Stretch and challenge quesrions are indicared throughour the Studencs Book with the following icon @.

These questions are aimcd to r,.-.,.h and challenge all srudents by using diilcrent assessment suaregies including: a varicty rvriring opportuniries and diffcrcnt question "r;r;;,;;;;;;;:;;:;;;;;:_1.rr.o nro", ,o enabre studenrs to deverop and use a 'varicry ofskills.All srudcnts shourd bc abre to give anslvers ro frcse quesrions and a basic ansrver 'is oudined belor.v for each of them, However it is expected rhat candidates working at higher grades wi'givc a grcarcr dcpr'ofanswcr bri'ging in cxrcndcti knowleclge and undersranding from a variety of sourccs, pages 1G-11

Marks arvarded for: Most imporrrnt rc:ic,ion because armost r,' lire on earrh dcpenc: on it' only Iarge scare rvay in which new organic morecu-les arc synrhesised in living organisms and the oniy rvay in rvhich a ncw supply of ATp can bc builr up. any oL.. vaiid point. Marks not awarded ror: without respiradon, celrs dic so phorosynthesis can,t take place. wirhout slnthesis of proteins, tl-rcrc is no AT'pase, so no ATp cycle. Almost impossible to rank reacdons in terms of importancc. Any orher valid point.

2 a

Releases energy rvhen

b
pages

reacdons, suclL as rcdox reactions, rri'Jrin rhc cer1. A^ny orher valid poinrs. Evidcnce to incrudc: prescncc in'a, ccr-l rlpcs invcsrigatcd, prcscncc in every species invesrigated, impacr on ceus if ,{fp synthcsis o. br.r-k,ro*r-, in}ribited. Any other valid point.
1

AT? broken down to ADp in a form available to alr ce, enzymes. ADP and inorganic phosphatc can be rcrorrned inro A r-p by AT1)ase usirg energy iiom
universal

2-1 3

l'l a
_-...

a' rhc cclrs carry out phorosynt'esis any parrs or.rhc prant which are not direcdy exposed to light wil) nor conrain chlorophyll.
Bccause not

'b..lFolded membranes givc Iarge surface area. Enzymes on mcmbrancS rnd in sUoma Lo crrr), out rcactions. Pr6sence of severar photosynrhetic pigments to absorb difrcrcnt waverengths of light, Any other valid point.

2 Noneofthepigmcnrsabsorbwcti'thcgrccn/yclrorvrrcirsofthcspcc*um,AsrJrisright
is not absorbed, it is reflectcd rvhich is,,vhy plants appcar green_

pages 14-17

Cyclic photophosphorylation

Non-cyclic photophosphorylation
involves PSI and p5ll

electrons ccfie froffi and retuin to chlorophyLl in p5l no reduced N,.,D produced as electrons return to chtorophyll

etectrons lost on excitation from the chlorophylt molecutes in ' PSli are replaced by electrons from the cx riation of *.t..NADP recuced to reduced NAD during the process

ATB reduced NAD and orygen formed

Edexccl A2 B'olo8y Implcmcnradon and Asscssmcnt Guide rorTeichcrs and'r'echnicirns gpcarson Educarion Limircd 2oo9

rcicrcncc [o non-functioning of s}'napscs / cq; conuol of {moror functions / motor ncurone lunction}; reicrcncc to {cercbcllunr f nlotor cortcx / parictal lobc};
rcference to substantia nigra / basai ganglion / mid

brain);

(2)

convcrted ro dopamine/ dopamine cannot cnter rhc brain / L-dopa can be L-dopa is {casicr / cheapcr} to make / conversel

(1)

1 tNtRI / FMRI) scan / {C'f / CAT} scan / thermal imaging /X-ravs / and P}iT'] 2 rcfcrcncc to 3-D imagc; [only apphcs to Ml{I' I;MI{i' CAT scan 3 {shrpe / sizc / colour} Jiflcrcncc; 4 densitY of ussuc; of damaged 5 comparison to image of a normal brain / mcthod of identification
arcasl

PET;

refcrencc to moniloring ovcr time;

(3) lTotat 6 Qarks]

Limitcd 2009 for Tcachers and Technicirns oPearson Educrrion Edcrccl A2 Biology Irnplcmentaoon and Assessment Guide

3 ln a biochcmical
Thc amounr

process that depends on or is alfectcd by a number of factors' the value' process rvill bc }imitccl by tlrc factor that is ncarcst to its minimum of light availablc alfccrs dlc amount of chiorophyll drat can be excitcd and

drereforcthcamountofrcducedNADandADPproducedinthelight-dependentstage.

If*rcrersaiorvlcvcloflighttlrcninsufficicntrcduccc]NAl)andATPwillbeproducedto
allorv the reacdons of
rJ-rc

light-indcpcnccnt stagc to progrcss at thek maximum

rate , so

light is the lirnitir-rg factor.

means that the Low levels of carbon dioxidc available for fixing in rhe Calvin cycle casc) carbon dioxidc is rcacrions.rnnnt prn.."d irI drc miximu.r ratc]Whcn this is thc often carbon dioxide that is rhe limrting factor. In rhe natural sirualion of plants it is mosr the hmiting factor'

All of rhc calvin cyclc rceirior.ls and many of thc light-dcpcndcnt rcacdons of phoLosynthcsis arc controllccl by cnzyncs anrl ate drcrcforc scnsitive to tcmpelature.This for a very high rate mcans rhat. cvcn whcn t1-rc light and clrbon dioxidc lcvcls arc suitablc
advantage of of phorosynthesis, if the lcmperaturc is low, thc plant will be unable to take thc condirions.

w_

A? Biology lmplcmentation and Assessmcnt Guidc forTcachers aDdTcchnicians OPcarsoo Edustion Limircd 2009

pages 1B_i 9

'/

fhc habirar

is the ,addres

.
-2'

Ln u'oodrand:

'o'."'n "'-top;"l of "tt''o"t^ol Thc nichc <iescribes a lu; (mrnv ';;;;':];:' oLhcr possibi.rires). *" o[ an rnimrr .'r,u'',,;;;;,'""tt rnhabit rhe same nro,,r, l,l].. - so sevcral organisms
,op

ttrortr[s shou]d ot

l'c

organjsm

it dcscribc

tt'hcrc it livcs' suirable examples

squrrrer,

crc.

uiff.."n,';,.,*l'olt" p..6.,"b-titt'pv rr fox, primarv

_"riuq,/rcr raDDltr , ..;;;;;.;;r;::t:,n hrEe

Iink hcru.ccn

pages

Full dera:ls shoLrld bc givcn of u,h;.,L^.._ , . of.whichcvcr biomes choscn. A crcar ,,lro;;;^":"and ric undersr,.r;*^ s ur ulc llsbltal^'''"1'understanding ortire shc'rrld bc '""0';;;,

may ir' For cxrmplc, rood njchcs rree_dweJjlng herbivore

2o-23
b,

;;;ii^'"li

shown,

J
r"2

Thc proccss by rvh.ic

are rcplaced
c'rf

",n..l:Tuniljcs *r...T.-#J"ffi "#:f;.;;n1;,."jff

t,],re

rnjrnals arr.

communiries. Ld
r_1,

A communiry reached ., thc, en'l of r "..-""":-ly ,t consisr of " ".u ";" serics of sr

f$ilti:::*il:f :ff;#::'-.
tre scme urrir condirions change again.

,r,n.

planrandr",",r,.f....r.;.r:rilil::il::H:"::,;;," a",1-ul
rings bur

Irrimary succe:sjon coloniscd by

:) _

1;;;::l ,

brre rock or sanJ dune ""''t'secotrdarl'succcssion

rnor.i.,,.J.*

on land tirar

{.) tS+Cl

rvas

The answcrs shoulcl jncjudc

sreadv growrh

" t'l:i'

somc or all of
r

some
r-hc

condidons changcd :tj: Tr"i '"period a "" and nrore "tr'r*"*i*'i"as r,fl *i'n"",;;;;;,ii tcrultrv't nt4-e0 as drc isrrnd had 10""' rrrey broughr Oncc bircls colonissd on j51sn.s ".* ;l:::.:'o lheir b",ii;r';;;;,"' droppings n"O rerriJicv of rle ,o .j_tlltt soil with

soil devetoped.

num-ber of spccics ;;';;:j^:::t't'

rolJowing' odrer points may be varid.

d*'siepg6 ,r r..

,,rr, ,o;tttut"o r brceding poprrrri^i:t:.tlc but crnnot survivc 'nd to establish island., oin r.l,l,oiplanrs So .;;';;.::"*t:" or l.isnrs lta'c
rimcs than bccn obscrvcd

rp..r.,,rt.h,il^'lo" "to'';;';;;ril*"'ed
isl:rnd

again reladvely rapidly'

rheir

cumuJaLive

courd drop

on "t" ";;r;i;;;: ro..,"r," n' .",.,0.,i1,1.t '""',,.;;;;;'J;::::il:i,ilj;::.#i:r'.*j',",,, by

If

rJrc prcdrcrrc_rrrs as

row,, , o, *,Tl'li;:;l:Jil:i;:,1,1"-,::::l mOrenCwspcCiCSbecc_ ---'! rut.u wlll rcma :: ::J :me

cstabrishccr

drop

s; , ii, s couJcr evenruarJy

pases

24-22
elemenrs
r

o"r;;;v:i,ffi::';J::::or1'rcn
a pop u, p

so up

ir

1a -lhe non_livjng 1 y .

living. Dxrmprc, ll"^'; :l.. roir. pH otrr'. soil nu of the

of iu i;;- .;':::i.T: environnrcnr:,::l which . :o :il?J,* rncludc or,.lo,.l;.,,::l;T:::j.ililj:::Ti; ;::;::: ln,.n ,-,Lr on organi " "lsrcvant
unv
a d

or

*i,,:.'j,,,,,,, *',, which pranrs ptants '";;";..r;::,1,;]l','1""'t rvill o.li,'"',].i:l]"'"1"i" rvatcr avaitalririry be able to erorv *. *ur"'r ".d *.t".,. #Xi.'ltJril,, :i1:.5;;'#.T#l:1il:H;l'ff j:i;';Jii::.::J"i:::'""1:':l'11., "*.. col oni ers :oronisers of abre ro surv,ve. n re a, r r,;;; rn rerms ortr. ;;.;":r' rX'.. i.:irl "r,",.;';;;,,:J|j:::,'",T:.::.bc r.,i]
in,rurn affecrs
s a

^, nolottc factors dctcrmir crc.Thjs ctc.rhis in rurn decides

a

pOtntS sUcl

ot rhe soil, rhc orrbe soir, rhc lcnli

An1' 5ri1r61. cxamplcj sucir as in a wind1, en'ironmcnt watcr will evaporate from the ground morc rapidll, 5e rvill bc lcss availabic ibr living organisms, high light lcvcls but low oiygen levcls meitn many orgarrisms cannot grow rvcll and rcproduce etc.

Any suitablc examples dcmonsuadng an understanding of how the animal/plant adapted to the panicular abioric factor sclecrcd. pages 28-29

is

I Is+c] 'lhe answcrs

valid.

should includc somc or all olr]rc following. other points may be

Any rhrce suitable cxamplcs, including one bird anri onc mammal, with clear explanation ofhorv tcrritorics arc markcd and defcndcd, e.g. scinr marking, physical displav/dance,
fighring.

y \vith liule

biodiversity, if onc organism is alfccted by discasc it will have a major in"rpac. on the small numbcr of otl.rer organisms in the ccosystcm rhcy won,t gct eaten or tleir prey numbers will fall subsranrjaliy.\Xuirl lrttlc biodiveLsiLy rJrere will bc fcw other available food resourccs. Also discasc is ntore likr:ly to sprcad benvccn inciividuals where there are fcrv bulfer spccies. In a more di'crsc communiry, changcs ciue to disease are lilely ro
havc lcss of an cilccr as rhcrc is much more varicry of food choice and more buffcring organisms to prcvcnt sprcad o[ discasc.

pages 30-33

inrraspccific
organism
numbe

- bctwccn mcmbcrs of the samc spc:ics, c.g. for territory, mares, food. I^raspccilrc compcritior tc'cls to affcct drc rb'.<rrncc of r particular spccics of lorv rcsources, rnuch compcutron, less reproduction and more mortaliry

r dccrease. Plenty of resourccs - littlc coinpctirion, Iors of breeding, Iorv mortality,

numbers increase. interspccific Interspecific

othcrs,

- bctwccn mcrnbcrs ol diflcrcnt spccics, c.g. for space, food. - this lcnds to affcct the diitriburion of spccics in a habitat and also the abundancc of spccics - thc biodivcrsity. If onc spccics comperes very successfully against
it wi'll tcnd to drive thcm to extinction in thc
arca.

2 [s+c] Thc ansrvcrs shourd rncludc

vrlid.

somc or an of thc foilowing. orher poinrs may be

Adding food - hare dcnsiry more dran rriplcd. Excluding predarors - hare dcnsity more rhan doublcd.
Ferrilising d.ie grass had no major effcct. Adding food anri rcmoving prcdarors - harc
clcr.rsir,v

wcnl up by a facror of abour i5. arsohetakcnbypredarors

b Ifaddfood,haresbrce,rmorcsucccs:fulry,burmoreuiil

which will also breed succcssfully. So rhc impacr olrhc lood on rhe hare popularion is not luliy illustratcd in thc population numbers.

Edc\ccl 42 llioloS] Implemcntatioo

an<l

Asscssmenr

cuide fol'ltachcrs and'ltclnicians ol'carson t.iucrtion Liriited 2009

hare other racrors 0.r,"

Jlt;:*

ffi

o',..,"#*,ii', l"*.- iTl,. ;*:::,:4

popurarion #J ,.'*,1 l::l:::":.0." a resurt or *.'-,1,i'i'"1;#,;ffiTiffnipuiadon,

L

-**'se4eu****;"''**

lTj T;:;;

:::;: i'Jili;:;"T i: : ;::: :mltri;IT ii

I)ensiry_indcpen

,"JJ,i:;:i*lfii:TFl.ili?lllT;;T,".J*ji::,;:,::.fi :::::ff :a;, ;;il"';i il j:::'"il,3;::

",,n::

j: :,il:ff fi ,l.,ilili *
ff
:

* : *o,

i"

*, .,

::l

a;;.'

I ri t,tr

r;H

H Ixi

jl jrirfi i ll ;::T* :* i
".,"-

"1

?.

l;

""I

.,"-R..,

r,,.

il; ;;..Jil:::::i,f

denr

"".
1",'hl,
rlc

*:rr-,:rr.'n

disrribu r io,: of r n^^;^

.Densiry-dcpend.",;;;:-:"

,^ffi tr *,iriilH?t x, :,r":,i, #*.:?Im ;;;::'

oecorncs densiry-depcnd.;

; no\v mush lishr, warer erc. is

;ili:::
Pages

*;

;;;

34-37

; : J :.i,il.:lTff ,,l..:.ilffi il:: l::T- :"*r vrvc rn o rvii ] cn d :::: :, : a parLictrlar

s

I a

".;;; c .r rioush
;, r,,,

b opcn

Algac and coral rcr

2 a b

, r,;s.,i.;;, "." ,;:::

*.,

;;;:,11100r",-,up'od u'rion
n.

proclucd

11..' procjucdviry on total

;;,;"
rrcrc is

J;#
a

t
1:,'1,::'-

urface

proc,ucerJ,"

,;;;:t'ct

o."ur.ur',, ""

cnormous amount of opcn ocean so

' .
. b

isn"'.
vu,er

;';,;rt r",*0,.**"".' anr

(r 6.7

consuners; '..m*",*iiffi:ffi::,,j:# . ..,

B.e%
-.-

30 1/3

1o'o%

ccosysrcm,*o,jil
assLrm

would ,r.r.,in;*":::l rvirhin be roo compric :'

a

Any rcasonable wirrrin biomass

"*,,1.1"*,,"r;:,':::::],""
using

as a

food wcb, can

*'*

stucJics

spccics, species which "r,;;i,i.ll]:,:^.JudingqsLirnr,., transfer in,o ".. ".i" ".i^",i.. "," in nurnber, u ,p..;., ma.ng csrimrres

,".,,r.';.:'j":'-o'*
u"o"iru,l11lll*i:iJii::::* or.n;#"r'n*

of

*".i.

il:;:f.l

Pages

38-39
points may be The ansrvers should include some or all of the follorving. orher

1 [s+c]
valid.

than normal The link shouid bc made bctwecn releasing carbon from sinks more rapidly
and morc rapidly

$an photosynthcsis ctc'

can removc

it'

i'Z\ Ar-osohcre:

'J ,.hi.l*,

othcr road increasing intjusUiaiisarion, clccUicity gencralion, cars and of carbon acroplanes, ali producrng carbon dioxide cmissions affect amount

dioxide in the armosPhere. dcath rate of organisms, Soil organic mattcr: tcmpcrature (rate ol acriviry o[ brcrkdorvn)
any scnsiblc altcrnativc. Occan: tcmperature) any sensiblc alternative'

Nlarinescdimcrlts:c!osion)acidiryofrvater,acidrainctc.)anyscnsiblea.ltcrnadve. Terresuiaiplants:seasonofthcycarintcmpcratcareashasabigefiectong}oba.l
photosynthcsis lcvcls, dcforcstation' crop growrh and harvcsting' Pages 40-41

i'il V

p.opt" could stop eating becf and using tlairy producls, bccausc millions of people around as a major part of rheir dict and big ,r.," *orro reiy on mcat and miLk fiom ruminanrs

farmingintercs$havealotofeconomicc}outand*'ouldobjcct.Anyothervaiidpoint.

2[S+C]-l.ircanslvctsshouit]irrcludcson]eolallofl}rcfollolving'othcrporntsmaybe
valid.

Thegreenhouseeffecrisvitaltomaintaintl]cSuIl.i]CeofthcEarthatatcmperatule levels of suitable for life. It is thc enhanccd grcenhousc cffccr, clue ro increasing
greenhouse gases, that is potentially a problcm' pages

42-45

t
@

20.81%; allow i9-21%

sanic or sinrilar Carried out ovcr iong period of timc, r,ery large numbcr of rcadings,

measuringequipmcnlusedlhroughout,areaoflolvairpollurionetc.ADyotherrelevant
Point'

y':', clives a much longcr timc pcrspccrivc (rcadings going back over a thousand years), V last coupie .ho*,. narural falls and riscs in carbon dioxide concentrarion and events of
ofhundrcdycars.Anyclt-lrcrvaiidpoints.i{clirrbiliLy0.2ppnr.Corrciadonwilhother
cvidencc.

) ffr.
A

data shorv rhar armosphcric carbon tlioxidc icvcls

hlvc increEed.They do noi show

the sourcc of the carbon dioxidc'

\) a

.i^--.^,:.r.,..^t Jtuocnl s}rou}d questior-i validiry of ring data in original'

c1ata,

Staustical ncdrods used, inciusion of uce-

b 200svcrsioncontainsalargcrnloulrtofcxtlrdttalronrhundrcdsofstudics,nvo

uee ring diflerent starisrical methods used, figures calculated both wiih and rvithout data. AnY othcr valid Point'

Limitcd 2009 EdcxcelA2 lliology lmplcmenreuon rnd Asscssrncnt Cuirlc frrr'l'clchcrs rntll-cchniuirns C'Pcrrrorr i}lucrtion

pages 46_47

tt.t

Graph A shows glaciatior

;,'.'.'T.f

1lt Parlern beLwcen lcvcls.which comcs e'ets. which .on-.., lemperature nrra--.il"ri j::t"'.'*llru...: ,.-ogruture and carbon dioxide firsr * langc in dioxi carbon dioxic.lc or change in rcnperature? --."^ -":"t" lrr tc^perature? 86'7%,70.7%- carbon 36.70/^ tn zot dioxide from r^.-ir r.. , , frn* lossil fuels has incrr--u!q rl'1u1c than ' :ased mote uran other otner sources. a E'idenco ofcarerur a E'idence ^F ^^-^.. research sources. rn.r .L:r:---. up rlrc rrrcnsrrrs and terms of clarity tcrms orclrriry *cakncsscs in of idcas, rcliability of oridcas,::HlJ:i:l:::.::^'tn tlara ctc.

Graph B shows close correle

tr;:*:J?:ffi ff :ffi,ill,,;i;lTililTJf ffill[ jff :

.r#::

*: c",*;;;, ffi ::::" valid points.

pages

l^:"0

a.

closeness of dara, rvhich comes

;ffi:::ll T*: :: ::^?.1tf ,,"10..^,ure or validity Iiability of

and
re

possib,e

dam,

Any other

4&51

Any va)id poinrs sucF as; rmpossible to predicr ne don'r know

t;;;;i
e

ci

ve ro

reduc

2 a 43y0,2.7yo b t5Omm c Increasing carbon

enhanced
poies.

".,

"; ijj;;",';

;;

ffi ;' ; ":'#::-i::;*:"TJililii

".

on mounrains, ,.r,

,...*o,1lo*t* ,"..".ri;;;;;;.use ur" .T.,,

sea" levels.

levels thought to cau

.rise in global temperatures due ro

This .rur", .l"1o.I ltrrl"g -lse ln average

melring of snow cover c" ?iffiututt' nperatures and mehing of snow at

causing

i3)

"'
4

Parricul:rrlV affccts disr

; :T:,H i : i[,:., ", Look for claricyof thought and understanding --.'"lrurrrg of rh, possible sequcnces or ure ofevcnrs, pages

::TR:,T,1; arc s wh r e*
a
e

j*i

;."

##{r i:;:: l:::.:*J:i:d, #il J,

; :li*;;

o c,im a rc c,ranse

ri sins carbon

;;

:il:,""#

l"

52-53

Any valid poinrs here. h

2 IS+cr The answers ", ,n,n"

valid.
--

lhar invorves n","i^d, to be unpopura. n"r,lll ", " rnevitably unpopuJar

.n1b.dy can ln*:T";* jt fli;;tot]'utn* T:;T " ;l"tl I_,*, I a, n.cannot strive if :]: *" 1""*tJl'on'nt counries though

" in"'"""

,::.1t,::o *0"'

'" ';;;:;;.i '"0 t";,;;:;xrde

morc dcvclopcd counrics *'cn emissions' politicians don't

rvant

ansrver, and

Answer should cover rhc

- -"ourd includc some or ail of the fo.llowing. other points may be

,nereis no comprete

"" '"0'"li"'i.i:i.:':J::"::'-",'":icirv/peror

etc are

",,;.;;;#J;1,1,]tii;illJr',ll;.1i:*,,thar
rnc

Edercel A2 Biology Implementation

#e

forTcachcrs and rechniqiaos opearson Educadon Limired 2009

( 1) I'rorcomicsistJrcstu.ll oIali rhcdiffcrcntJrrorcinsrharcanbcmadeasaresultof ,

Arges

54-55
*ie

genomc throughout thc lifc olan individual, at all tie diflcrcnt stages of developmcnt as a rcsult of differenriai gene expression. Should note that there are far more proteins than
gcnes. Genomics is the srudy of thc alleies in place in an individual.

DNA, thc

se

qucnce of drc gcnes and the specific

y (.1) Diif.t.n, allelcs arisc as a rcsult oi'mutaiion - changcs in rhc scquence of DNA bases. '' Chunges in allcle frcqucncy in a populadon usually occur in rcsponse to enviror,,mental
changcs.

lf

advantage for

a particuiar allclc or combination ol'rllclcs produccs a survival or rcproductivc tle organisms rvhich havc thcm so thcir oflspring are more likely to survive

levei). Alternarively,

and brced again, the frequcncy of rhe allcle will increase (e.g. Malpeque oysters from AS if a particular ailele becomes disadvantageous, the frequency wiil dccrease (c.g. Biston bcuilaria from AS lcvel).

pages

56-57

$/ In ordcr to plant the apple orchards

huge areasrof natural bushes would have been ploughcd up.-lhis wouid have dcsrroycd many harvLhorns, tre natual habirat of the flies, rvhich in turn would havc lcd to some fcmalcs bcing lcft rvith no alternative but the apple uccs on rvhich to iay drcir cggs.Thcn some of tJrcsc flics would have had aileles which hclpcd thcm rccognisc thc sccnL of thc appics, or digcsr applcs cffecuvely, or lay eggs ar times that fit the pattern of apple uee llor,vering and fruiting ratler than hasthorns.These
flies would be most likely'to survivc and pass on rheir alleles, thus changing the allele

lrcquency in rhe popularion and moving towards speciation.

2 * (!)

Any suitable cxamples.

arges 58-59
tn ordcr to mcasurc gcncdc divcrsity, to idcnrify relationships berween d.rfferenr species, ro uack the process ofcvolution, ro idenrify lraud in foodsruffs such as caviar, to idendfy ways of conuolling discasc. Any orlicr suirable cxamplcs.
Ilecause thcy are prescnt in
a

rvidc rangc of different organisms, and so rhey can be

comparcd.The gcnes mutate a[

a measurable and suitabie rate, which al]ows the time sincc cven rclatively closcly rclatcd organisms shlrcd thc srmc gcncs to be calculated.

pages 60-61

f}) a V

Fossil evidcnce is limircd: only relarivcly small numbcrs of organisms are fossilised, small nutnbcrs oIfossils arc found, fossils c,ltcn nor intrct.Thcre may also be

similaritics in anatomy duc to convcrgcnt cvolution. Any valid other point.

(9 ONa c

starls to dcgradc immcdiatcly aftcr dcadr so iimircd application. Mutarion rares of diffcrent genes varies considerably so timing can be very diflerenr depending on

which gene used.

Evidence from any one source has limitadons and potcntial inaccuracies which reduce its validity. If evidence from different sources gives similar results, the more valid are any conclusions drawn. Similarly, using diflcrcnt sourccs can show up discrcpancies and prcven! time and money being wasted on erroncous data. Any other valid point.

Edcxccl

A2

BioloS-)_

lftPlcmenlatjon and Asscssment Cuidc for Teachcrs anilTcchniciins G)Pcarson Educrtion Liniled 2009

--.***sa-msmrrtu'Liui.;;o#"***;gggi* i The r ns rvcr s r. includc somc ,. " "hould or all of drc loilorving. valid. Orher points
t

na

l)isadven12gs5.

t?' conslrucdve criticism' ,r"0"..'ullilt-t when ':'utt' in '.t.i*r;J:"" n.,:l,u:: to bc aired of all their findings cooperadvc rcsearch u.;1'ot" ^t;^;;;;i"n'tle'aliditv o ; ;; i,' JJil::"'-;t'; li ii1 x ch n g c o, r* * ]I"l'o'"' " iiii' ln "'ill' ",
rs

sevcral reams

Helps to validate nerv rr confirmed. Anor",

a

may be

bv presenting ir to pe

,lrive peoprJ ro runding sroups can - ca'y rnor;ring

co'fcr, ;il;"rJ:tlishr}cv have;"*r;;;;';:t"t"'can

prcssurc to nrrht;.r, .,,..r .. attd rppcar at

",,

"

.ourrh.l"

rhe accepred view can o. moders. peopre need ro be mi ri ga r es

minimise audicnce qer Bood .r;';;:;; tccas rvhich go u.l.t'l:tt agairrst n **rtr'\cw ""*ti,"-.*;;#JJ.'.:,:':'J.::: .*,,",,,.""i, * "o1tjl ; ::: ::*il, ff

,.,n.r, o..,lll:pul"'

p'p"... T,ilin-''rdara' ,'a'cr

skcw rescarch and Vcsrcd interesrs and Jarqe

car)

n:I;l;l;

Edexcel A2 BioloEy Inplemenurr'on

and Asscssment Guide for Teachers and

-llchnicians

(,pa.50n

Education Lim.ired 2009

pages

66-67
hcat of the body is producerl as a resuh oi the mctabolic reactions taking place, parricularly respiradon in active tissucs such as Lhc muscles and rhe brain.After death thesc rcactions slow down antl str rime he a t energy is i o. t uy,o ai"ulp,., :1111;ll ?J,i evaporadon so &e body cools down.

1 a 'lhc

;:"::;:::*:';::l? ::ff

$.

b rhemctabolicreactionsdonotailstopimmcdiatclyaftcrdeath-manycellsconrinue
to respirc, conuact' rnd so on, unrir arl rhe availabjc oxygcn and ATp is used up. so heat continues to bc gcncrarcd in the first hours aftcr j.",t-r, at a slo*,er rare, so body tcmpcrarure drcips but rclarively slowly. "trr,ougl-,

c 'lhc

tcmpcralurc glallie rll bclrvccn rhc boely and lhc cnvironmenl wili affect ratc of cooling, for exalnplc if somconc dics insidc a warm housc the body rvill cool down more siowly than ilit is on a cold rvindy hilisidc, so rhe cxternal temperarure and. wea*ter condirions have to be takcn into considerarion. A naked body rvill cool much fastcr by convection than a ciothed body, and a body *,rapped in blankets or a duvet will cool down cvcn morc slorvly due to insulatron..t.u"ttody will cool laster than a dry body as a rcsult of l.rcat lost as drc rvatir cvaporxrcs, and dearh in a warm bath or some lorm oiheating will also change rhe raie of cooling. Even the body leside posirion ar{ects rhc rltc of cooling a srretchccr our body has a much bigger exposed surlacc arca 10 volulne ratjo fiao a curlcd up onc ar.id so wrjl cool dorvn faster. All of
thcsc diflcrcnt factors huvc to bc

takc'

guidc to tirc tintc rrf dcarlr.

ir-rto considcr:rLion rvhcn using tcmperarurc as a

2 3

vcry littlc differcncc

as rhcy arc poikilothermic and so their body temperature is normally vcry similar to rhe ambrent tcmperarure.

Llmitcd valuc bccause, although thcre is a gcncra)iscd parrern ofrigor, there are large 'ariarions rrom one individual to anothcr dcpcndi'g on factors such as:

'

amount of ATP storcd i;.1 tic muscles ar rhc rirnc of'dcarl.r which depcnds genctic tendency and lcvcis of fttncss
Icvcr oI acrivity bcrorc dcirrh

' . . '

tempcrarure oi the individual ar

- rr'rv nruch dr-r) hus bcc' frc point oi deadr

uscd

teinpcraturc of rhe surroundings

spccd ar rvhich rigor passcs ulso cjcpcnds tcmpcrarurcJ acdvity of cnzymcs.

o'

J vf,ricty of frcrors sucjr as cxr.crnal

Other examples may be valid. pages 68_71

srallc is causcd by r'hc coroniscrs - rnacrobic bacLcria. EqTymes rrom lysosomcs cells releastug cell conrcnts on rvhich anacrobic bacteria grow. As more cells are broken dorvn, the bactcria sprcad.

ll:,lt:"down orcak ' . '

As rhe body liqucfics, adulr ilics can lccd on ir too. Bccdcs arrivc whosc iarvac lccd on maggots. Parasitic
anrl Asscssincnr Guidc for'rcJchers

The bactcria are rollorvcd by a numbcr of species of flies, c.g. browflies, rvhich lay eggs'The larvac (maggots) leed on the rissucs, bre aking their down further.
rvasps lay their eggs in thc larvae.

Ede\ccl A2 tsiology lrnplementarion

!ndrcchnici:ns opcarson E(ru*iion Lrrnircd 2o09

""* ",""o in. When *;"""'move ,n".,", *,,i'li]::"f *. body arc roo
h i,

il;*
r"

it drres

*ffi;;;
tnd
JcvcJ

s'rqrsn[ spccics such'as

t.l-,e

Ehcete fiies

r,..,r.i.t'

*one .h.,uin =:r1;av,

; Jj ;::XT:l: T::: ll_,,.*: any more, bcede . -.b ldrrass bcedes,

reed the hair unril on
onlv drv bones arelert.

, ;r"^jr::,;:;:::::
notj'ihsr'de
cnr pera ure

morh iarvae

ham beetres and

"'. ,",;o:.; bui t"t ".;f,l:::.:'ll:'"' ''ct"a,. ."icntn,lutside)' "*"t t'iio'turc

r

avairabiriry

n:ilH:i:; ourd bc r,". of rl-re cllect .iil,f T:::*, of clrcmt*,l."lt]'-':','"u'o';;;; t'he ratc on dccn-^-^: ' rarc and,"*". For exampre' llll rcrcLicns
sh

'r cxpusur"'r
1l, "i

3
ts+cJ 4

succession

"r

,long *in'o]..jotvs-a regular patrern sor bv e. ort'irol'rruion th" condiio,,;;;;:?;.':'*ining fie srs.c ors,,"^- ..

foir,

;*,.l#::]'vmic rllTililll'linsccc t;t"-^,:,:. Y to

tl.re

lcvel

"'*;'t"j:"n' "tt-ttrr.. ,fri,i;?::ff;tt"t

in a bodv'
ss
ca

n"'"'t'.*,.
1,1"

Exposcd ooo

a c ri

;:;-.r ;:'.'";ffi::l;r:^tdm,*i{[$:":,1""i',#l',n:J;:::"?.t: .h"ng"", ,, ., ,I_tl-oeraturc r; ;;: ;'r[. ".. y or c jll'j:'1,'. il;;::;iff::: -" '-rirpcraturc lssomposing :: ":,
;:TffTffi

il:li:ii:

H'ruiii::: :;x
shorvs less r

cs "ri",",jl'"[,t^""t1]:1:,0"'" ^;r,;,;;.:ff:onc cn

vi

th

AdvangSgg5,''

organisms.

are duc ro variadons

"

wrth obtaining
Disadvanl2ggs. organisms,

''

fcwcr cr'hical issucs'

in the

'"'"

orpis

ff

'ffi iltit:f;:t'-$;',;.:;:li:.:[::'i;']Ji"t""it'_1,ii."",,,"
a;rr.flgt
so r,hcrc
Lhe r

l::::'.,'';;":;ll arc not pcople,

;:].,j,:u"'

carcasses,

rewer probrems

Advantages:

Discdvanragcs:

"'
n

jrccdv

rcrcvanr ro n

nurnan
A

",:::]:: bodics,,,;li:1^,::::'"lJ*r,-.,iri.:..
cre

ny o rher,.,.

;r;;

um

;:;,

rc m

ein

;;";:

,::::'tisation

of hurnan bodies

pages 72*77

ffi l'ffi :XT.H: :ri:l:,',

rr

am.ino ac.id cha.in.

*r* *i""L" fi 3j x:* l^i" i:;:{''i",".. i:*;J}iil:":x,ffi I*"^f :T,Hlt,fr r..,,., 1"'"''" '1's imp'r'[an'l I?J. i,:ffi i;t H' i,:ffii;1":,Y::-: :id;l ::l it ; H t**i $ffi:::::l;H"n;;:^": ::1,r,: ff :: ;ffi:: Jff;;:.*.; ::,;T: .*. il: ;;::il"I.,].ll ii,i ; :::unna n, rc', c, ":j::il cd'' ;t; *m#:friifr ilr i;:I T: J':..l.ffi i,"..,..m j:; i'i,rffi Ili,lliHli-..,.,..il::iii *iJ":,?#;:*ff ffi.:,":,?il:,,.";;;;il:'";ilil:iil*.:j;:.J*j::i',,T;l;;,: ="
;Ji ::: i:: _TH#:;T TiH[:1 ,o::::'" 't "..i'"-""'il,.j ;:'^:::T'*""
"
n r

::.,:,,,1r,

^^--

rnore informar.

s,,w. or,h or rhe *u ee e three

is

*:

rc

n,

ff

Edexcel A2 Biology ImpJcmcnradon

,u acld ln a specific place in an uicianscPors"n'

and Assessmcnt

Guidc forTcrcllcrs

andTccl

2 [s+cl

-fhe ansrvers should includc some oI all of the following. other points may be valid'
is

.iianscriprion:ArcgionofDNAunravcls.onlyrhc5'primeDNAsuand(thetemplate uanscription or anlisense suand) is uanicribcd to give a singlc suand oi rnl{NA''l'he

broughtaboutbyanenzymecalledDNA-directedRNApolymerase(RNApolymerase). bases) on on the DNA givcs risc to a complcmcntary codon (uiplet of Evcry rr.iplcr "oJ" replaced rvith uracil in RNA' Apart tire mRNA. Every rhyminc in tl-re DNA rempiate is fromthischange,tlrenewlySynlhesisedl{NAsuandhasthesamesequenceasthenontemplate, coding or sensc slrand of the DNA' membrane and Translation: mRNA molccules pass thIough the pores in the nuclear

movetothesurfaceofrheribosomes,transporlingtheinstructionsfromthegenestothe

sirco[proteinsynthesis.Eachtl{NAmoleculehasaunitofdrreebasesaroneendofthe molecuiek,'o'"n",thcanticodon.EachIRNAmolcculcalsobindstoaspecilicamino
acid cJcpcnding on thc cotlc of thc anticodon'

.fhcribosonrcsarctlaclculrol.alargcatlr]astlrrllsuburrir.-llreyarc5O%llNA.Thcy
surroundthosepartsoithemRNArvhic}-risbeingaclivc}yfanslated,andthenmove

alongrodrcncxrbit..fircirjobistoholdtogcthcrrhcnrllNA,IRNAandcnzymes
controlling thc proccss of prorein synthesis in tl-'c corrcct posiuons'

ThcribosomcstartsrcaelingtlrenrRNAataSl'artcodon(AUG).Thiscodesforlhe

amino acids to the amino acid methioninc. Molecu'ics of transfcr RNA carry individual alongside a complementary surface of lhe ribosome. Each tl{NA lines up its anticodon

codoninrhemRNAandisboundinplacetotheribosonerr,hileenzymeslurkrheamino acidtothcprcviousoncitrtl.tcaminoacic-ieiluirrbypcpuclcbonrjs.oncciisjobisdonc, theIRNAreturnstothecl'roplasrntopickupanotheraminoacid.Theribosornemoves alongt}rcmolccu.leolml{NArcvcalingonccodonafteranothcrunulthcendisreached polypeptide chain' at a slop codon (UA.A^, UAC or UGA)' producing a complered

.3 ts+c]

Theansrvcrssho\rldinciudesomeorallof thefollowing.ot]rerpoinrsmaybevalid' TheyusedthemouldNeurosporacrassawhichhasashorrlifccycle,iseasilygrownand

medium (with few murarcs easily.-I1e original srrain of rhc mouid could grow on minimal and sugars it ncctled. Moulds were exposed nuuicnrs) as it could synthcsise all amino acids

toXraystocauscmutadon.N4utadonsinthcchcmicalpathlvaystharaffectedtheability
mutated slrains needed to synrhcsisc particular amino acids would show up casrly bccause of added to the growth medium othenvise they rvould die. Crosses one or more nuuients amino acids cou]d differenr sfains rvere carried out, to show drat dre ability to synthesise all hypothesis that and be passed on. From thc evidcncc of many experiments came the

return

a single missing cnzymc was rhc rcsuit of tl-ic mutadon of one gene'

enzyrne) for example Scicnrisrs recognised that rhc cnd result of a gene was not always an definition that it could be a structural prorcin or some othcr rypc of protcin and so the proteins like hacmoglobin wele unraveued) became broader, As rhe suucture of complcx scienrisrs rcaliscd thar sc.rmc prorcins wcre made up ol scvcral po$pepride stlands).and thlt ciilicrcnt rnrriarions changcrl diffcrcrrt polypcptidc strands which shcwed the gcncs protcin' rvcrc cociing ibr indivrdual polypepticlcs, not ahvays thc samc thing as the final

.iye now know rhat diffcrcnt proteins can bc manufacrurcd from the same gene, from *te evidcnce that.all r|rosc protcins arc alTcctcd by murarion in tl.rat gcne.We also understand of thar pos!-ranscripdonal changes may occur in mRNA, lrom observations of the action spliceosomcs. OtJrcr poinis may bc valid'

lldexccl A? Biokrgy Implcmcnration and Assssmcnr Guidc forTeachcrs andTcchnjcians oPexrsoo Educatjon Limiled 2009

irli:rj

i!; Pages 78_81

::rt.lt,

I *

is the producrion of an anarysis of rhe DNA of an individual based on mini- or microsatetite groupings from a limired which can be compared with similar profiles from ou\er individuals. ""*b;;;;;;"ns

Used to produce a DNA profilc.

. 'lhe

srands of DNA

cndonucleases

*t i.h ,.o*

Dirrerent resrricr""

sequences knorvn as recognition sitcs rvhich are found ar cirrrer side of micro-satellite rrnits.

.il:::iliffi :::Hl J,",ff ,l,fi :::T ;::,*T:.

leaving repeatr:d

a sample are chopped into liagmenrs using resrriction

."r.,,r.,,..r',n,r.r.

mini and

The fragments of diffe

f

ragmcnts"..pr,..ai.'TJ,I:T1T".J,:.;:::oJo:if

mainrain a consrant pH).

i:T;:i,:ff _Tl::J.:

' '

,1."'ON^ bands visible rvhen rhe .o*rno,r,r'ur.O ay. is EtBr (ethidium bromide). A different dye is also .aa.a ," ,fr. ONa samplcs to shorv the posirion '
electrophoresis is complete.

The ger contains a dyc rvhich bincrs to rhc DNA fragmcnrs..I.hc dyc wilr fluoresce when p)ace d under LJV light, rv'ich _rt",

Ti"

n-lor,

the sample s

..

uh.y

-ou.

*uough thc
through

gel.

of

the appararus and rhc nNA fragmenrs *"::""i:"J:;:JJ::"',:"9 rherragmenrs_"".;.,"i;i.0.:.;X."J"ffiH:':;::f

move

When elecrophoresis is complete, the plate is placed under UV lighr. The DNA fragments fluoresce and shorv up .i.u.ly," be identificd. il;;; I'his is the original mcthod:f p"" fingerprinting, rvhich needs a relarively large of DNA ITslrowsuplargcDNarrrgmJnrs.r",rt,"r,mjninrunrol50basepairs,i.e. sample

DNA fragmenrs are usually placed in

.;r;;i;;

;,n**l?:,i*:X

minisatetites However smalrer regions DNA i;i;:sutcrJitcs) and specific genes can no\v be idcndficd using cxtcnsions "f o[ this
t".t_ln;qu".

polymerase, primers lsmatt sequences of

The porymcrase chain reaction rcpcats dre normar rcp)ication orDNA using the enz),me DNA polymerase. The reacranrs _ ,fr" OI,IA t"-0,"
_

th' ,"p"."t.i DNA ,;;

n u

cl

eo

d d

ase

ar

The reacdon mixrure

the

w_hich

DNA suands ro scparare as rJ-e hyilrogcn bonds hoiding drcm togerher break down. The mixture is then coo.led do*n to 55_60 "C anneal) to rhe singre DNA suands. r.rnuuv rh. ar leasr a minute,This is thc optimum ,.;;;;;;
builds

;J::":::::-:1\^ lvhr:h. {::J:jn:",: f :'r: I Tf,' :l is first heatcd ,o so-g5t i*.00r,30

to be amplified, DNA DNA ,,uhi., mu:t join to thc beginning or

;;ffi

:,e:*;,;h:

seconds which causes

ilJH"T:::T:.r,"li:11."..,
I

'llhese three basic steps are

ro .o,norn..n,a ry rands
s

or D NA

o";

re

of rhe original

DNA,

rcated around 30 rimes to druuro JU trmes

:: : X
giit

::'#..,.fr
1

:round

:,:IiJ.

billion copies

Edexcel A2 Biology lmplementation and Assessmenr Guidc for'ftachcrs and rcchnicians opea.son Educadon Limired 2009

4 a

using Traces of biological matcrial are uscd as a source of DNA rvhich is amplified pcR and then used ro produce a profile. Because the chances of wo individuals having the same DNA profile are extremely low, when the DNA proflle of a of rheir suspect matchcs DNA tiom thc crime scene rhis is takcn as sfong evidence

involvcmcnt in somc

rvaY'

boniyidcnricallwinslrrr,cjdcnricalDNAprofilcs,lrcrlvcvcrfamilymemberdshorv of one many morc similaritics than non-rclated people"so, if rhe DNA of a suspect

will come ctime is checked, if DNA from anothcr family mcmber is on the database, it is not up as a close march. This can lcad policc to thc rigirt suspect) eve n if rheir DNA
on drc databasc.

rcel

42 Biotog) Implement.don

gPcarson Educatioo and Assessmenr Guide for'lcrchers anC'ltchlicians

Liniled 2009

Pages 8z_83

' X UJ

2..\

harsh condidons and rerain

Extemely small so can casily ger jnro rhe body. Sirnple s,'ucrurc of prorcin coar and gcnetic

infecriviti

matcrial mcans rhe virus can wilhstand

::i:."tr"r . '

a.achnrcnr poinrs (VAps) ro cnablc thc'irus ro :rrr:rcir ro spccific tvpes of

gcnomc.
ts p

rranscrip rase is then used ,, ;;:;:::: a template

:::::Ti:::, #.il::::J,:'3"i:K:'

Some have specific mechanisms lor injecdng rheir DNA inro cclls. Virar geneLic matcriar is adaprcd ro take over hosr cclr -..n"r;r;;. For example, direcdy as a temprare for borh neiv viral oNa ,.a i,,rre mRNAs

to the viral genome which lor :'^::i","^^ new viral proterns and ultimately a nerv viral RNA

"irr corrcsponding

RNA u""'

o'i,",r.*",',

or rcvcrsc

Orher points may be valid.

tS+C1 'l}e answers should include irrsluse somc or all of the ibllowing. Other poinrs valid. mav be a Like living organisms, they reproduce, con genetic material' undergo obligate lnr...uurr. orrrlr"""r'""l"ll;.illtarn evolurion, are (can onlv exist and reproduce .r'o^..rti, in rhe celis of other living
i

tr

Unlike living organisms, drey don,c fecd, respire, excritc, movc, or shorv sensidvity The onJy characterisdc any ofriving *rings shorvn is reproducdon.

";l:n:;*"'es

pages B4_85

L! tS+C1 The ansrvers should ,rLrucre some include or a. of the foilowing. ail . valid.
releases rarge

Other points may be

afrer

gcr inro rhc rr.sr cc' 1hcy inscrr their h.,;i;lT:;:::'::;;::L':::.:':t *,t hosr ccll divides.No is produced t oth" DN; b;:";.". .7.3: 'RNA causcs thc producrion of a repressor prorein "i.-l which -"u;ii;|;rr;o:::"-u''"',4'n"s ffi ::t""3;::::,1:*"'"'ao'-,o".vi'I,,"'il:il::il.lilx'*il:t;::'"' Jiuons' r^ l*]j a Reroviruses have RNA ' as genedc

Lysogenic: Viruses

u.. -i'. uy host ccll, which evcnruauy biiris ana numb.rs ofnew virus ou.,i.i.r.rnar. go on to invadc other virus is said to be virulent ' hosr ceus.The Cir.r,._.;;;;;;.
r

Lyric:virll gcne.c mrtcriar is rcplicarcd indcpcndcntly of r_hc host DNA straight glterir.rg th,e host celr. Marure ri^r..

DNA inro ,n.

b They

mareriar iniread of

DNA ",,.J;;::T'["j:fi:L::RNA into ,r,. r,,., o*a. v,;li 3",ifi:'#:?:l:.,i:::: ,:,i1" il:Ht,*:::erted
proreins

have more comnlpw tir^^..^r^by reverse

DNA.

nrst has to bc rransrared inro

^"0
Edexcer

"*.i,

.ilff

ll,T

ii}iliiivira

m^NA

ac

Lr;'

;,"*;::

l*,'"*,,i,"r

42

Biorog-y Impremcnrarion and Assessmcnt

cuide fofTcrchers

and

rcchnicians opcorson Educstion Limircd 200g

:'::il,tii
rr'rii..,Ji

i;il'';llfj
d!,'rnx!,nF{i$rr7f+f,.ttF!{@rtsjftlqiir:i:J@&ratrs,$t!LrKd6lfd&-8rs&1x\*F!}*F$r:!:titjwRl:rani*{}'Jst'It

pages

86-87
includc sonre or all of thc following. Other compararive

X^ '

/ R iS+Cl Thc ansu'ers shouhi

\)- points may bc vaiid. 5tructurai features

Average size (mm)

Animal cells '10-i00

DNA lipoprotein cell surf ace membrane

Bacteria
0.5-10
DNA
cel[ surface membrane

lMruses
0.02-0-3
DNA or RNA may have an outer

Cenetic materiat Outer tayers

and bacteriat cell wall made of peptidoglycan with

lipid enveioPe protein coat ot caPsid

made up of rePeating
ca

olher compounds
such as teichoic acid,
lr

psome re5

po

polysaccha

ri d es

may have slime capsule or lrytr

Main inclusions

nucleus

generic n

conta'nirB ater.al (DNA) ribosomes mitochond.ia Colgr body tysosomes vesicles cytoplasm cenrriotes c)'tosLeleton vacuoles endoplasnric reticulum (RER and

I I |

cytoplasm geret;c ma:e:'al

{or'r.n)

genetic material

l'PLasnids
l'mesosomes
I I I

I
I I I I

sER)
varie5

I
I

Movement

may not

may have

i,agellae

.
I :il'.

movement

move, may be

amoeboid, may use cilia, fiaBelia, etc.

pages BB-89
,i"r

li) a . b \-/

Rapid, reiiable

can occur cvery 20 minutcs in

idcrl condidons

Brings ab<;ur gcnctic variation rvhich can cnablc bactcria to survive unfavourable conditions.
shows that genclic material can be taken up by bactcria in

(2'; z h
tf

sflficient quantity to

'r

bring about a changc in chrracrcr of the organism. and in this casc make it infecrivc.

Whcn rhc dead bactcri'a wcrc attackcd by cnzymcs t]-lat dcsrroyed cerbohyd-ratcs and proteins it had no clfect on t]re ability ofthc transforming factor to changc
the R bacteria into S bactcria.This shows t-hat the uansforming factor is neither

carbohydrate nor prol.ein. However, rvhen the DNA is destroyed, the uanslormadon does nol rake placc, providing strong evidencc for DNA as the transforming factor.
Edexcel

A,

;riology lmplementarion md Assessmcnt

lrlc for'lcachcrs and'l'cchnicians Ol)carsur l:ducaLion Limited 2009

90-91 *{ses 1L/ts+c] Thc answers

-**''"*w>Ejoeicirii*;[;i;aiH
qhn,rr.r

i-^r..:

*'

other points mav be varid Ill":,, .,,,. o,,.j,lni).|ff::::"tr;:,]:'|."'forlowing and olism of the cell nelv viruses.The causing it rn *-r.^ host ceil" ..a,,^!_^,1 , ;"" il:;":ffi ;i IT: ::: .ffJ5i: ji I1-' F J;:;:'fi I lil.T'i:::' ; T: *: :: : ,Tm ;r,,,: 3li;, il;lil ; ;: m ;*".r*;l
I

Bactcria: Cause diseasc rhrn,,-h ,u^ nndc,rox,ns

I hev

ofien cause fevcr,

"..

=;ff ,,ooo","r*il::f: #::l;l::u.,,, rhey grou, and reproduce. laycr of Gram-n.guriu.

-

;: fi ::::,

ut"..n..ll,,l

.;:"t :::*
.:.,

u.",.riu.

c - i:.,- ;;;.:";H,:ff
o, or

il::::'fili:i:,,"Jj:ff
water.

"T::';;;;;,;;:;;.l'lTfi*' ,::;::,iili:'i:llr::: * o''"'*'

carbon compounds in decomposers, carbon

;I
c

*;::::iT;::?:,.,
+
CO2 in air

.o;uuotuttt in rpounds

stages: dead orgaoic matter

decomposers

pages 92_95

$ ts*c]

The ans,,vcrs

varid. Sujrabic

.
.

' vecrors:,."rn.*j, ii"li*,:.";;;l . fomires: narural skin ffora and sebum . direct contact:
skin

.rbr" ,,:::r11

incrudc sornc or uil

':; ::t''"

ftrrrorving' otr:cr points mav bc

inhaladon:

ingesdon: saliva, mucus, stomach acid inoculadon: clotring

-"",; ;;:;;.:,Til",#,,tt"
.,.

'$ Lrrorr*.s

.:-\ lj) .Phvrl.rl barriers: Skin is a tough

parhogcns

are enzymes rhlr ,_.r^",-^_. r clesrroy bactcrial mucus rhat line' rvalls L)'sozvmcs ott ..'111t-tan are prescnt in the acr to desLroy bn.,".ir, *;";,';;"t' ur:nary and reproduclivc 'n" patricularly tracts'They are also present,r.r,.r.,"o,"1" Gram-positive bacteria.They and dcstov ural .:.'gt'tlt might cnler and infect
<

]:i'j:o" """-' tilil: il;';;,

the eyes.

watet

ceris and

,."", ,.,",llollcuter
*n'ch

Mucus forms a sLiclc

"",u;;:;*',:*;::?j:j::""t,
""

layer impregnared wirh kerarin rhat prevents brood-rich rjssrrcs rvrrcre ,r,{,

"oura

i,,u,a.

,, o.n,

o,*".";,;::,:1::
o

v,,,., . Chem.ical barriers:

resp ira ror

lTiJ"'''';

; ;",."n'# il'J J:lTl

acrs as a physic

"ff :;TfJ

ilr ogen s

Sebum is a laycr oioi top of the skin that con: grorvth of pathor.ni.'ot _o_. _, 1,,. t..i, b", skin b a cteri a.

;;; il; "",1,;:' ::il Tj.ilT..:,,ffi ,X:;

and Technjcians ,Opcarson

Acid in rhe stomach h desrroyed

Edexcel

',

*", ,.";T.1T

pH and acts as a barrier ro mosr pathogens rvhich are

Educatjon Limired 2009

42 Biology Implementation and Assessmenl Cuidc forTLachers

iii::::'til

''i::'._..J.:: i -itt:i: i:

l1:iiiiiiii'in:
S.1t3.*;r!rr:':'

Biological barriers: . Skin and gut flora

rhe body.

and lining thcse arc tire hcalrhy bactcria grorving on the surface

thetubesolrl-rebody.'I.hcyoutcompetcpathogcnsandprcventthemgainingcntlyto Lysozymcsarecnzymcsfoundinn'rucusatrdrearsthatbreakdownbacrerialcellwalls and kill ihcm bcforc thcy can infect the tissues'

Thevomitingreflexejectsbactcriaandvirusesfromthebodybeforeaninfectioncan
sPread far.

AnY other valid Points'

oaPes

96-99
rclease chemicals known Masr ceus and damagcd whltc biood ceils
as hisramines

:'rvlriclrcuusct]lcblorlJr'csselsitttiteutelt,llrrtieulrril,())eilltcriulcs,ttlclilutccrusirrg s4'\ wlocalheatandledncss.Hcatreducestheefficicncyofreproductionofpathogens.

capiilaries lcak-v so fluid, incluciing plasma, white Histamines aiso makc *rc rvalls of rhc rhc capillarics causing swelling (oedema) biootl cels and anribodies ars forced our of

and often Pain.

..$Thiteb}oodce.Ilscngulfpa*rogcnsbyphagocyrosis,anlibodicsinactivatepathogens, pain makes you takc care of iniured sirc'

2l]ccauscthcysimplyrcacttonol]-Sclf-tilcrcsporrscisnotspccifictoaparticular
pat)rogcn.

3 a

by lowering the A raiscd lcmpcraturc can hclp rhc body combat infection bcttcr at highcr of rhc pathogcus' Also thc imtrunc systcm works '-^""1"'1ion ratc rLPr uuuLuvrr combaring thc infection' and so rvili be more succcssful at

temperalures

blfbodytemperarurerisesabove4O.C,thedcnarurationoisomeenzymesmayoccul causlngp.,*un".,,tissuedamage.Ifrlreremperatureisnotloweredfairlyquickly
death maY result'

Tcichcrs an'l Tcchnicians OPc'rson Educa!on Limtr'd 2o09 Edcrcel A? Biology lmplemcnl,lion md Ass6smenr Guidc tor

pages 100*.103

Q rrr" imrnunc sysrem re *: o"o, n*. ."ir;:: T:: ;.T#"#il:: i' surracc or p arhosens. rhe ceus :l -'! urrlrrurrs system recognises as selfand anack thcm.
so does

not

pathogen. r\
production of

B cells:These have rece invading t;;;.;r:ilttor

- '-eY Sive rise to cloncs of cclrs

proteins which recognise the anrigens on rhe surface r.rf .halrilriuc9 a'ribodies to u ,p".in"

T cells:These come in t

anribodie killcr cells produce s. T

types

'f

(+) Non-sp.crnc

helper celis produce chcmicals that stimuiare the chen *:tdcstrov parhogens.

responses rccognise ,n. ;".J;." ;";:''^t' gcncral reacdons ttttont' non-sclfand iniriate against anything thar is non-se'. o.ll"n response invoiving rhe masr ceils and ,h. The specific responscs o rccognisc nor just Ve ry specific non-scll but andgens

hir,r;;;;:1:;j:: :l.?;,::1,-_".,
also

a,h

o gc

s,,'. o ;".

;;,;""lt:-1--'""^system: ;,: i " "': fi il;T #

*fi

TJJ

t* *Tji1*.11:.,,..

Edexcel

,A-2

Biology Implemenration and Assessmenr Guidc for Tlrchers rnd Tec)nicians 6person pducarion

Umited 2oos

fages 104-105

C ' *:' ' @ a o -

Disinfectants kiil bacteria lrom the area, lrom insrruments etc.This ieducei the Iikelihood of bacteria bcing uansfcrrccl from cnvironrnenr to the patient/wound. Antiseptics are applied to skin and to wounds.They kill bacteria and so reduce rhe likelihood of wounds becoming infecte d, bacteria getting inro blood etc.

Anribiotics desroy bactcria rvithin a parienl and so rcducc rhe likelihood olinfecrion passing from one person to anodrer through cither dircct or indirect contacr. lndrcl80Os'3{J0rvot.ttcnrlicclperl0OOOObabicsborn(600-900womeninfectcdpcr 100 000 babics born). lh thc carly 20OOs cicar-hs terc 0.85 \romen pcr l0O 000 babies
DOrn

G fft"i. \-/
year.

work was important bccause it shorvcd clcar cvidence for rhe eflectivencss of antibiotic drugs in trcating a bacterial infection which killed many young women each

It

feU short of modcrn erhics and standards because rhcrc rvere no lab trials on dssues and cells, no conuol patients rvho did not receivc the drug or who received a placebo, no doublc-blind trinl, probably no plticnt pcrmission for rhc trcatmcnt sought, and no

ethics committee decision on rvhether thc uial should go ahead. Other points may be

valid. pages 106-107

(! fi." following describcs the basic inlormarion. Orher dcrails may be found from research. \r ' Ronald Hare, one of Fleming's young assistants, found that penicillin mould grows
best at quite iow temperatures.

' Dr Cecil Paine,

ano*rcr onc of Alcxander Fleming's pupils, was rhe fust person to try peniciilin our on peoplc. A local nriner got a stone in his eye and had a massive infection rvhich was making him blind. Painc washcd rhc eye with his penicillin cxullct, and thc cyc rccovcrcd. Painc also usccl his pcnicrllin wash to trcxt a tiny baby which had pickcd up an c1'c infecdon as it was born.The baby was curcd and irs sight
was saved' Painc nevcr publishcd what hc had donc, bur he taLked to Howard Florey, a new professor at the uruversiry, who wcnt on to follow up the work.

'

. '

Norman Hcatlcy rvas a kcy man in drc Oxford team. Hc worked out a way of making enough pcnicillin to text it and carricd oul thc following cxpcrimcnr. Eight mice rvere infected with bacteria which would kill them in 24 hours. Four were given penicillin. The four treated mice stayed hcalthy - but rhe orhcr four died. In 1940-41 Heatley dcvclopcd special pot vcsscis so hc coulcl grow morc mould and so collect more pcnicillin. In just a fcrv wccks hc had madc cnough pcnicillin for Florcy to uy ir out on
a

lully grorvn man.

Mary I-lunt brought a mouldy mclon into t}rc jab tirat shc had found on a market stall. The mould was a new sort of PerLtcillilnz which produced much more penicillin than *re originai srain.Thc ncrv mould rvould also grow in big fermentation tanks ivhich
was the break*rrough which cnablcd industrial producdon to go ahead. Ms Hunt got rhc nickname'Mouldy Mary'.

lldcxccl A-2 B . 'rsy lmplemenlalion

ud

Asscssmcnt Gu:

iorTcacl)crs andTcchnicians opcarson r :rucrtion Limited 2009

t2/ u Ant rrvo examples of rhe aclion of bacter ia clearly explaincd. b Bacteriocidal means it kills bacteria.
reproducing,

l^

Bactcriosradc means ir stops bacteria grorving/

" ,arH::lTi::i_
infecdons,

some andbiorics are bacteriosraric.ar.rerari'e)y rlrc

;x:::;Tffj::::1J,": " G.;

inlccrion,;;;,";; ;;;","""."

low concenradons,

pages 108_1

1 1

Mutation causes a change that arfects the way the antibiotic gers into or affects The antibiotic is a selecdon the bacreria. facror by
rhere is rapici evolution so that rhe

t "

Liirirg.u u*.lia thar arc sensidvc ro it.Thererore rcsist*, orn. i..""r"s lre
mosr

.orr*o,,

f,l:,

The answer should include some or ali of tire following. Orher points mav be
a

iorrr,.

Keep antibiotic prescripdon to of treatmcnt with anubiotics;

of rcs. mutation being selected for. Make sure that rhe whorc course or.anribio,,., ,, .r,rur, srighrly increased resistance rvith onry a are definiteiy

anribiorics in *re case of C. dilficite. Minimise exposure to reduce rhe liklihood

be espccially

minimuml ensur fJlat padcnts complete the course careful with the use of broad-specrum

3 a . b 4

Narrow-specrum andbiotics are urscred *".:^:::::,:Ttt"*'' are causing rvhich spccific infcction. so they arc lcss lik"cly ; ", ,;;;;:l-tms minimise opporruniries for r,,tora ancr so

"u.o Broad-specuum andbiolics wipe out large numbers of the normal gut flora dfficib can get established, produce so c. ,"*ii; ;;;:;
a

".:::;l;;racrcria

c. dfficite;"

il";.::,ff,lt.:::

}ixamplcs of good practicc inclrrcic: . Docrors, nurses and. other health carc prolcssionalr
arcc':hoi based gers between seeing parients reciuccs chances of passing ti.,..n *. So";*-;;;;

,..""J;;t[* jTiil:';'.",':"t
""
.

arcohor gers

,o

,h.rJ;.

orrimited u,.

lrom the

which might carry bacrer.ia rvarches and rong_srceved shirLs ir-he.,* HeaJrh professionals ,ear w steriliscd scrubs

Avoid clothing

i. o",i,"iil,*Tff;:h,"1"J,": ,r
from pat

.;;'";:;r.;;:::,ll:.',,e,g.

rong rjes, wrisc

outside.

ail drc time to avoid bringin$in pathogens

' '

Monitoring parienrs lor inlecrin^ r_t-rvhen -r_:-_. admitdng and rreaung and nursing in isoladon avoids spread
Encourage visitors ro u inlection into hospital

"ro.*.;j:l:t'ion

'
.

'fhorough

i:':ffiT il:

use alcohol gels to minimise risk of

bringing

cicaning oi hospirai.war<isr roilcis, bcd pans ctc, prcvcnrs spread of disease 'i,v and conr:ols the removing br.r..i., :-,

Using chlorine_bascci disinlecrant ",". to be sure C. dirlic;lcis destroyed. Any otlrer valid points.
ljdcrccl
n

fr..;i;:

2 Djolo!,y lmplcmcntario

3nd Asscssnrcrl

6uidc for-ltrchcrs !nil.Ji.clttic;rD3 cl,(,!rsoo Educarjon Limilad 2oo9

Pages 112-115

Natural activc immunity: Inlcctcd by pathogcn rvhich mry rcproducc and cause 'sylnptol)ls of discasc.'l-lic inltlurtc sysLcm is lctivatcd unrl thc imnunc.cascadc iniriatctj: B cells, antibodies andr cclls produccd rvhich dcsuoy parhogcn. Immunological memory et-rsurcs that if the pathogen is mct again, *rc immune systcrn is acdvated before disease
results.

Natural passivc immunity: Anribodies against various diseases are passed from mother to baby through placenta or in brcast milk- Short-tcrm protcction against these diseases as immunity is losr widr time,

Artificial passive immunity: Antibodics produccd in onc individual or animal are given to anothcr individual if drcy havc comc into .onto.r ,ultl, a panicularly dangerous or rapidly
acting pathogen, e.g. letanus. Short-tcrm protection as no immunological memory involved.

Arrilicial activ irnmunity:'ll.rc immunc sysrcm is cxposcd ro rlrc attenuated pathogen (e.g, dead, inacrivared toxin, attenuated livc organisrn, protcin coat fragment or DNA
fragmenr).This srimulates rhc immune rcsponse.The immunological memory ensures that if thc live pathogen is encounrcrcd again, B ccils,T cells and antibodies rvill deal with it bcforc it can causc symproms of discase. For cxamplc, vaccination against polio,
rvhooping cough ctc.

2 Astlreantigenporrionofvaccincbccomcsincrcasingiypurc(bitsofproteincoat,DNA .
immune response.This is thc rolc of adjuvants
fragmcnts ctc.) somct-hing clsc is nccdcd to srimLrlalc inflammation and thc full,blorvn - researcfi into best material to use. Anv other valid points. 'l'l.rcy arc l)ot inlrnunc [u drrr diseesc, thcrclbrc if thc5, nrecL drc padrogen in aris counuy or abroird rhcy are likcly ro become iil and may be permanently damaged or
die.

3 a

b Ila c' '

child is not vaccinared, ir may carry infcction or become ill and put other unvaccinated children (e.g. those allergic to eggs or rvith compromised immune systcms) at risk of the discasc.

From anindividual point ofvierv,completely ethical. In lactircouidbercgarded

uncfLical if parents did not have a choice o';cr rhcir children,s treatrnent.

as

From a socictal point of view, it could bc argued that it is unethical rhatindividuals tluough ignorarlci, misconccptions, laziness or indiffcrence could compromise not tlnly rJrc healdl of tllcir orvu cirildrcn irut also thc hcalrh of socicty as a wholc und the rveakest membcrs or it by tlucate ning rhe cirnccpr of herd immunity. So from
ihis perspecdve it is unctrricar that parents can deny rieir child immunisation. Any orher valid poinLs.

I-'i

r\ccl A2 IJiolon' lnrplcmenlrtion rnd Ais,:

, rn

cnr Gui<]c Ior -lcrchcre and

ltchnic[ n. ,! I carson .Lducrrion Limi

rcd zoog

whooping cough and cases bfdamage caused by the disease began to be seen again.The scare was shown to be no more than a correladon which had caught the eye ofa doctor rvho became convinced of the problem, in spite of a' evidence ,o ,h" It took ycars for public confidence / !q' ! rvr vuu'e uur "onou.y. in the vaccine to be restored,
hor,r,concerns over the NIMR vaccine came about; rhe efrecr of rhe media and how the story rvas reporred, including the rack ofscientific analysis in rhe reportingl the response ofparents; and rhe impact of thc rcduction in takc-up of rl.rc vacci.c on ['c nunrtrcr of cuscs of mcasrcs, mumps and rubella, including their worst side_effecrs.

A link benveen the whooping cough vaccine and brain damage rvas suggested,The rncdia took hord of tlrc story irrLl publis'cd ir, rrut ig.orcd drc rnct rrrat whooping cough is known to cause brain dam"ge in some chiidren rvith a quandfied risk. parenrs panicked when they heard the-srory and didn't rake thcir ch'dren for vaccinadon wirh the rvhooping cough raccin". More childrcn *rr.t"d ,uff".ing from

Materiar on MMR

as

produced by students.This shourd covcr

pages 116-119

1 . t is uansmitted lrom one pcrson ro anorher by droplct inlccrion. ' It can aflect a wide variery oftissues, bur pardcularly infecrs rhc lungs is easily coughed out and spread. . ' It has evolved a protective wax outer covering.This allows

rvhich means it

' ' 2

bacteria with the random mulalion rvhich providcs thc tirickcst ourcr co:.lr ro ror vcars unr'trre nort i. i,' a ro,v rcsponsc, at which point thc hrcrcriu can trkc Ir,ll,l rncl bcu,rmc ire rivc.f1165g bactcria bcst {incd for surv.ival in drcsc co.rliLions ura t]," un", rv'iclr rvill bc passcd on. Anacks the immune system of the host and so red.uces d-re delences against it. * has evolved resistance to mxny of the most commonly used antibiotics, rvhich means it is more successful at surviving and spreading easily.

phvsicarc;;r',J:li,,lrT':::::.Til;'jJ""'*'t

immune response forms a mass dead bacteria and macrophages uapped in the cenue u,here conditions are completery anaerobic After about cigrrt wecks trrc immunc systcm controls the urL mycobacteria, the ilrvcuoacterlar inflammarion dies down and the lung dssue heals.

Primary infecrion: oftcn sl,rnpromless but causes an inflammatory response from the immune system.The

"rrirr;.-;;il;;;;;il,.,;,-

Evcntua'yTB causcs dcarh, ciLhcr bccausc Lhc inciiviaLrar c'.nor gcr cnough oxygen from the air tluough their damaged lungs, their organs f ail *Lrough lack of nutririon, or *rough opporrunistic infections such as pneumonia.

Active rubcrcurosis: the bacteria mrrlriply r*pidiy ancl dcstrpy r'c )ung tisstjc. symptoms includc fever, night sweats, loss of appetite, loss of weighr, fcciing tired and listless. As rhe infecdon invades rhe lungs, it causes a cough. As r-h. clugh ,"._";r., Uil.:; Iungs bccomes damaged and btood may be coughed ". *" ,;;;;;;.,;";*., ". the tungs is stead'v destroyed, "oln rvith the arvcoli b-rcaking dorvn to ,ril;;;;., ;.r'.,.n, air spaces_TheT cells of the immune sysrem are ,ff".,.0 so antrbody producdon is rcduccd'

Edcxccl A2 Biology Implemenbtion and Asscssmcnt Guidc forTeachcrs and Technicians Opcarson Educadon Limired 2009

,_:

.:::

[S+C]
valid.

The

. . ' ' '

Povcrty: malnutrition thcrcfore supprcssed immune svstems making infection easier, Crowded living and r.vorking conditions: ease of infccrion.

High rates of illncss frorn malaria, watcr-bornc discases ctc, so immune system undcr
prcssure.

High rates of HIV/AIDS so the immune sysrem is inacdvared, making opportunistic

infecrion easicr. Poor infrastrucrurc and limitcd mcdical rcsourccs, so lack of vaccination programmcs, lack of accuratc diagnosis and lack of drugs r.o tlcat symptoms cffectiveiy for the dmc requircd.

. Catlc infectcd 4 [S+C]

wi*r bovineTB and milk not pastcuriscd.

ti-rc

Thc ansrvcrs should includc sorrc or al] of

following.

Any valid points, well-argucd and rvell-rcsearchcd matcrial, showing awareness of the conflicring perspcctives of scicnlisrs, farmcrs, poliricians, tlre general public etc. pages 12O-'123

Initially alier infccrion pcople may have lcvers, hcadaches, riredness, and swollen glands but may have no symptoms. About 3-12 wecks after infecrion, HIV antibodies appear in the blood so person is I-{IV posirivc. oncc rhe infecrion is esrablished, au symptoms disappear and this stagc may lasr many years (in fit young people with access to effective anri-AIDS drugs), or months to years (people with litrlc food or medicine). During dtis sragc drc virus rcplicutcs, infccr-jng drc CD4-l:hclpcr cclls but is kcpt in cficck
by drcT killer celis.This is rhc sragc whcn othcr peoplc may bccome infccred *uough hlgh-risk behaviour. E*cnrualiy secondary infcctions devclop as the irnmune sysrem begins to be overwhelmcd and symptomaric disease returns.The viral load becomes so large rhat the immune system can no longer cope.The normalr:heiper cell count falls Iiorl 500 pcr mnr3 of biood ro about 200 pcr rn*3, and symptoms devclop including weight ioss, fatiguc, diarrhoea, nighr swcnrs and low-gradc infections such as t]rush.This rapidly progrcsscs to the final stage. As thcT:hclpcr ccll numbcrs fall, scvcrc symploms bcgin to appcar such as major weight loss, dementia as brain cclls bccome infecrcd, canccrs (e,g. Kaposi's sarcoma) and serious infections such asTB and cryptococcal mcningiris.These scrious diseases, along with opporLunistic infection, such as pncumonia lead to dcarh.

klc:ccl A2 Iliology Irnplcrr,r :tation and Asscsvncnt Guidc for-I.rcbc:! :nd Tcchnicjans opcarson Educadon Lii, :.d 2oo9

, fU::,

Thc answers should include somc or all of

rJle fot)orving.

Orhcr points may be

TB: Bacterial; infec* a wide range of cells, including lungs, lymph and bone, as weli as macrophages of the

rvi&inthe,";,,0"..;;-:!:!:#Til;lili.iiff

ir

::ilfi#.::;:::,::,0'-*'to
cured by

rungs o.

-^rn,,t irio,,

:::,"J:T:fi :J.",".:,"?,,fi ;'.",', but arso

reaves body

oo",,,o

anribiorics;.r.i'#:T.T;*;iTffiilcm;

can bc trcotea effecuverv anrl

HIV/AIDS:Viral; infects the helpcrT ccils of trre immune sv*^tr. ori^- :_:^i , . systcm; afler initial infecrion pcriod rcmains dormant rvirhin rhc inrnrunc ,rr,",r, ,.lun. a pardcurar ser of svmproms bur rhemain imiacris vulnerable to a w'ide range of opporrunisdc inlections which usuai)y resurt in death; the course of disease can be slowed bur nor

J;:H:::,i1.iilil;iilll1,
*.oi.uJo,i'; il ;:;;.,,*

vaccine.

prevenred uv

;:l:::::T,"T::,_.,*.?" evolution.

Main mechanisms: rhe rhick coat of M. ttberutbsiscnabies *rem ro survive ins.ide macrophages for many orrtl dormant o, ,10*-g.o,uing srarc.This is the resu* of '.n.r thickcsr
coars survivc

aJd wiil be abrc ro inrect other hosts, :ssful pathogcns. Multidrug-rcsrstant srrains are also the result
rhcrctbrc cvolurion) mcan changcs in arrtigens which makes virus' The targetting ."u,

of

ltfiTf.Htil.T:(and
'

:iffi: :T:,::::::*'

or immune svstem fighting the virus' Rapidly antigens makes vaccine productio' evolving very dilficult. Some pcople have genes which make thcm rcsistant ro Hrv. Jn counries where the wil bccome oo,-,.in"ni i* u'iopuradon as individuars with them

reduce'"T:lr:iil.T,:"#;::},i

J.

Edcxcer

A2 Biorogy rmplemcn.rion and Assessmeot Guide forTachers 3nd rechnici!ns opqrson Educetion Limiicd 2009

Pages

128-129

{ lj -

It supplics energy in thc forrn of ATP lor all ccllular reacdons. ft also supplies subsrates for othcr metabolic pathways, inciuding amino acids and larty acids.
strcngths: succinct summary; sums up thc nccessary rcacrants, rhe desired product and rhc waste products; gi'cs a balance chcmical cquarion to shorv the proportions ofrhe reaclion chemicals. Limitations: shows it as a singlc reacdon, when it is a complcx series of reacdons; doesn,t show wherc in the pr-ocgs-s ATP is made; gives no indrcarion of the enzymes involved; thcre is no indicaLig6*H@ff*{vc substrrles can bc uscd; thcrc is no mcndon of hydrogen acceptors, coenzymes Etc. Any other valid points.

pages 130-131

Q a Resliror.,"t"., *"ur.,r.

'{ (T) lfne apparatus rvith rire two tubcs rvill givc morc rcliablc cvidence bccausc rhere is: * " " clcar scale to mcasurc changcsl syringe for recafibiarion; KOH on bot]-r sides to
@

A-

carbon dioxide output and use rhat !o calculate oxygen uptake during respiration. Looking at the whole organism, ir gives an overall picture but no detail olwhat is happening in individual cells, e,g. u,herhcr the carbon dioxide comes from aerobic or anacrobic rcspiradon. Any orhcr valid point.

eliminatc drc amount of carbon dioxidc in normal air lrom the results. Anv orher valid poinls.

Euidan." is ncedcd to associatc rhc subsrrare molcculcs or enzymes involved in a particular stage olrespiration wi*r the mcmbrancs or the contents of a pardcular area of a mitochondrion, e.g blocking or poisoning of one mechanism and observing the buildup of product in a parricular arca of the roitochondrion.

'

pages'132-135

During vigorous cxcrcisc, tnusclcs rcspirc anacrobically, producing lactare which builds up in muscles and is carricd arvay in the blood.Whcn cxcrcise stops, as well as the
normal oxygcn dcmands of the body, lactate must also be oxidised 1o pyruvate and g)ucosc in thc livcr,,{f i'] and phosphocrearinc rcvcrs nced to be ,"rro..d, myogrobio needs rcoxygenaring, and metabolic rcaction ratcs are faster due to raised temperalure
using more ATP. So r-he oxygen demands of thc body rcmain high for some time after the complction of the excrcisc.'l'hc rare of brearhing continucs to be raised to suppiy the necds of the body and t.he hcart ratc rcmains high to pump extra oxygenared blood around rirc body and rcmovc thc cxccss carbon dioxidc.

Diagram similar to fig.7.1.6 wirli anr.loradons such . Glucosc, 6C sr:gar, is starring point.

as rhc

follorving

. ATp uscd ro phospl.rorylarc

glucose _ 2 phospharc groups added to give phosphorylared 6C sugar, onc reacLion conrrollcd by pi:,osphofructokinase, rarecorlLrolrirg rcacLior: Iirr l.c wrrorc proccss of cctular rcspiraLion.

'

Phosphorylated 6C sugar split to form 2 moleculcs of 3C glyceraldehyde-3-phosphare

(GALP).

rdc-\ccl

'\2

Biologv lmplcmcnlarion and Asscssrrrcr:' Guidc iorTiachcrs andrcchnicians opcar ,

Educarion

Limircd 2o09

:i':T'"r:::;i'Jf "r*..1; ":,.,":T:::11""-toproduce'-",..'l-,'"Lirl,1'::'HlT?:,i::

The

Each molecule of GALp converrcd to pyruvic acid in a serics of steps _ lor each molecule of GALp 2 hydrogen aroms removed to reduce NAD which is passed along clecuon uur.f../t

i'irial phosphorylarion

;#H},,"

reacdons arc reversed before rhe finar intermediare is pyruvlrl.c ancl drc |)rosp)rirtc grou]) ,.t.,,r..t ;, usecl ro proclucc A1_l)

. If insufficient 3

2 molecules ofpyruvate enter mitochondrion and go into Krebs cycle for every glucose molecu.le rvhich enters glycolysis.

oxygen, plruvate con,.,rrteC to lectatc o:

erhlnrl

energv which is used to phosphorvrate 3 rvhen rie 3c sugar is converred to pyruvate. This rcplaces thc ATp uscd up to prime ,o p, 6C sugar, and the remaindcr rhe is available o, ur"iui.n".r^;" :,::^:^,::,:p crgy lbr ccll metabolism, that the substa,. assuming -.r.. on into acrobic respirat.ion.

During the proccss trvo hydrogcn atonrs arc rcmovcd from r'c 3C sugars and taken up by NAD to form reduced NAD rvhich ,f_,.n

.or..ur.r;;;s;T;;il:i';:T il:H*

.nr.r,

,f

pages 136_137

Giycorysis: doesn't need oxygen ro produce ATp; linear; rerarivcry simpre; takes prace cyroplasm. Any othe r in valid point.

Krebs cycle: needs oxygcn ATp; cyclical; complcx; rakcs place in ll.produ.." mirochondria. Any odter valid point.

c y c

IGcbs cycle alonc docs r e d ucc y p ro cl u c e s J:i; ir,T:

r

H::::::*il':;Hn:'"'o"t I valid.
Itebs
re s u r rin g

fl : : Xh chain' which in turn rereascs encrsv rhar is used to drive

:ffi?;

::i

,-:

::1,,.::

lllill ti,li

filli

tS+Cl The

ansrver should includc somc ,lLruuc or all of thc following. ail ot other points may.be

used enzyme
i

inhit.

:1":: comparcd to an anarysis of the normal process..This cnablecl Krebs and his team of scjcndsts to work out exacdy rvhich chcmicals r*i"*,*u in a particular stcp of thc process. Answer could include diagram of appa.arus used.
pages 138_14.1

n a bur

-up

il"J:.,".:::: ;ff

:11:

;.ffil;; il

;S:#**

t ::;",

The ansrver should include somc or all ol the follorving. Other points may be

Diagram should show all stages of aerobic rcspiration: grycolysis, link reaction, cyclc and elecFon transport Krebs cl.rain,
u

sed and formed,

diagram is

iHil:iil important.

..or.J'o;3,,.:lH,Jfi :ff t..?':::r. inai.",,.n n"; ;;;; :: I.ffi :.::,r; i:::f:$::ii1 -,, ", bc inclutlcd' clariry
*r,lr.?ar,."a NaD
and

making

al"r, ,ulor.

;;

of layout of

Edexccl A2 Biology lmptcmenetion and Assessmcnt Guide forTeachcrs

e ,d Tcchnjcians Op.arson Educarion Lihilcd 2009

The oxidation ol glucose is a muiri-stcp process during rvlrich rhe glucose molccule is splir inro 3C unirs, builr back into 6C mole cules and thcn dismanded again. As hydr.. ;.,
is rcmoved,

it

is used to reduce carrier moiccuies that pass to dre clecuon transport ei:,':;r.
bee n

As the components of the chain are reduced and then oxidised again sufficient energy

is releascd to drive thc

production of A"I'P. By the end of rhe process glucose has complctcly oxidiscd to crrbon dioxidc and rvatcr.

Glycolysis (at the start of acrobic and anaerobic rcspiration) has to expend ATP to move re duccd NAD into the mitochondria to reach the electron transport chdin; one hydrogen is removed frorr cach 3C sugar in glycolysis,while 5 hydrogen atoms are passed into
thc clecron uansport chain from each 3C pyruvare molccule that enters the Krebs cycle (acrobic respiration only); acrobic rcspiration involvcs completc oxidadon of glucosc

while anaerobic resuhs only in its partial breakdown. Any other valid points.

Energy from electrons as thcy pass alcng the clecuon uansport chain is used to acrively transport hydrogen ions into thc space bewcen the inner and outer mitochondrial

membranes.The hydrogen ions cannot pass through dre jnncr mitochondrial membranes. So a conccnualion gradienr lbr hydrogcn ions is buih up ilcross rlrc inncr membrane.This also creates a pI{ gradient and an clccuochcmical gradient. Aldrough there is a tendency for drc hydrogen ions to movc back into thc mauix, thc only way thcy can move back is *rrough special pores.Thesc porcs arc found on dre sralkcd parriclcs, and ihe movement of
thc hydrcgcn ions *Lrough drc porcs is iinkcd to

an{l'Pasc cnzyme.The cnergy ftom thc

gradients is used to drive rhe synthesis of ATP. This modcl is important because it provide, a mechanism for the observed cvcnts in a rvide variety of cells, and it shorvs how the removai of hydrogcn atoms from glucosc molcculcs can rcsult in the production

oIATP

ffi

Edcrccl l'.: iIi.logl,ImplemcnlaLior, and Assessmcnr ( L dc forTcrchcrs indTccluicians OPcrrsoii Jliiucadon Limircd 2009

Pages 142-143

1 vhole muscle

is made u p of m any mus clc fibre s. Difrere nt libres :night have different duesholds for response, or dirfercnt levels oiresponse, so whcn the rvhore muscle is stimulated the contracdon might be more or less than expccted. Striated muscle
attached to the skeleton involved in locomotion

5mooth muscle
not atiached to skeieton
involved in moving food through gut, controlting

Cardiac muscle not attached to skeleton

pumps btood out of heart around lungs and body

diameter of blood vessels etc. controlled by vo{untary neruous

svstem
controLLed by involuntary

neryou5 System

ccntracts spontaneously, some voLuntary and involuntary control

striated appearance under microscope

no striations seen under microscope

striations with cross connections seen under microscope

contracts rapidly

contracts slowly

average around 70 contractions a minute does

fatigues rapidly

latigues slowly

nct fatigue

jages 144-147
'4 "

'J l::bitas an A I I' energy

respiration takes place in rhe mitochondria supplying thc acrive muscle cells with supply. Myoglobin is a protein similar to haemoglobin, with one chain rarher than four, rvhich binds oxygen ancJ has a much highcr affinity for oxygen than hacmoglobin' Myoglobin readiiy acccprs oxygcn fronr drc blood und acrs o, on.r^r.g.,, store in *re musclcs.
Fast rwirch fibres havc ic,.-m1,'c!og: and liulc myoglobin: rhcy produce a quick burst o[ aerobic energy then anaerobic respriition conrinues: rhey farigue qui.tty. sto* wit.h fibres have many mirochondria and plcnty of myoglobin; rend to have a rich blood supply bringing oxygen which is taken r-rp and srored by the myogrobin; atow plenry of aerobic respiration over Lime .

. e ft

ps9 ^'

Lee muscles contain lots of srorv nvitch fibrcs, wirh a good brood suppry and lots of myoglobin. Therefore these muscres are a dark colour, contain lots of mitochondria and so provide sustained activity for walking around but less speed and power in initial contracdon. Breast meat contains more fast wvitch fibrcs, rviu\ rclatively little myoglobin and lew blood vcsscls. Thcrcfore drcy arc a palc colour, goocl for short cxplosive bursts of acdvity such as a shorr flight.

Edexcel A2 Biology lmplemcnlation and Asscsrncn!

cuidc forTeichrs rnd']'cclmicirns opearsod Ed,ucaliotr Limitcd 2009

'{ tS+Cl'lhcansrvcrshouldincluclesomeorallofthefol)ouing.Orherpointsmaybegalid
5[ow twitch muscles
deep red (lots of myogiobin) Fast

twitch muscles

pate pinUwhite (little myogtobin) few capiLlaries

lots of capiltaries
{ots of myoglobin to store oxygen

little myoglobin
large gLycogen stores

not much stored glycogen

littLe sarcoplasmic reticulum

lots of sarcoplasmic reticulum fatigue easily relatively few mitochondria

doesn't fatigue easily many mitochondria

Pges 148-149

L 2

Diagrams as in fig. 7 .2.7, fully labcllcd to show rhe H zone, I bands, A band,Z lines, actin and myosin {llamcnts.

Calcium ions rclcased in rcsponsc to nervous srimulation o[the muscie set up conuaclion of thc sarcomcres. Calcium ions bind to uoponin changing rJre shape of thc molecule. This changes t1-rc shapc of the ropouin mo)eculcs, so'&cy pull on *re tropomyosin molecuies ro which they are arrached.T'his moves the ropomyosin arvay from lhe myosin binding sites on the acrin moleculcs, exposing rhcm, so thar rhey can bind with the myosin heads which sets up the conuaction. Calcium ions aiso needed for the acdon of *re ATPasc enzyme in tfrc myosin he ads, rvhich e nables rhe heads ro renJrn to thcir
resting position.

3 a ATPbindstorhemyoglobinhcad,andthereleascofenergywhenitishydrolysed - iroganic
ailows rhc hcad to rcturn ro rhc rcsling posirion.Thc bonding of the ADp and Bhosphate results in changes in the shape of rhe myosin head so it can bind to the actin binding sitc.The release of rhe ADp and inorganic phosphate resuhs in another shapc change rvhich rcsults in lhe rclcase of the myosin head from the actin binding sitc. AfP is also nccdcd as drc crrcrgy supply for rhc carciurn pump wrrich returns calcium ions to the sarcoplasmic rcticulum, ending the contraction.

b [s+ c]
valid.

The answer should includc some or ail of thc follorving. other points may be

Aftcr death, once there is no more ATP, the myosin heads cannot returftto the resting position but remain lockcd upright, so rhc muscre bccomcs stiff and rigid.

pages'150-151

SVnovial fluid is produccd by synovial rnentbrancs

i. joinrs *,ith biggesr range of movement. It acts as a lubricant bctrvcen thc cartilage covcring thc ends of the bones. Prcvcnts wcar and tcar o[ *rc crrriirgc.

l'jdcxccl A2

ffi_

Biologf Implcmcmation and Asscssmcnt Guidc fo.Tcachcrs anrlTcchnicians c)perrson llducarion Limilcd 2009

/l .p 4 (:/'
'

._,***"lwssec**liiiii?;ni#siffi#"{
sones; form the lramework and support; hard, suong dssucl act Ioinr".\,,L^-^ two Joints: rvhere .-- bones mcet; ; allow movement.
as levers.

boncs rn prace so rhey uonc.s in ptace uscful work withour they can do becomins.""":;,'";,':;::':ru to oe elastic Lo the joint ro move ruh", allow the n"."rJ^.." .,^;^:'^,::."tuu 1':'".:d be erastic to auow J. bones -;;;;;:::"t":::l.l?,t^'.1, -r":r'L rrsstrc grvcs s,.c,,srh rvith crasticity; ", tightness of capsules ' varies rvrth movement needed in joint. "r r,. Muscles: provide the power ro move rhe joinrs; Ur_r. :;; conuact and attached to bones bv fenrJn.o rr,L,i^L r-.,,relax; are bones by tendons *hr.h i^tt:-'n"o confaclion of the muscle is converled into t,dub as u.rey can onJy pull, so muscle moves a bone in on :1 i:Te."'sl; one and when ir rclaxes, anorher muscle puuc rhe bcne back to iis orisjn:l piace, orig.inal .,,":ir..,ion

ljii,fiT;Tiil.l:ff:::::"::lrhe

joints;hord

i*.,

";o;i;;;;;iliil':::::::]'::'-',"'::'".'lvcs
;;t ;;;;;, i";l

moro*^., ff :J:T::fi"#J;:::: :::::

il, ;ffi :::::1,i:il::'::.

Any othcr valid descriptions, diagrams erc

Edexccl A2 Biology Implcmcnurion

ud

Assessmenr

Cuidc forTeachc.s qnd Tcchnicirns Oparson Education Limitcd

2OO9

ri:]i!"':i+i

Pages

52-1 53

The natural pacemaker should send impulscs regu)ariy through rhe conductivedssue of *rc hcart to thc vcntriclcs ro rigger thcm to conuact and pump blood out of the heart to the lungs and around lhc body. I3y dclivering elecuic shock to the ventricles when the SA node fails, thc artificial pacemakcr uiggcrs conrraction in rhe ventricles and replicares the intrinsic rhy*rmiciry of thc hcart bcat.
P wave:

clccuical impulscs uavelling from SA nodc.

QRS complcx: wave of excitaLion spreads from rhe AV node and through the ventricies.

*rough the bundle of His

T wavc: recovcry of contrrcrilc

pages 1 54-1 57

tissue and rhc vcnuiclcr.

normal blood pressurc

cxercisc raises blood prcssure

detect rise in blood prcssurc

baroreceptors in carotid arteries

barorcceptors send ncrvc impulses to cardiovascuiar centre

in brain

ccrdiov'Jscul?r ccrtuc scnds ncrvc irnpulscs to hcart and blood vessels

heart

ratc slorvs and blood vesscls dilate

blood prcssure fails back to normal.

7
70

rcsl excrcise
:i

re(overy

ro
5

10

Time/minutes

3a
1

At rest
6000 14000 '12000 10000 800 600 400 200 0 14000
12O00

Vigorous exercise

10000 800 500 400 ?oa 0

fmm-Fn-ls

ffiffi
.g$
qY

o"r*

"+*

-".b \n' v*. <c" ^S' .I? ,C

Blood ftow at rst

r.*l*ob".{-tt".".rt.r+' +t * .
*d
os

Cr'.i_*+'".|'''{o-{.,o"o;ir"e
\$ ^,."
o"'

Elood flow during vigbrous

mrcise

I
ffi

$ [ fi
Edcxccl

Sl frl El

heart tiver adren4l g{ands brain tung tissue kidneys

5kin

il
El

hearr liver
adrenal glands

Sl brain B! lung ti$ue

l-i'l kidnevs

&l skeletal musclcs

other parts

El skeletal El siin

rnutcles

$l

other parr

A2 Biology lmplemcntaoon md

Asscssme

nt Guidc for'lerchcrs md'ltclnicians opcrrson Edusdon Lifrited 2oo9

*r r;::,T:i:;:*:".ii:::::; :,i the b,ood supp,y is shifted rhe :::m*,,.#ffi j ffi i H::: ffi n:Tff l.i,' ;:H T:,J:,"T_ bloo j o.* ;;;; and illilT|";,::T::: :T:J:oxygen into ";;;; ;;;J, ." o "",ood the the skin also increases body,. Blood
now ro rhe imporraut. BlcoJ
s

During exercise th

b,ood ,o

,.,'

Nervous controi: involt

-l*lll.'.T;ii#::*:.lllJ il;,ll':.J; ffi il".',,I,.

sympathetic ncrvcs specd up

*."r,","1"^^.*^rr:ure

florv to

,"o,.

lflccr *rc aO*

cardiovascurar
rv

n_ervcs srow ir down;

""O

herrt rare, parasympatheric n.'ntutt' come from cardiovascu dJalar ccnrc; impuiscs lrom Lhese nerves r"l."es *. .nrur- o"ii

hi c h

ar

rre c r e d

baroreceptors

irnportant
heart rate

il;il.

as

r..r*.;l;;;J..Iffi ffi'#:.l,.".l" exercise;;,;;,;,,'-:"'":::::::'n

j:ffi:::Jt**::surc

".nrr" o, ;,0;": ;.1T: :,: :_.:_,..:,1

i.h"nr"

il,

:;: l,:: : il: n"j ff : " hearr as .*"..i.",,".*

!h,:

n::k,rvhich

o.,.0.,

carbon

is parricurarry

Voluntary conLrol: - nervcJS from conscious parts '^-' ' of rhe brain can arso t'e srimulate or inhibir

dio*',. ,,' *. ol"io'"i," .o..,

sAN.

Hormonal conrol ;adre stimurarcs rhc SAI{. hcarr so it bears faster.rnt"n. td more Anv othcr varid points pages 158_161

'";';;;;;;:'l"i';i:lrlr;:'""'""

rarc

ortre

r'*r; ;;" *'u'i'":t:'l':..:: "t:mcasurc 2 IS+cl The answer rnor""ount'n'o'"'*'

Also,

Spiromctcrs can bc uscd [o mr,rcrr",, tr,.. r.__ .t $s lrrcadring I'rt r-he

arr'l rvhilsr cxercising etc'

D agram shou,a in.,ude

ife;::::j:ffi:

:i,

*il ;m

;:::d-: ;il"-::-':::,,,.
T,;

:; :

:;H t* :i:i1;ii:T:

';:'"T;

ill+ri: lTffi cnuoned dircctJy or by

. r d b. d

es

association.

Edcrcer

42 Biorogy Imprcmenkrion

and Asscssmeor

cuide for,oachcrs rnci rechnicians opea.son Education Limired 2009

id!:i
3CarbondioxidelevelsintlcbloodincreascrvithexerciscaSmorecellularrespiration fall fail as carbon dioxidc concenuarion goes up) and
rakes place (and pH levcli lvhich

ashardbreathingcontinuesafterexercise.l-evelsaredetectedbychemoreceptorsindre oltirc ncck and the aortic bodies in hindbrain, rhc carotid bodics in tl'rc carotid artcrics

rhcaorta'Tlreyrcspondtochangesinlcvclsbychangingdrcratcofimpulsessenttothe impulses to *re intercostals muscles respirarory cenue in the brain, rvhich in turn send

uni th. dirphragm to

change the rate and dcp*r of breathing'

srimulates the respiratory cen[e to Brain cortex: recognises movcment has begun and cause an increasc in brcathing rate' and in thc lungs mcasure the dcgree of Suctch rcceptors in musclcs rcgistcr movcmcnt)

stretching,andrespondwirhimpulsestotherespiiatorycenfetoaffectbreathingrare' Voluntarynefvescanbcusedtoincrcascordccreascratcordepthofbreathingwithin
reflcx kicks in' boundaries, beyond which the normal breathing

Any otJrcr valid suggcstions

4tS+Cl.lleeansrvershouldinc]udcSomcola]lolrhciollow.ing.otherpointsmaybevalid. For:bcstwaytocollcctdatatohc.lprvirhucetihgbrcathirrgproblcmsinotherchi]dren; Iesponseinchildrenisdifferentrotheresponseinaduits,socan'texuapolatelromadults from ir)'

(aud probably got a lot ro chilclrcn; children involvcd enjoyed rhe expcrience put children at risk urulecessariiy; they Against: could have bcen v.cry risky - not right to rcscarch so not a good reason to do it; conditions rvcrcn't benefitting dircctJy {iom rhc wcre cxlreme and onc chiid srugglcd with thcm'

pages

162-163

lMctabolicreacdonsproduccheat.Duringcxerciserhe}evelofaerobicandanaerobic
of hear produced increases respiration in dre muscles incteases so the amoun! can denature cruymes and damage the metabolic considerably. High temperatures internal tcmperature by proccsscs thcy control. Maintcnancc oI rciltivcly conslant the core body tcmperature from swcaling, skin flushing and so on is vital to prevent

risingtohighcriticallevelswhenpositivefeedbackmechanismsrespondbyincreasing m:king temperature rise until it may the metabolic rate so proclucing even more heat and
rcach lcthal lcvcls'

2[S+c].lhcanswershou]dincludcsomcorallolthefollowing,otirerpointsmaybevalid.
Srengths:givesdircctevidcnceofindividualhumanrespclnsetochanginglempelarure; indicatc cffect ol changing can control conclitions qurrc closcly so thet rcsults clcarly
condidons. studied; takes a long time to Weaknesses: not parricularly comfortablc for person bcing

cojlcctdataonalargcnumbcrofincjividualsinmanydilfcrentconditionsinorderto
Produce rcliable conclusions'

ISdcxccl

andTccluricirns oPcarsolr EiluceLion Limited 2009 A2 Biology lnplcmcnrarion anrl Asscssmcnt Guidc for'llrch$s

pages 164_167

t
.

llilTj::J,".,,T:Tj:j:i:,:j.:llerarure,wu rc d ck ;. ;' ;::: :: j through evaporation, and iincreased ;; heat lost :::: ::1 I*' 1*
e

b a

makes it harder to losc body ".orr." o-Jt.-, iirh thc negadve feedback sysrem as proronged walking means.prolongcd e*..rs h..t frocu..a by muscres. Also, ror rhc dog - exercising in heat wi*r thick rur coar can r."a ,J o"".n"*ting as rimitcd area for rhrough sweat. Any orher hear Ioss valid points.

and the exercise. A raised externar hear rhrough conducrion' He couid n"*

but it wr'uid take ir-:ngcr to rcstore rormal core body tempcrarurc. Any other valid points. Thermoreguladon is not as effective in elderly peopre.as brood circularion may be poor. 34'c is a hilh temperarure and so rhc man *'i ,oo, gct hot borh from the externar temperature

:11 i:':: "'"i""1*.,,.. hear,",. or,,*,,',jl::T:"ffi."rH?J;:::""'"'.rion orbrood vcssers in skin ro rise again as a res,* of themetabolic heat so the

ilTil:*:il

Drinking ice cold water can cause problems because ut, ,.,_ra, to drop the blood p'o'r u.."'r bv mu scrcs'"u n*"'

".";";;;;";""

ifill};r"*

;;:: blood

increase due ro muscre activiry and

il'J, ;rng so flow to surrace orskin means "n.*,o*

:

j:

J::::,1'

i.#:::::

reduce

rrr;::Tr:T::ili:::l;:::::.:

,"*f

Negadve feedback: core temperature incrcases, evaporadon and a.erioie shunt opens ,o heat is lost by radiation and conducdon ,na

srveaL.

,r;u;;;-,Jf ,ffffi?'J"li.'.T:.r';..rr*",
"o..

core remperarure down,

closcs so less blood flows near *rc surfacc of thc skin rcducing hcat ross by radiation conduclion, core temperatura and ,ira, ro*u.d,

;;;;:,.,,

,..,i

;_ffi * :::::':::::H:T::,
metaboric reacrions speed up

Posirive fcedback: core

n"a_O arr,..

wirh increase
ra te

of metaboric reactions fur ther,

; ";;;,J:'J;:;l"J:,iXl:'j::]]*.',
in crudi ng

rer

";

;;::T;:"Ti: ;I:l:il,:r.. ""

5.'. i:!:r .':: !i5 _:.1.:l

".i.l t!ij :
:.4:i:;3.j{r'i
a:.:.;-:.a4

Pages 168-169

1 tS+Cl
valid.

The ansrvers should include some or all of rhe following. Other poins may be

Fig. 7.4.1 shows dara lrom rhe National Statistics site collected as part of a Health Survey lor England.The samplc size is very large (ovcr i4 000 adults in 2003) so the evidence is
rcl iablc.

The obcsiry data for frg.].4.2 came from a study by the International ObesityThskForce in 2002, and rhe cycling dara from drc Departrnent forTransport in 1996.These graphs summarisc large-scale intcrnarional and nauonai srudics, and are considered convincing
evrdcnce.

The pie charr in fig.7.4.3 is bascd on data of ail newly diagnosed cases of diabetes in the
US, and again is a large sample sizc.

'

The graph in fig 7.4.3 comcs from Narional Institute of Aging in the US, with a sample size of abour 1000 people, all ofrvhom rvcre overweight and had slightly raised blood glucose leveis, both ofwhich are good predictors for the development ofType 2 diaberes. 45% of rhe sample came lrom parricular minoiiry groups known to have a higher risk of
developing d.iabetes.Thc survey compared this group rvho increased their level oi activiry rvith orhers rvho eirher receive d drug ucarncnts or placcbos. Sample size is relatively small here, bccause of thc breakdown by agc, and the cffcct of ethnic origin might mean that thcsc rcsults arcn't as valid for othcr cthnic groups.

2 tS+Cl

The answcrs shoultl include soms or all ol thc following. Other points may bc valid.

Correlation is when facrors vary in a similar way, either direcdy (going up and down at the same time) or indirectly (one going up as thc othcr gocs dorvn and vice versa).This suggcsts a link benveen the factors, e.g. something else might be affecting the factors in thc same way. Causation is rvhen a change in one factor leads to a change in another factor. A vulid mcciranism is ncedcd to cxplain thc causal link between thcm.

Much of the evidcncc for a rciarionship bet*'een level of exercise, obesiry diabetes and heart diseasc is in dre form ofcorrclation, as shorvn by the figures on rhese pages. Incrcasingly drough, scicntihc rcscarch is producing cvidcncc of causal links, c.g. that moderare exercise sucngthens the heart and circulatory system, so reducing the risk of
heart disease. A causal link wirh obesity is more ignore the impact of fitness rvhich may be grcater than simple

difficult to shorv because many sudies BML

pages 170-171

1a

8000moderaresrvimmers:largesample;
increases validiry and reliability.

inspiteofopenagerange)sizeofsample
age rangc

231I,35-37 year old marathon runncrs: big sample and clear{y defined
incrcascs validity and rcliability. 750, 40-8 1 runners: rcladvely large sample with defined,

if large, age range.

Thc answers shouid include some or all of the following. Other points may be valid.
10 men

running for three wecks: tiny sampie, all one gender, vcry short time scalc.

16,60-72 ycar olds modcrate excrcisc: small sample, gcnder not dcFned.
andTcclnicius OPcarsorr llducation Limitcd 2009

lirlexcel A2 lliology lrnplemotation and Assessmeot Guidc for-lcrchers

" l::*dies seem ro confirm thc hypothcsis thar r immune system shown cxcrcise benefits th by rcducing the incidc:,cc ::::T ls' tt-;; ;;r..J seem olURTIs' .Light sudies to suggcst stronslv. nnrr nn. l^.." ..,-..- , , strongly, and onc lcss srro'gly, ur;;;;;#"t exercise is damaging immune svstem as to the measurerl .; i"-";'^'^i:::::::*: o,r.:", rhe answers,;J.Til.:::T rur1rtr :l,Y,t|l'.i,.( ur arl
'alid.
In order to show causation, there needs to be eith many large-scale and
ovcrwhclming

oI the.foilowing. other points may be

suggest that one day a causai rin-k is rvorth

ei'idence from reliable studies o. il;J: to be a clear causal from scientific research. [n-k cstablishcd currentJy neirher of thes]s

,"o*"*trlrlu'"able, _^r,

although the data

pages 172-123

P wave: clccuical impulses favellino

frn_

n:*H*::iltr,...,*;i:"ii:J:1";::T:ilff
valve opcns

,;;;;;;;,t"venricular

valve closes' vcntricics

,,rr,.".or"-il'*'""r,,"

o".li*"*."0

wave : repor aris ation

;.:iiil:it.T:::ff ::Til:,::
ALrial fibr.rarion: auia Incrcascs

"il:::l,T. ::::: :: : il::.

bea ;;;il ffi;;::: 1':': inerfectivcrv; don't nli and emprv properly. eff ective,yr,,;;.:;;;,ili],:ilJi*":,|]ffi
Vennicular fibrijlarion: vcnrricles
causes a

ffi:,J,r;i:T.1 {, ; ff normei rhyrhm of

:",f ,ff

,.,h

e rva

y,h

rrre hcarr.

togcthcr, conrracr no longer conrract erradcally and weakJy. Littre brood ,, pumped into the arteries rapid fall in blood ore*.,,"" pressure, starving the ",::,;,-::J':"".tt body and ,;";;;;;;;:.. which brain, Of,.n l.rdr-;; *'#.; normal hea.r .r,v,r,..*"i" an elecric shock from , O"ii.lill;r.mcdmes O,

.,

,rr. ,,..rt'

ir. *.ir'nrr*,

:,,,"::.Ji;;;;,
,.ri.ii.

:il#:T.t:nsr

pages

17L177
ostcoarthritis the
i

I a Il
;

n,, u.. on'. I

membrane

The rvhole
awa

;.i",

m.k., mo.. fluid so the join, ;;:il,

;;;;.lff :il}::

cz

;:"#,il [.J'u...

o,.,, o n

co

m p re t

""" er,

u.."-. #;]::::'l:": :T . o ;'."il'" :':: r','.o"l:rr. ill"J "

, _-_

;:ttthe joint capsule thickens

"

a n d c u h j on s th e cnds thicken and the svnoviar

s

roo.

...!:sur ' ,,!r or ar ol the " ;:lT;"il".":H ffij:*: #:'T.;t#il:' fcllowing. otlrer points valid. may
In People over 40, osteoartlu

s'[a*s "l:::*.,,, " to rvear awav as we',

be

.,.

u,,s"'

*;;,,

;;;; .""0u,""',ir,;;irt:j::1".: *.', ;;;,;;,;;, thc kne. \y/h-- ^^_-:r ,rcclivc ,il::H;I:,1lfi ilt:?,Jt*""::"Y:i$il:::il"r.*.:T:;l1t:j surgicats ir is then erfe.,j". .;;i;; ;;; ;:ilil:..,::i.:.ffi:i::fil.
a less
Edercel .^2 Bioroey rmpremenlation

'r qoual} urc result of vears of rvear resull years ofrvear and joints and possibtv rornrs possibly rt . tear rear on rle t1-,e rt,..n .t Ltit^i.l-::::ll' Being ovcnYcight "'/qrrlo'l "sttrg ovcn'cight increases "nn., of osteoarrhritis develooing ofosteoarrhritis develonino i ,h.;;;.. ::T::i:ies. stain a ,,]n:r.aaras the , on the joirrts. People tne JorJrts. occasionally srrrrp. r-^* ^--":i occasionallv suffer unc:r 40 from osreorrri,.ir;"--1"-::..:::"t *" knee rhis is armosr arways either rhe resurt ;; ei ther the,;J; of a generi. .""T,?, ::::y:11,"' consequence ofa Lissue, or as a delayed tea, injurv in

lt

*,:

dd Assessmnr

'a'qJ nrt) ul.

Cuide for Teichers rnd Tcc hnicisns QPcarson Educrdon Limired 2o09

ii.!t

rl:r:I

i':1

2 a

The answer should inciude some or all of rhe follorving. Other points may be valid.
Case

history

Case

history 3

knee twisted foltowing tackle

knee collapsed, no contact knee swollen

much swelling around knee

joint

joint tender
sensation of something catching when knee straightened medial meniscus tear

joint painiui
movement very painful

compleie rupture of anterior cruciate ligament

(AcL)

Keyholc surgery: tlrrough a dny incision using fibre-opric tube with camera and miniaturiscd instrunrcntsl thc drmagcd are'r is cut away so healing can occur; playcr
should be playing again wirhin days; no necd for radical surgery.

ACL: also uscs keyhole surgery; uscs graft of ligamcnts from patient or donorl needs two rvceks rest to allow swelling to rcducc enough to do surgery th.tr 9 months
recupcration and physio*rerapy.

"ttd

In eidrer casc, an artificial knec would not providc thc same suength and flexibi.lity. This ueatment is exccllent for patients rvith pain lrom osteoartluitis because they can withstand some strain) c.g. that of moderate exercise. Top class athletes can't use them. Thcy also have a finitc uscful time, whercas a wcll-repaired knee will last a lifetime"
Any other valid points.

[S+C] Thc
valld.

answer should include some qr'all

olthe follorving, Ot]rer points may

be

The IAAF's ruling in 2007 banned the use of any devicc incorporating springs, wheels or any other element that providcs rhe uscr with an advantage over another athlere not using
such a dcvicc.Thc ruling against Pistorius taking parr in rhc 2008 Olympics rvas bccause tests showed athlctes using the blades used lcss cnergy than ath.leres with legs to achieve the samc speeds. Some issues; Should prosthcscs be considcred.just from what they can do biomechanically? Just because the prosthetic blades save energy, doesnlt necessarily mean that the rest of the body is saving energy, because it isn't rvorking in exactly the same way
as someone

with complcte legs, for cxamplc otl]er areas ol thc body may have to work
does

harder to balancc.

If pcople using prosfictic limbs could all run tastcr tharlablc-bodicd athlctes, whcrc
that lcavc olyinpic compcdtion?

If someone using prostheric limbs is able to compere on an equaFbasis with able-bodied

runners, would that relcgate the paralympics to a sccond-rate level of sport, particularly for those who couldn'r afford rhe prosrhcses?

Edexcel

42

Biology lmplemeotation and Asssstocm Guide forTiachers andTcchnicians ePcarson Educarioo Limired 2009

Pages 178_181

Some,d-rugs, cah create

].11n11.q_
are the ones

chinge in the body, eithcr increasing.physical

3.i1T'*','*:i:T::'lf.T;:""1'.f
fiat
are

2 a [S+C] valid.

""-o.oJ:::ttlv The answer should include some or allof the iollowing. t Orher
l

;anned onty during

:il.:,|,*.on.,,h,,.,"b.n,i.'d.*pr.,.ry excreted from the

bodv. These

points may be

winning

Genes that code for natural transcription factor an advantage in sport, and at competido. l.u"r

l'such

as

crydrropoiedn, can give

rhe difference between

.ro .",-i"-,"*
like rhis tc .

methods

first. Thc pie ssure

.vrn rs so grcar ," ,,:,"j1::1" rhar using,narural,

b steroid hormoncs: il:ffi;:::ffiffir.

verv tempring.

i:{"::i"l"J:*x*l ":j:...,. ffi rjil;i:l T":i=d;;'"i?,Ti,;;i.,'. il:*'.i;ilt;;ffi 3i*:*1i1::;ff : j"T:1:ruT*:;'";:ffi produced. or

qDiagral rikc fi g.

:;

7.4. r

Pcptide hormones: do not enter the cell; bind ro a receptor in the LU ccll mcmbrane; the membrane-bound complex ,.,t*,", .'r*"& thc cell cvtoplasm and niggers a prorein kinase cascade rvhich involvcs',cr.si:1:::11 acttvadon of scveral proteins until the different final product enrers dre nu.,"utt unu acts as a rranscripdon switching or, ,r,. g.rr., factor, linked to the synthesis orl protein (enzyme). (Diagram r*e

8,",,"i*, ol"?:,,J.ril?il,*bcrs

enzymes

nglz.a,zo in srudcnt

3a
b

d;,,;;;r:il*icular

Possible answers include: the number of students was laken from (e.g. all cities, rural areas,0,rr..., sur vey; wh o run d e d rhe s ur vey ; did It is inaccurate becar use, how drug usc the sampres.were raken.crc (as givcn ,,,

"tutt"d;
irit

the areas rvhere dre survey

t,;:ff;l'ltrffi::,ffil?

".

;;;"; J:llT l?;Jll li,T :i.::.,"ff

reflects rcgular use, on..-o',ry t, doesn't indicate where

.rrr*".,o,jot ;:1. "t

pages 182-.183

ffi:,

in performance i";_;;;,bur rhar is similar to range' so living high and baining ro* r.,u,irJ-ut. ri,,t. difrerence rhe error ro periormance. T'hc answcrs should inclu<lc some or all of rhc follorving. Orher points may be

The error bar on the left of the graph indicates a ranse of hFr.,, time (ge *i n g,ro*.r1 uni . The measured improvemenr

d..;;

;;;il;
*rr

;;lf il:r,:ff :ffi :,:[:"ffi'J

for ll:,Lr.:,"", cell counr proving pcrformancc max-rmum red is

not adequate

Orugs

,,

,F.elativist: setring a maximum tevel for total recl

i, ,U"rvr]".,se of drugs.

should be allowed in sporr and

is. rhe

so

Lt:

louoir damage rheir bodles using either

rr.:

is

t.mptea to add to rhcir narurar """0;;:*',:::^ .::l.t:"",

" onry fair way to

they might

hish_.rri;;.;ffiT::rilrffiwhere
fotTerihcrs
and

Edexccl A2 Biology tmplemenmtion and Asscssminr Guidc

Gchnicianr opcarson Educarion Limircd 2009

Pages 1BB-'l89

,.'1

''''

'.lrd leavcs move torvards itl roots Ligl1r' nccdcd fgr photosynthcsis; important tlut shoots light hclps makc sure they grow in the right n".d io be in the soil so rcsponsc away from direction; respond ro dir.egdon, intcnsity and length of c:i-posure' or arvay from the pull of graviry; roots 0.rl:tty, grorfih movements of plant parts towards

g-*

ro*rra, $tu,ity.-s\rgp1s-qw4y;this

germinates below ground

-l^^, ^l pLdrrrru.

helps to orientare the young plant as the seed shoots grow up, roots dorvn, rvhichever way up rhe seed is

Chcmicals: p1ant. roots

will grorv towartls somc chcmicals and away from orhers'

growth' Water: roots grow towards rvuter in the soil; w'atcr nccdcd for

&nLgr'qr..someplantsorpartsofplanrsrcspondtochangesintemperaturelthere n,ryUarposirivcmovcmcnttowardslowcrlcmperaturc'e'g'manyrools'orparrsofthe
planrmayrespondtoprotectthecellsandtissues,e'g.Ihododendronleavescurlinthe protect plant trssues coid; important ro help roots grorv in rhe right direcrion, and also 1o
from damage in cxtrcmc cold'
rcsponsc to touch' Touch, rhigmouoplsm: plants (particulariy climbing plants) grow in c.g. runncr bcans curving up cancs'

direction z'Plants respond ro srimuli by growth.They nccd to respond to sdmuli, such as co'linug to grow. Animals respond ,nd int.nsity of light, tluoughout tif. ,o that rhey can
rcsponsc io nerves to stimuli oftcn by movcnrcnt,largcly through lnusclc conuactions, in grorvth has stoppcd' so they can conLinue !o respou<l whcn Pages 19G-193

/? ts+cl
valid

The ansrver should includc some or all of rhc following. other poinri may be

Part of plant

affected
seed Stem

Effect of red ti8ht (tight, build-up of

Prq)

Effect of far red light (dark, buitd-up of P*)

inhibits germination elongation i5 stlmulated by far red tight exposure to far ted llght gives the ssme effect as etiolation

stimulates germination
elongation inhibited by red light

leaf

expansion is stimutated by red tight chlorophytt formation stimulated

expansion is inhibited by far red light chlorophylt formation inhibited

lateral roots flowering

growth of laterat roots is inhibited in SDP5 red tight inhibits flowering in LDPs red light stimulates fiowering

growth of laterat roots is stimulated

in SDPs far red light promotes flowering in LDPS far rBd light inhibitr flowering

Edcsccl A2 Uiology loplcmcnrarion md Asscssmenr

cuidc forTcachcrs anriTcchniciins @Pci.son Eduouon Limiled 2009

rqrnr 1'he ,'t tr+Ul r, answers should include ,__-s valid.

rc
be

surlc ail oI rhe follorving. other 'rlruqc some or all of the fc points may

iliT"rfi.f il;:,:._", flowering.gpi-cgl the

If it is a chemical ,rto
r1om
1.

messase is produbed in leaf exposed ro periods of light and l49ds-te m.

;:

chemical to bc made

",",

* {',Ti:
arirJ

movcd.

H,H ::.l,,nffi :i,.;l ;,n:,#.";:Tj,

'

both,

Suggcsrs chemical messroo m^,,^. r-^_ , message moves from onc plant to anolher ro stimulate florvering in

il,1'ffi:::n.uj",:fi:ll!;
t :il:'

"'n'

and dark

'IrrovLs

(,ur

i'ro

risslics orhosr prant

The answer should incrude some or at of rhe iolrorving. orJrer poinrs may be

short-day

Light detectecl by phy,tochrorncs in lcavcs

pl.ntr.

rhcn s plit rlic llow chart lor long-day and

Shorr day: dark period ofappropriate length or far red balance

,

ea

r c e,,s

"r

I ong day: dark baiance .r

r

ar

pages 194-195

convcrsion or Pp ro pps phy,;.;;;;;; #"::::":jllt* or rccl ll"1."tht+. eil s * 0 j,Trff,l':, 1 ",u." ".":,il':: J:,: :;: ; J,-,tr.r,"r_,.",1",; " "i no, ie.n "
i

j or,r,".nr.*., ;J"^",:l"j:]:::*.:: ]T &; il:,L:::, [ ,]' ill ]lT l' :; ;;:ffi",_..,a;; * period
ofappropriate length

light-

convcrsion of Ppa ro pp n o r'i o, g.,, i n

Photopcriodism: involvcs a major physiological chan flowering, which involves the transfer of a message from rhe reaves ro no*t"n.t regions o"r".lllilh.as of the plant; been set up, it continuJs, once ir has ::.,::^:l-" depends' 9q p-!Yla!l1r9acp- and'florigcg' Phototropisms: ,.,.,r.n ore localiscd; rely on auxinsl can easily be reversed source

d";;^"

*.

moves.

-'

rvhen light

Because cocoa buttcr is a fat, only fat_soluble substanlces are able to pass message passes tfuough tlLrough it.The agar (which is water-based) f,ut cannot pcnetate mcssagc must bc the fat, so the

watcr-solublc.

, ,t1", The answer should include ,-.q .*ruuq some or all of the follorving. surne a| valid.
Ir
E

Ottrer poiits may be

In all rhe experiments shown, the depencicnt variablc r'om

;::,li:' ffi: l, ?:il:'o

sho or

**

ilil;;

Delicate shoots so can eas ot damaged; simple design makcs invesdgations capable of being repeat.otu{ very clear; many dmes very cheaply and .asiry.

ti p in to ;15'r1[::'j j;L, j]""'

"'

r'

r'.

",,i i
p

oiililjil[
a

i]l'.'ffni"Ji..,, . gar; D : substance dirrused

"

Ed*ccl42 liology tnplemenurion od

Asscssmcnr Cujdc forTilaclrcrs irndTLr :luicisns Ol>carson Educarion Limitcd 2009

{$,f''iiti;r.l:
'I

!:'r

l.ffiiiii
.; a:

i;

'r,r'rli:-ti:ii-',.

pages 196-197

1 [S+CI
is not

shoot, so that the side of a shoot exposcd to

Unilateral light scems to causc the lAA molecules to move laterally across the light contains less IAA than the side which
me ans

ditTuses dorvn to the region

that the shoot tip acts as a photoreceptor. More hormone of ccli clong'.rdon on the dark side.The IAA molecules bind to spccific rcccptor sitcs on thc ccll surfacc mcmbranes, acrivadng the acdve pumping of hydrogen ions into thc cytoplasm,This changes ihe hydrogen ion conccnuation,

illuminated.This

proviciing rhe optimum pFI for the cnzymcs tl'rat brcak bonds between adjacent ccliulose microfibrils and keep thc wall flexible.The cslls absorb watcrby osmosis and the very llexibic ccll rvalls strctch and allow tl-rc cclls t<t cxpand. livcntually, as thc ccils malure, the 1A-A is dcsuoycd by cnzymcs, the pH oirhc ccll tva'ils riscs and bonds form between thc ceilulose microfibrils. So the sell rvall becomes more rigid and the ce1l cannot expand any
morc. Because rhere is morc

IAA on thc dark side, tircrc is more cell elongation and so

grow,th on the dark side, resulring in the shoot bending tot'ards thc light. Once the shoot is growing riirccdy towards rhc ligl-rt, rhc unilatcral srimulus is re movcd. The asymmeuic

transport ol IAA encis and thc shoot grou's suaight lowards *re light.

The answers should inciude somc or all of the follorving. other points may be valid.

went's bioassay showed that the amount of gro*th (bending when the block was placed asymmeuically) was direcdy related to thc amount of chcmical in the block. This makcs it possible to s'ay that growth torv'lrds unilatcral light must be due to higher levels of the chemical on the shaded sice rhan on rhe light side of the shoot.

The current model of photouopisms cxplains the differcnce in elongarion of the cells on rhc shady and light sidcs in tcrms of thc movcment of auxin from thc light to the shady side, where auxin allows rhe ccll walls to rcmain flcxible for longcr.

ffi_

Iidcxccl A2 Biology Inplcmcnradon ond Asrcssmcnt Guidc forTcachcrs andTcchiciaro OPeanon Education Limhcd 2009

198-201 Pages 198-201

Nervc fibre: axon of an individual (moror) the brain but nor borh.

ne

rvc ccil; may carry impulscs to (scnsory) or from

Nerve: bundle of nerve fibrcs, may bc alr scnsory, all motor or a combination of both.

2 [s+c]
v.rlid.

The answer should incrude somc or a[ of thc roliowinc. other points may bc

Ncrve ccll in cNS with dcndrircs ro synapsc rvirh and rcceive inpur fiom odrer nerve
cells, long axon/fibre to reach dssues, myelinared ro give rapid spced of impulse uansmission, synapses on effector to pass on impulsc.

In invertebrates, the speed of transmission of a nerve impurse is direcdy rerated ro diamerer of nerve flbre, and fiere is a limit to how big a nervc fibrc can grow Mosr vertebrate neurones are associatcd with Schrvann celld and thercforc hav-e a myelin sheath
As a result of the nodes of Ranvier, tle uansmission of a nervc impurse is much rasrer. so vertebrate nerves thar need to carry impurses fast are myerinared, with relativery smalr diameters.Those that are not myerinarcd don't neerl lo carry impurscs very rast so they can sdll havc small diamclcrs.

Squid giant axons are large as they carry impulses relarively quickly during an escape response.This means that they are easy ro find and. access and easy to insert micropipenls into. squids are invertebrales, so thcrc arc arso f*vcr cthicar issues with using.them in experiments of rhis type.

pages 202-205

The resting potential of a ncurone is produced by the differentiar exchange of ions across rhe cell membrane.The membrane is rclarively impcrmeabre to sodium ions, but quite
freely permeable to potassium ions. Thcre are arso very acdve sodium/potassium pumps which use ATP to move sodium ions our of rhe axon
and potassium ions in- This lowers *re conccntradon of sodium ions inside the axon, because they are pumped_ out and cannot diffuse back in again. potassium ions are moved in to th. ..u by rhe'pumps but

they then diffuse out again arong a concentration giadient rfuough op.n .channels. Eventualry the rnovemcnr of posiriveiy charged potassium

potrsrio- ion

ions out of the celr along the concentration gradient is opposed by the elecrochemicar gradient. As a resurr, the insidc of thc cc[ is srightly negative rerarive ro the oursidc. This gives a potential difference across the membrane of around _70 mV.

Edcxcel

42 Biology Irnplcmcnution ud

Assessmenr Guide

forTerchers andTechnicians @pqrson Education Limircd 2009

\::_

li. r:;i:;

;:{iiii:ii:iii;iill# ,., ,..*"*,;""^,tJ:iJ;*.'i,i;".;ii*.;;J;*#*;;,;**=.*';i;*;l;*,i;".;rr*;*;l*r*

2 a '
An action potcntial is dre rcsult of a suddcn and dramatic incrcase in axon membrane permcability to sodiurn ions. Spicific sodium channels or sodiuin gates open up,
allorving sodium ions to diffuse rapidly into thc cell.'l'hc potential difference across thc mcmbrane is briclly rcvcrscd, rvith the ccll bccoming positivc on the inside with respcct. to the outside, at about +40 mV.'Ihis depolarisation lasts about 1 millisecond.

The sodium channels thcn close again and cxccss sodium ions are rapidly pumped out by the sodium pump, using ATP ro supply cncrgy.ll:e permeability of thc membrane to potassium ions is tcmporarily increased as voltage-dependent potassium ion channels open. Potassium ions diflusc out of the axon down their concentralion gradicnt and an elccuochemical gradicnt, aLuactcd by rhe negarive chargc on thc
outside of the membrare.The inside of the cell becomcs ncgative relarive ro the outside once again, and the axon is
re

It

takcs a lcw miliiscconds bcforc rhc resting potential is resrored

ady ro carry anorhcr impulse.

Thc rcfructory pcriod is thc rccovcry timc afrcr an acuon potential during which an axon membrane cannot be resrimulated. It is the time taken for the sodium pump and othcr ionic movements to restore the balance of positive and negarive ions thar produce the resting porendai. Absolute rcfractory period is when the sodium channels arc compictcly blockcd and no rcsting potcntial. As rccovcry progresses there is the rclative refractory pcriod. Its importance is that it limits thc rate at which impulses ravel along a ncrve fibrc, prcvcnting constant sucam ofimpulses, and preventing the
acrion potcnrial from r-ravclling backrvards along thc fibrc.

An action potcntial cun bc rccordcd accuratcly by inscrting a very fine glass microclecuode into an axon, Another electrode records the electrical potential from
thc outsidc. Thc results arc shorvn on an oscilloscope.

The graph shows that DNP prevents the pumping of sodium ions out of the axon.This suggests that the ATP is being used to powcr the sodium pump - when it runs out, the pump no Ionger works. As thc DNP is washcrl arvay rirc pumping of sodium ions out
begins again, suggesring that ATP production has started again.

4 [S+C] Theanswcrsirouldincludcsonlcorall olthciolloiving.Othcrpointsmaybe

valid.

The rccording from thc wholc nervc shows an increasing lcvel ofresponse to an
incrcasing stimulus.This is bccausc morc and morc ncrvc cells within the nerve are responding to dre stimuius.The responsc liom the single axon shows the typical all-ornodring response pages

whcrc the responsc is thc same to

stimulus beyond a threshold levcl,

206-209

The movcment ola ncrve impulsc along the fibre is the rcsult of local ion movements borh in front of ancl behind the action potential. In an unmyelinaild o.ru. fibre rhese events occur all along the membrane. Although each event takes only milliseconds, dte
time adds up as thc action potcnrial.uavcls along rhe fibrc.

'

In myelinatcd ncuroncs) ions can only pass in and out of the axon at the nocies of Ilanvicr,. So an action potcntial will junrp lionr onc nodc to dtc ncxt,This spccds up transmission as thc ionic movements occur much lcss frequendy taking less dnie.

Ederccl A2 Biology lmplemcnurion and Asscsm.nl Guidc forTc.chcrs andilcchniciens OPcrson Educarion Limited 2009

2 'fhey

are involved in making the neuroransmirrer subsrances in rhe presynapdc knobs; involved in the producrion of vesicles; involved in the breakdorvn of neurotransmitters in the synaptic clert; invo'lvcd in thc production of ATp !o powcr rhc various ion pumps and synthesis and breakdown of neuroransmitters. Any othcr valid points,

3 [s+c]
valid.

Theanswershouldincrudesomcorall

orthefoilorving.orhcrpointsmaybe

. Elecfon micrographs:

show rhe presence ofvesicles in the synaptic knob ofthe prcsynaptic neurone bcfore an action porcntial; aftcr rcpcatcd action potendals these vesicles are no longer visible, implying that they have released thei. co.,tents as a resurt of stimulation' Also shows largc numbers or mitobhondria that suppry the energy for the syn*resis of the neurouansmitrers cic.

Borulinus toxin: blocks the release of aceryrchoLine and so shorvs rhar acetylcholine from the presynaptic mcmbrane is needcd for thc transmission of an lcrion potential across a
synap se.

Nicotine: sdmurares rhe nervous systcm by binding ro thc posr-synrptic mcmbranc, mimicking the effecr of aceryrcholine and so suggcsting that

acerylcrroline does the same.

Suychnine crc.: show thar acerylcholine causes the setting up of acrion potenrials in postsynaptic neurones, because preventing the breakdorvn of acctylcholinc causes the neurones to respond continuously.

curare: shows that blocking of acctylcholinc srops .,ansmission of acrion potenriars from nerve cells to muscle ceils confirming that acerylcholinc needs ro bir.rd to acerylcholine receptors to initiate post_synaptic porential.
pages

Zi0-21''l

Accommodation occws whcn aLl of thc synaptic vcsiclcs in a synapdc knob are discharged as a resuit ortoo many acdon potenrials in rapid succession.Therare of synthesis ofnew vesicres cannot keep up and the neurone can no longer respond to the stimulus, A short rest restores the response as new vcsicles arc madc. Accommodation allows organisms to ignore repeated harmless srimuli so rhat the cNS does nol become overwhelrned with input. spatial and temporal summadon make an orga;rism more responsive to smail stimuri rvhich might not on their own trigger a response. A response coming into several sensory reccptors at once, for example, can bc addcd togethcr to give arvareness, eg. the rods of the eye. similarly, if a small srimulus rvhich,,vould nor rigger a post-syn;pdc acrion potential on its orvn is repcatcd scvcrol timcs in quick succcssion, an organism becomes arvare of it, thus increasing scnsitivity and responsivcncss,

pages Z1Z-213

1 a '

generator potenrial is large enough to reach the threshord ofthc rcceptor neurone, an action potential will result in Ihat neurone. Ifit is nor, rhere rvill be no acdon potential.
Edescel A2 Eiology lmplementrtion and Assessmcnt

!flhen a receptor cerl receives a stimulus, sodium ions move rapidiy across rhe cell membrere sening up a gcnerator potcnrialA small stirruius re sults in a small generator poteir:;a! and a lrrgc stimulus rcsulL: i. a largc gcncrator porendal. ir rhe

cuidc forTcrchers

cnd

rechnicians opcarson Educarion Limikd 2009

ln convergence, even ifthe gencrator potential liom an individual receptor cell is too small to set up an action potential, the gencrator potcntials from several may add together or summale and uigger an action potential.This makes it possible for the
sensory system to rcspond to lorv-level stimuli.

2
.

[S+C] Theanswershouldincludesomcorall
valid.

ofthe following.Othcrpointsmaybe

Accommodation: ovcrstimulation of any prcsynaplic ncuronc releases so many synapdc vesicles that further action potentials in the neurone can't release neuroLransmitter molecuies into the synaptic clcft and no action porendal is gcnerated in the postsynaptic ncuronc.This mukcs it possihlc for thc auirnal to conccnl.ratc on ncw) and potcntially motc important, stimuli. Rcsponse lcturns as new neuroLransmittcr is synthesised, Adaptation: constant srimulation of rcccptor cclls rcsults in a gradual decline in response. Again this makes it possible for the animal to concent-rate on newi and potemially more important, sdmuii. Animal rvill not respond again rcgardless of amounts of ncurouansmittcr.

pages?14-217
1 a

Rhodopsin is lorrncd lrom opsin and rctinal. In the dark, rctinal is all in the cis form. Light converts this to Eans-retinal.This changcs the shape of the retinal, and the rhodopsin breaks up into opsin and rctinal.

The break-up of rhodopsin uiggcrs a cascade reaction that results in the closing of the sodium channels in rhe rod membrane, As the sodium pu:np continues to pump Na* out of the cell, thc inrerior bccomes more negadve than usual.This produces a generator potendal in the rod. Ifthe generator potential is iarge enough to reachthe
threshold, or if several rods are stimulald at oncc, neurouansminer substances are rclcased into the syn';psc rvith thc bipolar ccll.This scts up an aclion potential in the bipoiar cell rvhich passcs rlcross the synapsc to cause an acdon potential in the sensory neuronc lcading to thc brain. In thc visual areas of the brainthis visual iniormation is convcrtcd into an awarcncss of thc imlgc.

2 a

Sevcral rods synapsc rvith a single bipolar cell, so summation of generator potendals is possiblc. In low light lcvcls which would not result in an action potential in the bipolar cell from a single rod, summation of generator potentials from several

ir

iods can result it is less likely to uigger an action porcntial in dim light. In addition, iodopsin in cones needs to be hit
an action potential. Each conc synapses with a single bipolar cell so

with more light energy than rhodopsin in rhc rods'bclorc it rvill break down. So, again, thc rods rvill rcspond to dimmcr light,

Severai rods synapse (convcrge) on a single bipoiar ccll.This means that subde changes in light levcl as somcdring moves arc dctccted by

rodl although not

necessarily clcarly. Cones nced much biggcr iight diffcrcnces, and there is no convergence' so thcy arc lcss likely to respond to movement,

Concs respond only to bright light, and each individual conc synapscs onto a singie

bipolar cell. As a rcsult any image is usually clear and crisp.

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Pages

218-219

on 'diifusionandmovementinmassflorvsystemssuchasbloodandphroemanisospeedis limited. It usuaily invoives grorvth as the mechanism of response. It is sufficienr for prant responscs.

The need ro move the whole body around in animals means fasrer responses are required
electrical coordination makes this more possibic, chemicar coordinarion dcpends

2 ts+cl rheanswershourdincrudcsomeorailof
valid.
P[ants chemical coordination

rhefoilorvirrg.orherpoinrsmaybe

Anima[s animal hormones

controI growth, development, sexual

plant hormones (growth substances) control grow1h, movement, flowering

exampies: auxins (lAA) gibbereitins, itorigen retativety slow changes
'

maturity, response !o stress, blood

sugar Ievels etc. examples: adrenallne, testosterone, oestrogen, human growth hormone,
ins
u

lin

relatively slow changes

eLectrical coordination

nervous system composed of

conducting nerue celis

controls rapid response to stimuli, e,g. reflexes, and brain allows

coordination of many nervous inputs ailowing learning, habituation etc.

includes chemicaI transmission at
synapses

can be very .apid, Long-term changes ln synapses oi brain related to

memory

Light lalling on dre sensory celrs ofthe redna causes impulses to travel along neurbnes in the optic nerve to the brain.Thc impulses arc detccted in a conrror centre in the midbrain'The impulses travel arong neurones to further conrrol cen..es.These synapse of thc parasymparhcLic cranial ncrvc (rhc oculo'oror) which transmits )l*.olun"nr,r lmpurses to the iris.The impurses in the ocuromotor ncrve fibres srimulate the effectors (the muscles of the iris) causing Lrre circurar muscres to confact and

the radial muscles to

;ffi *::::H:::,

the radial muscles contract and rviden the pupil. By reducing the amount of light entering rhe eye in bright condirions rhis reflex avoids damage to thc delicate rods and cones by overstimulatiig them. in dim right, the reflex causes thc pupil to open wicle so as much lighr as possibie fails on the rods to maximise wllat you can see.

"" from the contol centres along sympathetic ngrves to the iris, the circular muscles relax and

or action siorenriars rrom

trr,",

:-.,,;:

::"

Pagesz2o-221

'l'he ccrcbral hcmisphcrcs arc associatcd with highcr brain functions - seqing, thinking, learning and emotions for example. Folding of thc cercbral hemispheres increases the surface area of thcsc rcgions of thc brain. It is thought that greater lolding and thus
grcatcr surf'rcc arca is associarcd with grcrre r intclligcncc, morc complcx emotions and the ability to lcarn morc complix skills. Humans have grealer abiliries than other primares, and morc folding.Thc volumc of tissuc is inrportan! too which is a function not
jusr of folding but of surfuce area but lcss volume because 'Iickncss. So dolphins havc big rhe tissue layer is *Linncr. They are ve ry intciligenr but it is thought that their developmcnt docs not rival humans.

2 tS+Cl

The answcr should include some or all of the following. Other points may be valid.
Function
vision, sight, thinking, learning, emottons

Brain area cerebral hemispheres

frontai lobe

emotional responses, planning, reasoning. decision-making primary motor cortex controts many movements
sound recognit!on, hearing, speech, many memory functions vision, shape recognition, coiour vision, sense of perspective coordinates smooth movements, maintains posture and batance coordinates autonomic nervous 5y5tem, inctuding thermoregulation, and controls many basic drives, e.g. thirst, hunger, aBgres5ion, reProductive behaviour

temporal lobe occipital lobe cerebelium hypothatamu5

medutta oblongata

controts reflex centres for heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure, coughinS, sneezing,swallowing, saliva production, peristatsis

Pages

zzz-227

X-rays: pass *Lrough botiy, absorbcrl diflcrcnri'.rlly by diliirent tissues, make an image on phorographic.f,lm. Good for taking images of hard tissuc, c.g. bones, but much less useful

for producing imagcs olsolt tissucs such as thc blain.

Computeriscd romography

(C'f scan): thousands of tiny bcams of X-rays passed

*rrough an arca of rhc body, c.g. hcad. Bcams attcnuatcd by fie density of the tissue . The X-rays which makc it through arc detccted and mcasurcd. A computer collates the
data ro produce a cross-scctional image

ofa thin siicc tluough rhe body. Special dyes can

makc areas X-ray opaquc so they show up more clearly in the scan. Can identify major suucrures in rhe brain and dctcct problcms such as brain tumours, blecding in the brain

or swellings of thc artcrics in the brain (ancurisms). Cannot be used to show how areas of the brain are used or change during diffcrenr acdvides. Can be linked to observed changes in behaviour to indicate rhe importance of certain areas ofihe brain in particular functions, Magnctic rcsonancc imaging (MI{l scun): Uscs magncric licltls and r0di0 waves to image the sofi tissues (mainly due to amoun! of watcr in tissue), so no potendally damaging X-rays. Particularly good for imaging watcr in the body.The signals are analysed by computer and used to producc an image. Images show much finer detail than CT scans.
Edcxccl A? Diology lnplcmcntation und Asscssmcnt Cuidc for'lilrchcrs rndTcchnicius OPurson Educrtion Linritcd 2009

2D scans are usually produccrl a computcr can creatc a 3D image fiom these. Can distinguish regions of the' brain. widely used to diagnosc brain injuries, strokes) rumours and inlections of the brain or the spine. Can also indicate links benvcen the srucrures in the brain and patterns ofbehaviour.
Functionar magnetic resonance imaging ('MRI):monirors uprakc of oxygen in dirferent brain areas, so indicates active areas ofthe brain.

so makes it possibre to watch brain response while pcople carry ouqtasks. Gives an exrremery

can be obscrvco ;n r.riti-a,

'

sparialiy accurate image of the brain. Has to bc carried out rvirh parient,s head remaining complctcly still, which limits tasks that can bc clonc. uscd meinli ro investigate normal brain structure and function. May soon be used to diagnosc diseases such as the earlv signs ol suoke damage aod rhe onser of Aizheimers. valid.

2 [s+c]

The ansrver should inciude some or ail of rhe foilorving. orher points may be

Absolutist: Animals should not be uscd for cxperimenrs - in rhis case for learning more about horv the human brain might rvork. r\,roraily, experimendng on animals tha! causes pain or death is completely unacccplable, Relativist: It is morally more acceptable to cxpcriment on an.imals as a model lor humans rvhere there is a posirive purpose ro the rcsearch, e .g, it will benefit rhe ueatrnent irumans with disease or damage to the brain. pages 22&_231

of

1 [s+c] Theanswcrshouldincludcsomcorrll
a

ofr]refollorving.orherpointsmaybevalid.

Absolutist: it is completely unacceptable to experiment on animals causing pain or death. Relativist: the work of crowley and Kau could not cthically havc been carried out on humans, but ir rvas important research that helps us understand the deveropment of vision in mainmals, incluaing humans and drcrcfore jusriticd uring pri,.',"r. Absolutisu it is completely unacceptable to experiment on animals causing pain or death. Relarivist: the work of veisel and Ilubcl could nor ethically have been carried our on humans, but it was important research that helps us understand the development of rision in mammals, including humans. It rvould not be erhical ro use primates lor this work as it was not direcdy of mcdical benefit, but kinens are more readily available experimental animals and therefore it is acceptablc to usc thenr.

ts+ cl 2 '

Animal rvork with embryos examining the srrucrure ol

to show rhat the basic stucturc dcvelops at regardless of inpur.

*,.

brrin

a specific stage

as it is.laid down offcrar development

' . '

Animar rvork with kittcns sdtching eycs srrut at various stagcs of developmcnt to show rhat there is a criticar window during which ross of sight becomes permanenr, suggesting that dris is when the mature visual cortcx devclops.

Animalrvorkwirhmonlcvsshorvingsamethingas\\.or,
cntrcal pcl lod.

\viLhkinens_different

Human obscrvations, made on babies who are blind for some rcason during the critical window, e.g. babies who nceded surgery
on cataracts etc.
Edcxccl A2 Biologv Implemenratioo and Assessmcnr Guide forTeachcrs aDdrcchnicirns opcarson Education Limircd 2oo9

..i:"::

t:lrx

.:; .t,

?,

il

Answcrs should show aw{rrcncss rhat it is unethical to cxperiment on human infants in thc rvay rvork has bccn donc on kittcns and monke.vs, and that evidence might come from circumstances rvhere babics are born with damage to brain areas or who are temporarily blindcd/cicprivcd of sight for sonrc rcason.

They wcre the fust people to shorv that rhe brain is very plastic; rhat at birth, although many ofthc ncural arcas arc prcscnt) thcy nccd input and cxpcricnce to develop and work fully.They dcveloped the idca and produced evidcnce to supportthe concept ofcritical rvindorvs of development rvhich underpins much of our subsequent understanding of
how the brain works. gages 23?-237

The period ol time during rvhich vital neural connections are made in the brain in
rcsponse to specific stimuli.

Nature: axons from the lighr sensidve cells in the retina grow synapsb in visual cortex in a very regular way known as ocular dominance columns. Neighbouring columns of cells receive input from the same area of the redna from the left eye and the right eye.

'

Nurturc: right srimulation nccdcd during cridJal windorv ol dcvelopment for the area of the brain to develop propcrly. If rhe nccessary input during the critical period of
dcvelopmcnt
permanendY.
fai1s,

thc opportunity to makc thc viLal ncural conncction can be lost

2 [S+C]

The answer should includc some or all of the foilorving. Other poinrs may be valid.

Must consider the necds of the baby first and thc needs of research less important, c.g. ir would be erhically unacccptabic ro lcave a ncrvborn baby with cataracts in order to test a hypothesis whcn it is known that the cataracts rviil inicrlere with the development of vision as the baby grows up. As long as the baby is not harmed or deprived in any way,
Ihcn research could bc acccptablc. J
JO

b20
c
Each time a crirical window of dcvclopmcnt appcars, new neurones and conncctions arc laid down

if the appropriatc stimulus is prcsent.This

incrcases the size of the

brain.

lf

the child is dcprived of the stimulus, the brain does not develcip fully, and

once the cridcal window has passed, that damage cannot be undone so lhe brain ends

up smaller. In childrcn who suffer severe neglect, many critical windows are missed
and so brain dcvclopmcn! is scvcrcly alfcctcd.

4 tS+C] The answer shouid include some or all of the following.

Othcr points may be valid.

Damagcd brains: shorv rvhat happcns to thc pcrson as a rcsult ofepecific damage or disease; may be difficuit to separate the effect on specific areas of the brain if more than one rcgion damagcd;somc kinds of damage are vcry rarc, so takes a long time to collect sufficient cvidcncc ol its cffcct. Newborn babies: looks at horv newborn babies respond to different stimuli; very limited in what can be donc as cannot harm thc babies; useiui because the effect ofnurrure is minimal at this stage, so c:rsier to separate from the efici:is of nature.
Erlcrccl

A!

lliology Inrplcmentation rnd Asscssmcnr Guidc for'lirclrcrs and l'ccluricians Ol'crrson l-ducction Limitcd 2009

Twin studies and face recognition: comparison olresponses from lraternal and iclentical tw'ins; should hclp to separatc our rhc cllccts of r]'c cn*ironmcnr and the genes. Howc'cr,
rhis assumes thar idenrical rwins develop identically from their genes, and this may not be

uue in all cases.

Cross-cnltural studics: looks at thc impacr of dillcrcnt bclicls and mcthocls on behaviour; can be used to look at distinct differences in nurrurc. IJowevcr, cvery individual is different and not everyone is alfected by rheir culrure ro dre same extent.The level of these differences benveen individuals may be difficult ro.measurer and so dilficult to correlate rvith the resulls from the study.

pages 238-239

lnnate behaviour shows there are genetically determined responses to certain srimuli *'I.ricl: occur as a rcsuk of specilic ncrvc pathrvays laid dorvn in the embryo from the instructions of the DNA.The stimulus for a piece of innate bchaviour will always elicit
the same response and thc development of thcse neural pathrvays in the brain depends almost enrirely on the informadon in the DNA.

Animal behaviour can be used ro see the importance of nature on brain development through the srudy of innate behaviour ancl the role it plays in animals of dillcrenr species. Lcarning behaviour lrom habiruation and condirioncd reficxcs ro exploratory and insight learning all play an important role in deveroping understanding of nurrure in brain development.'Vhich behaviours are completely the result of gcnetic pathways and which depend on learning (nurrure) as well. For example, marernal behaviour might be thought
to be instincrive and some aspects arc, but animals rvhich arc hand-rcared with no conract rvi*r rheir own species are.often incompetcnr mothers. Any othcr valid points

pages

240-241

Invertebrates with fast irnpulses in unmyelir.rared nerves have rclarively largc diameter nerve fibres rvhich make the {lbres rclatively easy ro idcntily and sdmulare artificially. Also, as invertebrales, less ethical issues arise from their use as experimental animals,

2 [s+c]
vaIid.

The answer should include some or all of rhe following. orher points may be

Habituarion and accommodation both lead to the reducrion in rcsponse to permanent

or rapidly repeated srimulus. Accommodarion is rhe physicar rcsurt of dcpretion of ncuroiransmirrer and synapric vcsiclcs in drc synapric knob ofa prcsynapdc
neurone.
is

After a brief absence of rhe stimulus (action porendal in

prcsl,nxptic ncuronc), the neurotransmifter and vesiclcs arc resynthcsiscd rnd rlrc rcsponsc rcsrorccl. Habituation the result of.loss of response of tl-re calcium ion channels in rhe presl.naptic membrane, resulting in a ioss ofrcsponse to an aclion polential in the ncuronc. It is a rearning
r-he

response' and can be retained over a long time, reducing the response to things that happen constan'jy or very frequendy and so lcaving thc brain betrcr able ro focus on

occasionally changing s'-rmuri which may be more impr.:tant for survivar.

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Pales 242-247

Ncurotransmittcr synthcsis and storagc: If a drug blocks lhis proccss, s5'naptic trrnsnrission *'ould lcsscn ancl thcn stop rs supplics oI ncurotransmitter rcduced. This
rvould mcan nerves using drat ncurotransmittcr rvould no longerbe able to pass impulscs bctwee n thcm, causing loss of motor or scnsory skills and processcs in the brain. NeuroEansmitter telcasc: A drug stopping ncurotransmittcr rclcase tvpuld st-op synapilc ransmission as the impulse in the presynapuc llbrc would notbe uansmitted to the postsynapric membrane causing ioss of motor or sensory skills and p.ocesses in the brain.

Neurotransmitter-receptor binding: A drug blocking this rvould slop lhe development of rhc posr-synaptic potcndrls rvhich in rurtr would prcvcnt tlIc development of an acdon potcntial in thc post-synaptic 6brc. Alrcrnativcly the drug may maintain binding so thar rhe stimulus to the posr-synaptic fibre was conLinuous, causing confusion and farigue

lurthcr in lhe system. Ncurouansmirtcr rcuptakc: a cirug blocking this rvouid slorvly rcducc
tl-rc

iutcnsity of tirc

rcsponse as less neurotransmiticr rvould bc resynthcsiscd and be ready for rclease.This rvotrlri slrccd rtp fnrillrtc ctc.

Neuroransmittcr brcakdown:

a drug blocking *ris rvould mean that sdmularion would continue as the concenlr4tion of neurotransmitLer in tJrc synaptic gap rvould build up steadily so therc rvould be consLant stimulaLion of tl-rc post-synapLic mcmbrane and

latiguc.

Dopaminc synapscs: produce tltc neurolransmitter dopanrine, the axons from them spread tlrough the fronral corrcx, rhc brain stcrn and thc spinal cord, so thcy are closcly involved in the conuol and coordinarion of movcment. Scrotorlilt synupscs: pLorluec scr'otolrin in t groLrp of cclls in rl:c brain sicm rvith axtlns that spread throughout the brain inro thc coltcx, thc cerebellum and the spinal cord.They have a rvidespread influcncc on cclls throughout thc brain so low levels mean overail brain acdviry is supprcsscd. Particularly reiatcd to diprcssion.
L-dopa precursor of dopamine so crosses the btood*brain barrier
enables brain cetls

EcstasY
crosses blood-brain banier

to maximise dopamine

production

affects serotonin synapses in brain, blocks the serotonin reuptake system so synapses flooded with serotonin, and may cause retease of alt the serotonin from presynaptic knob. ilooding br:in

with serotonin
relieves stiffness and slowness of movement

acts as stimuLant to brain and ptychotropic improves mood, sense of well-being, energy etc. physiological effects include increased heart rate, change in thermoregutation, loss of thirst sensation, orevention of urine production by kidney

therapeutic

lidcxccl

A2 llioloijy

Ln

-l il"mcntu'ioo rnrl Ai*cssmcnl Cuidc for r-;hcrs rod'icchnicirns 4)Pcrrsnn Ilducrric;.

.:nilcd 2009

[S+C]
valid. sSRIs seem to work by blocking the serotonin reuptake proteins and so maintain a relatively high level ofserotonin in thc synaptic clefr, to bind wirh the post-synapdc membrane receptors. Horvever the working hypothesis from the genetic

opposite.The short form ofthe seroronin reuptake protein allere and its frequency (i.e. in homozygous or hetcrozygous state) afrcct rvhether or not lhc person is likely to suffer from depression. People with the short form produce less ofthc reuptake protein so serotonin is taken up more slowly by the presinapric neurone aficr its rerease into the synapse. Logically this rvould rcsult in riore scroronin bcing left in rhe synapric clefr anci sc less depression - in the same wa]- as oeopre respond ro SSRIs. ln realiw, peopre rvirh dte short form are more likely to expcriercc c.lcprcssion. Pcrhaps rhcy have lcss scroronin available in the presynapdc knob to be rclcascd rvirh *rc subscqucnr impulses? Furri:rer investigarions rvould need to look at horv much serotonin is in the prcsynapric knob, and/ or horv much and how Iong seroronin remains in rhe synapric clc[r in rhe diffcrent generic iorms and during trcatment with SSRIs. pages Z4B-25'l

evidence is the

The Human Genome project has idenrified alr or the human gcnes and incrcasingly identifies the genes thar are associated rvith particular diseases and risk g.o'pr.Tii, i, th" information on which pharmacogcnomics builds as ii dcvclops medicincs
a pardcular genome,

*rat ivork wirh

The abiliry to prescribe fic right drug for an individual padenr rhrr rvould work with their parricular genetic makeup. It wourd increase the abiliry to prcscribc the right and rowest possible dosage with minimal risk ofside effccts or adverse drug reacdons.
[s + c] The ansrver should incrudc somc or all of thc folrorving. orhcr poinrs may be valid.

Itlentificadon of genes for trcarment: Lime-consuming and expcnsivc; rcsponse to drugs can be complex; should the moncy be invcsred in this kind of rcscarch that will benefit just groups of people, or wourd it be betrcr to spcnd it on somcdring ,h", b.;;;;cvcryonc?

cost: having idcntified rhat only

l proportion of a popuration u,il bcncfit, is it socialry and morally acceptable to produce a drug that works for thcm, br,rt not one that *,orks lor r others in that population)
Knorving your genes: shourd only you knorv, or should genomes be stored for anarvsis by drug companies ro herp rhcm dccidc whar drugs rJrcy shouid lbcus on? should individuals bc told about gene vrriants rh'.rt mry lead to other problems *rat can,t be tackled, or is it bctter nor to know?
be essential.

Cost of training: to keep doctors and pharmacists up to date; rvill cost sociefy but would

Edercet A2 Biotogy lmplementauon and Arsessmcnr

cuidc for'lccchcrs anJ'lechnicirns

Gll,carson Education

Limired 200i1

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t{-its!.a!(4r-4*1it\St

[S+C]
valid.

1'he ansrver shouid include some or all of the follorving. Other points may be

Nlany possibilities including: kappa-opioids as painkillers lor women; screening for cytochromc P450 bcforc drug trials; idcntifying 'at risk' ir.rdividuals for certain rypes of cmcer to allorv reatment belore lhe canccr starts; P-glycoprotein transporter substance affects the ability of pcople to takc up digoxin, a hcart drug - onc gcnotypc rcsults in a far grcatcr uptake of dre drug than anotherl racial variador-rs, e.g. incidcnce of hcarr disease in Asian populadons and dcvelopment of drugs targctted at peoplc with a spccrlic genetic profile. Pages

252-257

The diagram given herc is a minimum. Givc crcdit for any correct extra details

gene inserted using DNA iigase

niodificd bactcrium makes drug as new

gene expressed

[S+C] The

answer should include some or ail of thc following. Other points may be valid.

(i)

Wrong to use gcnclically enginccred organisms under any circumstances,

(2) Thc potcntiai bcncfits ol thc use of gcnetically cngincered microorganisms far
ounveigh any risks.

3a

Drugs from GM plant required gene cut from human or other organism and inserted into Ti plasmid of Ag rc b act e t i u m tu m ef ac i e n s plant cells infected by modified A. tumelaciens which transfers desired gene to the ptant genome plant cells then cloned on suitable hormonecontaining medium to produced mass of

Drugs from CM microorganism required gene cut from human or other organism and inserted into plasmid

plasmid transferred into host bacterial cells v/here it becomes part cf bacterial DNA, marker gene usually added bacteria identified by marker cultured in fermenters to make new protein drugs

undifferentiated modified plant cells

piant celts then transferred to suitabie medium to produce huge numbers of CM planttets that will mature to produce the desired drug in theit downstream processing required to separate the microorganisms and the desired end-product

leaves/[ruit etc.
42 Biology lmplementato! and Assosmenr Guidc forTecchcrs
add

Techoiciins 9Petuson Education Linitql 2009

ffi

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Risks: cost of developmcnt may crctcr companics ancr

mai'use in less-deveioped countries, possibiliry that GM crops rvill inrerbreed with rviid species and change them, or rhat Glr,l planrc rvill lose thcir abiliry to produce drc vaccine.
Benefits: long-rerm, reladvery cheap, can be grown by communiries that need them around the rvorrd, no problems lvith needing cool storage or speciarised medical pcrsonnel to deliver, easy for children or adults to takc.

IS+c] -l'heanswershouldincludesomeoralrofthefoilorving.or},erpointsmaybe
valid.
Possible examples include : blood-clouing ftctors F:rcror

VII and IX lrom goar/sheep/ rabbit milk; alpha-1-antiuypsin from shccp milk; ATryn (for' trcrring l'rcrcditary anrithrombin dcficicncy) lrom goat milk.
Evaluadon will depend on drug chosen, but should includc an assessment of cost tlf producing the drug, cflcct on animals usccJ, strcccss ol'prpgcclrrrc uscd to crcrrc ua'sgcnic animals, benelis to people rvho are rreated wirh the drug compared rvith previous feauTrcnr.

IS+c]
valid.

Theansrvershourdincrudesomeorall ofthcfoiloiving.oLherpointsmaybe

Ansrver nceds to includc poi.ts such as gcncricaily vaccines, GM crops etc.

*ociirictl microorganisms, plant

Benefits inciude:

' . ' '

specific drugs ma<ie in large quantiries in conuolled rvay

lose depcndencc of chcmicals cxuactcd lrom animal cadavers drugs/vaccines produced in a way rvhich makes delivery/cosr ctc. in de'eloping worrd
easier

plants modified to suir growing condirions/nutritional rcquircmcnrs Risks inciude: risk of relcasc into outsidc worlLi

erc.

' ' '

risk of conramination of natural plants lvi*r gene markers, c.g. inferillity cost to countrics which cannot arford the GM technology for drug or foods.

Edexcel A2 Biology Implemcntatioo and Asscssmcnr Guide forTclchcrs and rcchnicians opearson Educarioo Limited 2009