Pump System Analysis and Centrifugal Pump Sizing

by J.
Chaurette, engineer
PUMP SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND SIZING
BY JACQUES CHAURETTE p. eng.
5th Edition February 2003 Published by Fluide Design Inc. www.fluidedesign.com Copyright 1994
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword Introduction Symbols Chapter 1 - An Introduction to pump systems 1.0 Hydrostatic pressure and fluid column height ................................................... 1.1 1.1 The three forms of energy ................................................................................. 1.2 1.2 The relationship between elevation, pressure and velocity in a fluid ................. 1.4 1.3 The difference between pressure and head ...................................................... 1.7 1.4 Fluid systems ................................................................................................... 1.8 1.5 The driving force of the fluid system ................................................................. 1.9 1.6 The components of Total Head ........................................................................ 1.10 1.7 Negative (relative) pressure ................................................................................ 1.13 1.8 The siphon effect ................................................................................................ 1.17 1.9 Specific gravity .................................................................................................. 1.22 Chapter 2 - The application of thermodynamics to pump systems 2.0 Energy and thermodynamic properties .............................................................. 2.1 2.1 Closed systems and internal energy .................................................................. 2.2 2.2 Closed systems, internal energy and work ......................................................... 2.3 2.3 Open systems and enthalpy .............................................................................. 2.4 2.4 Open systems, enthalpy, kinetic and potential energy ....................................... 2.5 2.5 Work done by the pump .................................................................................... 2.6 2.6 Fluid and equipment friction loss ........................................................................ 2.6 2.7 The control volume ............................................................................................ 2.7 2.8 The determination of Total Head from the energy balance................................. 2.9 2.9 System or Total Head equation for a single inlet-single outlet system ............... 2.9 Example 2.1-Calculate the Total Head for a typical pumping system ................. 2.13 2.10 Method for determining the pressure head at any location .............................. 2.18 Example 2.2 Calculate the pressure head at the inlet of the control valve ...... 2.21 2.11 System or Total Head equation for a single inlet-double outlet system ............ 2.26 2.12 General method for determining Total Head in a system with multiple inlets and outlets .................................................................................. 2.29 2.13 General method for determining Total Head in a system with multiple pumps, inlets and outlets ..................................................................... 2.31 2.14 General method for determining the pressure head anywhere in a system with multiple pumps, inlets and outlets............................................................. 2.34
II
Chapter 3 - The Components of Total Head 3.0 The Components of Total Head ......................................................................... 3.1 3.l Total Static Head (HTS) ...................................................................................... 3.1 3.2 Suction Static Head (HSS) ................................................................................. 3.2 3.3 Net Positive Suction Head Available (N.P.S.H.A.) .............................................. 3.3 Example 3.1-Calculate the Net Positive Suction Head Available ...................... 3.12 3.4 Pump intake suction submergence..................................................................... 3.13 3.5 Discharge Static Head (HDS) ............................................................................. 3.16 Example 3.2 Calculate the Suction & Discharge Static Head .......................... 3.17 3.6 Velocity Head Difference (HV)........................................................................... 3.18 3.7 Equipment Pressure Head Difference (HEQ) ..................................................... 3.18 3.8 Pipe Friction Head Difference for newtonian fluids (HFP) .................................. 3.20 3.9 Fitting Friction Head Difference for newtonian fluids, K method and 2K method (HFF).................................................................................................... 3.23 3.10 Pipe Friction Head Difference for wood fiber suspensions (HFP) .................... 3.28 Chapter 4 - Pump Selection, Sizing, Interpretation of Performance Curves 4.0 Pump classes .................................................................................................... 4.1 4.1 Coverage chart for centrifugal pumps ................................................................ 4.2 4.2 Performance curve chart ................................................................................... 4.2 4.3 Impeller diameter selection ................................................................................ 4.5 4.4 System curve ..................................................................................................... 4.6 4.5 Operating point ................................................................................................... 4.7 4.6 Safety factor on Total Head or capacity ............................................................. 4.9 4.7 Pump operation to the right or left of Best Efficiency Point (B..E.P.) .................. 4.11 4.8 Pump shut-off head ........................................................................................... 4.14 4.9 Pump power ....................................................................................................... 4.15 4.9 Affinity laws ........................................................................................................ 4.17 Chapter 5 - Field Measurements 5.0 Real live measurements .................................................................................... 5.1 5.1 Total Head ......................................................................................................... 5.1 5.2 Net Positive Suction Head Available (N.P.S.H.A.) .............................................. 5.4 5.3 Shut-off head ..................................................................................................... 5.5 5.4 Equipment head difference................................................................................. 5.7 5.5 Flow measurement ............................................................................................ 5.8 5.6 Calculating flow based on power consumed by the motor.................................. 5.9
III
Glossary Bibliography Appendix A Useful equations (metric and imperial systems) The definition of viscosity Rheological (viscous behavior) properties of fluids Appendix B The Newton-Raphson iteration technique applied to the Colebrook equation Appendix C The determination of slurry density based on the volume and weight concentration of the solid particles Appendix D The use of imperial system (FPS) units Appendix E Power factors and efficiency values for ABB electric motors
IV
Foreword
One of my goals in writing this book was to make sense of the various terminology, equations and miscellaneous tips and tricks that are published in the general literature on centrifugal pump sizing and system head calculations. There is no lack of articles or books on the subject but usually only certain isolated aspects of the topic are treated. It seems that so far nobody has put all the relevant concepts and principles together. I had some difficulty starting this book. For starters, I was concerned about the quality of my writing skills, I think they have improved. Then I wondered if I had anything original to say. That was more difficult. At first, I believed that I could simply write down what I knew on the subject. I asked myself a few tough questions, and quickly discovered major gaps in my knowledge. That was a good starting point. Another source of inspiration came from conversations with colleagues on pump system problems (I was not much help), another gold mine. I found that most books on the subject just do not give the big picture, so here is the big picture.
Introduction
The purpose of this book is to describe how pressure can be determined anywhere within a pump system. The inlet and outlet of a pump are two locations where pressure is of special interest. The difference in pressure head (the term pressure head refers to the energy associated with pressure divided by the weight of fluid displaced) between these two points is known as the Total Head. A system equation will be developed based on fundamental principles from which the Total Head of the pump can be calculated, as well as the pressure head anywhere within the system. These principles can be applied to very complex systems. Friction loss due to fluid flow in pipes is the most difficult component of Total head to calculate. The methods used to calculate friction loss for different types of fluids such as water and viscous fluids of the Newtonian type and wood fiber suspensions (or stock) will be explained. The fluids considered in this book belong to the categories of viscous and non-viscous Newtonian fluids. Wood fiber suspensions are a special type of slurry. There is an excellent treatment on this subject by G.G. Duffy in reference 2. For the readers benefit, a condensed version is provided. Slurries, which are an important class of fluids, are not considered. I recommend reference 7, which provides a complete treatment of the subject. However, all the principles for Total Head determination described in this book apply to slurry fluid systems. The only exception is the methods used to calculate pipe friction head. Centrifugal pumps are by far the most common type of pump used in industrial processes. This type of pump is the focus of the book. The challenge in pump sizing lies in determining the Total Head of the system, not the particular pump model, or the materials required for the application. The pump manufacturers are generally more than willing to help with specific recommendations. Information on models, materials, seals, etc., is available from pump manufacturer catalogs. Often when approaching a new subject, our lack of familiarity makes it difficult to formulate meaningful questions. Chapter 1 is a brief introduction to the components of Total Head. I hope it proves as useful to you as it did to me.
VI
Symbols
Variable nomenclature A CW CV D F f g area solids concentration ratio by weight in a slurry solids concentration ratio by volume in a slurry pipe diameter force pipe friction factor acceleration due to gravity: 32.17 ft/s2 energy specific energy enthalpy variation of the system head Total Head discharge static head equipment head difference friction head difference suction static head total static head velocity head difference kinetic energy variation of the system length of pipe mass mass flow rate potential energy variation of the system pressure power Reynolds number specific gravity; ratio of the fluid density to the density of water at standard conditions temperature heat loss volumetric flow rate internal energy variation of the system volume velocity work vertical position Imperial system (FPS units) in2 (inch square) non-dimensional non-dimensional in (inch) lbf (pound force) non-dimensional ft/s2 (feet/second squared) Btu (British Thermal Unit) Btu/lbm Btu ft (feet) ft ft ft ft ft ft ft Btu ft lbm (pound mass) tn/h Btu psi (pound per square inch) hp (horsepower) non-dimensional non-dimensional F (degrees Fahrenheit) Btu ft3/s Btu ft3 ft/s Btu ft mm (millimeter) N (Newton) m/s2 (meter/second squared) kJ (kiloJoule) kJ/kg kJ m (meter) m m m m m m m kJ m kg (kilogram) t/h kJ kPa (kiloPascal) W (watt) Metric system (SI units) mm2 (mm square)
E E
En H HP HDS HEQ HF HSS HTS Hv KE L m M PE p P Re SG
T Q q U V v W z
C (degrees Celsius) kJ m3/s kJ m3 m/s kJ m
VII
Variable nomenclature Greek terms delta: the difference between two terms epsilon: pipe roughness nu: kinematic viscosity eta: efficiency mu: dynamic viscosity rho: density gamma: specific weight
Imperial system (FPS units)
Metric system (SI units)
ft SSU (Saybolt Universal Second) non-dimensional lbm/ft lbf/ft3

3
m cSt (centiStoke)
cP (centiPoise) kg/m3 N/m3
& & & Note: A dot above the symbol (i.e. m , Q , W ) indicates the rate of change of the variable. A term with multiple subscripts such as HEQ1-2 means the total or sum of all equipment head between points 1 and 2. *FPS: Foot-pound-second system (Imperial) used in the U.S. and anglophone countries. **SI: Systme internationale, the metric system.
AN INTRODUCTION TO PUMP SYSTEMS

1.0 HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE AND FLUID COLUMN HEIGHT Our starting point will be pressure and how it is developed within a pumping system. It is easy to build pressure within a solid, a fluid however requires containment walls. A fluid can only be pressurized if it is in a container. Sometimes the container is very big like an ocean. This does not mean that the container has to be closed. Even if the container has an outlet, it is still possible to build pressure. An experiment with a common syringe will demonstrate this fact. With the syringe full of water, it is quite easy to generate significant pressure within the fluid (this is evidenced by the amount of force applied to the plunger) even while fluid squirts from the tip. Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure associated with a motionless body of water. Pressure within the body of water varies and is directly proportional to the vertical position with respect to the free surface. Divers are well aware of this fact since each foot of vertical descent increases pressure on the eardrums.
Figure 1-1 Pressure vs. hydrostatic head. Fluid weight is the cause of hydrostatic pressure. In Figure 1-1, a thin slice of fluid is isolated so that the forces surrounding it can be visualized. If we make the slice very thin, the pressure at the top and bottom of the slice will be the same. The slice is compressed top and bottom by force vectors opposing each other. The fluid in the slice also exerts pressure in the horizontal direction against the pipe walls. These forces are balanced by stress within the pipe wall. The pressure at the bottom of the slice will be equal to the weight of fluid above it divided by the area.
12
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPONENTS OF TOTAL HEAD
The weight of a fluid column of height (z) is:
F = g V = V = z A since V = z A
The pressure (p) is equal to the fluid weight (F) divided by the cross-sectional area (A) at the point where the pressure is calculated :
z A p= F = = z A A
where F : force due to fluid weight V : volume g : acceleration due to gravity (32.17 ft/s2) : fluid density in pound mass per unit volume : fluid density in pound force per unit volume
[1-1]
Figure 1-2 Fluid container shapes vs. pressure head. Note that the relationship between pressure (p) and fluid column height (z) is independent of the total volume in the container. The pressure generated by the weight of water at the deep end of a pool (i.e. 10 feet down) is the same as ten feet below the surface of a lake.
1.1
THE THREE FORMS OF ENERGY There are three forms of energy that are related and always occur together in a fluid system. They are potential, kinetic and pressure energies. This section briefly provides the definition for each to give the reader some familiarity with the terms. If we divide energy by the weight of the fluid element we obtain specific energy or head.
13
POTENTIAL SPECIFIC ENERGY
Potential specific energy = z
KINETIC SPECIFIC ENERGY
Figure 1-3 Potential specific energy provided by the difference in elevation of fluid particles.
Kinetic
specific
energy
v 2 g
PRESSURE SPECIFIC ENERGY
Figure 1-4 Kinetic specific energy provided by moving fluid particles.
Pressure specific energy =
Figure 1-5 Pressure specific energy provided by the weight of a fluid column.
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1.2
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ELEVATION, PRESSURE AND VELOCITY IN A FLUID
There is a relationship between the energies associated with elevation, pressure and velocity of fluid particles. The energy terms are: the elevation energy (z), the pressure energy (p/), and the velocity energy (v2/g). The sum of these 3 types of energy must be constant, since energy cannot be lost. Stated in another way: the energy at point 1 must be equal to the energy at point 2 (see Figure 1-6).
The sum of the three forms of energy must be constant:
z +
+ v = E = CONSTANT 2g
Or if we wish to describe the relationship between the energy levels of fluid particles in different locations of the system such as point 1 and 2 in Figure 1-6 then:
2 2 p p v2 v1 z 1+ 1 + 2 g = z 2 + 2 + 2 g
Relationship between pressure, elevation and velocity
A variation in one or two of these terms implies a variation in the third. The total energy at point 1 in a fluid system must be equal to the total energy at point 2 (see Figure 1-6). For example, if we were to increase the velocity at point 1 by reducing the section, keeping all the other terms the same, the pressure p1 will decrease.
Figure 1-6 The relationship between pressure, elevation and velocity.
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPONENTS OF TOTAL HEAD Relationship between pressure and elevation
15
There are many areas in a system where the velocity is constant. In that case, it is only pressure and elevation that are related. In particular, if the velocity is zero as in a static system, we have the relationship between pressure and fluid column height previously mentioned.
Figure 1-7 The relationship between pressure and elevation. The following equation gives the relationship between elevation and pressure when the velocity is constant.
z1 +
p1
= z2 +
p2
Figure 1-8 shows a real system with a pressure gauge at the low part of the system (near the pump) and one in the upper part (near the discharge tank). The pressure p1 will be greater than p2 due to the elevation difference.
Figure 1-8 Pressure variation due to elevation in a real system.
16
Relationship between pressure and velocity If the elevation is constant, then there is a relationship between pressure and velocity. It is this relationship that helps us calculate the flow rate in a venturi tube. In Figure 1-9, the pressure p2 will be lower than p1 due to the increase in velocity at point 2.
Figure 1-9 The relationship between pressure and velocity. The following equation gives the relationship between pressure and velocity when the elevation is constant.
2 p2 v2 2 + v1 = + 2g 2g
p1
A venturi tube is used to measure flow rate. The flow rate (q) is proportional to the difference in pressure at points 1 and 2 ( see Figure 1-9).
q =K
p2 p1
17
The 3 forms of energy (elevation, pressure and velocity) are always present in a fluid system. Using a simple container (see Figure 1-10), these types of energy can be clearly demonstrated. 1. Potential energy. The fluid particles at elevation z vs. those at the bottom have potential energy. We know this type of energy is present because we must have spent energy moving the fluid particles up to that level. 2. Pressure energy. The weight of the fluid column produces pressure p at the bottom of the tank. The pressure energy is transformed to kinetic energy when we open the valve at the bottom of the tank. 3. Kinetic energy. If fluid is allowed to exit the container at the bottom of the tank, it will exit the tank with a velocity v. Pressure energy has been converted to kinetic energy.
Figure 1-10 The 3 forms of energy in a fluid system, potential, kinetic and pressure. 1.3 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRESSURE AND HEAD In a moving fluid, the velocity of the particles must be considered. The principle of conservation of energy states that the energy of a fluid particle as it travels through a system must be constant. This can he expressed as:
m gz + m g
1 m v 2 = E = C O N STAN T 2
[1-2]
where (E) is the total energy of fluid particles with mass (m) and velocity (v). The total energy consists of the potential energy (mg z), the pressure energy (mg p/), and the kinetic energy (m v2/2g). By dividing all the terms in the above equation by (mg), we obtain equation [1-3] which is known as Bernoullis equation. E now becomes the specific energy of the fluid particle or the energy per unit weight E . All the terms on the left-hand
18
side of Bernoullis equation are known as head. Bernoullis equation expresses the relationship between the elevation head (z), the pressure head (p/), and the velocity head (v2/2g). Bernoullis equation:
z +
v2 = E = C O N STAN T 2g
[1-3]
Bernoullis equation will be expanded later to include the pump Total Head and the friction losses. It is important at this point to make a clear distinction between pressure and head. Head is a generic term for a type of specific energy (i.e. elevation, pressure or velocity head). When we need to calculate pressure at a specific point in a system, we will refer to it as pressure head. Pressure head can be converted to pressure by equation [1-1]. Pressure can be measured anywhere in the system quite easily and can provide valuable information. However, since it is not an energy term and cannot be used for calculations involving head, especially Total head. The pressure measurement must be converted to pressure head (see equation [1-5]) to be useful in these calculations. 1.4 FLUID SYSTEMS The pump is the heart of a fluid system. It is impossible (or at the very least impractical) to move fluid from one place to another without the energy provided by a pump. Figure 1-11 shows a simple but typical system. All the fluid in the suction tank will eventually be transferred to the discharge tank. The purpose of the system is to displace fluid and sometimes to alter it by filtering, heating or other with the appropriate equipment. The box with the term EQ symbolizes equipment such as: control valves, filters, etc. Any device (or equipment) introduced into Figure 1-11 A typical pumping system. the line will have the effect of reducing the pressure head in the line. This requires more head, or energy, from the pump.
19
How is a system designed? A. B. C. The flow rate is determined based on the process and production requirements. The location and size of the suction and discharge tanks is established. The location, capacity and size of the equipment to be installed in the line is determined. The pump location is fixed. The line sizes are determined and the auxiliary equipment such as manual valves are sized and located. The Total Head of the pump is determined as well as the size, model, type, and power requirement.
D. E.
F.
Where does a system begin and end?
We can imagine a boundary (also called control volume) which envelops and determines the extent of a system. A complete system contains fluid that is continuous from inlet to outlet. There can be no gaps or empty spaces between parts of the fluid. In Figure 1-11, the system inlet is at point 1 and the outlet is at point 2. Point 1 is located on the liquid surface of the suction tank. Normally there would be a pipe inserted into the suction tank providing fluid to maintain the elevation of point 1. This fill pipe is not considered part of the system. The outlet of the system, or point 2, is located on the liquid surface of the discharge tank. Again, there is normally a pipe, which controls the level of point 2. This discharge pipe is not part of the system. The reasons for this will be carefully explained when we review control volumes in section 2.7. 1.5 THE DRIVING FORCE OF THE FLUID SYSTEM The pump supplies the energy to move the fluid through a system at a certain flow rate. The energy is transferred to the fluid by a rotating a disk with curved vanes called an impeller (see Figure 1-12). This movement drives the liquid in a circular path and imparts centrifugal force to it. The pump pushes and pressurizes the fluid up against the casing (or volute). This ability of the pump to pressurize fluids at a certain flow rate provides us with the means to design systems that will meet the process goals (for example, flow and pressure at the desired locations). The Total Head is the difference in head between the inlet and outlet of the pump that produces the flow rate required of the system.
1 10
Figure 1-12 Principal components of a centrifugal pump. The Total Head of the pump provides the energy necessary to overcome the friction loss due to the movement of the fluid through pipes and equipment. It also provides the energy to compensate for the difference in height, velocity and pressure between the inlet and the outlet. 1.6 THE COMPONENTS OF TOTAL HEAD
Friction
Fluids in movement generate friction. There is a difference in pressure (pF1 - pF2 ) required to move a fluid element A (see Figure 1-13) towards the outlet. This difference in pressure is known as the friction pressure loss (p) (see Figure 1-13). When this term is converted to head, it is then known as friction head loss. Reference tables and charts for friction head loss are widely available (see reference 1 and 8). Viscosity is an important factor and higher viscosity fluids generate higher friction. More about viscosity in chapter 3.
Figure 1-13 The difference in pressure due to fluid friction.
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPONENTS OF TOTAL HEAD Equipment
1 11
Any equipment in the line will create a reduction in pressure head. A filter is a common example of a device producing a pressure drop (see Figure 1-14). Other examples are control valves, heat exchangers, etc. Equipment introduced into an existing system will reduce the flow rate unless the pump is modified to provide more energy (for example by installing a bigger impeller).
Figure 1-14 The effect of equipment in a system.

Velocity
The kinetic energy of the fluid increases when it leaves the system at a higher velocity than when it enters and this requires extra energy. The energy required for the velocity increase is typically small and is often neglected. However, certain systems are specifically designed to produce high output velocity. This is done by using nozzles (see Figure 1-15 C) and therefore require a substantial amount of energy that the pump must supply. Figure 1-15 illustrates three systems with progressively higher output velocities.
Figure 1-15 Various systems with varying output velocities. CASE A. DISCHARGE PIPE END SUBMERGED. The output velocity v2 is small and the velocity head negligible. CASE B. DISCHARGE PIPE END NOT SUBMERGED. The output velocity v2 is small and the velocity head is non-negligible. CASE C. NOZZLES ARE INSTALLED ON THE DISCHARGE PIPE END. The output velocity v2 is high and the velocity head is high.
1 12 Elevation
It takes energy to pump fluids from a lower level to a higher one. There is often a significant difference in elevation between the inlet of a system (point 1), and the outlet (point 2, see Figure 1-16). Typically, the elevation difference within a system is the largest contributor to the Total Head of the pump.
Figure 1-16 The difference in elevation between suction and discharge tank.
Pressurized Tanks
The discharge and suction tank may be positively or negatively pressurized (with respect to the local atmospheric pressure). If the discharge tank is positively pressurized then the pump must provide additional energy to overcome this additional pressure. When the discharge tank is negatively pressurized, there is less resistance to the fluid entering the discharge tank and this reduces the energy required of the pump. The effect on the pump is exactly opposite when the suction tank is positively or negatively pressurized. Figure 1-17 Pressurized suction and discharge tanks.
1 13
In many applications the tanks are not pressurized and the level of pressure in these tanks is zero or the same as the local atmospheric pressure. However, there is a misuse of terminology that tends to muddy the waters occasionally. Have you ever heard someone say: Boy, that water is really coming out, there must be allot of pressure at the end of that hose. In reality, there is no pressure at the outlet of the hose since the fluid comes out into the atmosphere. What feels like pressure, is the mass of Figure 1-18 Ouch. water particles hitting at high velocity. The kinetic energy is converted to pressure energy, which produces a force on the hand. The pressure is zero but the water jet has a significant amount of kinetic energy. 1.7 NEGATIVE (RELATIVE) PRESSURE Figure 1-19 illustrates how easy it is to produce negative relative pressure. The fluid is stationary and the elevation of point 1 is identical to that of points 3, 6 and 9. The pressure at point 2 is higher than the pressure at point 1 due to the depth of point 2 and the pressure caused by the fluid at that depth. The pressure at point 2 is positive and decreases to zero as we reach the level of point 3 (same level as point 1) inside the tube. From 3 to 4, the pressure decreases and becomes negative. The pressure at point 5 is the same as at point 4 since we are on the same level. Figure 1-19 The pressure distribution in a static Pressure then increases system. from negative to zero at point 6 (same level as point 1). From point 6 to 7 there is a further increase, the pressure remains constant from 7 to 8. The pressure decreases to zero from point 8 to 9 since point 9 is at the same level as point 1.
1 14
We create relative negative pressure everyday with a straw. Find some flexible tubing and try the experiment shown on Figure 1-20 and Figure 1-24. Try the following simple experiment. Get a small container and a short length of clear plastic tube. Our goal will be to put some water on a shelf so to speak. 1. Suction is applied to the tube and the liquid is lifted up to point 4. 2. Bend the tube as you apply suction to get the fluid past point 5. At this point a siphon (see section 1.8) is established. 3. The tube is bent at points 7 and 8 and the liquid level establishes itself at point 9, which is the same level as point 1. The liquid in the tube remains stable and suspended at the level of point 4 and 5. Liquid has been raised from a lower elevation at point 1 to a higher one at point 4, like putting a book on a shelf. If the tube was punctured at point 4 or 5, what would happen? Air would enter the tube and the liquid would drop to its lowest level. We have managed to create negative relative pressure at point 4, which is easily maintained without further intervention.
Figure 1-20 Creating negative pressure.
1 15
Use a longer tube this time, fill it with water and put your finger on the end of the tube sealing it off. The lower end of the tube is open (see Figure 1-21a). It is possible to suspend a column of water 34 feet high by sealing the top. This creates a volume of zero pressure at the top end, between the finger and the fluid surface. At the bottom end, which is open, atmospheric pressure is pushing on the fluid in an upward direction. The weight of the liquid column is balanced by the force generated by atmospheric pressure.
Figure 1-21b Difference in pressure in a water column suspended from an open tube 34 feet high.
Figure 1-21a Water suspended from an open tube 34 feet high.
1 16
A common unit in North America for measuring pressure is the psig (or pound per square inch gauge). Zero psig corresponds to the level of pressure in the local atmosphere. The g stands for gauge, meaning dial gauge. The equivalent to 0 psig in pressure head is 0 feet of fluid. These units are relative to the local atmospheric pressure or atmospheric pressure head. Pressure in certain parts of the system can drop below the local atmospheric pressure, and become negative. An area of negative pressure is under a vacuum. A breach of the containment wall, in an area under vacuum, will cause air to be drawn into the system. This is what would happen if the tube were punctured at point 4 in Figure 1-20. The units often used to express low pressure are psia (pounds per square inch absolute). The levels of pressure head are expressed in feet of fluid absolute or in Hg (inch of Mercury). These units are absolute, and are therefore not relative to any other pressure. A perfect vacuum corresponds to 0 psia. Figure 1-22 shows graphically the relationship between absolute and relative pressure. The atmospheric pressure at sea level is 14.7 psia. Not all plants are at sea level, for example, Johannesburg is 5,200 feet above sea level and the local atmospheric pressure is 12 psia. This effect has to be considered when calculating the available N.P.S.H. (Net Positive Suction Head ) at the pump suction (see Chapter 3).
Figure 1-22 Absolute vs. relative pressure scales.
1 17
The relationship between an absolute (psia) and a relative (psig) pressure measurement is:
p ( psia ) = p ( psig ) + p A ( psia )

where pA is the local barometric or atmospheric pressure in psia (i.e. pA = 14.7 psia at sea level). 1.8 THE SIPHON EFFECT At first glance, a fluid moving vertically upwards without assistance creates a surprising effect. Figure 1-23 compares the movement of a rope with that of a ball. Both objects are solid, however the rope can emulate the behavior of a fluid where a ball cannot. A ball moves toward an incline and encounters a rise before it gets to a sharp drop; can it get over the hump without any intervention? No, not if it has a low velocity. Imagine the ball stretched into the shape of a rope, lying on a smooth surface, and draped across the hump. Even when starting from rest, the rope will slide down and drag the overhung part along with it. A fluid in a tube will behave in the same way as the rope.
[1-4]
Figure 1-23 A siphon as a rope. A volume of fluid is formless. A fluid will take on the shape of its container, whatever shape it may be. Its natural tendency is to lie flat. Gravity (or potential energy) is responsible for this behavior. Gravity is also responsible for the siphon effect.
1 18
Figure 1-24 shows an experiment that requires a few feet of flexible tube. Fill the tube with water and keep the bottom end sealed in some manner. Pinch the end of the tube at point 1, turn it around l80 to form a U shape as in position C. Release the end of the tube at point 1. What happens? No fluid leaves the tube. Why? If the water were to come out on the short side then a void would be created in the tube on the level of point 2. A void would produce a volume under low pressure. Low relative pressure acts as a pulling force on the short fluid column. Actually, it is not low pressure that pulls the fluid up but atmospheric pressure that pushes the short column of fluid upward. Therefore, fluid coming out at point 1 would create a vacuum at point 2 and a vacuum stops the movement so that there can be no movement out at point 1. What this Figure 1-24 Water suspended in an open means is that the pressure at point 1 tube. (atmospheric pressure) is sufficient to prevent the short column of fluid from moving downward. Why, because if it did not, a void would have to be created at point 2. The effect of creating a void at point 2 would reduce the pressure to 0 psia. This low pressure can suspend a column of water 34 feet high. This is clearly not necessary for the short column of fluid to the left of 2. Something less than a void needs to be created to suspend the short column of fluid. In Figure 1-24 E, a reduced pressure is present at point 2 which suspends the short column. There is no void required to suspend the short column. The following experiment will show how easy it is to create low pressure. The effect produced is surprising and shows up an unusual property of fluids, the ability of fluids to be suspended in mid air without apparent means of support.
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPONENTS OF TOTAL HEAD Experiment No.1
1 19
The experiment consists of a vertical tube, full of water, and closed at the bottom end. We take the top end and turn it around vertically downward as shown in Figure 1-25. What happens to the fluid in the tube? Is it in equilibrium, is it suspended, or will some portion of it drop out of the tube? If the fluid is suspended, there must be a balance of forces that holds it in place, preventing it from falling out of the short end of the tube. The pressure p0 within the fluid produces a force F0 at the section of point 0 (see Figure 125). Similarly, the atmospheric pressure pA produces a force FA at the end of the tube. W is the weight of that portion of fluid between point 0 and A.
Figure 1-25 Balance of forces between points 0 and A.
The balance of forces is:
FA = F0 + W also F = p A then
p A A = p0 A + z A
Therefore
p A = p0 + z
For the fluid to be in equilibrium, p0 must be smaller than pA. This means that p0 will be negative with respect to the atmospheric pressure.
1 20
There are two principles in the following argument that should be made clear: In a static system, the fluid particles on the same level are at the same pressure. Fluids are incompressible.
We know that for the fluid to be stable there must be a balance of forces. How does this balance of forces come about? Lets see if we can duplicate this experiment without bending any tubes.
Experiment No.2
Lets start with a vertical tube full of water with one end closed as shown in Figure 1-26. If we apply a source of vacuum, the fluid will remain exactly where it is since it is incompressible. In other words, if the pressure is lowered the fluid does not expand and alternatively, if the pressure is raised it does not contract.
Figure 1-26 The level in the tube does not change when we apply a vacuum. Attach a tee to the top end of the tube, then a short leg to the tee and connect one branch to a reservoir. Reattach the vacuum source to the tee as in Figure 1-27. The fluid is pulled up the short leg causing it to be in balance and therefore suspended. If we shut off the vacuum source and remove the reservoir, we have exactly the exact same system we started out with in Figure 1-25.
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Figure 1-27 Lifting fluid with a source of vacuum.
Figure 1-28 The vacuum source is disconnected and the fluid is suspended.
We managed to create a similar system to the original one (Figure 1-25) without bending the tube. We know that the pressure in the tube drops as we raise a fluid vertically from the outlet. It drops just sufficiently to suspend the column of fluid. This was made apparent as we applied a vacuum to lift the fluid. The bending of the tube in Figure 1-25 disguises this effect, giving us a suspended column of fluid without a clear indication of the mechanism. Experiment no. 2 shows the mechanism by which the fluid is suspended.
A typical siphon situation is shown in Figure 129. The graph shows how the pressure head varies within the system. In the next chapter, we will develop the method required to calculate the pressure head at any location in the system.
Figure 1-29 The pressure variation within a simple siphon system.
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1.9
SPECIFIC GRAVITY We often need to calculate the pressure head that corresponds to the pressure. Pressure can be converted to pressure head or fluid column height for any fluid. However, not all fluids have the same density. Water for example has a density of 62.34 pounds per cubic foot whereas gasoline has a density of 46.75 pounds per cubic foot. Specific gravity is the ratio of the fluid density to water density at standard conditions. By definition water has a specific gravity (SG) of 1. To convert pressure to pressure head, the specific gravity SG of the fluid must be known. The specific gravity of a fluid is:
S G =
F W
where F is the fluid density and W is water density at standard conditions. Since
p =F z =
F g z
gc
and
F = SG W
therefore
p = SG
W g z
gc
where F is the fluid density in terms of weight per unit volume and F is the density in terms of mass per unit volume. The constant gc is required to provide a relationship between mass in lbm and force in lbf (see Appendix D). The quantity Wg/gc ( W = 62.34 lbm/ft3 for water at 60 F) is:
W g 62.34(lbm / ft 3) 32.17(ft / s 2)
gc = 32.17(lbm ft / lbf s )
2
lbf 1(ft) = 1 2 2 144(in ) 2.31 in ft
After simplification, the relationship between the fluid column height and the pressure at the bottom of the column is:
p( psi ) =
1 SG z ( ft of fluid ) 2.31
[1-5]
Figure 1-30 Pressure vs. elevation in a fluid column.
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Here he goes again with the siphon. OK, maybe not everyone has the same interest in siphons as I do. The explanation for the behavior of a siphon is quite simple: a siphon is like a rope: if you pull on one end the other will follow. Why is it important to know how a siphon works? Siphons by their very nature produce an area of low pressure. A feed pipe with top entry to a tank behaves like a siphon. Any area in a piping system that is higher than the discharge point will likely be under low pressure.
THE APPLICATION OF THERMODYNAMICS TO PUMP SYSTEMS

2.0 ENERGY AND THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES This chapter requires some introduction to thermodynamic properties and states. No need to panic, we will use only what we need to know to calculate Total Head. Several measurable quantities are used to define the state of a substance: temperature (T), pressure (p), velocity (v), and elevation (z). A specific type of energy corresponds to each of these quantities.
Kinetic Energy
The formula for kinetic energy is:
KE =
1 2 mv 2
The above equation states that the kinetic energy of a body is equal to one half the mass times the velocity squared.
Potential Energy
Another form of energy is potential energy:
PE = mg z
which means that the potential energy of a body is equal to the weight (mg) times the vertical distance (z) above a surface upon which the object would come to rest. These two types of energies interact. For example, an object at the top of an incline has a certain amount of potential energy. After it's release, potential energy is gradually converted to kinetic energy. When it reaches the bottom, all the potential energy has converted to kinetic energy.
Figure 2-1 Transformation of potential energy to kinetic energy.
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The principle of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created or lost. Consequently, if one form of energy decreases then another form must increase. This allows us to make an energy balance that describes the energy variation of the object in Figure 2-1.
KE + PE = 0
In other words, equation [2-1] reads: the sum of the potential and kinetic energy variation between points 1 and 2 is equal to zero. Energy levels are associated with positions within a system, position 1 is the top of the slope and position 2 the bottom.
[2-1]
PE = PE 1 PE 2 and KE = K E 1 KE 2 mg ( z 1 z 2 ) +
1 m( v1 2 v 2 2 ) = 0 2
[2-2]
v 2 2 v1 2 = 2 g ( z1 z 2 )
Equation [2-1] expresses the principle of conservation of energy for this system. This leads to equation [2-2] that describes how velocity changes with respect to height. The principle of conservation of energy makes it possible to account for all forms of energy in a system. The energies present in the system are in continuous change and the term delta () is used in equation [2-1] to indicate a change or variation in energy.
Thermodynamic properties
Thermodynamic properties are the different types of energies associated with a body (for example, potential, kinetic, internal or external). It is characteristic of a thermodynamic property is that its value is independent of the method or path taken to get from one value to another or from an initial state 1 to another state 2. The potential energy (PE) and the kinetic energy (KE) are thermodynamic properties. We require other energy quantities (work and heat) to account for real world conditions. These quantities are dependent on the path or method used to get from state 1 to state 2 (more about paths later). 2.1 CLOSED SYSTEMS AND INTERNAL ENERGY The system shown in Figure 2-2 is a fluid contained in a sealed tube with its inlet connected to its outlet forming a closed system.
THE APPLICATION OF THERMODYNAMICS TO PUMP SYSTEMS Internal Energy
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All fluids have internal energy (U). If we apply a heat source to the system, the temperature, pressure and internal energy of the fluid will increase. Internal energy is the energy present at the molecular level of the substance.
Figure 2-2 The relationship between internal energy and heat gain within a closed system.
Closed Systems
In a closed system no mass enters or leaves the boundary. What happens if we put a fluid within a closed environment such as a sealed container and apply heat? Pressure and temperature in the fluid will increase. The temperature rise indicates that the internal energy of the fluid has increased. The heat source increases the internal energy of the fluid from U1 to U2 . The energy quantities present in this system are the internal energy (U) and the heat loss (Q). Therefore, the energy balance is:
Q = QC QE = U = U 1 U 2
QC is the quantity of heat absorbed by the fluid from the source and QE is the heat loss of the fluid to the environment. The internal energy has changed from its level at instant 1 to another level at instant 2 (after heat is applied). The internal energy (U) is a thermodynamic property. 2.2 CLOSED SYSTEMS, INTERNAL ENERGY AND WORK Another way to increase the internal energy of a fluid is to do work on it by means of a pump. In this way, without applying heat, the work done on the fluid through the pump raises the internal energy of the fluid from U1 to U2. This causes the temperature of the fluid to increase, producing a heat loss QE to the environment.
Figure 2-3 The relationship between internal energy, work and heat loss within a closed system.
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In this situation, the energy balance is:
QE W = U = U 1 U 2
The sign convention is positive energy for heat leaving the system and negative energy for heat or work entering the system. 2.3 OPEN SYSTEMS AND ENTHALPY
Figure 2-4 The relationship between internal energy, heat loss, work, and a pressurized environment for an open system. An open system is one where mass is allowed to enter and exit. The mass entering the system displaces an equal amount of mass that exits. A clearly defined boundary, called the control volume, envelops the system and intersects the inlet and outlet. The control volume allows us to apply the principle of conservation of energy. Each unit of mass (m1) and volume (V1) that enters the system is subject to a pressure (p1) at the inlet. The same is true of the mass leaving the system (m2) of volume (V2) and subjected to a pressure (p2). The principle of conservation of mass requires that m1 = m2. In this book, we are dealing only with incompressible fluids where V1 = V2. The pressure at the inlet produces a certain quantity of work that helps push the fluid through the system. The pressure at the outlet produces work opposing that movement. The difference between these two work components is the work associated with pressure at the inlet and outlet of the system. This difference is the energy term (pV) and is the only difference between the systems shown in Figure 2-3 vs. the system shown in Figure 2-4.
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The energy balance is:
Q E W = U ( pV ) = En
U and (pV) are terms that always occur together in an open system. For that reason their sum has been given the name enthalpy (En). Enthalpy is also a thermodynamic property. 2.4 OPEN SYSTEMS, ENTHALPY, KINETIC AND POTENTIAL ENERGY In closed systems, the fluid particles move from one end of the container to another but they do not leave the container. It is impossible to have a net effect on the velocity and therefore on the kinetic energy of the system. In open systems, fluid particles move from the inlet to the outlet and leave the system. If the velocity varies between inlet and outlet, the kinetic energy varies. The pump is the energy source that compensates for the variation. The same is true for potential energy in a closed system. A fluid particle that goes from the bottom of a container to the top will eventually return to the bottom. There can be no net effect on the potential energy of this system. In an open system, fluid particles can leave the system at a different elevation than they enter producing a variation in potential energy. The pump also compensates for this energy variation.
Potential Energy
The difference in vertical position at which the fluid enters and leaves the system causes the potential energy of a fluid particle to increase or decrease. The potential energy increases when the fluid leaves at a higher elevation than it enters. The pump provides energy to compensate for the increase in potential energy. If the fluid leaves the system at a lower elevation than it enters, the potential energy decreases and it is possible to convert this energy to useful work. This is what happens in a hydroelectric dam. A channel behind the dam wall brings water to a turbine located beneath the dam structure. The flow of water under pressure turns a turbine that is coupled to a generator producing electricity. The difference in elevation or potential energy of the fluid is the source of energy for the generator.
Kinetic Energy
There is often a velocity difference between the inlet and outlet of a system. Usually the velocity is higher at the outlet versus the inlet; this produces an increase in kinetic energy. The pump compensates for this difference in kinetic energy levels. The complete energy balance for an open system is:
Q E W = En + KE + PE
[2-3]
26
Equation [2-3] has the thermodynamic properties on the right-hand side. The heat loss (QE) and the work done on the system (W), which are not thermodynamic properties, are on the left-hand side of the equation. To determine QE and W, it is necessary to know how the heat is produced (i.e. path that the fluid must take between inlet and outlet) and how the work is done. 2.5 WORK DONE BY THE PUMP The role of a pump is to provide sufficient pressure to move fluid trough the system at the required flow rate. This energy compensates for the energy losses due to friction, elevation, velocity and pressure differences between the inlet and outlet of the system. This book does not deal with the method by which a pump can pressurize a fluid within its casing. The reader is referred to reference 15, a very detailed treatment of this subject. For our purpose, the Figure 2-5 The work provided by the pump. pump is a black box whose function is to increase the fluid pressure at a given flow rate. 2.6 FLUID AND EQUIPMENT FRICTION LOSS The total heat loss (QE) is the sum of fluid friction loss and equipment friction loss.
Q E = Q F + Q EQ
Fluid Friction Loss (QF)
How is it possible to go from a nebulous concept such as fluid friction to the pressure drop due to friction? Friction occurs within the fluid and between the fluid and the walls.. A detailed method of fluid friction calculation is presented in Chapter 3. Friction in fluids produces heat (QF ) which dissipates to the environment. The temperature increase is negligible. If we can estimate the friction force, we know that we must supply an equal and opposite force to overcome it.
Figure 2-6 Heat loss due to fluid friction within pipes.
27
The energy corresponding to the heat loss (QF) must be supplied by the pump. The net force (FF) required to balance the friction force is F1-F2 These forces are the result of the action of pressures p1 and p2 (see Figure 2-6). The difference between p1 and p2 is the pressure differential or pressure drop due to friction for a given length of pipe. Many publications (reference 1 and 8 for example) provide pressure head drop values in the form of tables. The pressure head drop can also be calculated by the Colebrook equation, which we will discuss in chapter 3.
Equipment Friction Loss (QEQ)
Many different types of equipment are present in typical industrial systems. Control valves, filters, etc., are examples of equipment that have an effect on the fluid. Because of the great variety of different equipment that can be installed, it is not possible to analyze everyone of them. However we can quantify the effect of the equipment by determining the pressure drop across the equipment much as we did with the pressure drop across the pump. Again it is not necessary to know exactly what happens inside the equipment to be able estimate this effect. Pressure drop (difference between inlet and outlet pressure) is the outward manifestation of the effect of equipment. This pressure drop produces heat (QEQ) which is then lost through the fluid to the environment. The heat loss is calculated in the same manner as the pump work (W).
Q EQ = p EQ
The product supplier normally makes available the amount of pressure drop for the equipment at various flow rates in the form of charts or tables. 2.7 THE CONTROL VOLUME Up to now we have been using control volumes without defining their purpose. A control volume is an imaginary boundary that surrounds a system and intersects all inlets and outlets. This makes it possible to apply the principle of conservation of mass. The boundary of the system is determined by appropriately locating the inlet and the outlet. The term appropriate refers to locating the boundary at points where the conditions (pressure, elevation and velocity) are known. The control volume encompasses all internal and external the energy sources affecting the system. This makes it possible to apply the principle of conservation of energy. How is the control volume positioned in real systems? Figure 2-7 shows a typical industrial process. Suppose that we locate the inlet (point 1) on the inlet pipe as shown in Figure 2-7. Is this reasonable? Where exactly should we locate it, will any position due? Clearly no. Point l could be located anywhere on the feed line to the suction tank. The problem with locating point 1 on the inlet line is precisely that the location is indeterminate.
28
Figure 2-7 Incorrect positioning of the control volume in a pumping system. However, consider Figure 2-8. The pressure head at the inlet of the pump is proportional to the elevation of the suction tank fluid surface. We locate the inlet of the system (point 1) on the suction tank fluid surface since any change in the elevation of point 1 will affect the pump. The inlet pipe is the means by which we supply the pump with enough fluid to operate. As far as this system is concerned, the inlet feed pipe is irrelevant. This is because the pressure head at the inlet of the pump (or any point within the system) is dependent on the level of the suction fluid tank surface. The other reason that requires us to locate point 1 on the liquid surface of the suction tank is that the control volume must contain all the energy sources that affect the system and if the suction and discharge tanks are open to atmosphere than this pressure will be present at points 1 and 2 (H1 = H2 = 0 = atmospheric pressure).
Figure 2-8 Proper positioning of the intersections of the control volume with a pumping system.
29
This leads to a representation of a generalized system that we will use from now on. A general system must take into account the possibility that the suction and discharge tanks are pressurized. The terms H1 and H2 in Figure 2-8 represent respectively the suction and discharge pressure head at the fluid surfaces of these tanks. A general system must take into account the possibility that the system contains no tanks and that points 1 and 2 are connections to pipe lines of other systems. The only difference between a tank and a pipe is that a tank can contain a much greater volume of fluid. Therefore, whether the system has tanks or not is immaterial. However the conditions (i.e. pressure, velocity and elevation) of the inlet and outlet of the system must be known. It will always be possible to disconnect our system from another if the pressure head, velocity and elevation (H , v and z) at the connection point is known (more about disconnecting interconnected systems later in this chapter). Therefore, Figure 2-8 can represent all possible situations. 2.8 THE DETERMINATION OF TOTAL HEAD FROM THE ENERGY BALANCE We now have all the background information necessary to determine the work required of the pump and therefore the Total Head. First, we calculate the energy lost in friction due to fluid movement through pipes (QF) and equipment (QEQ.). Next, calculate the energy variations due to conditions at the inlet and outlet. 1. Potential energy variation (PE ) is associated with the difference in height of a fluid element between the outlet and inlet of the system. 2. Kinetic energy variation (KE) is associated with the variation in velocity of a fluid element between the outlet and inlet of the system. 3. Enthalpy variation (En) consists of two components En = U + (pV). The first is the internal energy (U) of the fluid. In most common fluid transfer situations, there is no significant temperature change and therefore no significant internal energy change (U = U1 - U2 = 0). The other component of enthalpy (pV) is the energy associated with the difference in pressure at the inlet and outlet of the system. The difference between the inlet and outlet energies added to the total friction loss (QE) gives the resultant work W that must be supplied by the pump. 2.9 SYSTEM OR TOTAL HEAD EQUATION FOR A SINGLE INLET - SINGLE OUTLET SYSTEM The simplest case we can consider is a system with one inlet and one outlet. The first law of thermodynamics or the principle of conservation of energy for open systems states:
& & & & & Q E W = En + KE + PE
[2-4]
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Equation [2-4] expresses the rate of variation of the energy terms instead of the energy variation as in equation [2-3]. This allows us to balance mass flow rates instead of mass between the inlet and outlet of the system. In Figure 2-8, the box with the letters EQ represents the effect of all the equipment present in the line between points 1 and 2. H1 and H2 are the pressure heads present at the suction tank and the discharge tank fluid surface respectively. z1 and v1 are respectively the elevation and the velocity of a fluid particle at the inlet of the system, and z2 and v2 are the same variables for a fluid particle at the outlet.
& ENERGY RATE = v F = Vp =
& m
The following equations are all based on the above which is the work or energy rate & & required to move a body of mass m at a velocity v. V and m are respectively the volumetric and mass flow rate. p is the pressure differential and is the fluid density.
& The rate of heat transfer (QE ) is the heat generated in the system by fluid friction in the pipes and through the equipment: & m & QE = p F 1 2 + p EQ 1 2
& The energy rate of heat loss ( QE )
[2-5]
where pF1-2 is the pressure drop associated with fluid friction for a fluid particle traveling between points 1 and 2. pEQ1-2 is the sum of all pressure drops produced by all of the equipment between the same points.
& The rate of mechanical work (W )

Similarly, the rate of mechanical energy introduced into the system, such as supplied by a pump is: [2-6] & m
& W=
p P
where pP is the difference in pressure between the discharge and the suction of the pump (points P and S in Figure 2-8).
& The rate of enthalpy variation ( E ) & The rate of enthalpy variation is composed of the rate of internal energy variation ( U ), &) . and the difference in pressure energy between the inlet or outlet of the system ( pV & U is normally zero or negligible in most fluid transfer situations, therefore: & & & & & & & & & & & E = U + ( pV ) = U 1 U 2 + ( p1V1 p2V2 ) = p1V1 p2V2 since U 1 U 2 = 0
2 11
& & also for incompressible fluids V1 = V2 , therefore

& m & & E n = V ( p1 p 2 ) = ( p1 p 2 )
[2-7]
where p1 is the pressure at the suction tank liquid surface and p2 is the pressure at the discharge tank liquid surface.
& The rate of kinetic energy variation ( KE )

Kinetic energy is the energy associated with the velocity (v) of a body of mass (m). The rate of kinetic energy variation of the system is:
& KE =
1 & m(v12 v2 2 ) 2 gc
[2-8]
where v1 is the velocity of a particle at the surface of the suction tank or the system inlet velocity. v2 is the velocity of a particle at the surface of the discharge tank or the system outlet velocity. The constant (gc) is required to make the units consistent in the FPS system.
& The rate of potential energy variation ( PE )

Potential energy is the energy associated with the vertical position z2 or z1 of a mass (m) subject to the influence of a gravity field. The change of potential energy of fluid particles in the system is:
& & PE = m
g (z z ) gc 1 2
[2-9]
where z1 and z2 are respectively the elevation of a particle on the fluid surface of the suction and discharge tank. Elevations such as z1 and z2 are often taken with respect to a DATUM or reference plane.
& By substituting equations [2-5] to [2-9] in equation [2-4] and dividing by m

( p F 1 2 + p EQ 1 2 ) p P ( p1 p 2 ) 1 = + ( v 2 v 2 2 ) + ( z1 z 2 ) g g g 2g 1 gc gc gc
g , we obtain: gc
[2-10]
Equation [2-10] is Bernoullis equation with the pump pressure increase (pP) and fluid (pF1-2) and equipment (pEQ1-2) friction terms added. Pressure can be expressed in terms of fluid column height or pressure head as demonstrated in chapter 1.
p=
gH
gc
[2-11]
2 12
All pressure terms are replaced by their corresponding fluid column heights with the use of equation [2-11], for example p1 = cancels out. The Total Head is:
gH1
gc
, p F 1 2 =
gH F 1 2
gc
, etc.). The constant gc
H P ( ft fluid ) = (H F 1 2 + H EQ1 2 ) +
1 2 2 (v 2 v1 ) + z 2 + H 2 ( z1 + H 1 ) 2g
[2-12]
The unit of Total Head (HP) is feet of fluid. The pump manufacturers always express the Total Head (HP) in feet of water, is a correction required if the fluid is other than water? Do we need to convert feet of fluid to feet of water? The terms in equations [2-10] and [212] are in energy per pound of fluid, or lbf-lbf/lbf; which is the same as feet. Since head is really energy per unit weight, the density of the fluid becomes irrelevant (or in other words 1 pound of water is the same as 1 pound of mercury). However, we will see later that the motor power required to move the fluid at a certain rate does required that the density of the fluid be considered (see Chapter 4). The pump manufacturers test the performance of their pumps with water. The capacity of a centrifugal pump is negatively affected by the fluids viscosity; therefore the three major performance parameters of a pump (total head, flow rate and efficiency) will have to be corrected for fluids with a viscosity higher than water ( see reference 1 and the web site www.fluidedesign.com).
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EXAMPLE 2.1 CALCULATE THE TOTAL HEAD FOR A TYPICAL PUMPING SYSTEM
Figure 2-9 An example of a calculation for Total Head of a typical pumping system. Our first example will take us through the ins and outs of a Total Head calculation for a simple pumping system. The fluid is water at 60 F. The equation for Total Head is:
HP = HF1S + HFP4 + HF 42 + HEQ1S + HEQP4 + HEQ42 +
1 2 2 (v2 v1 ) + z2 + H2 (z1 + H1) 2g
Point 4 is not essential to solve this problem but required for comparison purposes in example 2.2 where a branch is added at point 4. Friction Head Difference Pipe & Fittings Since the pipe diameter changes between points 1 and 2, it is necessary to determine the friction occurring between points 1 and S and points P and 2. POINT 1 TO S Pipe friction loss between points 1 and S.
H F 1 2 = H F 1 S + H FP 2
The friction loss term HF1-S is made up of fluid friction and fittings friction.
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Pipe friction = Fluid friction (pipe) + Fluid friction (fittings)
H F 1 S = H FP 1 S + H FF 1 S and H FP 2 = H FPP 2 = H FFP 2

where HFP1-S is the fluid friction between points 1 and S and HFF1-S is the friction produced by fittings (for example elbows, isolation valves, etc.) between the same two points. From the tables (reference 1 or 8). for a 8" dia. Pipe and a flow rate of 500 USGPM: HFP1-S/L = 0.42 ft/100 ft of pipe.
H FF 1 S =
H FP L1 S 8 = 0.42 = 0.03 ft L 100 100
Fittings Friction Loss between points 1 and S In this portion of the line there is (1) 8" butterfly valve, from the tables (reference 1 or 8) K = 0.25
H FF 1 S
Kv S 2 0.25 319 2 . = = = 0.04 ft 2g 2 32.17
The pipe and fittings friction loss between points 1 and S is: HF1-S = HFP1-S + HFF1-S = 0.03 + 0.04 = 0.07 ft POINT P TO 4. Pipe friction loss between points P and 4. From the tables (reference 1 or 8), for a 4" dia. Pipe at a flow rate of 500 USGPM: HFPP-4 /L= 13.1 ft/100 ft of pipe.
H FPP 4 =
L H FP 18 P 4 = 131 = 2.3 ft . L 100 100
2 15
Fittings Friction Loss between points P and 4 In this portion of the line there is: 4 dia. elbow, from the tables (reference 1 or 8) K = 0.25; (1) 4 isolation (butterfly) valve; from the tables (reference 1 or 8) KVAL = 0.25
H FFP 4
( K ELB + KVAL ) v 4 2 ( 0.25 + 0.25) 12.76 2 = = = 1.3 ft 2g 2 32.17
The pipe and fittings friction between points P and 4 is: HFP-4 = HFPP-4 + HFFP-4 = 2.3 + 1.3 = 3.6 ft POINT 4 TO 2 Pipe Friction Loss between points 4 and 2. From the tables (reference 1 or 8), for a 4"dia. pipe at a flow rate of @ 500 USGPM: HFPP-2 /L= 13.1 ft/100 ft of pipe.
H FP 4 2 =
H FP L4 2 114 = 131 . = 14.9 ft 100 100 L
Fittings Friction Loss between points 4 and 2 In this portion of the line there is (2) 4"dia. elbows, from the tables (reference 1 or 8) KELB = 0.25.
H FF 4 2
2 K ELB v 2 2 2 0.25 12 .76 2 = = = 1.3 ft 2g 2 32 .17
The pipe and fittings friction between points 4 and 2 is: HF4-2 = HFP4-2 + HFF4-2 = 14.9 + 1.3 = 16.2 ft
2 16
Equipment Pressure Head Difference POINT 1 TO S There is no equipment in this portion of the line. HEQ1-S = 0 POINT P TO 4 The filter between point P and 4 is considered a piece of equipment. The filter manufacturer's technical data states that this filter will produce a 5 psi pressure drop at a flow rate of 500 USGPM. For water 5 psi is equivalent to 11.5 ft of head (5 X 2.31, see equation [1-5]). HEQP-4 = HEQFIL = 11.5 ft POINT 4 TO 2 The control valve between point P and 4 is considered a piece of equipment. The control valve will have a head drop of 10 ft of fluid. The justification for this will be given later in Chapter 3. HEQ4-2 = HEQCV = 10 ft Velocity Head Difference The velocity head difference between points l and 2 is zero, since v1 and v2 are very small.
H v =
Static Head
1 ( v 2 v1 2 ) = 0 2g 2
Both tanks are not pressurized therefore H1 = H2= 0. The elevation difference z2 - z1 = 137 - 108 = 29 ft
2 17
Total Head Once again the equation for Total Head is:
HP = HF1S + HFP4 + HF42 + HEQ1S + HEQP 4 + HEQ42 +
1 2 2 (v2 v1 ) + z2 + H2 (z1 + H1) 2g
By substituting the values previously calculated into the above equation: HP= 0.07 + 3.6 + 16.2 + 0 + 11.5 + 10+ 0 + 137 + 0 - (108 + 0 ) = 70.4 ft The result of the calculation indicates that the pump will require a Total Head of 70.4 ft to deliver 500 USGPM. How can we guarantee that the pump will deliver 500 USGPM at 70 ft of Total Head? The answer is in Chapter 4, section 4.5.
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2.10
METHOD FOR DETERMINING THE PRESSURE HEAD AT ANY LOCATION The system configuration in Figure 2-10 illustrates how drastically the pressure can vary in a simple pumping system. Why do we need to calculate the pressure at a specific location in the system? One reason is the pressure head just before the control valve is a parameter required to size the valve. It is calculated by the method described below. In addition, the system may have other equipment where the inlet pressure must be known to ensure proper operation.
Figure 2-10 The pressure head variation within a typical pumping system. A. The pressure head at any location on the discharge side of the pump. First, calculate the Total Head (HP) for the complete system using equation [2-12]. Then draw a control volume (see Figure 2-11) to intersect point X and point 1. Point X can be located anywhere between P and 2. The system equation [2-12] is then applied with point X as the outlet instead of point 2 and solved for the unknown variable Hx instead of HP.
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Figure 2-11 Using control volumes to determine the pressure head anywhere after the pump discharge From equation [2-12], the Total Head for the complete system is:
HP = HF12 + HEQ12 +
1 2 2 (v2 v1 ) + z2 + H2 (z1 + H1) 2g
Equation [2-12] is applied with the following changes: all terms with subscript 2 are replaced with the subscript X, H2=HX, HF1-2 = HF1-X , HEQ1-2 = HEQ1-X, v2 = vX, z2 = zX. The unknown term Hx is isolated on one side of the equation:
H X = H P (H F1 X + H EQ1 X ) +
1 2 2 (v1 vX ) + z1 + H1 z X 2g
[2-13]
The unknown pressure head Hx can also be determined by using that part of the system defined by control volume 2 (see Figure 2-11) by using the same reasoning as above, in equation [2-12], HP = 0 and all terms with subscripts 1 replaced with X. Therefore, H1=HX, HF1-2 = HFX-2 , HEQ1-2 = HEQX-2, v1= vX, z1 = zX
H X = (H FX 2 + H EQX 2 ) +
1 2 2 (v2 vX ) + z2 + H2 zX 2g
[2-14]
2 20
We now have two methods for determining the pressure head at any location. We can use one equation to verify the results of the other. The calculation for HX is often quicker using equation [2-14]. Note that in equation [2-14] the value of HP is not required to calculate Hx. B. The pressure head at any location on the suction side of the pump
Figure 2-12 Using control volumes to determine the pressure head anywhere before the pump inlet. We can determine the pressure head anywhere on the suction side of the pump by the same method. In this case, HP = 0 since there is no pump within the control volume (see Figure 2-12). HP = 0 and subscript 2 is replaced with subscript X in equation [2-12]. We obtain:
H X = (H F 1 X + H EQ1 X ) +
1 2 2 (v1 v X ) + z1 + H1 z X 2g
[2-15]
The velocity vX must be the same as would occur at point X in the complete system. In chapter 3, we will use equation [2-15] to calculate the available Net Positive Suction Head of the pump.
2 21
EXAMPLE 2.2 CALCULATE THE PRESSURE HEAD AT THE INLET OF A CONTROL VALVE
Figure 2-13 Example of the calculation of the pressure head at the inlet of a control valve. It is often required to know the pressure head just ahead of a piece of equipment such as a control valve. We will apply the methods in the previous section to calculate the pressure head just ahead of the control valve in example 2.1. CALCULATE THE PRESSURE HEAD AT POINT 7 USING EQUATION [2-13] Applying equation [2-13] where point X is now point 7 (X = 7) and HP = 70.4 from the calculation in example 2.1.
H 7 = 70.4 (H F1S + H EQ1 S ) (H FP7 + H EQP7 ) +

Friction Head Difference - Pipe and Fittings POINT 1 TO S From example 2.1: HF1-S = 0.07 ft
1 2 2 (v1 v7 ) + z1 + H 1 z 7 2g
2 22
POINT P TO 7 HFP-7 = HFPP-7 + HFFP-7 Pipe friction loss between point P and 7. From the tables (reference 1 or 8), for a 4"dia. at a flow rate of 500 USGPM: HFPP-7 /L= 13.1 ft/100 ft of pipe.
H FPP 7 =
H FP L P 7 125 . = 131 = 16.4 ft L 100 100
Fittings Friction Loss between points P and 7 In this portion of the line there is: (3) 4 dia. elbow, KELB = 0.25; (1) 4 dia. isolation (butterfly) valve, KVAL = 0.25.
H FFP 7
( 3 K ELB + KVAL ) v 7 2 ( 3 0.25 + 0.25) 12.6 2 = = = 2.5 ft 2g 2 32.17
The pipe and fittings friction between points P and 7 is: HFP-7 = HFPP-7 + HFFP-7 = 16.4 + 2.5 = 18.9 ft. Equipment Pressure Head Difference POINT 1 TO S HEQ1-S = 0 POINT P TO 7 The filter between point P and 4 has a pressure head drop of: HEQP-7 = HEQFIL = 11.5
2 23
Velocity Head Difference The velocity head difference between points 1 and 7 is:
H v =
Static Head
1 1 ( v1 2 v 7 2 ) = (0 12.76 2 ) = 2.5 ft 2g 2g
The suction tank is not pressurized, therefore H1 = 0. The elevation difference z1 - z7 = 108 - 140 = -32 ft The pressure head at point 7 Again the equation for the pressure head at point 7 is:
H 7 = 70.4 ( H F 1 S + H EQ1 S ) ( H FP 7 + H EQP 7 ) +
1 2 2 ( v1 v 7 ) + z 1 + H 1 z 7 2g
By substituting the values calculated into the above equation we obtain: H7 = 70.4 - 0.07-(18.9 + 11.5) - 2.5 + 108 + 0 -140 = 5.4 ft CALCULATE THE PRESSURE HEAD AT POINT 7 USING EQUATION [2-14] This is a good opportunity to verify our calculation for H7 using equation [2-14]. Substituting 7 for X, the equation is:
H 7 = ( H F 7 2 + H EQ 7 2 ) +
1 2 2 (v 2 v 7 ) + z 2 + H 2 z 7 2g
Friction Head - Pipe and Fittings POINT 7 TO 2 HF7-2 = HFP7-2 + HFF7-2
2 24
Pipe friction loss between point 7 and 2. From the tables (reference 1 or 8), for a 4" dia. at a flow rate of 500 USGPM: HFP7-2 /L= 13.1 ft/100 ft of pipe.
H FP 7 2 =
H FP L7 2 7 = 131 . = 0.92 ft L 100 100
Fittings Friction Loss between points 7 and 2 In this portion of the line, there is no fittings. Therefore HFF7-2 = 0 The pipe and fittings friction between points 7 and 2 is: HF7-2 = HFP7-2 + HFF7-2 = 0.92 + 0 = 0.92 ft. Equipment Pressure ahead Difference POINT 7 TO 2 As previously stated, we allow a pressure head drop of 10 ft for the control valve. HEQ7-2 = 10 ft Velocity Head Difference The velocity head difference between points 7 and 2 is:
Hv =
1 1 (v22 v72 ) = ( 0 1 2 .7 6 2 ) = 2 .5 f t 2g 2g
Static Head The discharge tank is not pressurized, therefore H2 = 0. The elevation difference z2 - z7 = 137 - 140 = -3 ft
2 25
The pressure head at point 7 Again the equation for the pressure head at point 7 is:
H 7 = ( H F 7 2 + H EQ 7 2 ) +
1 2 2 (v 2 v 7 ) + z 2 + H 2 z 7 2g
By substituting the values calculated into the above equation: H7 = 0.9 + 10 - 2.5 + 137 + 0 - 140 = 5.3 ft - the same result as previously.
2 26
2.11
SYSTEM OR TOTAL HEAD EQUATION FOR A SINGLE INLET - DOUBLE OUTLET SYSTEM
Figure 2-14 The use of control volumes to determine the Total Head for a single inlet double outlet system. Industrial systems often have more than one outlet (see Figure 2-14). Equation [2-4] is used as the basis for the analysis of the system using the principle of conservation of mass flow rate for a steady state system.
& & & & & Q E W = En + KE + PE
& & & m1 = m2 + m3

The same logic used to deduce equation [2-12] can be used for a system with multiple & & inlets and outlets. QE is the sum of all the friction heat losses and equipment losses. W
& is the work supplied by the pump. En is the sum of the inlet minus the sum of the outlet & enthalpies. KE is the sum of the inlet minus the sum of the outlet kinetic energies. & PE is the sum of the inlet minus the sum of the outlet potential energies. The energy balance is: & m1
(p
F 1 4
+ p EQ1 4 +
& m2
( p
F 42
+ p EQ 4 2 +
& m3
( p
F 43
+ p EQ 4 3
& m1
p =
& m1
& & & & & & & & m m mg m m m 1 m g m p1 2 p2 + 3 p3 + 1 v1 2 2 v 2 2 + 3 v 3 2 + 1 z1 2 z 2 + 3 z 3 gc g c gc g c
2 27
replacing all pressure terms by their corresponding fluid column height (for example
gc & volumetric flow rate q, m1 = q1 etc., we obtain:
p1 =
gH1
gc
, p F 1 4 =
gH F 1 4
, etc.), and all mass flow terms by their corresponding
q1 H P = q1 ( H F 1 4 + H EQ 1 4 ) + q 2 ( H F 4 2 + H EQ 4 2 ) + q 3 ( H F 4 3 + H EQ 4 3 )
q1 H 1 + ( q 2 H 2 + q 3 H 3 ) + 1 2 2 2 (q1 v1 + (q 2 v 2 + q 3 v 3 )) q1 z1 + (q 2 z 2 + q 3 z 3 ) 2g
and since q1 = q2 + q3, the Total Head is:
H P = (H F 1 4 + H EQ1 4 ) + (H F 4 2 + H EQ 4 2 ) +
1 2 2 (v 2 v1 ) + ( z 2 + H 2 ( z1 + H 1 )) + 2g
q3 1 2 2 (HF 43 + HEQ43) (HF42 + HEQ42 ) + (v3 v2 ) + (z3 + H3 (z2 + H2 )) q1 2g

For equation [2-16] to be true, the friction loss in the major branches has to be adjusted by closing the manual valves to balance the flows. The term EQ2 represents equipment on branch 2 such as a valve (see Figure 2-14). Closing the valve, reduces the flow at branch 2 but increase it at branch 3. The conditions in one branch affects the other because of the common connection point 4. The correct flow is obtained at point 3 by adjusting components in branch 2 (for example HF4-3, HEQ4-3 and H4). One would think that the main branch 2, the branch with the highest head and flow requirement, should determine the pump Total Head. So, why is it that the head requirements for branch 3 appear in equation [2-16]? All of the terms associated with branch 3 can be made to disappear after simplification. Determine the value of H4 using equation [2-14] and a control volume that surrounds branch 3:
[2-16]
H 4 = ( H F 4 3 + H EQ 4 3 ) +
or
1 (v 2 v 43 2 ) + ( z3 + H 3 z4 ) 2g 3
1 (v 3 2 v 4 3 2 ) ( z3 + H 3 z4 ) 2g
[2-17]
( H F 4 3 + H EQ 4 3 ) = H 4
We can also determine the value of H4 with equation [2-14] and a control volume surrounding branch 2:
2 28
H4 = ( H F 42 + H EQ42 ) +
or
1 (v2 2 v42 2 ) + ( z2 + H2 z4 ) 2g
[2-18]
( H F 4 2 + H EQ 4 2 ) = H 4
1 (v 2 v 4 2 2 ) ( z2 + H 2 z4 ) 2g 2
v4-3 and v4-2 are respectively the velocity at point 4 for branch 3 and branch 2, substituting equations [2-17] and [2-18] into equation [2-16] we obtain:
H P = ( H F 1 4 + H EQ1 4 ) + ( H F 4 2 + H EQ 4 2 ) +
1 ( v 2 2 v1 2 ) + ( z 2 + H 2 ( z1 + H 1 )) 2g
[2-19]
q3 1 2 2 ( v 4 3 v 4 2 )) ( q1 2 g
Point 4 is the point at which the flow begins to divide and the fluid particles move towards the direction of branch 2 or branch 3. All fluid particles have the same velocity at point 4 although their trajectory is about to change.
v4 = v4 3 = v42
[2-20]
When we replace equation [2-20] into [2-19] then the last term in [2-19] disappears and we obtain equation [2-21] which is the equation for a single branch system. This means that the branch has no impact on the Total Head as long as branch 2 represents the path requiring the highest energy. Figure 2-15 Location of H4.
HP = HF12 + HEQ12 +
1 2 2 (v v ) + z2 + H2 (z1 + H1 ) 2g 2 1
[2-21]
In many cases the path requiring the highest energy is obvious. What happens if the flow in branch 3 is equal to the flow in branch 2? Alternatively, if the flow is much smaller in branch 3, but the elevation of point 3 is higher than point 2?
2 29
These situations make judging which branch will produce the higher head difficult to do at a glance. To resolve this, calculate the Total Head for the fluid traveling through either branch and compare the results. The Total Head for the pump as calculated considering the flow through branch 3 is:
HP = HF13 + HEQ13 +
1 (v3 2 v12 ) + z3 + H3 (z1 + H1 ) 2g
[2-22]
For the system to work as intended, the highest Total Head as calculated from equations [2-21] or [2-22] will be used for sizing the pump. 2.12 GENERAL METHOD FOR DETERMINING TOTAL HEAD IN A SYSTEM WITH MULTIPLE INLETS AND OUTLETS
& & & & & The energy rate balance for any system is: Q E W = En + KE + PE Figure 2-16 represents a system with (n) inlets and (m) outlets.
Figure 2-16 A general system with a single pump and multiple inlets and outlets. In the system shown in Figure 2-16 there are 1 to p branches. These subscripts are used to identify the flow rates (for example q1, q2, ..qp) There are li to ni inlets, which are used to identity the inlet properties (for example v1i, H1i, z1i, v2i, H2i, z2i, ... vni, Hni, zni). Similarly, there are 1o to mo outlets that identify the outlet properties.
2 30
Figure 2-17 The use of the control volume with a generalized system representation.
There is one path, which for a given flow rate, will require the highest Total Head. Often, this path is obvious, but several paths may have to be checked to find the most critical. The following equations are all based on the general principle for energy rates in a fluid medium:
& m & ENERGY RATE = v F = V P = p qH
& The friction term QE is:
q BR 1 ( H F 1 + H EQ 1 ) + q BR 2 ( H F 2 + H EQ 2 ) + ...+ q BRp H P =
t =1
t= p
q t ( H Ft + H EQt
where the subscripts 1 to p stand for branch no.1, 2, etc,. up to branch no. p.
& The work rate term W is:
q P H P
2 31
& The enthalpy rare term En is:
q1i H1i + q2i H 2i + ...+ qni H ni (q1o H1o + q20 H 2o +...+ qmo H mo ) = qti H ti qto H to )
t =1 t =1
t =n
t =m
& The kinetic energy rate term KE is:

t =m 1 1 t =n (q1i v 21i + q2i v 2 2i + ...+ qni v 2 ni (q1o v 21o + q20v 2 2o +...+ qmov 2 mo ) = qti v 2 ti qtov 2 to ) 2g 2g t =1 t =1
& The potential energy rate term PE is:
q1i z1 i + q 2i z 2i + ...+ q ni z ni ( q1o z1o + q 20 z 2 o +...+ q mo z mo ) = q ti z ti q to z to

t =1 t =1
t =n
t =m
The Total Head for the system H P is:

t=p t =1
qPHP = qt (HFt + HEQt) +
t =m 1 t =n 2 t =m 2 t =n qtiv ti qtov to + qti (zti + Hti ) qto(zto + Hto) 2g t =1 t =1 t =1 t =1
[2-23]
This is a similar equation to [2-16] with the difference that there are many inlet and outlet branches. As in equation [2-16], this equation requires that the system parameters that satisfy the flow balance be known. 2.13 GENERAL METHOD FOR DETERMINING TOTAL HEAD IN A SYSTEM WITH MULTIPLE PUMPS, INLETS AND OUTLETS
Inlets and Outlets vs. Internal Connection Points
One of the purposes of an open system is to move material from one point to another. A more complex system may use several inlets to move material to several outlets. Only the inlets and outlets of a system have thermodynamic properties, therefore the velocity, elevation and pressure at these points are properties critical to the system. Any internal connection points with branches used to re-circulate fluid within the system do not have thermodynamic properties as regards to the system. Figure 2-18 The effect of internal branches within a system.
2 32
These branches are required for the system to function properly. For example, take a single inlet-single outlet system with a re-circulation line from the discharge to the suction of the pump (see Figure 2-18). How does this re-circulation branch affect the system if the same flow is required at point 2 with or without the re-circulation branch?
& & & & & The energy rate balance is: Q E W = En + KE + PE
& QE is affected in the above equation since there is more friction due to the extra branch. & W is also affected since the pump will require a greater capacity to compensate for the
extra fluid that must go through the branch. The effect of the extra branch is to increase the total friction of the system and therefore the work to be provided by the pump.
Multiple Pumps
The system in Figure 2-19 appears at first glance impossible to solve or at the least challenging. This is the same system as in Figure 2-17 with additional pumps and branches. Before doing any Total Head calculations, determine the flow rates for each branch. The flow through each one of the branches and pumps must be known and this requires knowledge of the purpose of each pump. Each pump will move fluid through its respective branches at its design flow rate. To determine the Total Head of pump A in Figure 2-19, in your mind disconnect all pumps and branches that are not intended to be powered by pump A and apply equation [2-23].
Figure 2-19 The use of the control volume in a multiple pump generalized system. We now have a much simpler system as shown in Figure 2-20. This is a similar system to the one shown in Figure 2-17 that can be resolved with equation [2-23]. All the connecting points (c1 to c5) are points where additional flow enters or leaves some part of the system. These points are internal to the system, and not inlet or outlet points as point
2 33
1i..ni and lo...mo. The branches left behind with pump A contain all the inlets and outlets of the system. In a way, we could say that pump A is essential to the system since all the inlets and outlets are attached to pump A. The other pumps and their branches form subsystems of the main system.
Figure 2-20 Simplifying complex systems. To determine the Total Head of pump B in Figure 2-20, first calculate the head at points c2 and c4 (see equation [2-15] for example) and then apply equation [2-23]. The Total Heads of pump C and D are similarly determined.
2 34
2.14
GENERAL METHOD FOR DETERMINING THE PRESSURE HEAD ANYWHERE IN A SYSTEM WITH MULTIPLE PUMPS, INLETS AND OUTLETS First, isolate each pump and its respective branches as in the previous section and calculate the Total Head of each pump. Assuming point X to be located somewhere after pump A in pump A's system, then the pressure head at point X is:
t =n 1 t=n 2 t=m 2 QXHX =Q HPA + Q(HFt + HEQt) + tivti XvX + ti(zti + Hti) QX zX Q Q Q PA t 2gt=1 1 t =BR t =1 t=1 t =BRp
[2-24]
if point X is before pump A then the same equation applies with HPA = 0. To calculate the pressure head at points w, y, and z, identify their respective sub-systems and apply equation [2-13] if they are single inlet- single outlet systems or equation [2-24]. This chapter was a mouthful. The shock of dealing with thermodynamic properties is compensated by the fact that they are quite easily determined. The thermodynamic properties at the inlet of a system are the enthalpy, the kinetic and potential energies. These are respectively proportional to: pressure, velocity and elevation. The heat loss is the sum of all the losses that occur due to fluid movement through the system and the effect of equipment. Whatever is left over between the total thermodynamic energy inletoutlet difference and the heat loss is the work required by the pump. When, we have calculated the work required of the pump or its Total Head. A general method for determining the Total Head for a single inlet-outlet system, leads to a method for determining the pressure head anywhere within the system. So that now, when the instrumentation guy asks what is the pressure before the control valve and what is the delta p, give it to him. A general method for calculating the Total Head in a single inlet-outlet system leads to a method for calculating the Total Head in a multiple inlet and outlet system. The heat or friction loss is calculated the same way no matter how many branches there is in a system. The difference between the heat loss and the net thermodynamic energy is of course the work required by the pump. Once more on to the breech Since we came this far, might as well go all out. The next step was to find a method to solve multiple inlet and outlet systems with multiple pumps, because when pumps are added to a system, they are put there for a reason, Oh, nooooh, you say. It is always possible to convert a multiple pump system to a single pump system. The pumps and branches that are extracted can be analyzed separately without affecting the single pump system assuming that you know or calculate the pressure head, velocity and elevation of the connecting points.
THE COMPONENTS OF TOTAL HEAD

This chapter will introduce some of the terminology used in pumping systems. The components of Total Head will be examined one by one. Some of the more difficult to determine components, such as equipment and friction head, will be examined in more detail. I hope this will help get our heads together. 3.0 THE COMPONENTS OF TOTAL HEAD Total Head is the measure of a pump's ability to push fluids through a system. Total Head is proportional to the difference in pressure at the discharge vs. the suction of the pump. It is more useful to use the difference in pressure vs. the discharge pressure as a principal characteristic since this makes it independent of the pressure level at the pump suction and therefore independent of a particular system configuration. For this reason, the Total Head is used as the Y-axis coordinate on all pump performance curves (see Figure 4-3). The system equation for a typical single inlet single outlet system (see equation [212]) is:
HP = HF12 + HEQ 12 + 1 (v 2 v1 ) + z2 + H2 (z1 + H1) 2g

2 2
[3-1] [3-1a] [3-1b]
H P = H F + H EQ + Hv + HTS H P = H F + H EQ + Hv + H DS + H SS
Equations [3-1a] and [3-1b] represent different ways of writing equation [3-1], using terms that are common in the pump industry. This chapter will explain each one of these terms in details. 3.1 TOTAL STATIC HEAD (HTS) The total static head is the difference between the discharge static head and the suction static head, or the difference in elevation at the outlet including the pressure head at the outlet, and the elevation at the inlet including the pressure head at the inlet, as described in equation [3-2a].
HTS = H DS H SS
= z 2 + H 2 ( z 1 + H 1)
[3-2] [3-2a]
H2 and H1 are the pressure heads at points 2 and 1 respectively. Some people include these pressure heads with the elevation head, others do not. I will be using the former approach, but either way the pressure heads have to be considered. The discharge static head (HDS) is normally positive (assuming H2 = 0 ), since fluid is usually pumped
32
to a higher elevation. However, it may on occasion be negative (for example, lower discharge pipe end than pump centerline) and the complete system must be evaluated before it is known if a pump is required or not. The suction static head (HSS) can either be negative or positive, depending on whether the pump centerline is below the suction fluid surface or above, and the value of suction tank fluid surface pressure head (H1).
Figure 3-1 Relationship between the various heads in a pumping system. 3.2 SUCTION STATIC HEAD (HSS) The Suction Static head is the sum of the elevation and pressure head at the inlet of the system, minus the elevation of the pump center line, as stated in equation [3-3]. The inlet of the system is located at point 1, which is the surface of the suction tank fluid. H1 is the pressure head at the suction tank fluid surface. If the tank is open to atmosphere then H1 = 0. Typical pumping configurations are shown in Figure 3-2, the pump suction is under positive pressure in A, and possibly under negative relative pressure in B.
33
The Suction Static head in these two cases is:
H SS = z 1 + H 1 z S
Figure 3-2B presents a situation where the pump has to lift the fluid up to the pump suction. The head at the suction is described as suction lift. This head is normally negative with respect to atmospheric pressure since the term z1 zS is negative (assuming H1 = 0 or the same as the atmospheric pressure).
[3-3]
Figure 3-2 Suction static head and suction static lift.
3.3
NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD AVAILABLE (N.P.S.H.A.) The Net Positive Suction Head Available (N.P.S.H.A.) is the total energy per unit weight, or head, at the suction flange of the pump less the vapor pressure head of the fluid. This is the accepted definition which is published by the Hydraulic Institutes Standards books (see the HI web site at www. pumps.org). The Hydraulic Institute is the organization that formulates and promotes the use of common standards used throughout the pump industry in the United States. The term "Net" refers to the actual head at the pump suction flange, since some energy is lost in friction prior to the suction. Why do we need to calculate the N.P.S.H.A.? This value is required to avoid cavitation of the fluid. Cavitation will be avoided if the head at the suction is higher than the vapor pressure head of the fluid. In addition, the pump manufacturers require a minimum N.P.S.H. to guarantee proper operation of the pump, they call this the N.P.S.H.R., where R stands for required.
34
To determine N.P.S.H.A., first we calculate the pressure head HS at point S. A control volume is positioned (see Figure 3-3) to intersect the suction inlet of the pump and the fluid surface of the suction tank. The pressure head at any point on the suction side of the pump is given by equation [2-15] where the subscript X is replaced by S:
(v1 vS ) HS( ft of fluid ) = (HF1S +HEQ 1S ) + + (z1 z S +H1) 2g

2 2
[3-4]
Figure 3-3 Using the control volume for calculating the pressure head at point S.
The specific energy or head E for any point in the system is the sum of the elevation (potential) energy, the velocity (kinetic) energy and the pressure energy. E is given by:
E =H + v + z 2g
[3-5]
By definition, the N.P.S.H available at the pump suction (point S) is based on a reference plane located at the pump suction centerline (z = 0 ). We can understand why since using any other reference will increase or decrease the energy level at point S which is obviously incorrect (see Figure 3-3). Therefore equation [3-5] becomes:
ES = H S + v S 2g
[3-6]
35
The head ES is given in equation [3-6], the barometric head (HB) is added to HS to convert ES from feet of fluid to feet of fluid absolute. Therefore equation [3-6] becomes:
ES ( ft of fluid absol .) = H S + v S + H B 2g
The value of HS in equation [3-4] is substituted in equation [3-7] to give:
[3-7]
v1 ES ( ft of fluid absol ) = (HF1S +HEQ1S ) + + ( z1 z S +H1) + HB . 2g
[3-8]
BOILING LIQUIDS
Different liquids boil at different temperatures for a fixed pressure; also, different liquids boil at different pressures at a fixed temperature. The temperature required to vaporize a liquid varies as the pressure in the surrounding environment. For example, water boils at a temperature of 212 0F at a surrounding pressure of 14.7 psia (the air pressure at sea level). However, a temperature of 189 0F is required to boil water at a pressure of 11 psia which is the atmospheric pressure at 8,500 feet of elevation above sea level (or the altitude of Mexico city). A short digression is in order. Since water boils at a lower temperature in, say, Mexico City than a city which is close to sea level, does this mean that it takes a longer time to boil an egg in Mexico city? Yes, it will take longer in Mexico City. Why? Because the same amount of heat transfer is required to get the egg to the right consistency regardless of the water temperature. It will take longer to transfer the amount of heat required to cook the egg if the water is boiling at a lower temperature. For most of us water boils at the high temperature of 212 0F (100 0C), it is very surprising to find that it takes 4 minutes to boil a 3-minute egg in Mexico City. The pressure at which a liquid boils is called the vapor pressure and is always associated with a specific temperature. When pressure decreases in the fluid's environment, the boiling temperature drops. Many liquids (i.e. acetone, methyl alcohol, benzene, etc.) have a lower vapor pressure than water at the same temperature. Since the pressure throughout a system can vary drastically, it is important to consider the vapor pressure of the liquid in order to avoid vaporization. Data on vapor pressure vs. temperature for many liquids is readily available (see reference 1, 2 and 8).
36
VAPOR PRESSURE AND CAVITATION
The pressure near the impeller eye is lower than the pressure at the pump suction flange, and depending on the kind of fluid and temperature, may be low enough for vaporization to occur. When this happens, both, vapor and liquid, will enter the pump, and the capacity of the pump will be reduced. The point of lowest pressure is near the eye of the impeller on the underside of the vane (see Figure 3-6), where bubbles can form. Only small bubbles are formed because the fluid is rapidly compressed as it travels from the start of the impeller vane to its tip. The rapid compression of bubbles causes small pieces of metal to be dislodged from the surface. These bubbles collapse rapidly in the high pressure near the tip of the vane causing noise and vibration. This rapid collapse of vapor bubbles is known as cavitation and is accompanied by a distinct gravely sound similar to the sound made by a cement mixer. The system should be designed in such a way as to provide sufficient N.P.S.H. available to avoid cavitation under normal running conditions.
Figure 3-4 Vapor pressure vs. temperature.
37
In order for the liquid to stay in a fluid state and not vaporize, the head at the inlet of the pump must be above the vapor pressure head of the fluid:
E S H va
where Hva is the vapor pressure head of the liquid. The Net Positive Suction Head Available (N.P.S.H.A.) is the difference between the head ( ES ) at the pump suction and the vapor pressure head (Hva).
N.P.S.H.avail. = ES H va
By substituting the value of ES from equation [3-8] into equation [3-9] then:
[3-9]
N.P.S.H.avail.(ft of fluid absol. ) = (H F1 S +H EQ1 S )+ v1 +(z 1 z S + H1)+ H B H va 2g

where HB and Hva are in feet of fluid. Vapor and barometric pressures are often given in pounds per square inch absolute (psia). The conversion to feet of fluid absolute is:
H ( ft of fluid ) = 2 .31 p ( psia ) SG
[3-10]
by substitution into equation [3-10]:

N.P.S.H.avail.(ft of fluid absol. ) = (H F1 S +H EQ1 S )+ v1 +(z 1 z S + H1)+ H B Hva + 2.31(p B (psia) pva(psia)) 2g SG
2
[3-11]
The N.P.S.H. in equation [3-10] and [3-11] is in feet of fluid absolute and is a head term, which is independent of fluid density. Since the pump manufacturers use water as the fluid, the N.P.S.H. value they provide is in feet of water absolute. The pump requires a minimum suction pressure head in order to function properly and avoid cavitation. This is known as the N.P.S.H. required, which the pump manufacturer gives for a specific pump model, impeller diameter, speed and flow rate. In order to satisfy the pump manufacturer's requirements:
N.P.S.H.avail. N.P.S.H.req.
38
Figure 3-5 shows typical relative proportions of the terms in equation [3-10].
Figure 3-5 Relative size of N.P.S.H. components.
39
N.P.S.H. REQUIRED
The N.P.S.H. required provides us with the level of head in terms of feet of water absolute required at the pump suction flange. When that level of head is insufficient the capacity and head of the pump will drop and cavitation will occur. Figure 3-6 shows how the pressure varies between the pump suction flange and the discharge flange.
Figure 3-6 The pressure variation within a pump (source: the Durco company). Lets follow the path of the fluid particles form point A to E in Figure 3-6 to see where and why the pressure is varying. There is a small friction loss in the short piece of piping of the pump suction. Both, friction loss and turbulence, accompany the right angle turn that the liquid makes in going from horizontal flow to outward radial flow in the impeller. The leading edges of the vanes act as obstruction in the path of the liquid, and entrance loss occurs at each vane edge. Any pre-rotation of the liquid as it enters the impeller, changes the inlet angle and results in more turbulence. All of these losses occur before the liquid is acted upon positively by the impeller vane. The combination of these losses, plus the losses that occurred in the suction line, can be great enough to lower the pressure of the fluid sufficiently to reach the vapor pressure, at which point the fluid will vaporize. This condition must be avoided. Once the liquid is in the impeller, with the
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vanes pushing from behind, the pressure starts to increase and eventually reaches the full discharge pressure head.
HOW DO THE PUMP MANUFACTURERS MEASURE N.P.S.H. REQUIRED?
The pump manufacturers measure the N.P.S.H. required in a test rig similar to that shown in Figure 3-7. The system is run in a closed loop where flow, total head and power consumed is measured. In order to provide a low N.P.S.H., a vacuum pump is used to lower the pressure in the suction tank which will provide a low head at the pump suction. The pressure in the suction tank is lowered until a drop of 3% of the total head is measured (see Figure 3-8). When that occurs the N.P.S.H. is calculated and recorded as the N.P.S.H. required for that operating point. Heating coils are also used which increase the water temperature thereby increasing the vapor pressure and further lowering the N.P.S.H. as needed.
Figure 3-7 Test rig used to measure the N.P.S.H. required (courtesy of the Hydraulic Institute www.pumps.org).
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Figure 3-8 Measuring the drop in total head to define the N.P.S.H. required at the operating point.
GUIDELINE FOR THE LEVEL OF N.P.S.H. AVAILABLE
As stated, a total head drop of 3% is the criteria for setting the level of N.P.S.H. required. Since this results in a performance drop then the user should ensure that there is a higher N.P.S.H. available. The recommendation that you will find in the literature is to have 5 ft of water absolute or a 15% margin above the N.P.S.H. required whichever is greatest.
HOW CAN THE N.P.S.H. AVAILABLE BE INCREASED AND CAVITATION AVOIDED
Table 1 gives the major components of N.P.S.H. available and how they affect the level of N.P.S.H. available.
The N.P.S.H. available depends on: 1. The friction loss in the pump suction line 2. The height of the suction tank fluid surface with respect to the pump suction 3. The pressure in the suction tank
4. The atmospheric pressure
5. Fluid temperature
Effect on N.P.S.H.A. The higher the friction loss, the lower the N.P.S.H. The lower the height of the fluid surface, the lower the N.P.S.H. This cannot be changed for atmospheric tanks. For tanks that are pressurized, the lower the pressure, the lower the N.P.S.H. available. This cannot be changed. The lower the atmospheric pressure, the lower the N.P.S.H. available. An increase in fluid temperature, increases the vapor pressure of the fluid which decreases the N.P.S.H. available.
Table 3-1. How to affect the N.P.S.H. available.
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EXAMPLE 3.1 CALCULATE THE NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD AVAILABLE Water is to be pumped at a rate of 500 USGPM from a sump. The owner prefers to use a self-priming centrifugal pump rather than a submersible pump. Determine the N.P.S.H. available.
Figure 3-9 Typical example of a pump with low suction head.
Equation [3-10] is applied and SG = 1, H1 = 0, v1 = 0:
N.P.S.H.avail.( ft fluid abs.) = (HF1S +H EQ1S ) + z1 z S + 2.31 (p B ( psia) pva( psia)) 1

The check valve has a pressure head drop of 5 feet, HEQ1-S = 5 ft. The suction line total friction loss (HF1-S) is 0.54 ft of fluid. The barometric pressure is pva = 0.25 psia and the 0 vapor pressure for water at 60 F is pB = 14.7 psia. The height z1 - zS between the surface level of the tank and the pump centerline is -14 ft.
N.P.S.H.avail (ft fluid abs.) = (0.54 + 5) 14 + 2.31 (14.70.25) =13.8 ft 1

The N.P.S.H.A. is 14 ft of fluid absolute. There should be no problem finding a suitable pump with 14 ft fluid absolute N.P.S.H.A..
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3.4
PUMP INTAKE SUCTION SUBMERGENCE The pump suction intake must be submerged sufficiently to avoid the formation of vortexes on the liquid surface of the suction tank. These vortexes can take many shapes and forms (see Figure 3-10).
Figure 3-10 Vortex shapes (reprinted with permission of the Hydraulic Institute). The formation of vortexes between the pump suction intake and the suction tank fluid surface causes air to enter the pump suction. This mixture of air and water in the pump reduces the pump capacity. The formation of such vortexes must therefore be avoided. There is a relationship between the intake velocity at the suction intake, and the submergence (S) of the intake. (For more information consult the Hydraulic Institute's Pump Intake Design manual ANSI/HI9.8-1998).
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There are many possible intake design geometries, a few are shown in Figure 3-10; they all have in common a minimum requirement for submergence to avoid the formation of vortexes. The minimum value for submergence (S) to avoid vortex formation is given in Figure 3-12.
Figure 3-11 Examples of different intake designs (reprinted with permission of the Hydraulic Institute).
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Figure 3-12 Minimum submergence requirements vs. flow and various velocities at the suction pipe intake (reprinted with permission of the Hydraulic Institute). The values for submergence that are given in the chart above can be calculated with the following equation:
S (in) = D(in) + 0.574
q(USgpm) D (in) 1.5
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3.5
DISCHARGE STATIC HEAD (HDS) The Discharge Static Head is the sum of the elevation and pressure head at the outlet of the system, minus the elevation of the pump center line as stated in equation [3-12]. Its value depends on the elevation and pressure head at the outlet (point 2) of the system. When the discharge pipe end is submerged, the outlet of the system is located at the discharge fluid surface (see Figure 3-13A). When the discharge pipe end is not submerged, the outlet of the system is located at the discharge pipe end (see Figure 313B).
Figure 3-13 Discharge static head with submerged and open discharge pipe end.
H2 is the pressure head at the discharge tank fluid surface. If the tank is open to atmosphere then H2 = 0. In all cases, the discharge static head is:
H DS = ( z 2 + H 2 z S )
[3-12]
Very often pipes enter a tank from the top and finish lower than the liquid surface of the tank as in Figure 3-13A. The outlet of the system remains at point 2 since the fluid particles eventually have to get to point 2.
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EXAMPLE 3.2 CALCULATE THE SUCTION & DISCHARGE STATIC HEAD
A paper machine uses large volumes of steam in the paper drying process. This steam is condensed and recovered in a final stage under vacuum conditions and the condensate is pumped to a flash tank. The flash tank is kept under controlled pressure conditions and receives condensate from other areas of the plant. Its purpose is to collect condensate from various sources and return it to the boilers. What is the suction and discharge static head of the vacuum receiver system if p1 = -10 in of Hg and p2 = 2 psig? Suction Static Head
Figure 3-14 An example of a suction tank with low pressure and a discharge tank under pressure.
HSS = z1 + H1 z S
The pressure p1 is converted to psia:
[3-13]
p1 ( psia ) = 14.7 ( p1 (in Hg ) 0.4918) = 9.8 psia
The specific gravity of condensate at the temperature corresponding to 9.8 psia is very close to 1 (SG=1). To convert from psia to feet of fluid relative: (14 . 7 p1(psia )) 2 .31 (14 . 7 9 . 8 )2 . 31 H1= = = 11 .3 ft of fluid SG 1 The above values are substituted into the equation [3-13]: HSS = (102 - 11 - 96) = -5.3 ft of fluid. The suction static head is -5.3 feet of fluid. Discharge Static Head
H DS = z 2 + H 2 z S Convert the pressure p2 to feet of fluid: p 2 .31 2 2 .31 H2 = 2 = = 4.6 ft of fluid SG 1 The above values are substituted into the equation [3-14]: HDS = (108 + 4.6 - 96) = 16.6 feet of fluid. The discharge static head is 16.6 feet of fluid.
[3-14]
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3.6
VELOCITY HEAD DIFFERENCE (Hv) The Velocity Head Difference is the head (expressed in ft of fluid) corresponding to the kinetic energy variation between the outlet and the inlet of the system.
H v =
1 ( v 2 2 v1 2 ) 2g
The Velocity Head is defined as v 2/2g. In the case where a suction line is connected to a tank, point 1 is on the fluid surface of the suction tank (see Figure 3-15). This surface will be moving downwards very slowly, so that v is very small and therefore v1 2/2g 0. If point 1 is in fact a connection on another line, the velocity will have to be considered. Identical reasoning can be applied to the exit point 2. The Velocity Head is not normally a significant part Figure 3-15 Inlet and outlet velocities of a of the Total Head, typically 1 or 2 ft of typical system. fluid. However, some systems are designed with nozzles at the exit point, in order to accelerate the fluid and generate a high velocity. A good example of this is a paper machine head-box. The fiber slurry is ejected from the wide and narrow opening (slice lip) of the head-box at the same velocity as the paper machine, which in certain cases is as high as 4000 ft/min (45 miles per hour). In this case, the velocity head may represent as much as half of the pump Total Head. 3.7 EQUIPMENT PRESSURE HEAD DIFFERENCE (HEQ) The Equipment Pressure Head difference is pressure head loss due to friction imposed by the equipment (for example, control valve. filter, etc.). Isolation valves and pipe fittings are not considered equipment. The pressure head loss for equipment vs. flow rate is usually obtained from tables, charts or graphs provided by the supplier of the equipment. The total Equipment Pressure Head Difference between the inlet and the outlet of a system is made up of the sum of the pressure head drops across each piece of equipment.
H EQ1 2 = H EQ1 + H EQ2 +...
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CONTROL VALVES
A typical pumping system has at least one control valve in the circuit. Depending on the type of valve, its opening, the upstream pressure, and the flow, it is possible to calculate the pressure head drop by consulting the appropriate supplier data tables. This pressure head drop is then added to the Total head of the pump to ensure that there is enough energy to move the fluid through the system at the design flow rate. During the design stage, a simple way to account for this is to assume or fix the pressure head drop of the control valve. If we assume a pressure head drop across the valve of 10 ft of fluid, then it will be generally possible to select a valve that will give this pressure head drop at a reasonable opening of say 90%. In other words, by using a p of 10 ft for the pressure head drop, we have fixed one of the parameters required to size a valve, without unduly restricting the task of sizing the valve. Ten (10) ft of pressure drop is a common value used in designing systems with control valves. This criterion will generally result in a valve size that is one size smaller than the line. A more practical approach is required for existing systems with a control valve. We will need the manufacturers tables for the valve which gives a CV coefficient which is proportional to the pressure drop and flow rate for a given valve opening (see equation [3-15]). Obtain the valve opening, while the system is running normally. With this information, using the manufacturers catalog you can obtain a CV value. Calculate the pressure drop and convert to pressure head drop. Use this value in the calculations for Total Head. The definition of the CV coefficient is:
USgpm CV psi 1 / 2 q ( USgpm ) = p ( psi ) SG
[3-15]
where q and p are respectively the flow rate and pressure drop across the valve for a given valve model and opening.
EQUIPMENT
Any equipment in the line, such as filters, nozzles, etc., will have a specified pressure drop at a certain flow rate that is available in the literature or from the equipment supplier. Occasionally, certain types of equipment require a specific upstream pressure in order to operate properly. To accommodate this, we need to determine what the pressure is at the proposed equipment location. If the calculation shows the upstream pressure to be lower than required, it will have to be raised artificially by closing a manual valve on the downstream side of the equipment. The Total Head will then have to be increased to accommodate this added pressure head. Another option is to move the equipment closer to the pump where the line pressure is higher. In the event that the calculation shows the pressure immediately upstream of the equipment to be higher than required, it will have to be lowered artificially by closing a manual valve on the upstream side of the equipment. The Total Head will then have to
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be increased to accommodate this added pressure head. Alternatively, we can try moving the equipment closer to the discharge end where the line pressure is usually lower. 3.8 PIPE FRICTION HEAD DIFFERENCE FOR NEWTONIAN FLUIDS (HFP) The Friction Head is the friction due to the movement of fluid in a piping system and is proportional to flow rate, pipe diameter and viscosity. Tables of values for Friction Head are available in references 1 & 8. The Friction Head, as defined here, is made up of the friction loss due to the fluid movement and the friction loss due to the effect of pipe fittings (for example, 90 elbows, 45 bends, tees, etc.):
HF = HFP +HFF
the subscript FP refers to pipe friction loss and the subscript FF to fittings friction loss.
NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
Newtonian fluids are a large class of fluids, whose essential property VISCOSITY, was first defined by Newton (see Appendix A for a list of Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids). Viscosity is the relationship between the velocity of a given layer of fluid and the force required to maintain that velocity. Newton theorized that for most pure fluids, there is a direct relationship between force required to move a layer and its velocity. Therefore, to move a layer at twice the velocity, required twice the force. His hypothesis could not be tested at the time, but later the French researcher, Poiseuille, demonstrated its validity. This resulted in a very practical definition for viscosity (see Appendix A for more details). The Darcy-Weisbach formula expresses the resistance to movement of any fluid in a pipe:
H FP v2 = f L D 2g
where f is a non dimensional friction factor. Often, the tables give values for friction loss in terms of ft of fluid per 100 ft of pipe. When the appropriate units are used (Imperial system), the Darcy-Weisbach equation becomes:
H F P ft o f fluid v 2 ( ft / s ) 2 = 1200 f L 1 0 0 ft o f pipe D ( in ) 2 g ( ft / s 2 )

The friction factor is proportional to the Reynolds number which is defined as:
[3-16]
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Re = 7745.8
v(ft / s) D(in) (cSt)
[3-17]
The Reynolds number is proportional to the kinematic viscosity, the average velocity, and the pipe inside diameter. It is a non dimensional number. The kinematic viscosity () is the ratio of the absolute viscosity () to the fluid specific gravity (SG).
( cSt ) =
( cP ) SG
Values of viscosity for many fluids can be found in reference 8.

Laminar flow - RE < 2000
Distinct flow regimes can be observed as the Reynolds number is varied. In the range of 0 to 2000, the flow is uniform and is said to be laminar. The term laminar refers to successive layers of fluid immediately adjacent to one another, or laminated. Looking at a longitudinal section of the pipe, the velocity of individual fluid particles is zero close to the wall and increases to a maximum value at the center of the pipe with every particle moving parallel to its neighbor. If we inject dye into the stream, we would notice that the dye particles maintain their cohesion for long distances from the injection point.
Figure 3-16 Laminar and turbulent flow velocity profiles. The friction loss is generated within the fluid itself. Figure 3-16 shows that each layer (in this case each ring) of fluid is moving progressively faster as we get closer to the center. The difference in velocity between each fluid layer causes the friction loss.
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The friction factor f is given by:
f =
64 Re
[3-18]
For viscous fluids (i.e.: 50 SSU), the combination of velocity and viscosity usually produces a low Reynolds number and therefore laminar flow. Pumping viscous fluids at a faster rate may cause the fluid to become turbulent resulting in high friction losses. The tables for viscous fluid friction loss given in references 1 & 8 are based on the equation for laminar flow, equation [3-18]. This equation can be theoretically derived and is found in most fluid dynamic volumes (see reference 11). An interesting aspect of laminar flow is that pipe roughness is not a factor in determining friction loss.
Unstable flow - 2000 <RE <4000
The flow is pulsing and unstable and appears to possess characteristics of both laminar and turbulent flow.
Turbulent flow - RE > 4000
At Reynolds number larger than 4000, it is very difficult to predict the behavior of the fluid particles, as they are moving in many directions at once. If dye is injected into the stream, the dye particles are rapidly dispersed, demonstrating the complex nature of this type of flow. Reynolds, who originally did this experiment, used it to demonstrate the usefulness of a non-dimensional number (the Reynolds number) related to velocity and viscosity. Most industrial applications involve fluids in turbulent flow. The geometry of the wall (pipe roughness) becomes an important factor in predicting the friction loss. Many empirical formulas for turbulent flow have been developed. Colebrook's equation is the one most widely accepted :
1 2.51 = 2 log 10 + 37 D R f f . e
[3-19]
where is the average height of protuberances (absolute roughness) of the pipe wall surface (for example, 0.00015 ft for smooth steel pipe). The term /D is called the pipe roughness parameter or the relative roughness. The tables for friction loss given in references 1 & 8 are based on Colebrook's equation. Since it is not possible to derive an explicit solution for f, L.F. Moody (see Figure 3-18) developed a graphical solution. The diagram shows the linear relationship of the friction factor (f) with the Reynolds number (Re) for the laminar flow regime. For Reynolds numbers in the medium range (4,000 to 1,000,000, turbulent flow), the friction factor is dependent on the Reynolds number and the pipe roughness parameter, which is known as the transition zone. For high Reynolds numbers (1,000,000 and higher, fully turbulent), the friction factor is independent of the Reynolds number and is proportional only to the pipe roughness parameter. This is the zone of complete turbulence.
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Some typical values for the absolute roughness : Absolute roughness (ft) Steel or wrought iron 0.00015 Asphalt-dipped cast iron 0.0004 Galvanized iron 0.0005 Table 3-2 Typical values for pipe wall roughness. PIPE MATERIAL
Values for are given in reference 1 and 8. A numerical method, the Newton-Raphson iteration technique, can also be used to solve the Colebrook equation (see Appendix B). Note: the Colebrook equation is valid only for Newtonian fluids (see Appendix A for a list of Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids). Another equation developed by Swamee and Jain, gives an explicit result for f and agrees with the Colebrook equation within 1%:
f =
0 .25 5.74 log 10 + R e 0 .9 3.7 D

2
[3-20]
3.9
FITTINGS FRICTION HEAD DIFFERENCE FOR NEWTONIAN FLUIDS, K METHOD AND 2K METHOD (HFF)
THE K METHOD
The fittings friction loss is given by:
H FF (ft fluid)= K
v (ft / s) 2 2g(ft / s )
[3-21]
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Figure 3-17 Typical values for K with respect to fitting diameter. The K factor for various fittings can he found in many publications (references 1 and 8). As an example, Figure 3-17 depicts the relationship between the K factor of a 90 screwed elbow and the diameter (D). The type of fitting dictates the relationship between the friction loss and the pipe size. Note: this method assumes that the flow is fully turbulent (see the demarcation line on the Moody diagram of Figure 3-18).
THE TWO K METHOD (SEE REFERENCE 14)
Tests conducted on various fittings have determined that the K value is not dependent on size, but on the Reynolds number. This approach takes into account the different nature of laminar and turbulent flow.
K = K1 + K Re
[3-22]
where K1 and K are constants appropriate to the geometry of the fitting (see Table 3-3). The examples in this book use the 2K method.
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2K METHOD PARAMETERS FITTING TYPE 90 ELBOWS Standard (R/D =1) screwed Standard (R/D =1) flanged/welded Long radius (R/D=1.5) all types Mitered (R/D=1.5) 1 weld 90 Mitered (R/D=1.5) 2 weld 45 Mitered (R/D=1.5) 3 weld 30 Mitered (R/D=1.5) 4 weld 22 1/2 Mitered (R/D=1.5) 5 weld 18 45 ELBOWS Standard (R/D =1) all types Long radius (R/D=1.5) all types Mitered 1 weld 45 Mitered 2 weld 22 1/2 180 ELBOWS Standard (R/D =1) screwed Standard (R/D =1) flanged/welded Long radius (R/D=1.5) all types TEES, AS ELBOWS Standard screwed Long radius screwed Standard flange or welded Stub-in branch type TEES, AS RUN-THROUGH Standard screwed Long radius screwed Stub-in branch type VALVE: GATE, BALL OR PLUG Full line size =1.0 Full line size =0.9 Full line size =0.8 Globe standard Globe, angle or Y-type Diaphragm, dam type Butterfly
K1 800 800 800 1000 800 800 800 800
K 0.4 0.25 0.2 1.15 0.35 0.3 0.27 0.25
500 500 500 500
0.2 0.15 0.25 0.15
1000 1000 1000
0.6 0.35 0.3
500 800 800 1000
0.7 0.4 0.8 1
200 150 100
0.1 0.5 0
300 500 1000 1500 1000 1000 800
0.1 0.15 0.25 4 2 2 0.25
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FITTING TYPE CHECK VALVES Lift Swing Tilting Disk
K1 2000 1500 1000
K 10 1.5 0.5
PIPE ENTRANCES AND EXITS Pipe entrance, normal 160 Pipe entrance, inward projecting 160 Pipe exit 0 Table 3-3 Typical values for K1 and K for the 2K method.
0.5 1 1
Figure 3-18 The Moody diagram, friction factor vs. Reynolds number for laminar and turbulent flow at various pipe roughness-values.
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3.10
PIPE FRICTION HEAD DIFFERENCE FOR WOOD FIBER SUSPENSIONS (HFP) A. PIPE FRICTION LOSS Empirical data for wood fiber suspensions (usually referred to as stock) have been gathered and correlated for many different types of pulps. Depending on flow rate and type of stock, different characteristic regions of flow friction loss vs. velocity have been established. The friction loss curve for chemical pulp can be conveniently divided into three regions, as illustrated by the hatched areas of the two next figures.
Figure 3-19 Pipe friction loss vs. velocity and consistency for chemical pulp.
REGION 1
Figure 3-20 Pipe friction loss vs. velocity and consistency for mechanical pulp.
Curve AB is a linear region where friction loss for a given pulp is a function of consistency, velocity, and pipe diameter. The velocity at the upper limit of this linear region (Point B) is designated vmax.
REGION 2
Curve BCD shows an initial decrease in friction loss (to Point C), after which the friction loss again increases. The intersection of the pulp friction loss curve with the friction loss curve for water (Point D) is termed the onset of drag reduction. The velocity at this point is designated vw.
REGION 3
Curve DE shows the friction loss curve for pulp fiber suspensions below the friction loss curve for water. This is due to a phenomenon called drag reduction. Regions 2 and 3 are separated by the friction loss curve for water, which is a straight line with a slope approximately equal to 1.75, when plotted with log-log coordinates.
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The friction loss curve for mechanical pulp, as illustrated in Figure 3-19, is divided into only two regions: Region 1 and 3. For this pulp type, the friction loss curve crosses the water curve at vw. There is no true vmax.
PIPE FRICTION ESTIMATION PROCEDURE
The bulk velocity (v) will depend upon the mass flow rate and pipe diameter (D) selected. The final value of v can be optimized to give the lowest capital investment and operating cost with due consideration of future demands or possible system expansion. The mass flow rate of wood fiber is of particular interest in the design of pipes and pumping systems since the purpose of the solution is to convey the fiber. The mass flow rate has the following relationship between the volumetric flow and the pulp fiber consistency:
M(Tons / day) =
where
q(USgal./ min) %C 16.64
[3-23]
M : mass flow rate of pulp; C : pulp dry consistency ratio expressed as a percentage.
and
q(US gal./ min) = 2.45 v(ft / s) (D(in))
[3-24]
The bulk velocity will fall into one of the regions previously discussed. When this region is identified, the appropriate correlations for determining pipe friction loss values may be selected. The following describes the procedure to be used for estimating pipe friction loss in each of the regions.
REGION 1
Region 1 is delimited by the bulk velocity of the stock (v), between the ranges:
v < v m ax
where v max = K C and K' : Numerical coefficient (constant for a given pulp) : Exponent (constant for a given pulp) The relationship between the friction loss and the governing parameters is:
H FP ft of water = F K (v(ft / s)) (C(%)) (D(in)) L 100 ft of pipe

where K : numerical coefficient (constant for a given pulp); , , : exponents (constant for a given pulp).
[3-25]
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The factor F is composed of many possible correction factors:
F = F1 F2 F3 F4 F5
where F1 : correction factor for temperature; F2 : correction factor for pipe roughness; F3 : correction factor for pulp type; F4 : correction factor for beating; F5 : design contingency factor; and F1 is calculated by:
F1 = 1.35 0.01T ( o C )
REGION 2
Region 2 is delimited by the bulk velocity of the stock v, between the ranges:
vmax < v <vW

where vW = 4 C 1.4 If v is between vmax and vW, equation [3-25] may be used to determine HFP /L at the maximum point vmax. The friction loss is then estimated and can be assumed to be constant for velocities in this region.
REGION 3
Region 3 is delimited by the bulk velocity of the stock v for the region:
v > vW
A conservative estimate of friction loss is obtained by using the water curve as determined by Blasius' equation:
H FP L ( v ( ft / s )) ft of water 100 ft of pipe = 0 . 58 1 . 25 ( D ( in ))
1 . 75
[3-26]
Here Blasius' equation is used rather than Colebrook's (see equation [3-19], because the friction values for pulps were determined using smooth pipe (notably stainless steel copper and PVC), so that pipe roughness was not a factor in the determination of pressure drop. Blasius' equation is an accurate representation of friction values for water in such a case. Previously published methods for calculating pipe friction loss of pulp suspensions gave a very conservative estimate of head loss, whereas the method just described gives a more accurate estimate.
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Wood fiber does not significantly affect the overall density of the fiber-water solution. The specific gravity of the solution is therefore the same as water. NO. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 PULP TYPE Cooked Groundwood Hardwood Nssc Csf=620 Long Fibered Kraft Never Dried Csf=260 Unbleached Sulphite K` 0.75 0.59 0.75 0.98 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.2 K 6.2 4.56 17 12.6 9 3.81 5.3 11.4 11.4 11.4 5.19 12.1 0.43 0.43 0.31 0.36 2.31 2.31 1.81 1.89 -1.2 -1.2 -1.34 -1.33 -0.85 -1.04 -1.33 -1.33 -1.33 -0.82 -1.34 -1.34 -1.34 -1.04 -1.34 -1.34 -1.09 -1.33 -1.08 -1.29 -1.16
Stone Groundwood Csf=114 4.0 1.4 0.27 2.37 Unbeaten Aspen Sulphite Never Dried 0.85 1.6 0.36 2.14 Kraft 0.98 1.2 0.36 1.89 Bleached Sulphite 0.98 1.2 0.36 1.89 Bleached Straw 0.98 1.2 0.36 1.89 Newsprint Broke Csf=75 4.0 1.4 0.36 1.91 Long Fibered Kraft Never Dried 0.75 1.65 0.31 1.81 Csf=550 12 Long Fibered Kraft Never Dried 0.98 1.85 11.8 0.31 1.81 Csf=725 13 Long Fibered Kraft Never Dried 0.85 1.9 11.3 0.31 1.81 Csf=650 14 Soda 4.0 1.4 6.5 0.36 1.85 15 Long Fibered Kraft Dried & Re-Slurried 0.49 1.8 9.4 0.31 1.81 16 Bleached Kraft Pine Dried & Re0.79 1.5 8.8 0.31 1.81 Slurried 17 Refiner Groundwood Csf=150 4.0 1.4 3.4 0.18 2.34 18 Unbleached Straw 0.98 1.2 5.7 0.36 1.89 19 Kraft Birch Dried & Re-Slurried 0.69 1.3 5.2 0.27 1.78 20 Refiner Groundwood (Hardboard) 4.0 1.4 2.3 0.23 2.21 21 Refiner Groundwood (Insulating Board) 4.0 1.4 1.4 0.32 2.19 Table 3-4 Friction factor parameters for pulp suspensions ( use with equation [3-25]).
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Notes: 1. Original data obtained in stainless steel and PVC pipe. PVC is taken to be hydraulically smooth pipe. 2. No safety factors are included in the above correlations. 3. The friction loss depends to a large extent on the condition of the inside surface of the pipe. For cast iron and galvanized pipe, the K values will be reduced. No systematic data are available for the effects of surface roughness. 4. If pulps are not identical to those shown, some engineering judgment is required. 5. Wood is New Zealand Kraft pulp. The above pulps are presented sequentially in the approximate order of high to lower friction. This is only approximate since certain pulps can produce higher or lower friction depending on the pipe diameter. Some of these pulps have extremely high friction values when conveyed through a small pipe, which of course would contraindicate small pipes, larger pipes will have to be used. However, even if economically feasible, low velocities should be avoided as certain pulps de-water easily when at rest (i.e. Kraft) and can therefore plug the line if not subjected to sufficient movement (i.e. less than 3 ft/s). B. FITTINGS FRICTION LOSS FOR PULP The recommended method of handling friction fitting losses (see reference 2) is to use the same friction loss as for water and to adjust the value for pulp fiber consistency. The fittings friction loss is given by:
H FF (ft of water ) = K P
(v(ft / s)) 2g(ft / s 2)
[3-27]
The loss coefficient for pulp suspensions in a given fitting generally exceeds the loss coefficient for water in the same fitting. As an approximate rule, it is recommended that the fitting friction loss coefficient (K) be increased 20% for each 1% increase in oven-dried stock consistency above 2%. This means that KP will have the following values with respect to K:
%BD KP Consistency 2 K 3 1.2K 4 1.4K 5 1.6K 6 1.8K Table 3-5 Pulp fittings friction values.
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Where can you find help when you need it? Did you ever ask a pump supplier sales rep. for the price of a pump? Here is a sample dialogue: - Could I please have a price for a pump for 3000 gallons a minute? - Certainly sir, what head is required? - Well I'm not sure, what do you suggest? - Well sir that's hard for me to say. You see, I have to know the details of the system, such as the static head, the pipe sizes, the length, the elevation difference, etc. - Well, I want to get water from the ground floor to the 2nd floor level. That's about 40 feet up. For piping size just take something reasonable, it's all new anyway. The total piping length is probably around 400 feet. Is this enough information? - Hum, yes, well I see. Will there be a control valve in the system? how many fittings and of what type will there be? what's your N. P. S.H. available? - My N.P. what? - Sir, why don't you ask a professional engineer to look at this and have him give me a call later, OK? Have a nice day . I think you get the point. Many of us who have a general industrial engineering background will have experienced this type of situation. Most equipment can be purchased by specifying only a few parameters. Not so for a pump. Before you can order it, you must analyze the complete system in detail, know the type of fluid and specific gravity, and determine the Total Head, N. P. S.H. available, and motor size. Let's try this conversation again: -M. Pump Salesman, could I please have a price for a centrifugal pump with a capacity of 3000 US gallons a minute of water and a Total Head of 70 feet? - Certainly sir, is this water acidic and does it have any particles in it? If you have particles, are they fine or coarse and more importantly are they abrasive? Oh, and what type of seals do you want, pressurized or mechanical? Do you need....
3 34
Does this wring a bell? Pump salespersons must be very brave since they seem to have no regard for their personal safety. I'm exaggerating of course. Pump reps. are at their best when you start by giving them a P.O. number with the serial number of the pump you want to replace. That's when they shine. This dialogue shows clearly, how important terminology is in this business. Also, for such an innocent looking piece of equipment, I think you will agree that there is more than meets the eye. Fluid friction calculation is the most difficult aspect of Total Head calculations. One important fact to establish: is the fluid Newtonian or not? This is because most reference books giving pressure drop coefficients for friction are based on Newtonian fluids; and this is rarely pointed out. Newtonian fluids, while very common, are by no means the majority of all fluids we deal with in industrial engineering (a non-exhaustive list is given in Appendix A). Equipment head difference is probably the second most difficult element to deal with. If the system is in the design stage and it includes a control valve, then it will generally be possible to select a valve with 10 feet of pressure head drop. This is sufficient information on the valve for Total Head calculation. For a control valve in an existing system you may need to dig deeper and find the exact details (Cv vs. flow curves) and figure out the pressure head drop for that valve in operation. For other equipment, the manufacturer's literature should be checked to determine the correct pressure head drop for the design flow rate.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP SELECTION, SIZING, AND INTERPRETATION OF PERFORMANCE CURVES

4.0 PUMP CLASSES Pumps may be classified in two general types, dynamic and positive displacement. Positive displacement pumps are those in which energy is imparted to the liquid in a fixed displacement volume, such as a casing or a cylinder, by the rotary motion of gears, screws, or vanes, or by reciprocating pistons or plungers. Centrifugal pumps are dynamic pumps. Energy is imparted to the liquid by means of a disk with curved vanes rotating on a shaft called the impeller. The impeller imparts kinetic energy to the fluid by means of its shape and high rotational velocity. This energy is transformed to pressure energy when the fluid reaches the pump casing (see Figure 1-12). The pressure head difference between the inlet and the outlet, or Total Head produced by the pump, is proportional to the impeller speed and diameter. Therefore, to obtain a higher head, the rotational speed or the impeller diameter can be increased. To learn more about how a centrifugal pump increases a fluid's pressure, see reference 15. How a pump produces pressure is beyond the scope of this book, but an interesting experiment you can try at home will illustrate a similar process. A small plastic bottle is required to which a string is attached. Twist a rubber band around the bottles neck a few times and attach two 3-foot long strings, one on each side of the glass. Tie the other ends of the string together, fill the glass half full with water and hold it suspended from the strings. Start spinning. As you may have guessed, the fluid inside the glass will become pressurized. How do you know that the fluid is pressurized? To prove it to yourself, make a very small hole in the glass bottom. Make the hole just large enough for water to dribble through. Now spin the glass again. The water will spray out of the glass bottom no matter what its position, up or down.
Figure 4-1 Using a spinning bottle to demonstrate centrifugal force.
42
PUMP SELECTION, SIZING AND INTERPRETATION OF PERFORMANCE CURVES
4.1
COVERAGE CHART FOR CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS A coverage chart (see Figure 4-2) makes it possible to do a preliminary pump selection by looking at a wide range of pump casing sizes for a specific impeller speed. This chart helps narrow down the choice of pumps that will satisfy the system requirements.
Figure 4-2 Typical pump capacity coverage chart. 4.2 PERFORMANCE CURVE CHART The following figure shows a typical pump performance chart for a given model, casing size, and impeller rotational speed. A great deal of information is crammed into one chart and this can be confusing at first. The performance chart covers a range of impeller sizes, which are shown in even increments of 1/2" from 7 1/2" to 9 1/2". Figure 4-3 Typical pump performance curve. Impellers are manufactured to the largest size for a given pump casing and machined or "trimmed" to the required diameter when the pump is sold.
43
Performance Curve
At some point in the pump selection process, the impeller diameter is selected. For an existing pump, the diameter of the impeller is known. For a new pump, our calculations of Total Head for a given flow rate will have determined the impeller diameter to select according to the performance curve. Figure 4-4 shows only the information relevant to the 8 1/2" impeller performance curve.
Figure 4-4 Typical performance curve for a specific impeller diameter. A performance curve is a plot of Total Head vs. flow rate for a specific impeller diameter and speed. The plot starts at zero flow. The head at this point corresponds to the shut-off head of the pump, point A in Figure 4-4 (more about this later). Starting at this point, the head decreases until it reaches its minimum at point B. This point is sometimes called the run-out point and represents the maximum flow of the pump. Beyond this, the pump cannot operate. The pump's range of operation is from point A to B.
Efficiency Curves
The pump's efficiency varies throughout its operating range. This information is essential for calculating the motor power (see section 4.9). The B.E.P. (best efficiency point) is the point of highest efficiency of the pump. All points to the right or left of the B.E.P have a lower efficiency (see Figure 4-4). The impeller is subject to axial and radial forces, which get greater the further away the operating point is from the B.E.P. These forces manifest themselves as vibration depending on the speed and construction of the pump. The point where the forces and vibration levels are minimal is at the B.E.P. In selecting a pump, one of the concerns is to optimize pumping efficiency. It is good practice to examine several performance charts at different speeds to see if one model satisfies the requirements more efficiently than another. Whenever possible the lowest pump speed should be selected, as this will save wear and tear on the rotating parts.
44
Note: The pump performance curves are based on data generated in a test rig using water as the fluid. These curves are sometimes referred to as water performance curves. The use of these curves for fluids with a different viscosity than water can lead to error if the proper correction factors are not applied. These correction factors are applied to the Total Head, the flow and the efficiency of the pump, and are published in form of curves by the Hydraulic Institute (see Standards book published by the Hydraulic Institute, web site: http://www.pumps.org and for the correction factor charts see the web site www.fluidedesign.com).
Horsepower Curves
The horsepower curves are shown on the chart and give the power required to operate the pump within a certain range. For example (see Figure 4-5), all points on the performance curve to the left of the 2 hp curve will be attainable with a 2 hp motor. All points to the left of 3 hp curve and to the right of the 2 hp curve will be attainable with a 3 hp motor. The horsepower can be calculated with the Total Head, flow and efficiency at the operating point. (More on horsepower calculations and operating point later). Note that the horsepower curves shown on the performance curves are valid for water only.
Figure 4-5 Coverage area of horsepower curves.

N.P.S.H. Requirement Curves
The pump manufacturer specifies a minimum requirement on the N.P.S.H. in order for the pump to operate at its design capacity. These are the vertical dashed lines in Figure 4-6. The N.P.S.H. required becomes higher as flow increases, and lower as flow decreases. This essentially means that more pressure head is required at the pump suction for high flows than low flows. Keep in mind that N.P.S.H. is a head term and therefore independent of the fluid density and is in absolute fluid column height. The N.P.S.H. required for the maximum flow in Figure 4-4 is approximately 4 feet absolute. This is not very restrictive; most industrial pumping systems will have much more N.P.S.H. available.
45
Figure 4-6 N.P.S.H required curves. 4.3 IMPELLER DIAMETER SELECTION Quite often, the operating point is located between two curves on the performance chart. We can calculate the impeller size required by linear interpolation. For example, if the operating point falls between the 9" and 9 1/2" impeller curve (see Figure 4-7), the following equation will give the correct size:
9.5 9 DOP = 9 + (HOPH9) H91/ 2 H9

where DOP : impeller diameter required; HOP : pump total head at the operating point; H9 : pump total head at the intersection of the 9 impeller curve and flow rate; H91/2 : pump total head at the intersection of the 9 1/2 impeller curve and the flow rate.
Figure 4-7 Interpolating impeller diameter.
46
It is good practice to select (when possible) a pump with an impeller that can be increased in size, permitting a future increase in head and capacity. Or alternatively, an impeller which can be reduced in size. As a guide, select a pump with an impeller size no greater than between 1/3 and 2/3 of the impeller range for that casing with an operating point in the high efficiency area (see Figure 4-8). It is also important not to go too far right or left from the B.E.P.. A guideline is to locate the operating point between 110% and 80% (see reference 16) of the B.E.P. flow rate with an operating point in the desirable impeller selection area (see Figure 4-8).
Figure 4-8 Desirable pump selection area.
4.4
SYSTEM CURVE The system curve is a plot of the Total Head vs. the flow for a given system. The higher the flow, the greater the head required (see Figure 4-9). The shape of the system curve depends on the type of system being considered. The system curve equation for a typical single outlet system such as in Figure 2-10 is:
H P ( q ) = H F ( q ) + H EQ ( q ) + H v ( q ) + H TS
The system curve is superimposed on the pump performance chart. The Total Static head is constant and the friction head, equipment head and velocity head are flow dependent. The calculation of Total Head at different flow rates produces a plot of Total Head vs. flow that is called the system curve. The operating point is the point on the system curve corresponding to the flow and head required. It is also the point where the system curve intersects the performance curve. The design system curve is usually calculated with extra flow capacity in mind. It is good
47
practice to plot the system curve for higher flow rates than the design flow rate, since flow demand may change and extra capacity may be required.
Figure 4-9 Superposition of system curve and pump performance curve. 4.5 OPERATING POINT The question in example 2.1 has remained unanswered until now. That is: How can we guarantee that the pump will deliver 500 USGPM at 70 feet of head? First, determine the right pump size by using the coverage chart (see Figure 4-2). Locate the head and flow coordinate (operating point) on the chart. This will identify the casing size and pump speed. Locate the correct performance curve chart for this pump casing size and again identify the operating point.
Figure 4-10 Location of operating point in example 2.1.
48
Determine the impeller size. The impeller size will be approximately 8.75". The dashed line represents the performance curve of the pump. The pump can only operate on its performance curve. The system can only be run somewhere on the system curve. The intersection of these two defines the operating point which is the only point that the pump and system can operate. As is often the case, one question leads to another: How does the pump get to the operating point from the moment it is switched on? There are two methods which can be used to start a pump. With method 1 the discharge valve is closed, whereas with method 2 the discharge valve is open. The term discharge valve refers to the manual valve located close to the pump outlet flange.
Method 1 (discharge valve closed)
Pumps are often started with the discharge valve closed. Immediately after the pump is started, the head rises to point D (see Figure 4-11). The system curve at this moment is vertical. By gradually opening the discharge valve to its full open position, point D will move down the performance curve to point C, where the discharge valve should be fully open. The system curve's shape is progressively modified as the operating point is moved towards point C. This is a typical way of starting large pumps and should be the preferred method for any pump operating at more than 500 USGPM.
Figure 4-11 Starting the pump with discharge valve closed.
49
Method 2 (discharge valve open)
The alternate method is to start with the discharge valve open. When the pump is just starting the initial RPM is low; the pump produces little head and flow. As the pump accelerates, it will intersect the system curve at point A at 200 RPM, point B at 500 RPM and finally point C at the normal rotational speed of the pump and motor. This happens very quickly since the motor will reach its full operating speed in a few seconds. The disadvantage of starting with this method is that high initial velocity can produce a severe water hammer, shaking pipes and equipment.
Figure 4-12 Starting the pump with discharge valve open. Method 1 is the preferred method of starting a pump. To minimize personnel requirements, it is the practice in many plants to equip their pumps with remote operated on-off discharge valves for large pumps (larger than 500 USGPM). The valves are opened automatically by a control system, thereby providing a smooth start-up. 4.6 SAFETY FACTOR ON TOTAL HEAD OR CAPACITY Before finalizing the choice of impeller size, consider whether you should apply an extra capacity factor or not (capacity = flow). There are no rules; however, since we normally size pumps for someone else, it is a good idea to agree on a safety margin with your client. Point 1 on impeller curve A (see Figure 4-13) is the operating point (on system curve a) before a capacity factor is applied.
Safety margin on total head
If we apply a head factor of 10%, we will have to select impeller C. The operating point will now be at point 2. This means that there must be a different system curve than curve a, which is curve c. The only explanation for this is that we have underestimated the pressure drops throughout the system. If it turns out that the pressure drop calculations were right after all, and that we really are operating with curve a, then the operating point will shift from point 2 to 3 on impeller curve C (assuming there is sufficient horsepower to operate at point 3). If we need to get back to the flow corresponding to point 1 for process reasons, then throttling a valve at the pump discharge will change the operating curve to match curve c and bring the operating point back to point 2.
4 10
Figure 4-13 Location of capacity factor.
Safety margin on flow
If we apply a capacity factor of say 10%, we will have to select impeller curve B. This means that the system curve is in reality curve d. If in actuality our original flow estimate was correct, then the operating point will shift from point 4 to 5. To get back to the original flow, we have to throttle back so that we shift to point 6, and we will operate on a new system curve b.
Safety margin on total head and flow
If we decide to put on suspenders and a belt (i.e. a head and capacity factor), and assuming that we are operating on system curve a, then we would select impeller curve C and operate at point 3. If we needed to get back to our original flow at point 1, then we would throttle back until we reached point 2. This is a similar situation to applying solely a head factor because of the shape of the performance and system curves. Therefore, applying a head factor only also provides reserve capacity on flow.
4 11
4.7
PUMP OPERATION TO THE RIGHT OR LEFT OF THE BEST EFFICIENCY POINT (B.E.P.) The impeller is subjected to axial and radial forces. The level of the radial force depends on the pressure within the casing and is taken up by the drive shaft bearings.
Figure 4-14 The forces on the impeller.
There is also a net radial force whose level depends on the pressure level within the casing, and also on the position of the operating point with respect to the B.E.P.. This force increases rapidly the further away the operating point (see Figure 4-15) gets from the B.E.P. of the pump (for more information see reference 16).
4 12
Figure 4-15 Variation on the magnitude of the radial force on the impeller according to the position of the operating point with respect to the B.E.P.(reprinted with permission of McGrawHill).
Figure 4-16 Variation in the level of vibration at the operating point vs. the position of the B.E.P.(reprinted with permission of the Goulds pump company).
4 13
What are the consequences of operating to the right or left of the B.E.P.?
To the right of the B.E.P., or at high flows
Operating at the far right of the curve, near run-out point of the pump (point B, Figure 4-4) should be avoided. As flow increases, so does the N.P.S.H. required, and therefore cavitation is more likely to occur.
To the left of the B.E.P. or at low flows
Operation of centrifugal pumps at reduced capacity leads to a number of unfavorable results that may take place separately or simultaneously, and should be anticipated and circumvented. Some of these are: Operating at less than best efficiency On occasion, reduced flows may be required by the process. This can be accommodated by a variable speed drive, or by using several pumps. One or more pumps can then be shut down to provide the reduced flow. Higher bearing load If a pump is of a single volute design, it will be subjected to higher radial thrust, which will increase the load on the radial bearing. Therefore, the bearing life would be expected to diminish. Temperature rise As capacity is reduced, the temperature of the pumped liquid increases. To avoid exceeding permissible limits, a minimum flow by-pass is required. Internal re-circulation At certain flows below the best efficiency, all centrifugal pumps are subjected to internal re-circulation, in both the suction and the discharge area of the impeller. This can cause hydraulic surging and damage to the impeller metal, similar to that caused by classic cavitation, but taking place in a different area of the impeller.
Figure 4-17 Internal recirculation at low flow (reprinted with permission of McGraw-Hill).
4 14
4.8
PUMP-SHUT-OFF HEAD The shut-off head is the Total Head that the pump can deliver at zero flow (see Figure 419). The shut-off head is important for 2 reasons. 1. In certain systems (admittedly unusual), the pump discharge line may have to run at a much higher elevation than the final discharge point. The fluid must first reach the higher elevation in the system. If the shut-off head is smaller than the static head corresponding to the high point, then flow will not be established in the system. 2. During start-up and checkout of the pump, a quick way to determine if the pump has the potential capacity to deliver the head and flow required, is to measure the shut-off head. This value can be compared to the shut-off head predicted by the performance curve of the pump.
Figure 4-18 Discharge pipe coming from a higher elevation into the discharge tank.
4 15
Figure 4-19 Location of pump shut-off head on the performance curve.
4.9
PUMP POWER A pump's power demand is directly proportional to the difference between the inlet and outlet pressure and the flow rate.
P = p P q
where pP is the difference in pressure at the inlet and the outlet of the pump, and q the flow rate. The above equation expressed in imperial units is:
P(hp ) =
p P ( psi) q (USgal / min) 1714.2
[4-1]
pP is converted to head. From equation [1-5]:
p P ( psi ) =
1 SG H P ( ft of fluid ) 2.31
[4-2]
by substituting equation [4-2] into equation [4-1] we obtain:
P(hp) =
SGH P ( ft of fluid) q(USgal / min) 3960
[4-3]
4 16
Equation [4-3] would be true if the pump were 100% efficient. Pump efficiency data are available from the pump manufacturer. All manufacturers test their pumps for various flows, heads and impeller sizes. The resulting efficiency data are mapped on the pump performance curve. The true power required at the pump shaft is:
P(hp)=
SG H P(ft of fluid) q(USgal/ min) 3960
[4-4]
where is the pump efficiency. If the pump efficiency is 60%, then the value of is 0.6. It is good practice to design the pump base in such a way that the selected motor will stand on spacer blocks, being high enough that the next largest motor frame can be installed when the blocks are removed. This will allow the installation of a larger motor without a major disturbance if it should be required. 4.9 AFFINITY LAWS The affinity laws are derived from a dimensionless analysis of three important parameters that describe pump performance: flow, total head and power (ref: The Pump Handbook by McGraw-Hill, chapter 2). The analysis is based on the reduced impeller being geometrically similar and operated at dynamically similar conditions or equal specific speed. The affinity laws were developed using the law of similitudes which provide 3 basic relationships. Flow vs. diameter and speed
Q =K nD 3
or
Q1 n1 D1 = Q2 n2 D2 3
4 17
Total Head vs. diameter and speed
gH =K n2 D2
Power vs. diameter and speed
or
H 1 n1 D1 = H 2 n 2 2 D2 2
=K
or
n3 D5
P1 n1 D1 = P2 n2 3 D2 5
where subscripts 1 and 2 denote the value before and after the change. P is the power, n the speed, D the impeller diameter, H the total head.
If the speed is fixed the affinity laws become:
Q1 D1 = Q2 D2 3
H 1 D1 = H 2 D2 2
P1 D1 = P2 D2 5
If the diameter is fixed the affinity laws become:
Q1 n1 = Q2 n2
H 1 n1 = H 2 n2 2
P1 n1 = P2 n2 3
The process of arriving at the affinity laws assumes that the two operating points that are being compared are at the same efficiency. The relationship between two operating points, say 1 and 2, depends on the shape of the system curve (see Figure 4-20). The points that lie on system curve A will all be approximately at the same efficiency. Whereas the points that lie on system curve B are not. The affinity laws do not apply to points that belong to system curve B. System curve B describes a system with a relatively high static head vs. system curve A which has a low static head.
4 18
Figure 4-20 Limitation on the use of the affinity laws.
Diameter reduction To reduce costs pump casings are designed to accommodate several different impellers. Also, a variety of operating requirements can be met by changing the outside diameter of a given radial impeller. Eulers equation shows that the head should be proportional to (nD)2 provided that the exit velocity triangles remain the same before and after cutting. This is the usual assumption and leads to:
Q1 n1 D1 = Q2 n2 D2
H 1 n1 D1 = H 2 n2 2 D2 2
P1 n1 D1 = P2 n2 3 D2 3
Which apply only to a given impeller with altered D and constant efficiency but not a geometrically similar series of impellers. If that is the case then the affinity laws can be used to predict the performance of the pump at different diameters for the same speed or different speed for the same diameter. Since in practice impellers of different diameters are not geometrically identical, the author's of the section called Performance Parameters in the Pump Handbook recommend to limit the use of this technique to a change of impeller diameter no greater than 10 to 20%. In order to avoid over cutting the impeller, it is recommended that the trimming be done in steps with careful measurement of the results. At each step compare your predicted performance with the measured one and adjust as necessary.
4 19
Sizing things up . 1. Head is independent of fluid density. 2. For fluids other than water, it should be determined if the fluid is Newtonian. Many pure fluids are Newtonian (see the table on rheological properties of fluids in Appendix A as a starting point). If the fluid is non-Newtonian, depending on the severity of its departure from Newtonian behavior, a centrifugal pump may not be an appropriate pumping device. If the fluid is Newtonian but with a different viscosity than water, apply the correction factors to the performance curve suggested by the pump manufacturer (see reference 1 and 2). 3. Order the pump base with spacer blocks for the motor, allowing the next larger frame to be installed when the blocks are removed. 4. Select a pump size and speed in such a way that the impeller is not close to its maximum size (i.e. within 2/3s of its total range) in order to allow for a future increase in capacity. Locate the operating point somewhere between 110% and 80% of the B.E.P. flow. 5. During the selection process, if the operating point falls between two performance curves, by interpolation calculate the exact impeller size required to intersect the operating point. Impeller size is easily machined down to the correct diameter. 6. Determine the total static head corresponding to the highest point of the system and make sure that it is less than the pump shut-off head. 7. Finally, beware using the affinity laws for calculating a new pump diameter or speed for systems that have a high static head, the affinity laws apply only between two points that are at the same efficiency.
FIELD MEASUREMENTS
5.0 REAL LIVE MEASUREMENTS Often field measurements are required to establish or confirm our analysis of a particular situation or problem. This chapter proposes some methods for calculating various heads in the system by using pressure measurements. 5.1 TOTAL HEAD
The ideal place to locate pressure gauges is as close as possible to the discharge and suction flange of the pump. Total Head is proportional to the difference between these two measurements. Typically, the measurements will be taken with readily available pressure gauges calibrated in pounds per square inch gauge or psig. The pressure gage GS must be close Figure 5-1 pump discharge and suction gauge enough to point S (see Figure 5-1) so locations. that there is no appreciable friction loss or velocity change along the liquid path between the two points. The pressure gauge GD should also be located close to the discharge flange of the pump. By definition (see reference 1), the Total Head of the pump is the specific energy, or head, at the discharge, minus the head at the suction:
HP =ED ES
the head at the discharge ED is:
[5-1]
ED = HD + v D + z D z S 2g
and the head at the suction ES is (see chapter 3):
[5-2]
ES = HS + v S 2g
[5-3]
52
FIELD MEASUREMENTS
After equations [5-3] and [5-2] are substituted in equation [5-1] we obtain:
2 2 HP = 1 (v D v S ) + z D z S + HD HS 2g
[5-4]
Since the pressure gauge GS is higher than the pump suction centerline where we require the pressure measurement, we have to correct the pressure reading for height by adding this difference in height to the pressure reading. The same is true for the pressure measurement of gauge GD. The relationship between the pressure reading and the pressure head is:
H GD(ft fluid) = 2.31
p GD (psig) p GS (psig) and H GS (ft fluid) = 2.31 SG SG
[5-5]
After a correction for height the pressure head HD at point D is:
H D(ft fluid) = 2.31

The pressure head HS at points S is:
p GD (psig) + (z GD z D ) SG
[5-6]
H S (ft fluid) = 2.31
p GS (psig) + (z GS z S ) SG
[5-7]
By substituting equations [5-7] and [5-6] into [5-4] we obtain equation [5-8] which is the equation for Total head as measured by two pressure gauges:
p GD (psig) p GS (psig) 2 2 H P (ft fluid) = 1 (v D v S ) + z D z S (z GS z S ) + z GD z D + 2.31 2g SG

And after simplification, we obtain:
p GD (psig) p GS (psig) 2 2 H P (ft fluid) = 1 (v D v S ) + z GD z GS + 2.31 2g SG

zGD and HGD are respectively the gauge height and gauge pressure head on the discharge side of the pump. Similarly, zGS and HGS are respectively the gauge height and gauge pressure head on the suction side. The gauge heights zGD and zGS are taken with respect to a common reference plane (see Figure 5-1). The velocities are given by:
[5-8]
v(ft / s) = 0.4085
q(USgal / min) 2 (D(in))
FIELD MEASUREMENTS
53
Remember that the pressure at the pump inlet may be negative, so that a gauge capable of measuring negative pressure may be required. As happens occasionally, we may not have the luxury of a pressure gauge on the suction side of the pump. However, we can calculate the pressure head at the suction, combined with the pressure measurement at the discharge, we can determine the Total Head of the pump.
Figure 5-2 Measuring Total Head with only one gauge on the discharge side of the pump. The head at point S (see chapter 3, equation [3-6]) is:
ES = HS + vS 2g
HS is given in chapter 3 (see equation [3-4] as:
[5-9]
HS = (HF1S +HEQ 1S ) +
(v1 vS ) + (z1 z S +H1) 2g

2 2
[5-10]
By replacing equation [5-10] into equation [5-9] we obtain:
ES = (HF1S +HEQ 1S ) + v1 + (z1 z S +H1) 2g

The Total Head is given by:
[5-11]
HP =ED ES
[5-12]
54
FIELD MEASUREMENTS
where the head at the discharge ED is:
ED = HD + v D + z D z S 2g
Therefore
[5-13]
HP = ED ES =HD + vD + z D z S + HF1S +HEQ 1S v1 (z1 z S +H1) 2g 2g

HD is given by equation [5-6] and inserted into equation [5-14]:
2 pGD (psig) vD + (z D zS ) + (HF1S +HEQ 1S ) v1 2 (z1 zS +H1) HP = 2.31 + z GD z D + SG 2g 2g
[5-14]
which after simplification becomes:
HP = 2.31
5.2
2 2 pGD (psig) + zGD z1 + vD + HF1S +HEQ 1S v1 H1 SG 2g 2g
[5-15]
NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD AVAILABLE (N.P.S.H.A.) By definition, the NPSH available is the specific energy or head at the pump suction in terms of feet of fluid absolute, minus the vapor pressure of the fluid. If there is a pressure gauge on the suction side of the pump, as in Figure 5-1, then the head at point S is (see equation [3-6]):
ES = HS + vS 2g
[5-16]
The value of HS is given by equation [5-7] and by substitution into [5-16] we obtain:
ES = 2.31
2 p GS (psig) + z GS z S + v S SG 2g
[5-17]
Since N.P.S.H. is in feet of fluid absolute, the value of the barometric pressure head must be added to ES and the vapor pressure of the liquid (Hva) is subtracted to get the N.P.S.H. available.
NPSHavail ( ft fluid absol) = ES + HB Hva .
[5-18]
FIELD MEASUREMENTS
55
By substituting equation [5-17] into [5-18] we obtain:
N .P.S .H . avail ( ft fluid absol .) =
2.31
p GS ( psig ) SG
+ z GS z S + v S + H B H va 2g
[5-19]
Or if the barometric and vapor pressure heads are available in terms of pressure, then:
NPSH avail ( ft fluid absol. ) = 2.31
2 p GS ( psi ) (p B p va ) + v S + z GS z S + 2.31 2g SG SG
[5-20]
What is the difference between the N.P.S.H.A. of equation [5-19] vs the N.P.S.H.A. of equation [3-10] developed in chapter 3 which is restated here below:
N.P.S.H.avail.(ft fluid absol. ) = (H F1 S +H EQ1 S )+ v1 +(z 1 z S + H1)+ H B H va 2g

The main difference is that we are measuring the pressure at the suction instead of calculating it. When calculating the pressure we have to take into account the friction loss between points 1 and S as well as the elevation difference. When we measure the pressure, the result of this measurement includes the friction losses and the elevation difference since it is these energy sources which produce the pressure energy that is measured. Why is the velocity head required in equation [5-20], but not in equation [310]? Because the velocity head is an important energy source that is not included in the pressure measurement. In equation [3-10] the velocity energy was considered but cancels out during the development of the equation so that it does not appear in equation [3-10]. 5.3 SHUT-OFF HEAD To measure the shut-off head, at least one pressure gauge is required between the pump discharge flange and the discharge valve (see Figure 5-3). If possible, a gauge should be installed on the suction side of the pump, close to the inlet. Measuring shut-off head is the same as measuring total head except that there is no flow through the pump.
56
FIELD MEASUREMENTS
Figure 5-3 Measurement of the shut-off head.
Case 1. Pressure gauge NOT AVAILABLE on suction side of pump We dealt with this case when we measured the total head with only one pressure gauge on the discharge side, the value for Total head is given by equation [5-15]. Since by definition there is no flow through the system when measuring shut-off head then vD = v1 = 0, and HF1-S = HEQ1-S = 0 therefore equation [5-15] becomes:
HP = 2.31
) pGD(psig (zGD z1 ) H1 SG
[5-21]
Case 2. Pressure gauge AVAILABLE on suction side of pump When a pressure gauge on each side of the pump is available, then the shut-off head is given by the same equation as the total head (see equation [5-8]):
p GD (psig) p GS (psig) 2 2 H P (ft fluid) = 1 (v D v S ) + z GD z GS + 2.31 2g SG

And since there is no fluid movement, vS and vD = 0, therefore equation [5-8] becomes:
H P (ft fluid) = z GD z GS + 2.31
p GD (psig) p GS (psig) SG
[5-22]
FIELD MEASUREMENTS
57
5.4
EQUIPMENT HEAD DIFFERENCE The difference in pressure head between the outlet and the inlet of the equipment is:
H EQ = H 4 H3
where H3 and H4 are respectively the pressure heads at points 3 and 4. Case 1. Pressure gauges on each side of the equipment The pressure measured with the gauge at point 3 must be corrected for the height difference between the gauge vertical position and the position of point 3.
[5-23]
H3 =
2.31 p 3 + z G3 z 3 SG
[5-24]
The same is true for the pressure measured at point 4.
H4 =
2.31 p 4 + z G4 z 4 SG
[5-25]
The difference in pressure head is then:
HEQ = H4 H3 =
2.31 (p 4 p3 ) + z 4 z 3 + z G4 z G3 SG
[5-26]
Figure 5-4 Gauge locations for equipment pressure head measurement.
58
FIELD MEASUREMENTS
Case 2. Pressure gauge on one side of the equipment only Let us assume there is only one pressure gauge available, gauge p3. H3 is given by:
H3 =
2.31 p 3 + z G3 z 3 SG
[5-27]
H4 is determined by the method developed in chapter 2, which gives the pressure head anywhere within a system.
(v2 v4 ) H4 = HF42 + HEQ 42 + + z 2 + H2 z 4 2g

2 2
[5-28]
By substituting equation [5-28] and [5-27] into [5-23], we obtain:
HEQ =H4 H3 = HF 42 +HEQ 42 +
(v2 v4 ) 2.31 p 3 + z2 z4 + H2 + zG3 z3 2g SG

2 2
[5-29]
5.5
FLOW MEASUREMENT The measurement of flow rate is not always an easy task. Rarely, is there an accurate flow measurement device on the pipe which we are interested in. It is sometimes possible (without incurring a great expense) to measure flow by measuring the rate at which the discharge reservoir is filled, or a suction tank is emptied. The measurement volume, or the time of the measurement, should be small to avoid influencing the total head of the pump and therefore causing flow variations. In the event that this should prove impossible or impractical, measuring the current supplied to the pump motor is a method of establishing the power absorbed at the pump shaft. If we know the Total head (HP), then we can calculate the flow by using equation [5-31]. This is an indirect way of measuring flow. Because several errors may accumulate, this should only be used as verification of another measurement. Also, be aware that the motor characteristics such as power factor and efficiency must be known at the operating load. A final word of caution. Any measurements deduced from data extracted from the pump curve assume that the pump is in good working condition (for example, proper clearance between impeller and casing, no excessive wear, etc.). This is of course not always the case.
FIELD MEASUREMENTS
59
5.6
CALCULATING FLOW BASED ON POWER CONSUMED BY THE MOTOR Total Head (HP) and pump flow (q) in an existing system are measurable quantities. However, sometimes one of these terms may be difficult to determine. Why? The devices required for the measurements may be difficult to install and/or be expensive, or the equipment may not be shut down long enough to install the devices. However, the power consumed by the motor can be easily measured based on the current flow (ampres). The power consumed by the pump (at the pump shaft) is:
Ppump(hp) =
SG H P (ft fluid) q (US gal / min) 3960 pump
[5-30]
where Ppump : power consumed at the pump shaft; SG : specific gravity of the fluid; HP : Total Head; q : flow through pump; pump : pump efficiency. The power delivered to the pump shaft based on the flow of current to a 3-phase motor is:
p pump(hp) = 1.34 3 V(volt) A(amp) motor P.F. 1000

where V : motor supply voltage, usually 575 volts; A : motor supply amperage; motor : motor efficiency; P.F .: power factor.
[5-31]
An induction motor has a reactive component in its magnetic filed that does not participate in any useful work. Therefore, we need to apply a power factor to the overall power to obtain the real power consumed. The power factor and motor efficiency is given by the motor manufacturers in the form of tables for various loads and different motor sizes (see Appendix E). Note: the constant
3 is required for three-phase motors.
5 10
FIELD MEASUREMENTS
Figure 5-5 Locating the operating point by measuring the current. Therefore, if we measure the current at the motor, we can calculate the power consumed by the pump. The power consumed depends on the flow, the head, and the efficiency of the pump. These three variables are available on the pump performance curve and define the operating point. So that if we know the power consumed by the pump, we can obtain the head, the flow, and the efficiency from the performance curve (see Figure 55). Total Head can be measured by installing pressure gauges at the outlet and inlet of the pump. We can do without the inlet pressure measurement if the pressure can be easily calculated at this point. For example, if the pump suction is large and short and the inlet shut off valve is fully open and is of a design that offers little restriction, we can assume that the pressure head at the inlet of the pump is equal to the static head. Tables of power factor and motor efficiency for standard induction motors are available from the major manufacturers. A table for ABB Premium Efficiency induction motor power factors and efficiency values is presented in Appendix E.
FIELD MEASUREMENTS
5 11
What is the best way to measure flow? 1. If there is a good reliable flow transmitter in the line the problem is solved. Usually there is no such luck. 2. If you can measure the geometry of the discharge tank and you can get an operator to allow the tank to fill during a short period, you will be able to calculate the flow. This is probably the best method. 3. I have tried ultrasonic devices, which provide a non-invasive method of measuring flow. There are currently two types: transit time and Doppler. The Doppler requires particles in the fluid to measure the velocity. I have found it to be unreliable and imprecise. The transit time device requires little or no particles in the fluid and is quite precise when it registers a reading. The Hydraulic Institute has an excellent section on how to measure flow in their Standards book (see reference 1).
GLOSSARY
G2
GLOSSARY
GLOSSARY Bingham plastic A fluid that behaves in a Newtonian fashion but requires a certain level of stress to set it in motion (see Appendix A). The point on a pump's performance curve that corresponds to the highest efficiency. The body of the pump, which encloses the impeller, syn volute (see Figure 1-12). The sudden collapse of gas bubbles due to the pressure increase (see chapter 3). A force associated with a rotating body. In the case of a pump, the rotating impeller pushes fluid on the back of the impeller blade, imparting circular and radial motion. A body that moves in a circular path has a centrifugal force associated with it (see Figure 1-12). An imaginary boundary used to identify the system and in particular locate all the inlets, outlets and energy sources. A Greek symbol used to express a difference between two terms. For example, H means that the variable H is the difference of two other terms such as H1 and H2. The property of a fluid whose viscosity increases with strain or displacement (see Appendix A). The difference in elevation between the liquid level of the discharge tank and the centerline of the pump. This head also includes any additional pressure head that may be present at the discharge tank fluid surface (see chapter 3). A thermodynamic property of a fluid. The enthalpy of a fluid is the sum of the internal energy of the fluid plus the pressure energy in its environment. Refers to any device in the system other than pipes, pipe fittings and isolation valves. The difference in pressure head between the outlet and inlet of an equipment (see section 3-6).
Best Efficiency Point (B.E.P.) Casing
Cavitation
Centrifugal force
Control volume
Delta ()
Dilatant
Discharge Static Head
Enthalpy
Equipment
Equipment pressure head difference
GLOSSARY
G3
Friction
The force produced as reaction to movement. All fluids are subject to friction when they are in motion. The higher the fluid viscosity, the higher the friction force for the same flow rate. Friction is produced internally as one layer of fluid moves with respect to another and also at the fluid wall interface (see chapter 3). The difference in head required to move a mass of fluid from one position to another at a certain flow rate within a piping system. Specific energy or energy per unit weight of fluid, the unit of head is expressed in feet or meters (see chapter 1). In this book, refers to the heat loss to the environment due to friction. The heat lost or gain by a system. The rotating element of the a pump which consists of a disk with curved vanes. The impeller imparts movement and pressure to a fluid (see Figure 112). A thermodynamic property. The energy associated with a substance at a molecular level (see chapter 2). A method of solving an equation by trial and error. An iteration technique is used to solve equations where the unknown variable cannot be explicitly isolated. A frequently used technique is the Newton-Raphson method (see Appendix B). A thermodynamic property. The energy associated with the mass and velocity of a body (see chapter 2). A distinct flow regime that occurs at low Reynolds number (Re <2000). It is characterized by fluid particles in layers moving past one another without mixing. A metal that remains liquid at room temperature. This property makes it useful when used in a thin vertical glass tube since small changes in pressure can be measured as changes in the mercury column height. The inch of mercury is often used as a unit for negative pressure (see chapter 1). A graphical representation of the laminar and turbulent (Colebrook) flow equations (see chapter 3). Pressure that is less than the pressure in the local environment, syn vacuum.
Friction head difference Head
Heat loss Heat transfer Impeller
Internal energy
Iteration
Kinetic energy
Laminar
Mercury (Hg)
Moody diagram
Negative pressure
G4
GLOSSARY
Net Positive Suction Head Available (N.P.S.H.A.) Net Positive Suction Head Required (N.P.S.H.R.) Newtonian
The head or specific energy at the pump suction flange less the vapour pressure head of the fluid (see chapter 3). The head or specific energy at the pump suction flange less the vapour pressure head of the fluid specified by the pump manufacturer for a given impeller diameter, speed and flow rate(see chapter 3). A fluid whose viscosity is constant and independent of the rate of shear. For Newtonian fluids, there is a linear relationship between the rate of shear and the tangential stress between layers (see Appendix A). The point which is located at the intersection of the system curve and the performance curve of a pump. It corresponds to the flow and head required for the process (see chapter 4). A plot of Total Head vs. flow for a specific pump model, impeller diameter and speed (see chapter 4, syn characteristic curve, water performance curve). A measurement of the average height of peaks producing roughness on the internal surface of pipes. Roughness is measured in many locations and then averaged. It is usually defined in micro-inches RMS (root mean square). A thermodynamic property. The energy associated with the mass and height of a body above a reference plane (see chapter 2). The application of external or internal forces to a body producing tension or compression within the body. The specific energy due to pressure. The property of a fluid whose viscosity increases slowly with rate of shear (see Appendix A). The property of a fluid whose viscosity increases with time (see Appendix A). The Total Head corresponding to zero flow on the pump performance curve (see chapter 4). The ratio of the density of a fluid to that of water at standard conditions (see chapter 1). The ratio between the absolute displacement of a reference point within a body to a characteristic length of the body.
Operating point
Performance curve
Pipe roughness
Potential energy
Pressure
Pressure head Pseudoplastic
Rheopectic
Shut-off head
Specific gravity
Strain
GLOSSARY
G5
Stress
In this case refers to tangential stress or the force between the layers of fluid divided by the surface area between them. Submergence as used here is the height between the free surface of a suction tank and the pump intake pipe. The difference in elevation between the liquid level of the fluid source and the centerline of the pump. This head also includes any additional pressure head that may be present at the suction tank fluid surface (see chapter 3). The same definition as the Suction Static head. This term is only used when the pump centerline is above the suction tank fluid surface. A system of piping or tubing where the exit point is lower than the entry point and where some part of the piping is above the free surface of the fluid source (see chapter 1). The system as referred to in this book includes all the piping with or without a pump, including the equipment, starting at the inlet point (often the fluid surface of the suction tank) and ending at the outlet point (often the fluid surface of the discharge tank). A plot of Total Head vs. flow that satisfies the system requirements (see chapter 4). The equation for Total Head vs. flow for a specific system (syn system curve). The parameters that determine Total Head, that is: friction and the system inlet and outlet conditions (i.e. velocity, elevation and pressure). The property of a fluid whose viscosity decreases with time (see Appendix A). Identical to Total Head. This term is no longer used and has been replaced by the shorter Total Head. The difference between the pressure head at the discharge and suction flange of the pump (see chapter 2, syn Total Dynamic Head. pump head, system head). The difference between the discharge and suction static head including the difference between the surface pressure of the discharge and suction tanks (see chapter 3). The behavior of fluid articles within a flow stream characterized by the rapid movement of particles in many directions as well as the general direction of the overall fluid flow (see chapter 3).
Submergence
Suction Static Head
Suction Static Lift
Siphon
System
System Curve
System equation
System requirements Thixotropic
Total Dynamic Head
Total Head
Total Static Head
Turbulent
G6
GLOSSARY
Vacuum Vapour pressure
(see chapter 1, syn negative pressure). The pressure at which a liquid boils at a specified temperature (see chapter 3). The difference in velocity head between the outlet and inlet of the system (see chapter 3). A property from which a fluid's resistance to movement can be evaluated. The resistance is caused by friction between the fluid and the boundary wall and internally by the fluid layers moving at different velocities (see chapter 3 and Appendix A). See Figure 1-12, syn casing. The energy required to drive the fluid through the system (see chapter 2). (see Appendix A).
Velocity Head difference Viscosity
Volute Work Yield Dilatant
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. 2. 3.
Hydraulic Institute Engineering Data Book & Standards Book, Cleveland, Ohio, 1979. Goulds Pump Manual, Seneca Falls, New York, 1972. The Chemical Engineering Guide to Pumps, Ed. by K. McNaughton, McGraw-Hill Publications Co., New York, 1984. Durco Pump Engineering Manual, The Duriron Co., 1960. Principles of Unit Operations, A. Foust, L.A. Wenzel, C.W. Clump, L. Maus, L.B. Anderson, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1960. The Piping Handbook, edit. Reno C. King, 5th Edition, McGraw Hill, New York, NY 1973. Slurry Transport Using Centrifugal Pumps, K.C. Wilson, G.R. Addie, R. Clift, Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd., Crown House, Linton Road, Barking, Essex lG11 8JU, England. Cameron Hydraulic Data, Ed. by C.R. Westaway & A.W. Loomis, 16th edition, Ingersoll-Rand, Woodcliff, New Jersey, NJ 07675. Some Pipe Characteristics of Engineering Interest, L.F. Moody, Houille Blanche, June 1950. Turbulent Flow in Pipes with Particular Reference to the Transition Region between the Smooth and Rough Pipe Laws, C.F. Colebrook, J. Inst. Civil Engrs. ,(London), February 1959. Fluid Mechanics with Engineering Applications, R.L. Daugherty & J.B. Franzini, 7th edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY. Esso Product Information, Lubricants and Specialties, 1990. Van Nostrand Reinhold Encyclopedia of Chemistry, ed. D.M. Considine, 4th edition. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1984, New York. Chemical Engineering, William B. Hooper, August 1981. Centrifugal and Axial Flow pumps, A.J. Stepanoff, 2nd edition, John Wiley Sons, New York, 1957. The Pump Handbook, Igor J. Karassik, William C. Krutzsch, Warren H. Fraser and Joseph P. Messina, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York 1986
4. 5.
6. 7.
8.
9. 10.
11.
12. 13.
14. 15.
16.
APPENDIX A
USEFUL EQUATIONS (METRIC AND IMPERIAL SYSTEMS) THE DEFINITION OF VISCOSITY RHEOLOGICAL (VISCOUS BEHAVIOR) PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
A2
APPENDIX A
APPENDIX A
USEFUL EQUATIONS FPS Units Flow vs. velocity Specific gravity vs. fluid density Kinematic viscosity vs. dynamic (absolute) viscosity Kinematic viscosity vs. dynamic (absolute) viscosity Kinematic viscosity: SSU vs. cSt Pressure vs. pressure head or fluid column height Reynolds number Pipe friction loss SI Units
v ( ft / s ) = 0 .4085 SG =
q (USgal . / min) D 2 (in ) 2
v ( m / s ) = 21 .22 SG =
q ( L / min) 2 ( D ( mm ))
F W
3
F W
3
where W = 62.34 lbm/ft for water at 60 F
(cSt ) = 62.45
(cP)
where W = 997.8 kg/m for water at 15.55 C
lbm 3 ft
(cSt ) = 10 3
(cP)
kg 3 m
( SSU ) = 4.63
(cP)
SG
3
(cSt ) = 10022 .
(cP )
3
SG
where W = 62.34 lbm/ft for water at 60 F
( SSU ) = (cSt ) 4.635 for (cSt ) > 50

H f (ft fluid)=2.31 p(psi) SG
3
where W = 997.8 kg/m for water at 15.55 C
H f (m fluid ) = 0.102
3
based on W = 62.34 lbm/ft for water at 60 F
p(kPa) SG
based on W = 997.8 kg/m for water at 15.55 C
Re = 77458 .
v ( ft / s) D(in) (cSt )
2
Re = 1000
v (m / s) D(mm) (cSt )
FPS units
(v(ft/s)) HFP ft fluid =1200 f L 100ft of pipe D (in) 2g (ft/s2)

The Darcy-Weisback equation g=32.17 ft/s
2
Pipe friction loss
2 H FP m fluid (v(m / s)) 5 = 10 f L 100 mof pipe D (mm) 2g (m / s2)
SI
units
The Darcy-Weisback equation g= 9.81 m/s
2
Fittings friction loss
Friction parameter for the laminar flow regime Friction parameter for the turbulent flow regime
(ft / s ) H FF (ft fluid ) = K v 2 g (ft / s 2) 64 f = Re

f and Re are non-dimensional units.
(m / s ) H FF (m fluid ) = K v 2 g (m / s 2)
1 2.51 = 2 log 10 3.7 D + R f f e

The Colebrook equation
APPENDIX A
A3
FPS Units Friction parameter for the turbulent flow regime
SI Units
f =
0 .25 5.74 log 10 + R e 0 .9 3.7 D

2
The Swamee & Jain equation. Can be used as a replacement for the Colebrook equation.
Total Head
HP = HF12 + HEQ12 +
1 2 2 (v2 v1 ) + z2 + H2 (z1 + H1) 2g

2
see Figure A-1, the units are in feet or meters of fluid
N.P.S.H. available
N.P.S.H.avail. = (HF1 S + HEQ1S ) + v 1 + (z1 z S + H1 ) + HB Hva 2g

see Figure A-1, the units are in feet or meters of fluid
Pump shaft brake power
P(hp)=
SGH P(ft fluid) q(USgal/ min) 3960
P(kW )=
SG HP (m fluid ) q(L/min) 6128
Mass flow rate of a slurry or mixture of solid particles in a liquid medium Concentration ratio by weight of a slurry Specific gravity of slurry
SLURRY CALCULATIONS USgals. M t =0.06 q L CV SGS M tn =0.25 q CV SGS h min h min tn: tonnes or 2000 pound mass t: metric tonne or 1000 kg
()
()
( )
CW =
CV SGS SGM SGM = SG L + CV (SGS SGL )
SGL is the specific gravity of the transport liquid, for water SGL = 1.0. PULP SLURRY Mass flow rate of a pulp suspension
tn USgals. M day = 0.06 q min %CV

For pulp slurries, SGM = 1
t L M day = 0.0144 q min %CV
Table A-1 Useful Equations
Figure A-1 Typical pump system.
A4
APPENDIX A
THE DEFINITION OF VISCOSITY Isaac Newton investigated the fluid property called viscosity. He set up an experiment designed to measure viscosity. The experiment consisted in the interaction of two plates separated by a short distance, one fixed and one moving with fluid between. He theorized that it required a force (F) to move the top plate at a given velocity, v. If the top plate was moving at velocity v, he deduced that the fluid layer just underneath the plate must be moving at the same velocity or else the plate would be skipping over the fluid surface. In addition, force (F) can only be produced if the top layer of fluid is attached to the top plate and the bottom layer to the bottom plate. Since the bottom plate is not moving, the bottom fluid layer is also not moving, or has zero velocity. Therefore, the fluid layers between the moving surface and the fixed one have different velocities. Each layer of fluid is traveling at a different speed. It is this speed variation (or velocity gradient (dv/dy), see Figure A-2) that is the cause of viscosity and is responsible for shearing the fluid internally. Newton's assumption was that the velocity gradient is independent of viscosity. In other words, a force twice as large would be required to move the fluid twice as fast, meaning there must be a constant relationship between the force (F) required to move the fluid and the rate of shear. Alternatively, in mathematical form, the force (F) is proportional to the velocity gradient (dv/dy) :
F=K
dv K dv 1 dv 1 dv or = = = A dy dy A dy dy K
[A-1]
The constant (A/K) is called the viscosity of the fluid and is represented by the Greek letter (mu). The value of will determine the magnitude of the shearing force (F). Fluids with higher viscosities will require a greater shearing force for the same velocity differential. Since the experiment should be valid for fluid bodies of any size, the tangential stress ( = F/A) is a more appropriate parameter to relate to viscosity.
Figure A-2 Viscosity vs. the velocity gradient and the tangential stress.
APPENDIX A
A5
The term is known as the absolute viscosity of the fluid (see equation [A-1]). The velocity gradient dv/dy is known as the rate of shear. Newton could not test his hypothesis because of experimental difficulties. Many years later, Poiseuille (1849) developed an experimental method that consisted in measuring the flow of liquid in a small tube and relating the pressure driving the fluid through the end of the tube to the flow and viscosity. Poiseuille's experimental apparatus verified the correctness of Newton's hypothesis. Newton's viscosity equation describes a class of fluids that came to be known as Newtonian fluids. Many fluids behave in this fashion (see Table A-2). The unit of absolute viscosity is the Poise (or centiPoise), in honor of Poiseuille. One (1) centiPoise (the unit symbol is cP) is the viscosity of water at 68 0F, making it easy to compare the viscosity of various fluids to that of water. Many fluids do not behave in the well-ordered fashion of Newtonian fluids. These are known as non-Newtonian fluids and fall in several categories (see Table A-2) depending on what shape the tangential stress vs. velocity gradient takes. For these fluids, the viscosity is variable. In the literature, a variable viscosity is often referred to as apparent viscosity. The velocity gradient affects the viscosity, resulting in a much higher (or in some cases lower) tangential stress than for a Newtonian fluid. A typical household product will help illustrate this point. Try the following experiment. In a large shallow bowl make a solution of approximately 1 part water and 2 parts cornstarch, try moving this fluid rapidly around with your fingers. When the fingers are moved slowly, the solution behaves as expected, offering little resistance. The faster you try to move through the fluid, the higher the resistance. At that rate of shear, the solution almost behaves as a solid, If you move your fingers fast enough they will skip over the surface. This is what is meant by viscosity being dependent on rate of shear. Compare this behavior to that of molasses; you will find that even though molasses is viscous its viscosity changes very little with the shear rate. Molasses flows readily no matter how fast the movement. This explains why centrifugal pumps with their high rate of shear are not suitable for nonNewtonian fluids. A pump of the fixed displacement type, operating at low speed, is more appropriate.
A6
APPENDIX A
Kinematic viscosity A term frequently used to represent viscosity (for example in the definition of the Reynolds number) is the kinematic viscosity (nu). The relationship between the absolute and kinematic viscosity is:
The kinematic viscosity of water at 68 0F is 1 centiStoke (cSt), and was named in honor of G.G. Stokes of the Navier-Stokes equation fame.
NEWTONIAN Newtonian
Non Newtonian
Bingham plastic Yield pseudoplastic Yield dilatant
NON NEWTONIAN Pseudoplastic
Dilatant
Thixotropic Rheopectic
Viscosity increases slowly with the rate of shear.
Viscosity increases with the rate of shear.
Thix.: viscosity decrease with time. Rheop.: viscosity increase with time.
- water - high viscosity fuel - some motor oils - most mineral oils - gasoline - kerosene - most salt solutions in water - light suspensions of dye stuff - kaolin (clay slurry)
oils containing polymeric thickeners, viscosity index improvers and waxy or soot particles
- thermoplastic polymer solutions - sewage sludges - digested sewage - clay - mud - ketchup - chewing gum - tar - high concentrations of asbestine in oil
- GRS latex solutions - sewage sludges - grease - molasses - paint - starch - soap - most emulsions - printers ink - paper pulp
- starch in water - beach sand - quicksand - feldspar - mica - clay - candy compounds - peanut butter
- most paints (thixo.) - silica gel - greases - inks - milk - mayonnaise - carboxymethyl cellulose - bentonite (rheop.) - gypsum in water - asphalt - glues - molasses - starch - lard - fruit juice concentrates
Table A-2 Rheological properties of fluids (see references 2, 6, 12 and 13)
APPENDIX B
THE NEWTON-RAPHSON ITERATION TECHNIQUE APPLIED TO THE COLEBROOK EQUATION
B2
APPENDIX B
APPENDIX B THE NEWTON-RAPHSON ITERATION TECHNIQUE Since the value for f in the Colebrook equation cannot be explicitly extracted from the equation, a numerical method is required to find the solution. Like all numerical methods, we first assume a value for f, and then, in successive calculations, bring the original assumption closer to the true value. Depending on the technique used, this can be a long or slow process. The Newton-Raphson method has the advantage of converging very rapidly to a precise solution. Normally only two or three iterations are required. The Colebrook equation is:
2.51 1 = 2 log 10 3.7 D + R f f e

The technique can be summarized as follows: 1. Re-write the Colebrook equation as:
F=
2.51 1 + 2 log 10 3.7 D + R f f e
=0
2. Take the derivative of the function F with respect to f:
dF 1 2 2.51 = f 3 / 2 1 + df 2 2.51 log e 10 + 3.7 D Re f
Re
3. Give a trial value to f. The function F will have a residue (a non-zero value). This residue (RES) will tend towards zero very rapidly if we use the derivative of F in the calculation of the residue.
f n = f n 1 RES with RES =
F dF df
For n = 0 assume a value for f0, calculate RES and then f1, repeat the process until RES is sufficiently small (for example RES < 1 x l0-6 ).
APPENDIX C
THE DETERMINATION OF SLURRY DENSITY BASED ON THE VOLUME AND WEIGHT CONCENTRATION OF THE SOLID PARTICLES
C2
APPENDIX C
APPENDIX C THE DETERMINATION OF SLURRY DENSITY BASED ON THE VOLUME AND WEIGHT CONCENTRATION OF THE SOLID PARTICLES This section explains how the specific gravity of a slurry (SGM) is related to the solid's particle weight and volume concentration.
Definitions:
Figure C-1 Variables related to the calculation of the specific gravity of a slurry.
VM is the volume the slurry mixture. mM is the mass of the slurry mixture. VL is the volume of the liquid portion of the mixture. mL is the mass of the liquid portion of the mixture. VS is the volume of the solid portion of the mixture. mS is the mass of the solid portion of the mixture. CV is the volume concentration of the solid particles in the mixture. CW is the mass concentration of the solid particles in the mixture. SGS is the specific gravity of the solids portion of the mixture. SGL is the specific gravity of the liquid portion of the mixture. SGM is the specific gravity of the mixture. W is the density of water at standard conditions.
The total mass of the solid particles (mS) is:
m S = S VS
The density of the solid particles S can be expressed as:
[C-1]
= SGS
S
[C-2]
APPENDIX C
C3
The volume concentration of the solid particles is expressed by:
V S = CV VM
[C-3]
By replacing equations [C-2] and [C-3] into equation [C-1] we obtain the total mass of the solid particles mS :
m S = SGS W CV VM
Using a similar reasoning, the total mass of the liquid particles mL is:
[C-4]
mL = SGL W (1 CV ) VM
Therefore, the total mass of the mixture mM is:
[C-5]
m M = mS + mL = SGS W CV VM + SGL W (1CV ) VM
[C-6]
After simplification equation [C-6] becomes:
m M = W VM ( SGS CV +(1CV ) SGL)

By definition, the specific gravity of the mixture is:
[C-7]
SGM =
mS + mL VM (SGS CV + (1CV ) SGL) = m = = VM VM W VM

M M W W W W
[C-8]
After simplification equation [C-8] becomes:
SGM = SGL + CV (SGS SGL )
[C-9]
The specific gravity of the mixture SGM was expressed in equation [C-8] as:
SGM =
From equation [C-4] we know that:
mS + mL VM W
[C-10]
VM =
W
mS SGS CV
[C-11]
By substituting equation [C-11] into [C-10] we obtain:
C4
APPENDIX C
SGM =
mS + mL mS +mL = SGS CV mS mS SGS CV
[C-12]
By definition:
CW =
Therefore
mS mS + mL
[C-13]
SGM = SGS CV CW
Typically the concentration by volume (CV), the concentration by weight (CW) and the specific gravity (SGS) of the solid particles will be given or known for a particular slurry. This is enough information to calculate the specific gravity of the slurry (SGM) using equation [C-14]. The specific gravity of the carrier fluid can be calculated from equation [C-9] if required.
[C-14]
Often the purpose of the slurry mixture is to transport solid particles in a fluid form to a discharge point further away. In that case, we are mainly interested in the amount of tons per hour of solids that are transported. The mass flow rate is given by:
M = S CV q = SGS W CV q
3 ft tn = SGS 62.34 lbm CV q USgals. 60 min tn M min 3 7.48USgals. 2000 lbm h h ft
()
After simplification, the mass flow rate is:
M tn = 0.25 SGS CV h
()
USgals. q min
[C-15]
APPENDIX D
THE USE OF IMPERIAL SYSTEM (FPS) UNITS
D2
APPENDIX D
APPENDIX D THE USE OF IMPERIAL SYSTEM (FPS) UNITS A great deal of confusion arises with the use of English units or the FPS (foot/pound/second) system. The system is intended to be user friendly and in many ways it is. For example, 1 pound mass will produce 1 pound force in Earths gravitational field. Also 1 inch is about the size of the thumb from the last joint to the tip of the nail. Also a foot is about the size of an average mans foot, etc. The price to pay for this simplicity is that a conversion constant must be used to make the units consistent. A case in point is Newtons second law, which expresses the relationship between force and acceleration. Newtons second law of motion is:
F = ma
where F is a force, m the mass of the object, and a the acceleration of the object. The weight of an object, or the force produced by an object with respect to the surface of another object (the surface of a scale for example) under the Earths constant gravitational field is proportional to its mass times the gravitational acceleration.
[D-1]
a = g therefore F = mg
g has a value of 32.17 ft/s2 on average. To have 1 pound mass produce 1 pound force, the constant gc must be used:
g c =32.17
lbm ft lbf s 2
We introduce the constant gc into Newtons second law to provide the units of the Imperial system:
F(lbf )=m(lbm)
g(ft / s 2) lbm ft g c lbf s 2
[D-2]
Some of the units on the right hand side of equation [D-2] cancel out and the resultant combined unit is the pound-force (lbf-ft) a unit of energy. On the surface of the Earth 1 pound mass produces 1 pound force. On the surface of the moon, where the acceleration of the gravitational field is 1/6 that of the Earths, 1 pound mass will produce 1/6 pound force.
APPENDIX D
D3
32.17 ( ft / s 2 ) 6 F(lbf)=m(lbm) =1m lbm ft 6 32.17 lbf s 2

The metric system or SI system is designed to be consistent with Newtons second law without the use of any conversion constant. In the metric system, one kilogram of mass on the Earths surface produces 9.8 Newtons of force. The acceleration g produced by Earths gravitational field is 9.8 m/s2.
F = mg
kg m F ( N ) = m ( kg ) 9 . 8 m = 9 . 8 2 s2 s
therefore 1 kilogram (kg) of mass produces 9.8 Newtons (N). A Newton by definition equals 1 kg-m/s2.
Kinetic energy in FPS units
( )
Kinetic energy is proportional to mass, times velocity squared:
KE =
1 2 mv 2
[D-3]
A typical energy unit in the FPS system is the lbf-ft. To obtain lbf-ft in the above equation we use the constant gc. The value of gc is 32.17 lbm-ft/lbf-s2.
KE (lbf ft ) =
1 m(lbm)v 2 ( ft / s) 2 2 lbm ft gc lbf s 2
[D-4]
Some of the units on the right hand side of equation [D-4] cancel out and the resultant combined unit is the pound-force (lbf-ft) a unit of energy.
Potential energy in FPS units
Potential energy is equal to the weight of the object (mg) times its elevation (z) above as reference plane.
PE = m g z
Again the typical energy unit in the FPS system is the lbf-ft. To obtain lbf-ft in the above equation we use the constant gc.
[D-5]
D4
APPENDIX D
m(lbm) g(ft / s 2) z(ft) lbm ft g c 2 lbf s Some of the units on the right hand side of equation [D-6] cancel out and the resultant combined unit is the pound-force (lbf-ft) a unit of energy. PE(lbf ft) =
The conversion of head to pressure in the FPS system
[D-6]
Pressure is equal to head, times the specific weight or head, times the density times the acceleration due to gravity.
p = H = g H
[D-7]
where p (lbf/ft2) is pressure, (lbf/ft3) is the density, H(ft) is head and g is the acceleration due to gravity. To obtain lbf/ft2 in the above equation we use the constant gc.
p(lbf / ft ) =
(lbm / ft ) g(ft / s 2) H(ft)

lbm ft g c 2 lbf s
[D-8]
Some of the units on the right hand side of equation [D-8] cancel out and the resultant combined unit is the pound per square foot (lbf/ft2) a unit of pressure.
APPENDIX E
POWER FACTORS AND EFFICIENCY VALUES FOR ABB ELECTRIC MOTORS
E2
APPENDIX E
APPENDIX E
E3

Pump System Analysis and Centrifugal Pump Sizing

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Pump System Analysis and Centrifugal Pump Sizing

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by J.

PUMP SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND SIZING

BY JACQUES CHAURETTE p. eng.

C (degrees Celsius) kJ m3/s kJ m3 m/s kJ m

Imperial system (FPS units)

Metric system (SI units)

ft SSU (Saybolt Universal Second) non-dimensional lbm/ft lbf/ft3

cP (centiPoise) kg/m3 N/m3

AN INTRODUCTION TO PUMP SYSTEMS

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPONENTS OF TOTAL HEAD

The weight of a fluid column of height (z) is:

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPONENTS OF TOTAL HEAD

POTENTIAL SPECIFIC ENERGY

Potential specific energy = z

KINETIC SPECIFIC ENERGY

PRESSURE SPECIFIC ENERGY

Figure 1-4 Kinetic specific energy provided by moving fluid particles.

Pressure specific energy =

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPONENTS OF TOTAL HEAD

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ELEVATION, PRESSURE AND VELOCITY IN A FLUID

Relationship between pressure, elevation and velocity

Figure 1-6 The relationship between pressure, elevation and velocity.

Figure 1-8 Pressure variation due to elevation in a real system.

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPONENTS OF TOTAL HEAD

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPONENTS OF TOTAL HEAD

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPONENTS OF TOTAL HEAD

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPONENTS OF TOTAL HEAD

Where does a system begin and end?

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPONENTS OF TOTAL HEAD

Figure 1-13 The difference in pressure due to fluid friction.

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPONENTS OF TOTAL HEAD Equipment

Figure 1-14 The effect of equipment in a system.

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPONENTS OF TOTAL HEAD

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPONENTS OF TOTAL HEAD

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPONENTS OF TOTAL HEAD

Figure 1-20 Creating negative pressure.

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPONENTS OF TOTAL HEAD

Figure 1-21a Water suspended from an open tube 34 feet high.

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPONENTS OF TOTAL HEAD

Figure 1-22 Absolute vs. relative pressure scales.

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPONENTS OF TOTAL HEAD

p ( psia ) = p ( psig ) + p A ( psia )

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPONENTS OF TOTAL HEAD

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPONENTS OF TOTAL HEAD Experiment No.1

Figure 1-25 Balance of forces between points 0 and A.

The balance of forces is:

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPONENTS OF TOTAL HEAD

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPONENTS OF TOTAL HEAD

Figure 1-27 Lifting fluid with a source of vacuum.

Figure 1-29 The pressure variation within a simple siphon system.

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPONENTS OF TOTAL HEAD

lbf 1(ft) = 1 2 2 144(in ) 2.31 in ft

Figure 1-30 Pressure vs. elevation in a fluid column.

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE COMPONENTS OF TOTAL HEAD

THE APPLICATION OF THERMODYNAMICS TO PUMP SYSTEMS

The formula for kinetic energy is:

Another form of energy is potential energy:

Figure 2-1 Transformation of potential energy to kinetic energy.

THE APPLICATION OF THERMODYNAMICS TO PUMP SYSTEMS

THE APPLICATION OF THERMODYNAMICS TO PUMP SYSTEMS Internal Energy

THE APPLICATION OF THERMODYNAMICS TO PUMP SYSTEMS

In this situation, the energy balance is:

THE APPLICATION OF THERMODYNAMICS TO PUMP SYSTEMS

The energy balance is: