHULRDUH DOH SLHVHORU VH RE LQ FX DMXWRUXO VSHFLDOH RE LQXWH FX DMXWRUXO P UFLORU PRGHOXOXL 0LH]XULOH VH RE LQ vQ FXWLL GH PLH] D F URU IRUP LQWHULRDU DFHHDL FX FRQWXUXO PLH]XOXL ILJ  &XWLLOH GH PLH] VH FRPSXQ GLQ GRX EXF L DVDPEODWH SULQ EULGH 3HQWUX FUHWHUHD UH]LVWHQ HL PHFDQLFH D

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. IRUPHL. Utilajele necesare pentru formare sunt:

FX DMXWRUXO XQRU DUP WXUL PHWDOLFH VDX FXLH

Fig. 4.3. Cutie de miez

GRX

UDPH SODFD GH ED]  PRGHOXO FXWLD GH PLH] DPHVWHFXUL GH IRUPDUH

uneltele formatorului.
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(fig.

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ui;

se umple golul ramei cu amestec de umplere; se dau canale de aerisire cu un ac; se ntoarce rama cu 1800; VH DeD] UDPD VXSHULRDU GHDVXSUD L VH DVDPEOHD]
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FX XUXEXUL

i de turnare;

VH LQWURGXFH DPHVWHFXO GH IRUPDUH L VH WDVHD]  VH VFRW PRGHOH UH HOHL GH WXUQDUH VH H[HFXW VH VHSDU VH DHD] SkOQLD GH WXUQDUH UDPHOH VH VFRW VHPLPRGHOHOH PLH]XO vQ UDPD LQIHULRDU  UDPHOH

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ULL vQ GRX

UDPH

1 - SODF GH ED]   - semimodel inferior; 3 - UDPD LQIHULRDU   - amestec de model; 5 - amestec de umplere; 6 semimodel superior; 7 - UDPD VXSHULRDU   - PRGHOH SHQWUX UH HD GH WXUQDUH  - buloane de prindere; 10 canal de umplere; 11 - canal de evacuare; 12 - miez; 13 - cavitate; 14 - greutate; 15 - SODQ GH VHSDUD LH D - DH]DUHD VHPLPRGHOXOXL LQIHULRU SH SODFD GH ED]  E - umplerea ramei inferioare; c - vQWRDUFHUHD UDPHL LQIHULRDUH L PRQWDrea semimodelului superior; d - umplerea ramei superioare; e - ramele de formare asamblate pentru turnare.
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de aliajul turnat. Pentru fonte se folosesc

L LQGXF LH

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Turnarea propriu-ziV . Din utilajul n care s-a elaborat, aliajul este evacuat n oala de
WXUQDUH LDU GH DLFL VH WRDUQ ODPLQDU FX R YLWH] PLF vQ IRUPH 0HWDOXO WRSLW VH WRDUQ vQ SkOQLD GH WXUQDUH GH XQGH FXUJH ILH PDUH GH vQ FDQDOXO GH DOLPHQWDUH L GH DLFL vQ FDYLWDWH 9LWH]D QX WUHEXLH V

SHQWUX D QX GLVWUXJH IRUPD VDX DQWUHQD DPHVWHF GH IRUPDUH 8PSOHUHD FDYLW

LL HVWH PDUFDW

umplerea preaplinului.
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PDQXDO VDX PHFDQLF SULQ VFXWXUDUHD IRUPHL FX DMXWRUXO XQRU GLVSR]LWLYH YLEUDWRDUH FX DF LRQDUH SQHXPDWLF  &XU LUHD FRQVW vQ vQGHS UWDUHD DGHUHQ HORU GH DPHVWHF GH IRUPDUH SULQ vPSURFDUHD

SLHVHORU FX XQ MHW GH QLVLS VDX DOLFH GH IRQW  vQ vQF SHUL VSHFLDOH QGHS UWDUHD UH HOHL GH WXUQDUH D PDVHORWHORU L D EDYXULORU S U L PHWDOLFH FDUH DSDU vQ SODQXO VXSUDIH HL GH VHSDUD LD GDWRULW VSD LLORU OLEHUH vQWUH UDPH VH UHDOL]HD] DSDUL LHL

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Controlul calitativ al pieselor turnate.

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fisuri, incluziuni). Porii VH GDWRUHD] JD]HORU FDUH U PkQ GL]ROYDWH vQ PDVD PHWDOLF WRSLW  Fisurile interioare DSDU FD XUPDUH D WHQVLXQLORU LQWHUQH vQWLQGHUH L FRPSUHVLXQH JHQHUDWH GH SURFHVXO VROLGLILF ULL Incluziunile UHSUH]LQW LPSXULW L DOH PDWHULDOXOXL UH]XOWDWH GLQ ]JXU VDX ]LG ULD XWLODMXOXL n care s-a elaborat. Defectele exterioare ale SLHVHORU FU S WXUL DEDWHUL GH IRUP  VH VWDELOHVF FX RFKLXO OLEHU VDX
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4.2.2. Procedee speciale de turnare Turnarea n forme metalice Formele metalice, denumite cochile
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iesei de turnat. n

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avantaje

realizndu-VH
GH VXSUDID

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dezavantaje

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extragerea formei-coji

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Turnarea n forme - FRML FX OLDQ L WHUPRUHDFWLYL DVLJXU RE LQHUHD SLHVHORU FX SUHFL]LH PDUH elimLQkQG SUHOXFU ULOH PHFDQLFH UHGXFHUHD FRQVXPXOXL GH PHWDO GDWRULW PLFRU ULL DGDRVXOXL GH
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IDF SDUWH GLQ FDWHJRULD IRUPHORU WHPSRUDUH

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vQFHWDUHD DF LXQL VDUFLQLL DWRPLL LRQLL RFXSkQG QRL SR]L LL GH PDL PDUH GHFkW vQDLQWH GH GHIRUPDUH GHRDUHFH V DWRPLL vQ SR]L LD FX HQHUJLH SRWHQ LDO

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7HQVLXQLOH VXSOLPHQWDUH VXQW GH vQWLQGHUH L FRPSUHVLXQH IXQF LH GH YDULD LD GLVWDQ HORU vQWUH

atomii diferitelor celule elementare.

7HQVLXQLOH VXSOLPHQWDUH SRW U PkQH vQ FRUSXO GHIRUPDW GXS WHQVLXQL UHPDQHQWH 'DF GHIRUPDUHD VD VXE IRUP GH HOH VXQW PDL PDUL GHFkW UH]LVWHQ D PDWHULDOXOXL YRU GHWHUPLQD ILVXUDUHD

corpului care devine rebut. Factorii FDUH LQIOXHQ HD]

GHIRUPDUH HVWH PLFRUDW GHIRUPDUHD SODVWLF VXQW FX FUHWHUHD FRQFHQWUD LHL HOHPHQWHORU D PDWHULDOXOXL VFDGH &DSDFLWDWHD GH LORU L WHQGLQ D GH R[LGDUH )RUPD GH FRPSR]L LD L VWUXFWXUD PDWHULDOXOXL GHIRUPDW RGDW FDUH P UHVF IUDJLOLWDWHD &6 GHIRUPDELOLWDWHD SODVWLF L GH SUH]HQ D LPSXULW FRPSRQHQ LORU LQIOXHQ HD] QRGXOH IRQW

GHIRUPDELOLWDWHD DVWIHO IRQWHOH vQ FDUH JUDILWXO HVWH VXE IRUP

PDOHDELO  VH SRW GHIRUPD SH FkQG IRQWD FHQXLH vQ FDUH JUDILWXO HVWH VXE IRUP

de lamele nu se poate deforma;

P ULPHD JU XQ LORU JU XQ LL PDUL FRQGXF OD FUHWHUHD GHIRUP ULL SODVWLFH VLVWHPXO FULVWDOLQ FX FkW FRPSDFWLWDWHD PHWDOXOXL FUHWH FX DWkW HO HVWH PDL GHIRUPDELO WHPSHUDWXUD OD FDUH VH SURGXFH GHIRUPDUHD RGDW FX FUHWHUHD HL FDSDFLWDWHD GH GHIRUPD

re a

PDWHULDOXOXL VH P UHWH GHRDUHFH HD SURGXFH PRGLILF UL VWUXFWXUDOH L DOH FDUDFWHULVWLFLORU

mecanice
YLWH]D FX FDUH VH GHVI RDU GHIRUPDUHD FkQG SUHOXFUDUHD VH GHVI RDU FX YLWH]H PLFL

deformarea materialului este mai mare dect n cazul vitezelor mari.

&ODVLILFDUHD SURFHGHHORU GH GHIRUPDUH SODVWLF 3URFHGHHOH GH GHIRUPDUH SODVWLF  'XS VH FODVLILF  PDL PXOWH FULWHULL L DQXPH GXS

viteza de deformare aceste procedee sunt: GHIRUP UL dinamice SULQ RF H[HFXWDWH FX YLWH]H GH GHIRUPDUH PDre; GHIRUP UL statice I U RF H[HFXWDWH FX YLWH]H GH GHIRUPDUH PLFL  'XS caracterul general DO GHIRUP ULL sunt: SURFHGHH OD FDUH VH SURGXF FHOH WUHL GHIRUPD LL - ODPLQDUH IRUMDUH PDWUL DUH DPEXWLVDUHD SURFHGHH OD FDUH VH SURGXF DOXQJLUL L vQJXVW UL - tragere, trefilare, extrudare.  'XS temperatura materialului se mpart n: GHIRUP UL OD rece HIHFWXDWH OD R WHPSHUDWXU LQIHULRDU FHOHL GH UHFULVWDOL]DUH D PDWHULDOXOXL (OH VXQW vQVR LWH GH HFUXLVDUHD SXWHUQLF D PDWHULDOXOXL F UXLD vL VFDGH Fapacitatea de deformare; GHIRUP UL OD cald H[HFXWDWH OD WHPSHUDWXU VXSHULRDU FHOH GH UHFULVWDOL]DUH (D QX HVWH
vQVR LW GH HFUXLVDUHD PDWHULDOXOXL

'HIRUPDUHD OD UHFH VH DSOLF  FX SUHF GHUH PDWHULDOHORU PRL FXSUX DOXPLQLX SOXPE L

aliajelor lor). Gradul de deformare este mic.

'HIRUPDUHD DODP  HWF 'HIRUPDUHD OD FDOG FD L FHD OD UHFH SURGXFH UHGXFHUHD VHF LXQLL WUDQVYHUVDOH IHQRPHQ OD FDOG VH DSOLF SHQWUX SUHOXFUDUHD OLQJRXULORU L VHPLIDEULFDWHORU GLQ R HO

numit coroiaj. El este caracterizat prin indicele de coroiaj FDOFXODW FX UHOD LD S = i Sf unde: Si HVWH DULD LQL LDO D VHF LXQLL WUDQVYHUVDOH 6f DULD ILQDO D DFHOHLDL VHF LXQL
'DWRULW GHIRUPDUH R VWUXFWXU vQ EHQ]L $FHDVW VWUXFWXU

FRURLDMXOXL JU XQ LL FULVWDOLQL VH DOXQJHVF vQ GLUHF LD GH GHIRUPDUH 1HRPRJHQ

itatea

FKLPLF  VHJUHJD LLOH ]RQDOH DOH PDWHULDOXOXL GHIRUPDW L SUH]HQ D LQFOX]LXQLORU GHWHUPLQ  GXS DSDUH L vQ LQWHULRUXO JU XQ LORU FULVWDOLQL FDX]D LORU PDWHULDOXOXL vQ GLUHF LD ILLQG DFHHDL IRU D GH GHIRUPDUH &RURLDMXO L DOXQJLUHD JU XQ LORU FRQGXF OD GLIHUHQ H DOH SURSULHW ORQJLWXGLQDO

GH GHIRUPDUH L FHD WUDQVYHUVDO  FXP UHLHVH GLQ GDWHOH GLQ WDEHOXO  UHIHULWRDUH OD &

XQ R HO VODE DOLDW FX 

7DEHOXO  3URSULHW 3URSULHW

LORU PHWDOXOXL P VXUDWH ORQJLWXGLQDO VDX WUDQVYHUVDO

L PHFDQLFH DOH PHWDOXOXL

longitudinal 62 39 26

transversal 61 35 23 5
WHPSHUDWXUD GH vQF O]LUH

UH]LVWHQ D OD UXSHUH GD1PP

limita de elasticitate, daN/mm2 alungirea, %

UH]LOLHQ D GD-FP

vQF

O]LUH

Parametrii procesului de deformare la cald sunt: , GXUDWD vQF O]LULL L PHGLXO GH vQF O]LUH.
O]LUH HVWH VXSHULRDU DOHDV  vQFkW V (D WUHEXLH DVWIHO VH HYLWH

, viteza de
vQWUH 

0,85)Ttop

7HPSHUDWXUD GH vQF

FHOHL GH UHFULVWDOL]DUH FDUH HVWH FXSULQV VXSUDvQF O]LUHD L DUGHUHD

PDWHULDOXOXL

FUHWHUHD JU XQ LORU FULVWDOLQL 9LWH]D GH vQF O]LUH VH DOHJH DVWIHO FD V VH HYLWH DSDUL LD WHQVLXQLORU LQWHUQH GDWRULW YDULD LHL LL EUXWH D WHPSHUDWXULL SH GLUHF LD JURVLPLL PDWHULDOXOXL 7HQVLXQLOH LQWHUQH SRW SURGXFH FU SDUHD PDWHULDOXOXL PRWLY GH UHEXWDUH 2 YLWH] 'XUDWD vQF GH vQF O]LUH SUHD PLF FRQGXFH OD VF GHUHD SURGXFWLYLW O]LULL GHSLQGH GH YLWH]D GH vQF O]LUH GH IRUPD L GLPHQVLXQLOH VHPLIDEULFDWHORU O]LUH VH DOHJH vQ IXQF LH GH PDWHULDOXO VXSXV vQF O]LULL GH SUHFL]LD LPSXV

GH PRGXO GH DH]DUH DO DFHVWXLD vQ XWLODMXO GH vQF O]LW FXSWRU L GH WLSXO DFHVWXLD 0HGLXO GH vQF RSHUD LHL GH GHIRUPDUH HWF (O SRDWH IL RELQXLW (oxidant) rezultat n urma arderii combustibilului n exces de aer; neutru FkQG QX SURGXFH R[LGDUH VDX GHFDUEXUDUH GHRDUHFH FRPSRQHQ LL &22, SO2, H2O, N2, O2 VXQW PHQ LQX L vQ HFKLOLEUX FX PDWHULDOXO inert (argon).

4.3.2. Prelucrarea metalelor prin laminare

/DPLQDUHD HVWH SURFHGHXO GH GHIRUPDUH SODVWLF OD UHFH VDX OD FDOG D PHWDOHORU FH FRQVW vQ

WUHFHUHD ORU SULQWUH GRL FLOLQGUL DIOD L vQ PLFDUH FLUFXODU  &LOLQGULL VH SRW URWL vQ VHQV FRQWUDU ILJ  VDX vQ DFHODL VHQV OD IDEULFDUHD HYLORU 3ULQ ODPLQDUHD OD UHFH VH RE LQ SURGXVH HFUXLVDWH GH

dimenVLXQL
I U

GDWH L JURVLPH SUHFLV  /DPLQDUHD OD FDOG DUH DYDQWDMXO UHDOL] ULL XQRU GHIRUPD LL PDUL

HFUXLVDUH

Q XUPD ODPLQ ULL PDWHULDOXOXL VH DOXQJHWH O

HWH L UHGXFH 'DWRULW

PLF ULL GH URWD LH FDUH LUHD &HOH

SURGXFH FXUJHUHD PHWDOXOXL SH GLUHF LD DYDQVXOXL DOXQJLUHD HVWH PXOW PDL PDUH GHFkW O GRX

GHIRUPD LL GHSLQG GH WHPSHUDWXUD PHWDOXOXL ODPLQDW GH GLDPHWUXO FLOLQGULORU FX FkW HVWH PDL OD ILHFDUH WUHFHUH L GH YLWH] GH

PLF FX DWkW PHWDOXO VH DOXQJHWH PDL PXOW GH UHGXFHUHD SURGXV URWD LH D FLOLQGULORU 3H P VXU P ULUH D DOXQJLULL /DPLQDUHD

FH WHPSHUDWXUD FUHWH YLWH]D GH URWD LH FUHWH L HD SURGXFkQG R VH SRDWH FDUDFWHUL]D DWkW SULQ JUDGHOH GH GHIRUPDUH FkW L SULQ

coeficientul de reducere egal cu indicele de coroiaj.

3HQWUX RE LQ

erea produsului finit, semifabricatul este prelucrat n mai multe treceri

succesive. Coeficientul de reducere total este egal cu:

S = 1 2 n = i Sf
XQGH Q UHSUH]LQW QXP UXO GH WUHFHUL

)LJ  3ULQFLSLXO ODPLQ

rii

Coeficientul de reducere al unei treceri este: Si - 1 i = Si

unde Si-1 HVWH VHF LXQHD FRUSXOXL vQDLQWH GH WUHFHUHD L Si - VHF LXQHD FRUSXOXL GXS WUHFHUHD L
&kQG WRDWH WUHFHULOH VH HIHFWXHD] WUHFHUL VH SRDWH GHWHUPLQD FX UHOD LD FX DFHODL FRHILFLHQW GH UHGXFHUH FXQRVFXW QXP UXO GH

ln Si n = Sf ln
8WLODMXO SH FDUH VH GHVI RDU FRPSOH[ D F UXL IXQF LRQDUH HVWH ODPLQDUHD VH QXPHWH LQIOXHQ DW GH SURSULHW

laminor. El este un ansamblu mecanic

LOH PDWHULDOXOXL GH ODPLQDW GDWRULW

UHDF LXQLL SURGXV

GH DFHVWD DVXSUD ODPLQRUXOXL 7RWDOLWDWHD ODPLQRDUHORU SULQWUH FLOLQGULL F URUD

WUHFH PDWHULDOXO SHQWUX D DMXQJH GLQ ID]D GH VHPLIDEULFDW vQ ID]D GH SURGXV ILQLW VH QXPHWH

linie de

laminare.
/DPLQDUHD VH H[HFXW vQ WUHL ID]H GHJURDUH SUHILQLVDUH L URUD VH H[HFXW

finisare. trenuri de laminare.

DOWXO Q DO DOWXO VDX XQXO GXS

Totalitatea laminoareloU FX DMXWRUXO F

R ID]D IRUPHD]

/DPLQRDUHOH FDUH FRPSXQ XQ WUHQ SRW IL DH]DWH XQXO OkQJ

GRLOHD FD] DOXQJLUHD PDWHULDOXOXL FUHVFkQG YLWH]D GH URWD LH D FLOLQGULORU ILHF UHL FDMH VH P UHWH SURSRU LRQDO FX UHGXFHUHD DFHVWXLD DVWIHO F PDWHULDOXO QX HVWH QLFL WUDV QLFL UHOD[DW vQWUH GRX FDMH

succesive.

7UHQXULOH FDUH H[HFXW

ID]D GH GHJURDUH VH QXPHVF

trenuri degrosisoare. Laminoarele care

le compun sunt bluminguri, cnd sunt de mDUH SXWHUH L IRORVLWH SHQWUX ODPLQDUHD OLQJRXULORU SkQ OD  WRQH L slebinguri, laminoare folosite pentru prelucrarea lingourilor mici. Aceste laminoare sunt primele dintr-R OLQLH GH ODPLQDUH L IXQF LRQHD] FX YLWH]H GH  4)m/s. Produsele rezultate GXS GHJURDUH VH QXPHVF blumuri L brame. 7UHQXULOH FDUH H[HFXW ID]D GH VHPLILQLVDUH VH QXPHVF trenuri mijlocii sau prefinisoare L IXQF LRQHD] FX YLWH]H GH   PV (OH VH IRORVHVF SHQWUX ODPLQDUHD EOXPXULORU L EUDPHORU GLQ FDUH VH RE LQ DJOe L platine. /DPLQDUHD GH ILQLVDUH VH H[HFXW FX DMXWRUXO trenurilor finisoare FDUH OXFUHD] FX YLWH]H PDL
PDUL GH  PV Q XUPD DFHVWHL ID]H VH RE LQ SURGXVH ILQLWH /DPLQRDUHOH ILQLVRDUH VXQW SHQWUX LQH L

traverse, profile, srme, table. LaminoarHOH VH FODVLILF GXS

'XS

PDL PXOWH FULWHULL

PRGXO GH DH]DUH DO FLOLQGULORU VXQW FX L JULQ]L L FX

SHQWUX EDQGDMH L LQHOH GH GLIHULWH VHF LXQL FX

folosite pentru plaWEDQGH

'XS

cilindrii orizontali, cu cilindrii verticali folosite cilindrii orizontali L verticali (universale) cilindrii oblici IRORVLWH SHQWUX ODPLQDUHD HYLORU

GLVFXULORU SHQWUX UR L GH FDOH IHUDW  HWF QXP UXO GH FLOLQGULL ODPLQRDUHOH VXQW FX doi cilindrii (duo reversibile sau reversibile) cu trei cilindrii (trio), au patru cilindrii (cuarto reversibile), cu DVH FLOLQGULL (sexto), cu mai mult de 6 cilindrii (fig. 4.7). 'XS IHOXO ID]HL VXQW ODPLQRDUH SHQWUX GHJURDUH, pentru prefinisare L SHQWUX finisare (cuarto, sexto).

Fig. 4.7. Tipuri de laminoare

a) duo ireversibil; b) - duo reversibil; c) - trio; d) - cuarto; e) - sexto; f) - laminor de bandaje; g) laminor duo - universal; h) - ODPLQRU SHQWUX GLVFXUL GH UR L

Produsele laminate sunt semifabricate L produse finite.

6HPLIDEULFDWHOH VH RE LQ GLQ ODPLQDUHD OLQJRXULORU GH R HO L VXQW XRDUH  DJOH L SODWLQH 3URGXVHOH ILQLWH RE LQXWH SULQ ODPLQDUH VXQW

grele EOXPXUL L JUDPH L

HYL L

bare, profile,

VkUPH SODWEDQGH WDEOH

laminate speciale.
%DUHOH GXS S WUDWH GLPHQVLXQL VXQW

grele, mijlocii L XRDUH GDU GXS

GH , 8 / 7 LQH WUDYHUVH

IRUPD VHF LXQLL WUDQVYHUVDOH

, rotunde, hexagonale.
3URILOHOH ODPLQDWH VXQW VXE IRUP 6kUPHOH L WDEOHOH VXQW

groase FX GLDPHWUXO UHVSHFWLY JURVLPHD FXSULQGH vQWUH  L  PP L

VXE LUL FX DFHOHDL

dimensiuni mai mici de 4 mm.

Laminatele speciale sunt EDQGDMH LQHOH GLVFXUL SHQWUX UR L GH FDOH IHUDW , etc. Indicatorii tehnico-economici ai procedeului de laminare sunt: 3URGXF LD VSHFLILF RUDU  3h. 3.600 nG (1 ) (1 ) 100 100 , [t/h] =

Ph

t mi + t pi
i =1


i =1

XQGH Q HVWH QXP UXO GH

lingouri prelucrare; G -

JUHXWDWHD XQXL OLQJRX

- coeficientul opririlor (2-

 - FRHILFLHQWXO SLHUGHULORU GH PHWDO SULQ DUGHUH W LHUH UHEXWXUL DMXVWDUH SUHOHYDUH GH SUREH pentru determinarea caracteristicilor mecanice; tmi - timpul de lucru la caja i, (sec); tpi - timpul de SDX] OD FDMD L VHF &DSDFLWDWHD GH SURGXF LH

C = Ph Td = Ph ( Tc - ( Ts + T r )) [t/an] unde Tc este timpul calendaristic h/an; Ts UHSDUD LL KDQ WLPSXO V UE WRULORU OHJDOH KDQ 7r

timpul pentru

Indicatorii de consum sunt consumul specific de metal (kg/t lam), consumul specific de
FRPEXVWLELO NJ FRPEW ODP FRQVXPXO VSHFLILF GH HQHUJLH HOHFWULF VSHFLILF GH FLOLQGULL GH ODPLQRU NJW FRQVXPXO VSHFLILF GH DS N:K] FRQVXPXO GH U FLUH P

/zi).

4.3.3. Alte procedee Prelucrarea metalelor prin forjare

)RUMDUHD HVWH SURFHGHXO GH GHIRUPDUH SODVWLF  OD FDOG VDX OD UHFH SULQ ORYLUH VDX SUHVDUH DSOLFDW R HOXULORU FX FRQ LQXW GH FDUERQ PDL PLF GH  ODPLQDWH GDU PDL DOHV FHORU WXUQDWH GHRDUHFH GXS  PHWDOHORU L DOLDMHORU QHIHURDVH FXSUX SURSULHW L PHFDQLFH VXSHULRDUH FHORU DOXPLQLX PDJQH]LX L DOLDMHORU ORU 0DWHULDOHOH IRUMDWH FDS W

IRUMDUH VH RE LQ VWUXFWXUL FRPSDFWH L GHQVH 'H

DFHHD IRUMDUHD VH IRORVHWH SHQWUX RE LQHUHD SLHVHORU VXSXVH vQ WLPSXO H[SORDW ULL OD VROLFLW EDQGDMH HWF L FDUH DX PDVD GH OD FkWHYD JUDPH SkQ

ri

PHFDQLFH PDUL IODQH DUERUL FRWL L DUERUL FX FDPH DUERUL vQ WUHSWH SkUJKLL VXSDSH GLVFXUL UR L OD VXWH GH WRQH FX IRUPH VLPSOH VDX

complexe.
6XE GDWRULW DF LXQHD IRU HORU GLQDPLFH VH SURGXFH PRG

ificarea dimensiunilor semifabricatului,

FXUJHULL DFHVWXLD SH GLYHUVH GLUHF LL

)RUMDUHD SRDWH IL OLEHU )RUMDUHD OLEHU GRX VXSUDIH H I U VHF LXQLL P ULUHD FRQVW

L vQ PDWUL

vQ GHIRUPDUHD VHPLIDEULFDWXOXL SULQ ORYLUH OD FDOG VDX OD UHFH vQWUH RSHUD LL VLPSOH FXP VXQW UHIXODUHD vQGRLUHD OD SL J XULUHD

vQJU GLUHD VXSUDIH HORU ODWHUDOH (D FRPELQ L PLFRUDUHD vQ O LPLL

WUDQVYHUVDOH

vQWLQGHUHD

U VXFLUHD

W LHUHD VXGDUHD 6H SRW IRUMD SLHVH IRDUWH YDULDWH GH OD OLQJRXUL PDUL SkQ

ese de cteva grame.

3ULQ IRUMDUHD OLQJRXULORU VH RE LQ EOXPXUL L EUDPH )RU D GH ORYLUH VH SRDWH DSOLFD PDQXDO VDX PHFDQL]DW FX DMXWRUXO FLRFDQHORU PHFDQLFH SUHVHORU PDLQLORU GH IRUMDW RUL]RQWDOH PDLQLORU GH

forjat rotative.
)RUMDUHD vQ PDWUL  GHQXPLW L PDWUL DUH HVWH XQ SURFHGHX GH GHIRUPDUH SODVWLF SULQ SUHVDUH VDX HVWH ORYLUH OLPLWDW QXPLW vQ WLPSXO OD PDWUL F UXLD XQHL  PDWHULDOXOXL SHUH LL OD FDOG FXUJHUHD FDYLW L

1 2

prelucrate ntr-R SLHV

3 4 5 6 7

Fig. 4.8. MatUL 1 - VHPLPDWUL D VXSHULRDU   - ORFD SHQWUX FDSXO GH FOHWH  bavura; 4 - SLHVD PDWUL DW   - VHPLPDWUL LQIHULRDU   ORFD SHQWUX EDYXU 

Q UDSRUW FX IRUMDUHD OLEHU  IRUMDUHD vQ PDWUL

DUH XUP WRDUHOH DYDQWDMH FRQVXP PDL PLF GH HVWH PDL PDUH JUDGXO GH QHWH]LUH DO

metal

GHRDUHFH SUHFL]LD GH IRUP

JHRPHWULF

L GLPHQVLRQDO

VXSUDIH HORU PDL PDUH SURGXFWLYLWDWHD ULGLFDW  VH RE LQ IRUPH PDL FRPSOLFDWH 0DWUL DUHD SUH]LQW GLQ R HOXUL GH EXQ L XQHOH GH]DYDQWDMH FXP VXQW FRVWXO ULGLFDW DO PDWUL HL GHRDUHFH VH H[HFXW L GH PDUH SUHFL]LH PDV OLPLWDW D SLHVHORU

FDOLWDWH L FX R WHKQRORJLH FRPSOH[

(0,01 -  NJ (D GHYLQH HFRQRPLF

QXPDL vQ FD]XO SURGXF LHL GH VHULH L PDV

3UHOXFUDUHD PHWDOHORU SULQ WUHILODUH L WUDJHUH

AcestHD VXQW SURFHGHH GH GHIRUPDUH SODVWLF -

FH FRQVWDX vQ WUHFHUHD IRU DW

D PDWHULDOXOXL VXE GHFkW D

DF LXQHD XQHL IRU H GH WUDF LXQH SULQWU XQ RULILFLX D F UXL VHF LXQH WUDQVYHUVDO

HVWH PDL PLF

semifabricatului prelucrat.
&kQG SULQ GHIRUPDUH SODVWLF SURFHGHXO VH QXPHWH VH RE LQ VkUPH ILJ 

trefilare. &kQG VH RE LQ SURGXVH SURILODWH UHFWLOLQLL SURFHGHXO VH QXPHWH tragere. TrefLODUHD L WUDJHUHD VH GHVI RDU OD UHFH L VXQW
vQVR LWH GH HFUXLVDUHD SXWHUQLF D PDWHULDOXOXL UH]LVWHQ D OD UXSHUH D PDWHULDOXOXL GH  7UHILODUHD L

2,5)ori

FDUH

P UHWH

WUDJHUHD DVLJXU  vQ UDSRUW PXOW PDL EXQ L

FX ODPLQDUHD SUHFL]LH

GLPHQVLRQDO

grad de netezire ridicat, iar n

SODVWLF  FRPELQDWH FX

UDSRUW FX SUHOXFU ULOH PHFDQLFH FRQVXP GH PDWHULDO L PDQRSHU PLF $FHVWH SURFHGHH GH GHIRUPDUH

Fig. 4.9. PriQFLSLXO WUHILO ULL 1 - semifabricat; 2 - ILOLHU   - VXSRUWXO PDLQLL 4 - produs finit

WUDWDPHQWH WHUPLFH FRQGXF OD RE LQHUHD GH SURSULHW

L PHFDQLFH

foarte bune ale materialelor.

Prelucrarea metalelor prin extrudare Extrudarea

FRQVW HVWH SURFHGHXO GH SUHOXFUDUH SULQ GHIRUPDUH SODVWLF  OD FDOG VDX OD UHFH FH D PDWHULDOXOXL VXE DF LXQHD XQHL IRU H GH SUHVDUH SULQ RULILFLXO XQHL PDWUL H HVWH PDL PLF GHFkW D VHPLIDEULFDWXOXL ILJ

vQ WUHFHUHD IRU DW

D F UXL VHF LXQH WUDQVYHUVDO

)LJ  3ULQFLSLXO H[WUXG

ULL

directe 1 semifabricat; 2 FDPHU GH SUHVLXQH  PDWUL 4 poanson; 5 produs finit

3ULQ H[WUXGDUH VH SRW SUHOXFUD DOLDMH QHIHURDVH SH ED] P VXU UHGXV R HOXUL VXE IRUP 

GH FXSUX DOXPLQLX HWF L vQWU

-o

GH SURILOH FRPSOH[H FDUH QX SRW IL RE LQXWH SULQ DOWH SURFHGHH GH

deformDUH SODVWLF

$YDQWDMHOH H[WUXG ULL VXQW VH SRW RE LQH SURGXVH GLQ PDWHULDOH FX SODVWLFLWDWH UHGXV  FDUH QX SRW IL ODPLQDWH VDX IRUMDWH SUHFL]LD GLPHQVLRQDO ODPLQDUH VH RE LQ SURILOH FRPSOH[H L FDOLWDWHD VXSUDIH HL PDL PDUL GHFkW OD IRUMDUH L

ExtUXGDUHD

SUH]LQW

L XQHOH GH]DYDQWDMH GXUDELOLWDWHD PDWUL HL HVWH VF ]XW  GHHXUL PDL vQ FD]XO R HOXULORU

PXOWH GHFkW OD FHOHODOWH SURFHGHH DSOLFDELOLWDWH UHGXV

 3UHOXFUDUHD PHWDOHORU SULQ DFKLHUH  1R LXQL JHQHUDOH 3UHOXFUDUHD VXFFHVLY VFXOH SULQ DFKLHUH HVWH R PHWRG GH RE LQHUH EUXW D SLHVHORU ILQLWH SULQ vQGHS UWDUHD

GH PDWHULDO VXE IRUP

GH DFKLL GH SH R SLHV PDLQ

QXPLW 

DFKLHWRDUH

folosind un utilaj denumit

VXSXVH SUHOXFU ULL SULQ

-XQHDOW

semifabricat, cu ajutorul unei 3LHVD ILQLW VH JHQHUHD] prin

SULQ WXUQDUH ODPLQDUH IRUMDUH R

PRGLILFDUHD SURJUHVLY 6HPLIDEULFDWHOH

D IRUPHL GLPHQVLXQLORU L SUHFL]LHL VHPLIDEULFDWXOXL DFKLHUH VH RE LQ

PDWUL DUH 3HQWUX GHVSULQGHUHD DFKLLORU GH SH VHPLIDEULFDW vQWUH DFHVWD L VFXOD DFKLHWRDUH H[LVW PLFDUH UHODWLY  GHWHUPLQDW GH PDLQD XQHDOW 

0LFDUHD DUH GRX

UHODWLY

GLQWUH

VHPLIDEULFDW

VFXOD L

DFKLHWRDUH

UHSUH]LQW 

PLFDUHD

GH

DFKLHUH

FRPSRQHQWH

PLFDUHD

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Strungurile IURQWDOH L FDUXVHO se folosesc pentru prelucrarea pieselor cu diametrul mare. Strungurile revolver sunt strunguri folosite pentru prelucrarea pieselor de dimensiuni relativ mici, n
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calculator.

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frezare n sensul avansului, frezare

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contrar sensului avansului sensului avansului, piesei.

FkQG

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ULL

a IUH]DUHD FLOLQGULF  E IUH]DUH IURQWDO  I PLFDUH SULQFLSDO  ,, PLFDUH VHFXQGDU

Fig. 4.16. Moduri de frezare a n contrasens avansului; b n sensul avansului; 1 SLHV   VFXO 

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strunjit.
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rigiditatea sistemului tehnologic, de felul frezei.

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burghiu. Cnd prelucrarea se

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Burghiele sunt elicoidale sau spirale, late

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speciale,
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prelucrarea materialelor foarte dure.

Fig. 4.19. Scheme cinematice la rectificare a UHFWLILFDUH FLOLQGULF LQWHULRDU  b UHFWLILFDUH SODQ  1 scula; 2 SLHV  , PLFDUHD SULQFLSDO  ,, ,,, PLFDUH VHFXQGDU  ,9 PLFDUH GH UHJODUH

Pietrele abrazive sunt compuse din granule dure legate cu ajutorul unor.
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care permite smulgerea sa,

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-unelte folosite se numesc

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pe grupe

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i prin folosirea unui volum redus de

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0 VXUDUHD GHSODV ULORU

Introducerea comenzilor
GH GHSODVDUH L UHJLPXUL

auxiliare 1.
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vizual, manual

manual (manete, prghii, butoane) manual (manete, prghii, butoane)

2.

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D FRWHORU

permanent, automat prin traductoare de

SR]L LH

&RPDQG VHFYHQ LDO

SURJUDP

la cote prestabilite
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automat prin program materializat prin came,

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comutatoare electromecanice 4.
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permanent, automat, prin traductoare de

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automat prin program asistat de calculator

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Fig. 4.26. Schema de principiu a dispozitivului pentru realizarea fascicolului de electroni 1 filament; 2 JULO   anod; 4 OHQWLO HOHFWURPDJQHWLF GH IRFDOL]DUH  - SLHV
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0,0127 mm, iar

D F UXL YDORDUH VH

D PDWHULDOHORU VH DSUHFLD]

GXS

FDUDFWHUXO UXSHULORU IUDJLOH VDX

SODVWLFH SULQ FULWHULXO GH IUDJLOLWDWH QXPLW L

coeficient de prelucrabilitate Kpr

K pr =

Rf Rm
.pr! VXQW VWLFOD FXDU XO FHUDPLFD JHUPDQLXO VLOLFLXO PLF  FDUEXULOH PHWDOLFH R HOXUL DOLDWH DOLDMHOH

unde: Rf esWH UH]LVWHQ D GH UXSHUH OD IRUIHFDUH GD1FP2; Rm UH]LVWHQ D GH UXSHUH OD WUDF LXQH GD1FP2.
0DWHULDOHOH FX SUHOXFUDELOLWDWH EXQ

IHULWHOH HWF GHFL PDWHULDOH FX IUDJLOLWDWH PDUH L GXULWDWH UHODWLY

Materialele cu prelucrabilitate medie (Kpr = (1 de titan. aluminiu, etc. Prelucrarea ultrasoQLF
VH DSOLF SHQWUX

0DWHULDOHOH JUHX SUHOXFUDELOH XOWUDVRQLF VXQW PDWHULDOHOH WHQDFH SUHFXP R HOXO PRDOH FXSUXO

RE LQHUHD J XULORU VWU SXQVH VDX vQIXQGDWH FX D[H GUHSWH VDX FXUELOLQLL  SHQWUX JUDYDUH ILOHWH LQWHULRDUH L H[WHULRDUH FDQDOH SURILODWH vQ SLHVH GLQ VWLFO L PLQHUDORFHUDPLFH GLQ VWLFO  FXDU  IOXRULW  WLWDQDW GH

SUHOXFUDUHD SLHVHORU VLPSOH L FX FRQILJXUD LH FRPSOH[ EDULX vQ LQGXVWULD DSDUDWHORU RSWLFH L PHFDQLF HOHFWURWHKQLF L DSDUDWHORU GH P VXU L FRQWURO

ILQ  PDWHULDOH VHPLFRQGXFWRDUH JHUPDQLX

VLOLFLX GLDPDQW WHKQLF IHULWH L DOWH PDWHULDOH PLQHUDORFHUDPLFH GLQ LQGXVWULD HOHFWURQLF 

ILQLVDUHD ILOLHUHORU SRDQVRDQHORU L PDWUL HORU GLQ FDUEXUL PHWDOLFH L UHFRQGL LRQDUHD ORU GXS X]XU 

SUHOXFUDUHD SLHWUHORU SUH LRDVH L VHPLSUH LRDVH vQ LQGXVWULD ELMXWHULLORU D SLHWUHORU WHKQLFH

pentru industria mecanicii fLQH L DSDUDWHORU GH P

VXU 

4.7. Procese tehnologice din industria mecanicii fine

0HFDQLFD ILQ HVWH UDPXUD LQGXVWULDO FDUH VH RFXS  vQ SULQFLSDO FX FRQFHSHUHD SURLHFWDUHD L IDEULFDUHD PLMORDFHORU GH P VXUDUH  0 0 VXUDUHD 0LMORDFH GH P HVWH RSHUD LD vQWU VXUD

re
SULQ FDUH P ULPHD IL]LF GH P VXUDW FH DSDU LQH GLUHFW VDX LQGLUHFW FX

VXUDUHD

PHWURORJLF

RELHFWXOXL GH P VXUDW QXPLW P DFHHDL QDWXU  vQFRUSRUDW

VXUDQG VH FRPSDU

-un

PLMORF GH P DGPLV 

VXUDUH

unitatea GH P VXU GH , pentru a stabili raportul numeric dintre

OD ED]D XQHL P VXU UL FD H[HPSOH

P ULPHD GH P VXUDW L XQLWDWHD GH P VXU VH SRW GD IHQRPHQXO GH LQWHUIHUHQ WHPSHUDWXULL GHIRUPDUHD HODVWLF

3ULQFLSLXO GH P VXUDUH HVWH GDW GH IHQRPHQXO IL]LF FDUH VW

 OD P VXUDUHD OXQJLPLORU HIHFWXO WHUPRHOHFWULF OD P VXUDUHD

D XQHL PHPEUDQH OD P VXUDUHD SUHVLXQLL L IRU HL HWF

0HWRGHOH GH P VXUDUH UHSUH]LQW FODVLILF GXS 

PRGXULOH GH DSOLFDUH D SULQFLSLXOXL GH P VXUDUH (OH VH FDUH LQ VHDPD GH HURULOH GH L PHWRGH I

SUHFL]LD L UDSLGLWDWHD GHWHUPLQ ULORU P VXUDUH L

metode de laborator,

metode tehnice FDUH QX

ID

LQ VHDPD GH HURULOH GH P VXUDUH

SR]L LD DSDUDWXOXL

GH P ULPHD GH P VXUDW

metode prin contact

contact (optic, pneumatic, capacitiv, inductiv etc.); modul de ob LQHUH D YDORULL PHFDQLFH D P ULPLL P VXUDWH PHWRGH GH P VXUDUH GLUHFW , LQGLUHFW L mixte; PRGXO GH LQGLFDUH D P ULPLL P VXUDWH metode analogice L metode digitale; asigurarea sistemului de coordonate: metode incrementale UHODWLYH L metode absolute.
P VXUDUHD FRQGL LL OD WHPSHUDWXU  SUHVLXQH DFFHOHUD LH XPLGLWDWH (URULOH FDUH R FRPELQD LH HPLW GH VXEDQVDPEOXUL PHFDQLFH RSWLFH

5H]XOWDWXO XQHL P VXU UL GHSLQGH GH FRQGL LLOH vQ FDUH VH HIHFWXHD] VWDELOLWH SULQ VWDQGDUGH (OH VH UHIHU

DSDU OD P VXUDUH VXQW GH LQGLFD LH GH FLWLUH GH HWDORQDUH GH UHJODUH L GH PHWRG  0LMORDFHOH GH V P VXUDUH UHSUH]LQW HOHFWULFH D FDSDELO FDSWH]H V WUDQVIRUPH L V VHPQDOH vQ VFRSXO P VXU ULL P ULPLORU

IL]LFH 6WUXFWXUD XQXL PLMORF GH P VXUDUH HVWH

P VXUDQGXO

subansamblul de intrare

subansambluri de prelucrare

subansamblul
GH LHLUH

sursa de energie de activare

Q DFHVW FD] VXUVD GH HQHUJLH GH DFWLYDUH HVWH LQWHULRDU  FkQG HVWH H[WHULRDU DVXSUD P VXUDQGXOXL SULQ LQWHUPHGLXO VXEDQVDPEOXOXL GH LQWUDUH 0LMORDFHOH GH P VXUDUH VH FODVLILF 'XS GH P VXUDUH 0 GXS PDL PXOWH FULWHULL VXUL FRPSOH[LWDWH PLMORDFHOH GH P VXUDUH VXQW P HD DF LRQHD]

LQVWUXPHQWH GH P

VXUDUH

, aparate
GH

, LQVWDOD LL GH P

VXUDUH L VLVWHPH GH P

VXUDUH

.
D P ULPLL GH P VXUDW FX R VFDU

VXULOH PDWHULDOL]HD]

XQLWDWHD GH P VXU  PXOWLSOLL VDX VXEPXOWLSOLL DFHVWHLD

,QVWUXPHQWXO GH P

VXUDUH SHUPLWH FRPSDUDUHD GLUHFW

UHSHUH &D H[HPSOH DYHP XEOHUHOH DPSHUPHWUHOH JDOYDQRPHWUHOH YROWPHWUHOH HWF $SDUDWXO GH P VXU VH FRPSXQH GLQ VXEDQVDPEOXO WUDGXFWRU VXEDQVDPEOX LQWHUPHGLDU L FHO GH SUH]HQWDUH D UH]XOWDWHORU P VXU ULL (OH VXQW ,QVWDOD LD GH P VXUDUH HVWH XQ

optice, electrice etc.

GH DSDUDWH P VXUL L GLVSR]LWLYH DQH[H FDUH

DQVDPEOX

VHUYHWH OD P VXUDUHD XQHLD VDX PDL PXOWRU P ULPL &D H[HPSOH VH GDX PLFURVFRSXO GH DWHOLHU VSHFWURVFRSXO PDLQD GH P VXUDW vQ FRRUGRQDWH HWF 6LVWHPXO UHXQLWH ILH SULQ GH P VXUDUH HVWH XQ DQVDPEOX ILH QDWXUD RELHFWXOXL GHVHUYLW

.
GH LQVWDOD LL VDX DSDUDWH D GH P VXUDUH GH SUHOXFUDUHD FHQWUDOL]DW LQIRUPD LLORU

FRPSOH[ SULQ

P VXUDUH ([HPSOH vQ DFHVW VHQV VXQW DQVDPEOXO GH LQVWDOD LL L DSDUDW

e ale, unui furnal, un proces

tehnologic automatizat sau cinematizat etc.).

'XS 'XS FRQVWUXF LH PLMORDFHOH GH P VXUDUH VXQW ULPL ULPL

mecanice, optice L electrice.

L WXUD LL YLEUD LL ]JRPRWH WLPS SXWHUH UH]LVWHQ  FDSDFLWDWH

QDWXUD P ULPLORU P VXUDWH PLMORDFHOH GH P VXUDUH VXQW SHQWUX

-P -P -P -P

geometrice: mecanice: ULPL termotehnice: ULPL electrice:

XRDU

lungimi, unghiuri;
PDVH IRU H GXULW LQWHQVLWDWH LQGXFWDQ

presiuni, temperaturi, debite

WHQVLXQH  DOWH FDUDFWHULVWLFL HOHFWULFH R P ULPH IL]LF vQWU R DOW P ULPH IL]LF

3DUWHD XQXL PLMORF GH P VXUDUH FDUH WUDQVIRUP SHQWUX D SHUPLWH R PDL

SUHOXFUDUH REVHUYDUH WHOHP VXUDUH vQUHJLVWUDUH D VH QXPHWH ULPL PHFDQLFH WHUPRWHKQLFH HOH

traductor 7UDGXFWRDUHOH VXQW SHQWUX P

ctrice.

Transmiterea

multiplicarea

VHPQDOHORU

GH

P VXUDUH

VH

UHDOL]HD]

FX

DMXWRUXO

VXEDQVDPEOXOXL GH WUDQVPLWHUH PXOWLSOLFDUH L DPSOLILFDUH D LQIRUPD LHL GH P VXUDUH $FHVWHD VXQW

mecanice FX SkUJKLL UR L GLQ DWH XUXE-SLXOL

SDUDOHOH UHWLFXOH L VF UL ILOWUH SULVPH OHQWLOH

 FUHPDOLHUH

optice (formate din oglinzi; lame planelectronice (amplificatoare).

D YDORULORU GLIHULWHORU ,QGLFDUHD VH IDFH

Indicarea, nregistrarea sau

P ULPL P VXUDWH VH IRORVHVF

LQL LHUHD XQXL UHJODM vQ YHGHUHD P VXU ULL VXQW HIHFWXDWH GH L FRQWURO 3HQWUX REVHUYDUHD YL]XDO LQGLFDWRDUH

HOHPHQWXO ILQDO DO XQXL DSDUDW GH P VXU

VXEDQVDPEOXUL QXPHULF D

continuu
Q FD]XO

vQ

IRUP

DQDORJLF GRLOHD

, discontinuu vQ IRUP
SULQ DILDUHD

sau combinat 3ULPD IRUP

P ULPLL P VXUDWH XQ

VH UHDOL]HD] QXP U

SULQ GHSODVDUHD LQGLF ULL

unui elePHQW
FD] QXPHULF

PRELO vQ ID D XQHL VF UL IL[H JUDGDWH GLUHFW vQ XQLW SHULRGLF YDORULL

L DOH P ULPLL GH P VXUDW Q DO

FRPELQDWH HOHPHQWXO PRELO XUP UHWH VHQVXO L YLWH]D GH YDULD LH D P ULPLL P VXUDWH LDU DILDUHD VH IRORVHWH SHQWUX FLWLUHD H[DFW D YDORULL FH VH GHSODVHD] vQ ID D XQHL VF UL FX UHSHUH VDX VFDU FX

Indicatoarele analogice sunt: mecanice GH WLS DF LQGLFDWRU

UHSHUH FH VH GHSODVHD]

SULQ GUHSWXO XQXL UHSHU IL[ 6F ULOH SRW IL

liniare, unghiulare,

L D FHORU

circulare, spirale, elicoidale HWF &LWLUHD SH VFDU electrice GH WLS WXE FDWRGLF EDQG OXPLQRDV 
GH SDUDOD[  FUHWHUHD YLWH]HL GH FLWLUH

VH SRDWH IDFH FX RFKLXO OLEHU VDX RSWLF

,QGLFDWRDUHOH QXPHULFH DVLJXU

P ULUHD SUHFL]LHL GH FLWLUH SULQ HOLPLQDUHD VFXUWDUHD SURFHVXOXL GH

erorilor subiective
(OH VXQW FX GH

P VXUDUH

mecanice L electrice.
QUHJLVWUDUHD DUH GUHSW VFRS SUH]HQWDUHD YDULD LHL vQ WLPS D XQHL P ULPL (D VH HIHFWXHD]

ajutorul subansambleloU
SULQ FRQVWUXF LH GLUHFW Q DQVDPEOXO

vQUHJLVWUDWRDUH FH SRW IL IRORVLWH FD XQLW FX PLMORFXO GH P VXUDUH QXPHULF 

L LQGHSHQGHQWH VDX SRW IL FXSODWH YDULD LHL SH VXSRUWXO

QVFULHUHD

vQUHJLVWUDW VH SRDWH IDFH FX FUHLRQXO FX FHUQHDO  FX EDQG  FX WX VDX KkUWLH PLMORDFHORU GH P VXUDUH XQ ORF DSDUWH vO FRLQFLG RFXS

carbon.
D DSDUDWXOXL

DSDUDWHOH RSWLFH (OH VXQW

DQVDPEOXUL GH OHQWLOH RJOLQ]L SULVPH L GLDIUDJPH FX DMXWRUXO F URUD VH RE LQ LPDJLQL DOH GLIHULWHORU RELHFWH $[HOH RSWLFH DOH SLHVHORU PHQ LRQDWH WUHEXLH V FX D[D JHRPHWULF

formnd un sistem optic centrat. Aparatele optice dau imagini ale obiectelor n care se pot distinge
DP QXQWH FDUH QX SRW IL REVHUYDWH FX RFKLXO OLEHU 3RWULYLW FX QDWXUD LPDJLQLL DSDUDWHOH RSWLFH VXQW

aparate care dau imagini reale RFKLXO DSDUDWXO IRWRJUDILF L DSDUDWXO GH SURLHF LH
VDX SH XQ ILOP IRWRJUDILF

$FHVWH LPDJLQL SRW IL SULQVH SH XQ HFUDQ GH SURLHF LH SH R SODF

aparatele care dau imagini virtuale. Ele sunt folosite de obicei pentru examinarea direct  FX RFKLXO D RELHFWHORU L VXQW IRUPDWH GLQ GRX S U L un obiectiv ndreptat vQVSUH RELHFWXO GH FHUFHWDW L un ocular ndreptat spre ochiul observatorului. Obiectivul
HVWH XQ VLVWHP RSWLF FRQYHUJHQW L IRUPHD] RELHFW SHQWUX RFXODU FH YD GD R LPDJLQH UHDO GHILQLWLY  D RELHFWXOXL FDUH UHSUH]LQW SUHOXDW GH RFKLXO LPDJLQHD YLUWXDO 

observatorului. Principalele caracteristici ale unui aparat optic sunt: valoarea diviziunii, Vd GRPHQLXO GH P VXUDUH, Dm [\ VDX [\ XQGH [ L \ VXQW OLPLWHOH GRPHQLXOui cmpul obiectiv, 2y raportul de multiplicare (de amplificare), K IRU D GH P VXUDUH, Fm apertura obiectivului sau GHVFKLGHUHD QXPHULF , A, este capacitatea obiectivului de a
VWUkQJH UD]HOH GH OXPLQ L VH FDOFXOHD] FX UHOD LD

A = n0 VLQ 0 unde n0 eVWH LQGLFHOH GH UHIUDF LH DO PHGLXOXL GLQWUH RELHFW L RELHFWLY 0 VHPLXQJKLXO GHVFKLGHULL FRQXOXL GH OXPLQ FH LQWU vQ RELHFWLY P ULUHD WUDQVYHUVDO D RELHFWLYXOXL, ob P ULUHD WUDQVYHUVDO D DSDUDWXOXL, grosismentul obiectivului, Gob FH VH FDOFXOHD] FX UHOD LD

G ob =

" f ob

unde

" HVWH OXQJLPHD RSWLF D WXEXOXL RELHFWLYXOXL PP fob GLVWDQ D IRFDO D RELHFWLYXOXL PP grosismentul ocularului, Goc GDW GH UHOD LD 250 G oc = f oc
 HVWH GLVWDQ D PLQLP D YHGHULL GLVWLQFWH PP

unde

foc GLVWDQ D IRFDO D RFXODUXOXL PP grosismentul aparatului, G, egal cu G = G ob G oc abscisa obiect, s LPSUHFL]LD GH P VXUDUH, u HURDUHD WHRUHWLF , s Valorile acestor cDUDFWHULVWLFL GHSLQG GH componente.
 0DWHULDOH IRORVLWH vQ PHFDQLFD ILQ

WLSXO

GLPHQVLXQLOH

SUHFL]LD

SLHVHORU

RSWLFH

3HQWUX FRQVWUXF LD DQVDPEOXULORU L VXEDQVDPEOXULORU FDUH IDF RELHFWXO PHFDQLFLL ILQH VH

folosesc materiale metalice, materiaOH SODVWLFH VWLFO  FULVWDOH SLHWUH WHKQLFH PDWHULDOH FRPSR]LWH alte materiale. Materialele metalice utilizate sunt: materiale feroase: fonta SHQWUX FRQVWUXF LD EDWLXULORU DSDUDWHORU GH PDUH SUHFL]LH L FRQIHF LRQDUHD VFXOHORU IRORVLWH OD ILQLVDUHD VXSUDIH HORU R HOXO de toate categoriile
SHQWUX FRQIHF LRQDUHD HOHPHQWHORU FRQVWUXFWLYH GH PHFDQLF ILQ  D GLVSR]LWLYHORU L

sculelor; materiale neferoase: aluminiul, cuprul ]LQFXO ELVPXWXO SOXPEXO L DOLDMHOH ORU WLWDQXO argintul, platina, aurul. Materialele plastice WLQG V ILH XWLOL]DWH GLQ FH vQ FH PDL PXOW GHRDUHFH GLQ HOH VH RE LQ SULQ WHKQRORJLL UDSLGH SLHVH FDUH QX PDL QHFHVLW SUHOXFU UL XOWHULRDUH L DOH F Uor procese tehnologice se
SRW DXWRPDWL]D FRPSOHW (OH SHUPLW VHULL PDUL GH SLHVH FRPSOLFDWH F URUD OL VH SRW PRGLILFD SURSULHW LOH PHFDQLFH L HOHFWULFH SULQ LQVHU LL VDX PDWHULDOH GH DGDRV &HOH PDL IRORVLWH PDWHULDOH FDUFDVH FDSDFH UR L GLQ DWH FXSODMH UDPH IROLL OHQWLOH GH RFKHODUL

PDWHULDOH FX SURSULHW

L PDJQHWLFH SHQWUX DSDUDWH GLQ LQGXVWULD HOHFWURWHKQLF 

plastice sunt: - poliamidele, pentru -

DFRSHULUL GH SURWHF LH DQWLFRURVLY 

policarbonatul SHQWUX DSDUDWH RSWLFH L HOHFWURWHKQLFH polietilena SHQWUX SO FL ILOPH FDEOXUL ILODPHQWH EDUH polistirenul, SROLDFHWD LL pHQWUX UR L GLQ DWH ODJ UH SO FL GH PHFDQLVPH FOLFKH L FDPH siliconii SHQWUX FRQGHQVDWRUL L VLVWHPH GH YL]DUH polimetacrilatul de metil, pentru geamuri de ceas, ochi artificiali, material de

RVWHRVLQWH] 

- alcoolul poliamidic, pentru lentile. Sticla DUH R ODUJ XWLOL]DUH vQ RSWLF L SRDWH IL VWLFO FURQ . FH FRQ LQH R[LG GH ERU VWLFO flint (F) cu oxid de plumb, VWLFO FXDU , VWLFO SHQWUX ILOWUH, VWLFO GLVSHUVLY . Cristalele VH IRORVHVF DFROR XQGH VWLFOD HVWH LPSURSULH L VXQW naturale L sintetice. Atomii,
LRQLL VDX PROHFXOHOH IRUPHD] UH HOH FULVWDOLQH FX SkUJKLL

Pietrele tehnice XWLOL]DWH vQ PHFDQLFD ILQ VXQW - safirul SHQWUX FRQVWUXF LD GH ODJ UH VFXOH GH WUDVDUH FX LWH GLQ PHFDQLVPHOH straturi depuse n tehnologia integratelor, lentile, n materiale compozite etc.;

- rubinul, diamantul natural L artificial SHQWUX FRQIHF LRQDUHD VFXOHORU ILOLHUHORU Materialele compozite XWLOL]DWH vQ PHFDQLFD ILQ VXQW YDULDWH L vQORFXLHVF PDWHULDOHOH metalice. Alte materiale folosite sunt siliciul L germaniu SHQWUX FRQIHF LRQDUHD OHQWLOHORU diabazul
URF YXOFDQLF YHU]XLH VDX FHQXLH SHQWUX FRQIHF LRQDUHD EDWLXULORU DSDUDWHORU JKLGDMHORU PDLQLORU ILQ VXQW GH R PDUH YDULHWDWH L PHWDOLFH PDWHULDOH GH P VXUDW vQ FRRUGRQDWH PHVHORU GH P VXUDUH L WUDVDM HWF 0HWRGHOH GH RE LQHUH D VHPLIDEULFDWHORU XWLOL]DWH vQ PHFDQLF

depind de natura materialului. Principalele metode sunt: - turnarea FODVLF L SULQ SURFHGHH VSHFLDOH
FHUDPLFH U LQL VLQWHWLFH

SHQWUX

PDWHULDOH

GHIRUPDUHD

SODVWLF

PDWUL DUH

extrudare, laminare, tragere, ndoire, ambutisare,

PDWHULDOH SODVWLFH

WDQ DUH SHQWUX PDWHULDOH PHWDOLFH VWLFO  PDVH SODVWLFH

- presare VLQWHUL]DUH SHQWUX PDWHULDOH VXE IRUP GH SXOEHUL PHWDOLFH materiale compozite; - SUHFLSLWDUH GLQ VROX LH galvanoplastie; - depunere din stare de vapori VDX JD] VXE IRUP GH VWUDWXUL VXE LUL
'LQ VWUXQMLUH VHPLIDEULFDWH IUH]DUH SLHVHOH VH RE LQ SULQ SURFHGHH UHFWLILFDUH FODVLFH GH UDERWDUH PRUWH]DUH J XULUH EURDUH DOH]DUH OXVWUXLUH HWF SULQ GHIRUPDUH SODVWLF L SURFHGHH QHFRQYHQ LRQDOH

SUHOXFUDUH

SULQ

DFKLHUH OHS

KRQXLUH

uire,

4.7.3. Fabricarea pieselor optice

&HOH PDL U VSkQGLWH SLHVH RSWLFH VXQW

1. Lentila
VXSUDIH H QXPLWH

HVWH R SRU LXQH

lentilele, reticulele L prismele. GLQWU-un mediu transparent, separat de mediXO

DPELDQW SULQ GRX

dioptri

DO F UHL URO HVWH GH D P UL LPDJLQHD RELHFWHORU (OHPHQWHOH SULQFLSDOH DOH

unei lentile sunt FHQWUHOH GH FXUEXU , D[D RSWLF SULQFLSDO L centrul optic &HQWUHOH GH FXUEXU VXQW centrele geometrice ale dioptrLORU $[D RSWLF SULQFLSDO HVWH GUHDSWD FDUH XQHWH FHQWUHOH GH
FXUEXU  &HQWUXO RSWLF HVWH LQWHUVHF LD GLQWUH D[D RSWLF 3XQFWXO GH SH D[D RSWLF SULQFLSDO VH QXPHWH IRFDOH VH L OHQWLO  SULQ FDUH WUHF WRDWH UD]HOH UHIUDFWDWH SURYHQLWH GLQWU  XQLWDWHD VD GH P VXU HVWH

-un

fascicol incident paralel

IRFDO  ,QYHUVXO

focar

'LVWDQ D GLQWUH HO L FHQWUXO RSWLF VH QXPHWH GLVWDQ FRQYHUJHQ

GLVWDQ HL

QXPHWH

dioptria.

'LRSWULD HVWH FRQYHUJHQ D XQHL OHQWLOH FX GLVWDQ D IRFDO

GH  P vQ FRPSDUD LH FX UD]HOH GH

Lentilele se pot claVLILFD GXS

'XS FXUEXU L 'XS

PDL PXOWH FULWHULL

JURVLPH VXQW OHQWLOH VXE LUL FkQG JURVLPHD ORU HVWH PLF QDWXUD IRFDUXOXL L

lentile groase.

strnge razele de OXPLQ

VXQW convergente, cnd focarul este real, avnd capacitatea de a divergente FkQG IRFDUXO HVWH YLUWXDO GLVSHUVkQG UD]HOH GH OXPLQ  'XS IRUP  OHQWLOHOH VXQW sferice, asferice, cilindrice, torice L parabolice. 'XS QXP UXO IRFDUHORU VXQW unifocale L bifocale. Lentilele convergente sferice sunt biconvexe, plan-convexe L concav-convexe(fig. 4.27a). Lentile divergente sferice sunt biconcave, plan-concave L concav-convexe (fig.4.27b).

r2= r2 c2 r1 c1 r1 c1 r1 r2 c1 c2

biconvex

planconvex

concavconvex

r1= r1 c1 r2 c2 r2 c2 r2

r1 c2 c1

biconcav

planconcav

convexconcav

b
Fig. 4.27. Tipuri de lentile sferice
OHIXLUHD SODQ SDUDOHO  URWXQMLUHD VXSUDIH HORU OHIXLUHD SULPHL IH H D OHQWLOHL SROLVDUHD SULPHL IH H D OHQWLOHL FRQWUROXO SULPHL IH H D OHQWLOHL O FXLUH GH SURWHF LH D SULPHL IH H D OHQWLOHL OHIXLUHD

Procesul tehnologic GH RE LQHUH D OHQWLOHORU se compuQH GLQ XUP -

WRDUHOH RSHUD LL GHELWDUHD

polisaUHD FRQWUROXO L O FXLUHD GH SURWHF LH D IH HL GRL D OHQWLOHL FHQWUDUHD Debitarea 6HPLIDEULFDWXO GLQ VWLFO SRDWH IL GHELWDW SULQ W LHUH GLQWU-un bloc sau poate fi RE LQXW SULQ SUHVDUH &kQG VH RE LQH GLQ EORF HD DUH IRUP GH SDUDOHOLSLSHG vQ FDUH VH nscrie lentila.
&kQG VH RE LQH SULQ SUHVDUH DUH IRUPD OHQWLOHL GDU FX GLPHQVLXQL PDL PDUL OHIXLUHD SODQ SDUDOHO

 6HPLIDEULFDWXO GHELWDW VXE IRUP

GH SO FX

SDUDOHOLSLSHGLF  HVWH SH R SODF GH

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-unelte. Scula este de

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de diamant.
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Fig. 4.28. Montarea OHQWLOHORU vQ FRORDQ

OHIXLUHD VSHFLDOH vQ GRX ILH FXSULQV SULPHL IH H D OHQWLOH 2SHUD LD VH H[HFXW FX VFXOH VSHFLDOH SH PDLQL XQHOWH

ID]H OHIXLUH EUXW

vQWUH 

3,2) m.

L OHIXLUH PHGLH L ILQ  5XJR]LWDWHD GXS

SUHOXFUDUH WUHEXLH V

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lac incolor.
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0,2
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polisare

Fig. 4.30. Tehnologia de obtinere a lentilelor frontale pentru microscop

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discuri.
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d A e

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-A gravaj unghiular

gravaj liniar Fig. 4.31. Forme de sc ri

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FD

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(tabelul 4.3.)

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Dimensiunile reperelor, m GLVWDQ D grosimea adncimea Metoda de gravaj Complexitate reticul simplu simplu
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Productivitate

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a 0,1 0,5

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dintre repere d 0,5 1

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medie

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medie

25

25

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0,25

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simplu

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rol este foarte riguros.



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