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P R E FA C E

This sixth edition of the text on the unit operations of chemical engineering has been extensively revised and updated, with much new material and considerable condensation of some sections. Its basic structure and general level of treatment, however, remain unchanged. It is an introductory text, written for undergraduate students in their junior or senior years who have completed the usual courses in mathematics, physics, chemistry, and an introduction to chemical engineering. An elementary knowledge of material and energy balances and of thermodynamic principles is assumed. Separate chapters are devoted to each of the principal unit operations, grouped into four sections: uid mechanics, heat transfer, mass transfer and equilibrium stages, and operations involving particulate solids. One-semester or one-quarter courses may be based on any of these sections or combinations of them. The order of the rst 16 chapters has not been changed; later ones, dealing with mass transfer and operations involving solids, have been rearranged in a more logical order. Nearly all equations have been written for SI units, and the Newtons law conversion factor gc has been eliminated except in the few instances where it must be included. Symbols for dimensionless groups have been changed to Re for NRe, for example, Pr for NPr, and so forth. Many new examples and problems have been added, some reecting the importance of biochemical engineering processes. Material on handling, mixing, and grinding particulate solids has been greatly condensed and dealt with in a single chapter. The number of appendixes is reduced from 22 to 19. Derivations of the differential equations for continuity and momentum balances, leading to the Navier-Stokes equation, have been added, as well as the differential forms of Fouriers law and Ficks law, emphasizing the analogies among momentum, heat, and mass transfer. The chapter on adsorption has been expanded to include new material on chromatography and ion exchange, and renamed Fixedbed Separations. Other new material has been added on viscoelastic uids, laminar ow in annuli, drag coefcients, afnity laws for pumps, high-efciency agitators and motionless mixers, plate-type heat exchangers, boiling by submerged tube bundles, cooling towers, aqueous phase extraction, cross-ow ltration, and many other topics. Many of the problems at the ends of the chapters are new or revised. Most are expressed in SI units. Nearly all the problems can be solved with the aid of a pocket calculator; for a few, a computer solution is preferable. McGraw-Hill and the authors thank Dr. N. T. Obot for his many suggestions regarding uid mechanics and heat transfer, and Professor Charles H. Gooding of Clemson University for his detailed and helpful review of the manuscript.
Julian C. Smith Peter Harriott
xvii

iii

CONTENTS

Preface

xvii

SECTION I

Introduction
Denitions and Principles
Unit Operations Unit Systems
Physical Quantities / SI Units / CGS Units / Gas Constant / FPS Engineering Units / Conversion of Units / Units and Equations 3 4 4

Dimensional Analysis Basic Concepts


Equations of State of Gases

16 20 24 25 27

Symbols Problems References

SECTION II

Fluid Mechanics
Fluid Statics and Its Applications
Hydrostatic Equilibrium Applications of Fluid Statics Symbols Problems References
31 32 34 41 42 43 44 45 46 51 59 63 64 65 vii

Fluid Flow Phenomena


Laminar Flow, Shear Rate, and Shear Stress Rheological Properties of Fluids Turbulence Boundary Layers Symbols Problems References

viii

CONTENTS

Basic Equations of Fluid Flow


Mass Balance in a Flowing Fluid; Continuity Differential Momentum Balance; Equations of Motion Macroscopic Momentum Balances Mechanical Energy Equation Symbols Problems References

67 67 72 77 82 90 92 93 94 94 97 104 117 123 124 127 128 128 133 134 140 145 147 148 149 150 150 157 162 171 182 183 185 187 187 194

Incompressible Flow in Pipes and Channels


Shear Stress and Skin Friction in Pipes Laminar Flow in Pipes and Channels Turbulent Flow in Pipes and Channels Friction from Changes in Velocity or Direction Symbols Problems References

Flow of Compressible Fluids


Denitions and Basic Equations Processes of Compressible Flow Isentropic Flow through Nozzles Adiabatic Friction Flow Isothermal Friction Flow Symbols Problems References

Flow Past Immersed Bodies


Drag and Drag Coefcients Flow through Beds of Solids Motion of Particles through Fluids Fluidization Symbols Problems References

Transportation and Metering of Fluids


Pipe, Fittings, and Valves Pumps

CONTENTS

ix

Positive-Displacement Pumps / Centrifugal Pumps

Fans, Blowers, and Compressors


Fans / Blowers and Compressors / Comparison of Devices for Moving Fluids

209

Measurement of Flowing Fluids


Full-Bore Meters / Insertion Meters

219 234 236 237 238 239 259 265 270 278 281 282 284

Symbols Problems References

Agitation and Mixing of Liquids


Agitated Vessels Blending and Mixing Suspension of Solid Particles Dispersion Operations Agitator Selection and Scaleup Symbols Problems References

SECTION III

Heat Transfer and Its Applications


Heat Transfer by Conduction
Basic Law of Conduction Steady-State Conduction Unsteady-State Conduction Symbols Problems References
291 291 293 300 311 312 314 315 315 319 321

10

11

Principles of Heat Flow in Fluids


Typical Heat-Exchange Equipment Energy Balances Heat Flux and Heat-Transfer Coefcients
Overall Heat-Transfer Coefcient / Individual Heat-Transfer Coefcients

Symbols Problems References

333 334 335

CONTENTS

12

Heat Transfer to Fluids Without Phase Change


Boundary Layers Heat Transfer by Forced Convection in Laminar Flow Heat Transfer by Forced Convection in Turbulent Flow
Transfer by Turbulent Eddies and Analogy Between Transfer of Momentum and Heat

336 336 339 346

Heat Transfer in Transition Region Between Laminar and Turbulent Flow Heat Transfer to Liquid Metals Heating and Cooling of Fluids in Forced Convection Outside Tubes Natural Convection Symbols Problems References

358 360 362 365 371 373 375 377 377 389 401 403 404 406 407 410 413 423 425 427 428 430 431 432 446 449 455

13

Heat Transfer to Fluids with Phase Change


Heat Transfer from Condensing Vapors Heat Transfer to Boiling Liquids Symbols Problems References

14

Radiation Heat Transfer


Emission of Radiation Absorption of Radiation by Opaque Solids Radiation Between Surfaces Radiation to Semitransparent Materials Combined Heat Transfer by Conduction-Convection and Radiation Symbols Problems References

15

Heat-Exchange Equipment
Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers Plate-Type Exchangers Extended-Surface Equipment Scraped-Surface Exchangers

CONTENTS

xi 456 459 463 467 469 471 473 475 479 498 500 500 502

Condensers and Vaporizers Heat Transfer in Agitated Vessels Heat Transfer in Packed Beds Symbols Problems References

16

Evaporation
Types of Evaporators Performance of Tubular Evaporators
Evaporator Capacity / Evaporator Economy

Vapor Recompression Symbols Problems References


SECTION IV

Mass Transfer and Its Applications


Principles of Diffusion and Mass Transfer Between Phases
Theory of Diffusion Prediction of Diffusivities Mass-Transfer Theories
Film Theory / Boundary Layer Theory / Penetration Theory / Two-Film Theory

17

511 512 518 523

Mass-Transfer Coefcients
Experimental Measurements / Coefcients for Mass Transfer through Known Areas

530

Symbols Problems References

540 542 544 546 546 557 574 580 588

18

Gas Absorption
Packings and Packed Tower Design Principles of Absorption Absorption from Rich Gases Mass-Transfer Correlations
Absorption in Plate Columns

Absorption with Chemical Reaction

xii

CONTENTS

Symbols Problems References

590 592 594 596 596 600 604 608 618 619 621 622 622 625 639 639 640 641 641 645

19

Humidication Operations
Denitions Humidity Chart Wet-Bulb Temperature Cooling Towers
Theory of Counterow Cooling Towers

Symbols Problems References

20

Equilibrium-Stage Operations
Equipment for Stage Contacts Principles of Stage Processes
Equilibrium-Stage Calculations for Multicomponent Systems

Symbols Problems References

21

Distillation
Flash Distillation Continuous Distillation with Reux
Material Balances in Plate Columns / Number of Ideal Plates; McCabeThiele Method

Enthalpy Balances Design of Sieve-Plate Columns Plate Efciencies


Theory of Plate Efciency

672 681 689 699 700 704 706 711 713 713 717

Distillation in Packed Columns Batch Distillation Symbols Problems References

22

Introduction to Multicomponent Distillation


Phase Equilibria in Multicomponent Distillation Flash Distillation of Multicomponent Mixtures

CONTENTS

xiii 718 734 735 736 738 739 739

Fractionation of Multicomponent Mixtures Azeotropic and Extractive Distillation Symbols Problems References

23

Leaching and Extraction


Leaching
Leaching Equipment / Principles of Continuous Countercurrent Leaching

Liquid Extraction
Extraction Equipment / Principles of Extraction

747 766 768 769 772 773 775 782 790 793 794

Special Extraction Techniques


Supercritical Fluid Extraction

Symbols Problems References

24

Drying of Solids
Principles of Drying
Phase Equilibria

Cross-Circulation Drying Through-Circulation Drying


Drying of Suspended Particles

Freeze-Drying Drying Equipment


Dryers for Solids and Pastes / Dryers for Solutions and Slurries / Selection of Drying Equipment

Symbols Problems References

807 809 810 812 812 813

25

Fixed-Bed Separations
Adsorption Adsorption Equipment
Equilibria; Adsorption Isotherms / Principles of Adsorption / Basic Equations for Adsorption / Solutions to Mass-Transfer Equations / Adsorber Design / Continuous Operation

Ion Exchange
Equilibria / Mass-Transfer Rates / Operation of Ion Exchangers

839

xiv

CONTENTS

Chromatography Symbols Problems References

845 852 854 855 857 857 878

26

Membrane Separation Processes


Separation of Gases Separation of Liquids
Dialysis / Membranes for Liquid-Liquid Extraction / Pervaporation / Reverse Osmosis

Symbols Problems References

896 898 900 902 903 904 911 918 921 927 936 937 939 941

27

Crystallization
Crystal Geometry Equilibria and Yields Nucleation Crystal Growth Crystallization Equipment Crystallizer Design: Crystal Size Distribution
MSMPR Crystallizer

Crystallization from Melts Symbols Problems References

SECTION V

Operations Involving Particulate Solids


Properties and Handling of Particulate Solids
Characterization of Solid Particles Properties of Masses of Particles
Storage and Conveying of Solids 945 945 951 955 965

28

Mixing of Solids
Mixers for Noncohesive Solids / Mixers for Cohesive Solids

Size Reduction
Computer Simulation of Milling Operations / Equipment for Size Reduction

CONTENTS

xv 977 981 983 984 986 986 991 993

Ultrane Grinders Symbols Problems References

29

Mechanical Separations
Screening
Screening Equipment

Filtration; General Considerations Cake Filters


Centrifugal Filters / Filter Media / Filter Aids / Principles of Cake Filtration

Clarifying Filters
Liquid Clarication / Gas Cleaning / Principles of Clarication

1018 1021

Crossow Filtration; Membrane Filters


Type of Membranes / Permeate Flux for Ultraltration / Concentration Polarization / Microltration

Gravity Sedimentation Processes Centrifugal Sedimentation Processes Symbols Problems References Appendix 1 Conversion Factors and Constants of Nature Appendix 2 Dimensionless Groups Appendix 3 Dimensions, Capacities, and Weights of Standard Steel Pipe Appendix 4 Condenser and Heat-Exchanger Tube Data Appendix 5 Appendix 6 Appendix 7 Appendix 8 Appendix 9 Appendix 10 Appendix 11 Tyler Standard Screen Scale Properties of Liquid Water Properties of Saturated Steam and Water Viscosities of Gases Viscosities of Liquids Thermal Conductivities of Metals Thermal Conductivities of Various Solids and Insulating Materials Appendix 12 Thermal Conductivities of Gases and Vapors Appendix 13 Thermal Conductivities of Liquids Other Than Water Appendix 14 Specic Heats of Gases

1035 1045 1056 1058 1061 1063 1066 1068 1069 1070 1071 1072 1074 1076 1079 1080 1082 1083 1084

xvi

CONTENTS

Appendix 15 Appendix 16 Appendix 17 Appendix 18

Specic Heats of Liquids Prandtl Numbers for Gases at 1 atm and 100C Prandtl Numbers for Liquids Diffusivities and Schmidt Numbers for Gases in Air at 0C and 1 atm Appendix 19 Collision Integral and Lennard-Jones Force Constants

1085 1086 1087 1088 1089 1091

Index

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