All About Gemstones: Diamonds

The story of diamonds is, to use the metaphor, a tale of fire and "ice." Forged through immense heat and pressure over millions, or hundreds of millions of years, diamonds start their humble existence as simple, elemental carbon; the basic building block of all life in earth. We attempt to demystify these enigmatic little stones, by explaining their scientific reason for being, as well as were they are mined, how they are mined, and the history of the diamond trade, or 'diamond pipeline.' Diamonds are both elemental, and complex. As such, there is a lot of technical jargon associated with them. Shopping for a diamond can be very confusing to the newbie, but we have endeavored to make it as simple and interesting as humanly possible. You shouldn't need extraordinary brilliance to understand scintillation or refraction. Enjoy!

All About Diamonds

Diamond Basics The "4 Cs" of Diamonds - Cut The "4 C's" of Diamonds - Carat The "Four C's" of Diamonds - Clarity The "Four Cs" of Diamonds - Color Diamond Chemistry Optical Properties of Diamond Fancy Colored Diamonds Diamond Inclusion Library Diamond Enhancements Synthetics & Simulants Synthetic Diamonds Cubic Zirconia Moissanite Diamond Cuts Diamond Cutting Ideal Cut Modern Round Brilliant Patented Signature Diamond Cuts Old European Diamond Cuts Uncut Raw Diamonds in Jewelry The Diamond Market The Diamond Pipeline Diamond Bourses The Diamond Trade's Key Players Diamond Pricing - Price Comparison Charts Diamond Certification

AGS Diamond Grading Report Independent Diamond Testing Laboratories Diamond Mining & Mine Technology Diamond Mining Technology Diamond Geology & Kimberlites Full List of Worldwide Diamond Mines Artisanal Diamond Mining & Conflict Diamonds Worldwide Diamond Mining Regions Australian Diamond Mines Borneo's Landak Diamond Mines Botswana Diamond Mines Brazilian Diamond Mines Canadian Diamond Mines India's Golconda Diamond Mines Namibia Russian Diamond Mines South African Diamond Mines US Diamond Mines Conflict Diamonds Angola Diamond Mines Congo (DRC) Diamond Mines Liberia Diamond Mines Sierra Leone Diamond Mines Zimbabwe's Chiadzwa Marange Diamond Fields Diamond History & Cutting Regions Historical Diamond Cuts & Cutting History Historical Diamond Cutting Regions Diamond Cutting in Amsterdam Diamond Cutting in Antwerp Diamond Cutting in Belgium Diamond Cutting in Guangzhou, China Diamond Cutting in Gujarat, India Diamond Cutting in Idar-Oberstein, Germany Diamond Terminology Glossary - Gemology

The 4 Cs of Diamonds: Cut

The 4 C's Diamond Grading System

1. 2. 3. 4. Cut Carat Clarity Color

More than 100 million diamonds are sold in the United States each year, yet most consumers know very little about the product they are purchasing, and how that product is valued. The '4 Cs' represent the four main variables that are used to calculate the quality and value of a diamond. Both rough and cut diamonds are separated and graded based on these four characteristics. As a consumer, your first step in shopping for a diamond should be to learn and understand the '4 Cs' diamond grading system. If you are purchasing an expensive stone it will also be critical for you to learn how to read and understand the details of a GIA (Gemological Institute of America) 'Diamond Dossier,' AGL report, or AGS (American Gem Society) 'Diamond Certificate,' or Sarin 'Diamond Grading Report' (see full list of independent testing laboratories, below). You will also want to familiarize yourself with the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) guidelines on jeweler conduct and consumer awareness. This knowledge will help be invaluable when you are comparison shopping for diamonds.

DIAMOND CUT
Diamond Cut Quality When jewelers judge the quality of a diamond cut, or "make", they often rate "Cut" as the most important of the "4 Cs." The way a diamond is cut is primarily dependent upon the original shape of the rough stone, location of the inclusions and flaws to be eliminated, the preservation of the weight, and the popularity of certain shapes. Don't confuse a diamond's "cut" with it's "shape". Shape refers only to the outward appearance of the diamond (Fig. 5 below), and not how it is faceted. The Importance of Cut Quality When a diamond has a high quality cut (ideal cut), incident light will enter the stone through the table and crown, traveling toward the pavilion where it reflects from one side to the other before bouncing back out of the diamond's table toward the observer's eye (see Fig. 1 below). This phenomenon is referred to as "light return" (Fig. 2 below) which affects a diamond's brightness, brilliance, and dispersion. Any light-leakage caused by poor symmetry and/or cut proportions (off-make) will adversely affect the quality of light return. The "Shallow Cut" and "Deep Cut" examples in Fig. 1 show how light that enters through the table of a Modern Round Brilliant diamond reaches the pavilion facets and then leaks out from the sides or bottom of the diamond rather than reflecting back to the eye through the table. Less light reflected back to the eye means less "Brilliance". In the "Ideal Cut" example, most of the light entering through the table is reflected back towards the observer from the pavilion facets.
Fig. 1

Keep in mind that the variance in proportions between an "Ideal Cut" (ideal make) and a "Fair, Poor, Shallow or Deep Cut" may be difficult to discern to the novice observer, although there will be a lack of brilliance, scintillation, and fire. Cut quality is divided into several grades listed below.
Ideal Cut Premium Cut Very Good / Fine Cut

Good Cut Fair Cut Poor Cut

Cut Proportions In the past, the "Cut" quality of the "4 Cs" was the most difficult part for a consumer to understand when selecting a good diamond because a GIA or AGS certificate did not show the important measurements influencing cut (i.e. pavilion and crown angle) and did not provide a subjective ranking of how good the cut was. Only a trained eye could see the quality of a good cut. All of that has changed with the AGS Cut Grading system and GIA's new "Cut Grading System".
Fig. 2

The proportion and symmetry of the cuts as well as the quality of the polish are factors in determining the overall quality of the cut. A poorly cut diamond with facets cut just a few degrees from the optimal ratio will result in a stone that lacks gemmy quality because the "brilliance" and "fire" of a diamond largely depends on the angle of the facets in relation to each other. An Ideal Cut or Premium Cut "Round Brilliant" diamond has the following basic proportions according to the AGS:
Table Size: 53% to 60% of the diameter Depth: 58% to 63% of diameter Crown Angle: 34 to 35 degrees Girdle Thickness: medium to slightly thick Facets: 58 (57 if the culet is excluded) Polish & Symmetry: very good to excellent

The girdle on a Modern Round Brilliant can have 32, 64, 80, or 96 facets which are not counted in the total number of facets (58). The crown will have 33 facets, and the pavillion will have 25 facets. Other variations of the "Modern Round Brilliant" include the "Ideal Brilliant" which was invented by Johnson and Roesch in 1929, the "Parker Brilliant" invented in 1951, and the "Eulitz Brilliant" invented in 1972. Poor Diamond Faceting and Symmetry Due to the mathmatics involved in light refraction, a Round Brilliant cut that does not have the proper proportions and symmetry (off-make) will have noticeably less brilliance. Common cutting problems can occur during the faceting process, when one incorrect facet angle can throw off the symmetry of the entire stone. This can also result in the undesirable creation of extra facets beyond the required 58. The chart below shows several common problems to look for.
Fig. 3

For a Modern Round Brilliant cut (Tolkowsky Brilliant), there is a balance between "brilliance" and "fire". A diamond cut for too much fire will look like cubic zirconia, which gives out much more fire than a real diamond. A well executed round brilliant cut should reflect the maximum amount light from the interior pavilion facets, out through the table, making the diamond appear white when viewed from the top. A cut with inferior proportions will produce a stone that appears dark at the center (due to light leaking out of the pavilion) and in some extreme cases the ring settings may show through the top of the diamond as shadows.

GIA vs AGS Cut Grading

GIA's new cut-grading system is based on averages that are rounded-up to predict 'light performance,' while AGS uses a more exacting combination of proportional facet ratios along with raytracing metrics to calculate light return. The "Ideal" designation is an AGS term that is not found on an GIA report. The GIA will give a symmetry demerit for what it calls "non-standard brillianteering" which some manufacturers use to 'improve' on the standardized Tolkowsky-type cuts.

AGS Triple-0 Certification

The American Gem Society (AGS) is the industry leader in laboratory testing of round gems for cut grade and quality. In order for a diamond to receive a "Triple-0" grading, all three categories of cut (Polish, Symetry, Proportion) must meet the "ideal" criteria. A Triple-0 diamond can also be called a "Triple Ideal Cut" or "AGS-Ideal Zero" diamond.

Hearts and Arrows Diamonds

A perfectly proportioned ideal cut that is cut to the exacting specifications of a Tolkowsky Cut, Eppler Cut (European Standard), or a Scan D. N. Cut (Scandinavian Standard) will display a "Hearts and Arrows" pattern when observed through a IdealScope (arrows only), or a H & A Viewer gemscope (FireScope).
Fig. 4

Perfectly formed Hearts and Arrows patterns with eight hearts AND eight arrows (above, left) are only found in diamonds that meet the American Gem Society Laboratories' "0" Ideal Cut specifications. The IdealScope was invented by Kazumi Okuda in the 1970's, and its later incarnation, the "FireScope," was invented by Ken Shigetomi and Kazumi Okuda in 1984. The first official H & A "EightStar" diamond was cut in 1985 by Kioyishi Higuchi for Japanese businessman and FireScope manufacturer, Takanori Tamura.

Fancy Diamond Cuts

The shape of the cut is a matter of personal taste and preference. However, the quality of the cutter's execution of that shape is of primary importance. The shape of the diamond cut is heavily dependent upon the original shape of the rough stone. The round brilliant cut is preferred when the crystal is an octahedron, as two stones could be cut from one crystal. Asymmetrical raw crystals such as macles are usually cut in a "Fancy" style. Several basic diamond shapes (Fig. 5) are listed below.
Emerald

Heart Marquise Oval Pear Princess Radiant Round Trillion (not shown at diagram)
Fig. 5

Popular fancy cuts include the "Baguette" (bread loaf), "Marquise" or "Navette" (little boat), "Princess" (square outline), "Heart," "Briolette" (a form of Rose cut), and the Pear. The "fancy cuts" are generally not held to the same strict standards as Round Brilliants.

The 4 C's of Diamonds: Carat (Weight)

The 4 C's Diamond Grading System

1. Cut 2. Carat 3. Clarity 4. Color Carat weight is one of the 4 C's, representing the four variables that are used to calculate the quality and value of a diamond. Both rough and cut diamonds are separated and graded based on these four characteristics. As a consumer, your first step in shopping for a diamond should be to learn and understand the "4 C's" diamond grading system.

CARAT
Balancing Cut and Weight A diamond or gemstone's "Carat" designation is a measurement of both the size and weight of the stone. One "Carat" is a unit of mass that is equal to 0.2 grams (200 milligrams or 3.086 grains) or 0.007 ounce. A carat can also be divided into "points" with one carat being equal to 100 points, and with each point being 2 milligrams in weight. Therefor, a 1/2 carat diamond would be 50 points, a 3/4 carat diamond is 75 points, and a 2 carat diamond is 200 points. When a single piece of jewelry has multiple stones, the total mass of all diamonds or gemstones is referred to as "Total Carat Weight" or "T.C.W."

The word "Carat" is derived from the Greek word keration, or "seed of the carob". In ancient times, carob seeds were used to counterbalance scales, and as a benchmark weight due to their predictably uniform weight.

Note: Your screen resolution may alter the reproduction size of the chart above. This carat/millimeter sizing chart is meant for comparison purposes only.

Occasionally, a stone cutter will need to make compromises by accepting imperfect proportions and/or symmetry in order to avoid noticeable inclusions, or to preserve the carat rating of the rough stone. Since the per-carat price of diamond is much higher when the stone is over one carat, many one carat diamonds are the result of compromising cut quality to increase carat weight. It is for this reason that an even 1.00 carat diamond may be a poorly cut stone. Some jewelry experts advise consumers to purchase a .99 carat diamond for its better price, or to buy a 1.10 carat diamond for its better cut. See the chart above for a millimeter to carat size comparison. A Diamond's Spread Think of the "spread" as the apparent size of a diamond. By sacrificing cut proportions and symmetry, a diamond can have a larger diameter and therefor, a larger apparent "size" for a given carat weight. The spread is the ratio between diameter and three principle geometric components of the crown, girdle and pavilion. A given diamond will have a 'zero spread penalty' if the correct 'ideal cut' symmetry of a 32.5 crown, 40 pavilion, 58% table and 1% girdle are maintained. FTC Guidelines on Diamond Weight According to the Federal Trade Commission's (FTC's) Jewelry Guides on Decimal Representations, "If the diamond's weight is described in decimal parts of a carat, the figure should be accurate to the last decimal place." If the carat weight is shown as ".20 carat" could represent a diamond that weighs between .195 and .204 carat. If the carat weight is shown as one decimal place, it must be accurate to the second decimal place. A diamond that has a specified carat weight of .5 carats must have an actual weight of between .495 carats and .504 carats. Price Per Carat (2005) - Grade: F Colorless - VS1 Carat Size</ 0.5 carat 1.0 carat 1.5 carat 2.0 carat 3,600 6,600 8,500 15,000 Cost Per Carat (USD)</ 1,800 6,600 12,750 30,000 Total Cost (USD)</

Rapaport Diamond Report Diamond prices do not increase in a steady line, as each jump past a even carat weight can mean a significant jump in pricing. The "Rapaport Diamond Report" is a weekly diamond price list based on cut, clarity and weight, that is published by the Rapaport Group of New York.

The Four C's of Diamonds: Clarity

The Four C's Diamond Grading System

1. Cut 2. Carat 3. Clarity 4. Color Clarity is one of the Four C's, representing the four variables that are used to calculate the quality and value of a diamond. The term "Clarity" refers to the presence or absence of tiny imperfections (inclusions) within the stone, and/or on the surface of the stone. As a consumer, it is important to learn and understand the clarity designations found within the "Four C's" diamond grading system.

CLARITY
All of the grades of diamond clarity shown in the table below, reflect the appearance of inclusions within the stone when viewed from above at 10x magnification Higher magnifications and viewing from other angles are also used during the grading process. In "colorless" diamonds, darker inclusions will tend to create the most significant drop in clarity grade. In fancy-colored diamonds, light or pale inclusions may show greater relief, making them more apparent, causing a greater drop in grade. Diamond Clarity Designations
FL - "Flawless" no inclusions at 10 x magnification IF - "Internally Flawless" no inclusions at 10 x mag. - small blemishes VVS-1 - "Very Very Small" inclusions hard to see at 10 x magnification VVS-2 - "Very Very Small" inclusions. VVS1 better than VVS2 VS-1 - "Very Small" inclusions visible at 10 x mag. - not naked eye VS-2 - "Very Small" inclusions VS1 is better grade than VS2 SI-1 - "Small" or "Slight" Inclusions or "Imperfections" may be "eye clean" SI-2 - "Small" or "Slight" Inclusions or "Imperfections" visible to naked eye SI-3 - Inclusions large and obvious, little or no brilliance I1 to I3 - Imperfect, with large Inclusions, fractures, and flaws

GIA Clarity Grading System

The chart below explains the GIA grading system for inclusions and imperfections. Considerations in grading the clarity of a diamond include the type of stone, point size and the location of inclusions. Inclusions that are near to, or break the surface, may weaken the diamond structurally, therefore reducing its value significantly. On the other hand, it may be possible to hide certain inclusions behind the setting of the diamond (depending on where the inclusion is located), thus minimizing any negative impact of the inclusion.

Diamond Clarity Grade Inflation

A fairly common practice in the jewelry trade is grade-inflation or "grade bumping." According to the Federal Trade Commission's (FTC's) Jewelry Guides, a diamond must be within one clarity grade of its advertised amount at the time of sale. If a jeweler sells a diamond that has an actual grade of VS-1, he or she could legally sell it as a VVS-2. Internal Diamond Inclusions
Carbon - Tiny black spots caused by undigested carbon inclusions (natts). Clouds - Cloudy grouping of tiny pinpoints that may not resolve at 10X Magnification. Feathers - Cleavage planes or internal fractures that have the appearance of feathers. Grain Center - Concentrated area of crystal growth that appear light or dark. Internal Graining - Irregular crystal growth causing internal distortions, waviness, haze. Needles - Rutile-like needle inclusions. Pinpoints - Minute crystals within the diamond that appear white. Pique - Garnet or other Included gem stones Twinning Wisps - Inclusions resulting from crystal twining during growth.

External Diamond Inclusions

Bearded Girdles - Fine cracks, chips, fringing, or feathers along the outer edge of girdle. Bruising - A percussion mark caused by impact. Cavities - An indentation resulting from a feather or damage during polishing. Chips - Damage usually occurring on the sharp edge of a facet. Knots - An inclusion that penetrates the surface, appearing as a raised area. Indented Naturals - A natural indentation that was not removed by polishing. Filled Fractures - Fractures that have been artificially filled. Pits - Dislodged pinpoint inclusions at the surface. Surface Graining - Visible surface lines caused by irregular crystallization during formation.

Diamond Fracture Filling

Diamond clarity is sometimes enhanced by filling fractures, much like repairing a crack in your car's windshield. Such diamonds are sometimes called "fracture filled diamonds". According to FTC guidelines, vendors should disclose this enhancement, and reputable filling companies will use filling agents which show an orange or pink flash of color. There is a significant price discount for fracture-filled diamonds. The GIA will not grade fracture-filled diamonds, in part because the treatment isn't permanent. Reputable companies often provide for repeat treatments if heat causes damage to the filling. The heat generated by a blowtorch used to work on settings can cause damage, therefor it is essential to inform anyone working on a setting if the diamond is fracture-filled, so they can use greater care while working on the piece.

Laser Drilling
Laser drilling involves using a laser to burn a tunnel or hole to a carbon inclusion, followed by acid washing to remove the coloring agent. The drilling process leave tiny telltale shafts or tunnels that are visible under magnification. The treatment is considered permanent and both the GIA and AGS will issue grades for laser drilled diamonds. The final clarity grade will be the grade that is assigned after treatment. According to Fred Cuellar in his book How to Buy a Diamond, "One out of every three diamonds sold in the United States is laser-drilled."

Human Caused Surface Blemishes

Abrasions - Whitish haziness along the junction of facets caused by wear. Nicks - Small chips at facet junctions. Scratches - Grinding Wheel Marks of scratches from contact with other diamonds. Burn Marks - Surface burning from heat buildup during polishing.

"SI-3" is a grade sometimes used in the diamond industry. The designation of SI-3 was popularized by the EGL (European Gemological Laboratory) grading office. Neither the GIA nor the AGS (American Gemological Society), the most reputable well known US labs, assign this grade. Diamonds of this low grade would be inappropriate for jewelry.

The Four Cs of Diamonds: Color

The Four Cs Diamond Grading System

1. Cut 2. Carat 3. Clarity 4. Color Color is one of the Four Cs representing the four variables that are used to calculate the quality and value of a diamond. At present, a Sarin Diamond Color Grading report is the state-of-the-art color measuring standard. As a consumer, it will be beneficial to learn and understand some of the basic parameters for diamond color grading.

COLOR
Most all natural diamonds contain small quantities of nitrogen atoms that displacing the carbon atoms within the crystal's lattice structure. These nitrogen impurities are evenly dispersed throughout the stone, absorbing some of the blue spectrum, thereby making the diamond appear yellow. The higher the amount of nitrogen atoms, the yellower the stone will appear. In determining the color rating of a diamond, the Gemological Institute of America uses a scale of "D" to "Z" in which "D" is totally colorless and "Z" is yellow. The color chart in Fig. 1 explains the GIA grading system for clear (not fancy-colored) stones. Diamond Color Designations D, E, F - colorless (white) G, H, I, J - near colorless K, L, M - faint yellow or brown N, O, P, Q, R - very light yellow or brown S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z - light yellow or brown Fig. 1

Due to a diamond's high brilliance, and dispersion of light (fire) when looking through the table or crown, color grading should be determined by examining the stone through the side of the pavilion (Fig. 2), and not by looking at the top of the stone, as in our Fig. 3 example below. Color grading by 'visual-observation is performed against a Master CZ Colored Grading Set. Fig. 2

Sarin Color Typing

is a relatively new sub-classification of the D through Z gading scale. Each classification is divided into five sub-classifications (D1, D2, D3, D4, and D5). Using a Sarin Diamond Colorimeter DC3000 (aka Gran Colorimeter), jewelers and gem labs can accurately provide a 'color typing' printout of a diamond's color grading that is compatible with AGS, GIA-GEM, IGI, and HRD grading scales. For the consumer, it is extremely benificial to know if your 'F' is a strong 'F,' or a borderline 'G.' Unfortunatly, most gem labs do not currently provide color-typing data in their reports and certificates. Fig. 3

Golconda Diamonds
Type IIa diamonds (aka Golconda Diamonds) are colorless stones containing negligible amounts nitrogen or boron impurities to absorb the blue end of the color spectrum. These colorless stones, sometimes referred to as "white diamonds," "whiter than white," or "D+," are named after the famous Golconda Diamond Mines located in the state of Hyderabad, India.

D-Flawless - The Holy Grail

Large D-flawless diamonds (those weighing more than 2 carats) are some of the rarest minerals on earth. Only around 600 D-flawless roughs are cut into gems weighing between 1 and 2 carats during a given year, according to the GIA. Even with microscopic inclusions, fewer than 5,000 D-color diamonds weighing over half a carat are found each year.

Diamond Fluorescence
Approximatly 1/3 (35%) of all diamonds have a tendency to fluoresce when exposed to ultra-violet (UV) light. When diamonds are viewed under a UV light-source, they tend to fluoresce as blue. This fluorescent effect can be beneficial to a diamond that has a yellow tint, as the blue fluorescence will cancel out some of the yellow, making the diamond appear "colorless," but the diamond will have a dull, murky appearance when compared to a non-fluorescing diamond. Ultra-violet light is a component of natural sunlight and artificial 4800k to 5000k color-proofing light, so this effect will be more apparent under natural daylight than under artificial incandescent light. See Color in Gemstones for more information.

For diamonds with a color grading of D through H (colorless), fluorescence can negatively impact the value of the stone by 3% to 20%. On the other hand, diamonds with a poorer color grading (I through K), fluorescence could increase the value by 0% to 2% buy improving the color (or lack thereof). Fluorescence is graded as none, faint, medium, and strong. Skin Tone and Settings While some may prefer a very transparent D to F range, others may prefer a "warmer" color found in a G to J range to compliment their skin tone. In some settings with various combinations of other stones, diamonds with a visible tint may be preffered.

Diamonds: Chemistry & Structural Properties

Diamond Chemistry

| Optical Properties of Diamond

| Diamond Enhancement

Structural Properties of Diamond - Diamond Formation

Diamonds are formed when carbon deposits are exposed to high pressure and high temperature for prolonged periods of time. Deep within the earth's crust there are regions that have a high enough temperature (900C to 1400C) and pressure (5 to 6 GPa) that it is thermodynamically possible for liquified carbon to form into diamonds. Under the continental crust, diamonds form at depths of between 60 miles (100 kilometers) and 120 miles (200 km), in the diamond-stable conditions defined by the "graphite-diamond equilibrium boundary" [2]. At these depths, pressure is roughly 5 gigapascals and the temperature is around 2,200 degrees Fahrenheit (1,200 degrees Celsius). Diamond formation under oceanic crust takes place at greater depths due to lower surface temperatures. Therefore, diamond formation within the oceanic crust requires a higher pressure for formation. Long periods of exposure to these higher pressures and temperatures allow diamond crystals to grow larger than under land masses. When diamonds are not located within a "kimberlite pipe," and excavated via a hard-rock or open pit mine, they are found in alluvial stream-beds known or "secondary deposits."

Diamond-bearing kimberlite is an ultrapotassic, ultramafic, igneous rock composed of garnet, olivine, phlogopite, and pyroxene, with a variety of trace minerals. Kimberlite occurs in the Earth's crust in vertical, upwardly-thrusting structures known as kimberlite pipes, which resemble a champagne flute.

Basic Physical Properties of Diamond

Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material on earth, with a relative hardness of 10 on the Mohs scale. Diamond is one of several allotropes of carbon, with the principle allotrope being graphite. The word "allotrope" or "allotropy" specifically refers to the structural chemical bond between atoms. A diamond is a transparent, optically isotropic crystal with a high dispersion of 0.044, a refractive index of 2.42, and a specific gravity of 3.52.

Diamond Crystal Structure & Hardness

The unique chemical and molecular structure of crystalline diamond is what gives this gemstone its hardness, and differentiates it from simple graphite. The name "diamond," which is also known as "adamant," is derived from the Greek adamas, or "invincible," "untamable," and "unconquerable," referring to its incredible hardness.

A Type 2-A diamond has a hardness value of 167 GPa (6) when scratched with an ultrahard fullerite tip, and a hardness value of 231 GPa (5) when scratched with a diamond tip. The material "boron nitride," when found in a crystalline form that is structurally similar to diamond, is nearly as hard as diamond. Additionally, a currently hypothetical material, beta carbon nitride, may also be as hard or harder than diamond. A diamond's incredible hardness was the subject of curiosity dating back to the Roman empire, where it was shown to combust in scientific experiments, although the reason for its combustion was not understood at the time. Experimentation during the late 18th century demonstrated that diamonds were made of carbon, by igniting a diamond in an oxygen atmosphere, with the end byproduct of the combustion being carbonic-acid gas, or carbon dioxide.

Diamond Crystal Habit

Diamonds have a characteristic crystalline structure, and therefore, a predictable crystal growth pattern known as its "crystal habit." This means that diamond crystals usually "grow" in an orderly and symmetrical arrangement. The natural crystal form, and crystal habit of a diamond is octahedral (photo, above), although in nature, perfectly formed crystals are rare.

The external shape of the crystal, whether it is cubic, octahedral, or dodecahedral, does not always reflect the internal arrangement of its atoms. When a gemstone has an irregular external shape or asymmetrical arrangement of its crystal facets, it is termed as "subhedral," or "anhedral."

Trace impurities, crystal twinning, and varying growth conditions of heat, pressure and space can also affect the final shape of a formed crystal.

Diamond Graphitization
In extremely high temperature environments above 1700 C, graphite can develop internally and on the diamond's surface. Internally formed crystallographic graphite inclusions often create intense strain on the surrounding diamond, causing stress fractures or feathers.

Carbon Inclusion - AGS Labs

Hexagonal (Graphite) Platelet Inclusion - AGS Labs

Diamond Toughness
Within the fields of metallurgy and materials science, the term "toughness" describes the resistance of a given material to fracture when it is stressed or impacted. Although diamond is the "hardest," and therefore, most scratch resistant mineral on earth, with a Mohs scale rating of 10, its "toughness" rating is moderate, due to its ability to fracture along cleavage planes. By comparrison, sapphire has a hardness rating of 9, meaning that a diamond is 4 times "harder" than sapphire, yet sapphire has a toughness rating of excellent. Hematite has a hardness of only 5.5 to 6.5, but its toughness rating is also excellent. A material's toughness is measured in units of "joules" per cubic meter (J/m3) in the SI system, and "pound-force" per square-inch in US units of measurement. Unlike "hardness," which only denotes a diamond's high resistance to scratching, a diamond's "toughness" is only fair to good. Particular cuts of diamond are more prone to breakage along cleavage planes, and therefore may be uninsurable by reputable insurance companies. The culet facet at the bottom of the pavilion, is a facet specifically designed to resist breakage. Additionally, very thin girdles on brilliant cut diamonds are also prone to breakage.

Thermal Properties of Diamonds

Diamond is a good conductor of heat, acting as a "thermal conductor." If you were to place a large enough diamond on your tongue it would draw heat away, making it seem cold. Many natural blue

diamonds contain boron atoms which replace carbon atoms within the crystal matrix, increasing thermal conductance. Purified synthetic diamond can have the highest thermal conductivity (2000-2500 W/m-K) of any solid material at room temperature - nearly five times greater than pure copper. Due to diamond's high thermal conductance, it is used in the manufacturing of semiconductors, to prevent silicon and other semiconducting materials from overheating.

Electromagnetic Properties of Diamond - Insulators or Semiconductors

Diamond is a relatively good electrical insulator, with the exception of natural blue diamonds, which are in fact semiconductors. Natural blue diamonds containing boron atoms, and synthetic diamonds that are doped with boron, are known as p-type semiconductors. If an n-type semiconductor can be synthesized, electronic circuits could be manufactured from diamonds in the future [8].

Optical Properties of Diamond: Type I & Type II Diamonds

Diamond Chemistry

| Optical Properties of Diamond

| Diamond Enhancement

Surface Luster of Diamond

Article Copyright 2009 AllAboutGemstones.com The surface luster (or "lustre") of diamond is described as adamantine, which means unyielding, inflexible, or having the hardness or luster of a diamond. The term adamantine describes the way light interacts with the surface of a crystal, giving off a somewhat greasy sheen. The word luster traces its origins back to the Latin word lux, meaning "light", and generally implies radiance, gloss, or brilliance.

Fluorescence in Diamonds
Fluorescence is an optical phenomenon in which a diamond's molecules absorb high-energy photons, re-emitting them as lower-energy, or longer-wavelength photons.

Long Wave/Short Wave UV Cabinet

Diamond Fluorescence Under UV Light

Diamond types that exhibit the phenomenon of fluorescence radiate or glow in a variety of colors when exposed to long wave ultra-violet light, and give off a bluish-white, greenish or yellow fluorescence when exposed to the X-ray wavelength. Some diamond varieties, particularly Canadian diamonds, show no fluorescence, and appear dark when exposed to ultra-violet light or X-rays.

Type I & Type II Diamonds

As many as 99% of all natural diamonds are classified as Type I, and contain nitrogen atoms as an impurity, which replace some carbon atoms within the crystal lattice structure. These Nitrogen impurities found in Type I diamonds are evenly dispersed throughout the gemstone, absorbing some of the blue spectrum, and thereby making the diamond appear yellow. There are also two subcategories (a and b) within each diamond 'type' (either Type I or Type II) that are based on a stone's electrical conductivity. All Type 1 diamonds have nitrogen atoms as their main impurity. If the nitrogen atoms are grouped in clusters they do not necessarily affect the diamond's overall color, and they are classified as Type 1-A. If the nitrogen atoms are dispersed evenly throughout the crystal, they can give the stone a yellow tint, and are classified as Type 1-B. Typically, a natural diamond may contains both Type 1-A and Type 1-B material. Man-made synthetic diamonds containing nitrogen are classified as Type 1-B.

Type II Diamond Formation

Certain diamonds were formed under extremely high pressure for longer time periods. These rare diamonds have a lower nitrogen content, permitting the passage and reflectance of blue light, making them appear 'colorless' (D). Type II diamonds do not contain any detectable nitrogen, thereby allowing the passage of short-wave ultra-violet (SWUV) light through the stone. Natural blue Type II diamonds containing scattered boron impurities within their crystal matrix are good conductors of electricity, classifying them as Type IIb diamonds, while Type II diamonds that lack boron impurities are classified as Type IIa.

Cloud Inclusion Under UV - AGS Labs

Type I UV Fluorescence - AGS Labs

Type IIa diamonds are very rare, and some of the finest historical gemstones such as the Cullinan and Koh-i-Noor are both Type IIa diamonds. These Type IIa diamonds have a near-perfect crystal structure making them highly transparent and colorless, with very high thermal conductivity. Some Type IIa diamonds can be found with pink, red, or brown coloration, due primarily to certain structural anomalies arising from "plastic deformation" which occurred during their formation.

Diamond Refraction & Coloration

Diamonds are "singly refractive," with a refractive index of 2.417. Diamond can exhibit pseudochromatic coloration giving the appearance of "color" without having any actual color in the mineral itself. This illusion of color is caused by the varying optics effects created by spectral dispersion, or "fire," and refraction.

Diamond Refraction & Light Dispersion

Diamonds can also exhibit allochromatic coloration which is caused by chromophores from the nitrogen trace impurities found within crystalline structure. It is this nitrogen component that produces the color of fancy yellow diamonds.

Diamond Color & Composition

Diamonds can occur in a wide variety of colors: colorless or white, blue, steel grey, pink, orange, red, brown, green, yellow, and black. All colored diamonds contain certain specific impurities and/or structural defects that cause their coloration, while chemically "pure" diamonds are basically transparent, and therefor colorless.

Fancy Colored Diamonds: Pink, Yellow, Blue, Green & Cognac

Fancy Colored Diamond

Diamonds can occur in all colors of the spectrum, and their color is due to trace impurities of nitrogen and/or hydrogen (yellow, brown diamonds), boron (blue diamonds), radiation exposure (green diamonds) or irregular growth patterns within the crystal (pink, red diamonds). Colorless diamonds would normally be priced much higher than yellow diamonds. However, when a diamond's color is more intense than the "Z" grading, it enters the realm of a "Fancy Color" diamond. In this case, the intensity of the color in the diamond can plays a significant role in its value. The value of a Fancy Color Diamond can surpass that of colorless diamonds if the intensity of the color is high and the color is rare.

Fancy Diamond Color Hues

A fancy brown (or Fancy Cognac), green, or yellow diamond may have a relatively low value when compared to a colorless diamond. However, certain fancy-colored diamonds such as pink (Cond), blue (Hope Diamond), green (Ocean Dream), and red (Hancock Diamond) are particularly valuable. Once thought to be of little value, fancy pink diamonds can command very high prices as they have become increasingly popular.

Brown diamonds, which are generally less appreciated than other fancy colors and therefor, sold at a greater discount, have become more commonplace as Australian colored diamonds have gained in popularity.

Fancy Yellow Diamonds (Canary Yellow)

Fancy yellow diamonds owe their color the presence of nitrogen impurities which absorb the blue end of the color spectrum. The GIA grades fancy diamond color by quantifying the saturation, hue, and value (darkness) using nine classifications ranging from 'Faint' to 'Vivid.'

GIA 'Fancy Yellow' Diamond Color Saturation Designations

Faint - M Very Light - N to R Light - S to Z Fancy Light - Start of 'Fancy' Fancy Fancy Dark Fancy Intense Fancy Deep Fancy Vivid - Highest Saturation

One of the largest, and most valuable Fancy Yellow diamonds in the world is the 'Tiffany Diamond,' found in Kimberly, South Africa in 1878. The rough stone weighed 287.42 carats, and was cut into a 128.54 carat cushion cut with an estimated value in the millions of dollars.

Pink Diamonds
The pink color within these rare diamonds is due to irregular crystal growth patterns, causing microscopic imperfections within the lattice structure. One of the world's only major sources for rare pink diamonds is the Argyle Mine in Australia. Pink diamonds are similar to pink sapphire in color, yet considerably more expensive. 1PP is the highest quality designation for Pink Diamond, having a pure magenta color with deep saturation. As the numbers go lower (8PP) the color is paler. An 1P designation would have less blue and more brownish-red. Only 1% to 2% of the diamonds produced at the Argyle Mine are high-quality pink specimens. Fancy Pink/Brown Diamond Color (Hue) Designations
1PP to 8PP - Pink (Magenta-pink) 1 is darkest 1P to 8P - Pink (Reddish-pink) 1 is darkest 1BP to 8BP - Pink (Brownish-pink) 1 is darkest PC3 to PC1 - Champagne 3 is darkest C8 to C1 - Cognac 8 is darkest

Chameleon Diamonds
There is a very rare olive-grayish color-changing diamond called "Chameleon Diamond" (below, left), which changes hue from grayish-blue or olive-green to yellowish-green or straw-yellow under different lighting conditions (darkness, bright light), lighting color temperatures (incandescent, halogen, daylight) and ambient temperature changes. This Chameleon-like phenomenon was first documented by the GIA in the early 1940s.

Green Chameleon Diamonds

Fancy Pink Diamond Color Grading

Chameleon diamonds can be forced to temporarily change to a yellowish-green color by exposing them to heat (150 C to 250 C), or short-term storage (up to 24 hours) in total darkness [9]. Exposure to direct sunlight will bring out an olive-green color. The color change effect is temporary, and will totally reverse itself when conditions re-stabilize. It is believed that the color changing effect is due to a higher than normal amount of hydrogen impurities.

Green Diamonds
Green diamonds owe their hue to millions of years of exposure to naturally occurring gamma and/or neutron radiation, and are typically found in alluvial secondary deposits. Primary sources are in southcentral Africa. Most 'green' diamonds are actually a yellowish-green, greyish-green, or a combination of the two. Intense, pure green hues, as in the one-of-a-kind 5.51 carat blue-green 'Ocean Green Diamond' or the 41 carat apple-colored 'Dresden Green Diamond' are virtually non-existant. Green diamonds can range from $35,000 to $500,000 per carat. Irradiation can artificially induce a green color in diamonds.

Deep Orange Diamond (photo: AfricaGems.com)

Green/Brown Chameleon Diamond ( AfricaGems.com)

The Elusive Red Diamond

Perhaps the rarest diamond color of all is the elusive Red Diamond. There are fewer than twenty known specimens of "natural" red diamond. The first red diamond to be found was the 1 carat 'Halphen Red,' discovered during the 18th century. The most famous red diamond (the Hancock Red) was found in Brazil, and weighed a modest 0.95carats. It was cut into a round brilliant named after its owner, Warren Hancock. The Hancock Red sold at Christie's auction house for a staggering $926,000 in 1987. Other famous reds are the Moussaieff Diamond weighing 13.90 carats, and the De Young Red weighing 5.03 carats. Pricing in today's market is in the range of $1 million dollars per carat.

Diamond Fashion Trends

While prices will undoubtedly remain predictably higher for colorless diamonds and certain rare fancycolored diamonds, the specific color most valued by a given consumer is largely influenced by current styling trends and personal taste. On thing is certain, as the tastes and preferences of the consumer shift in priorities, so will the market prices of sought-after commodities that are in limited supply.

Reddish Brown Diamond (photo: AfricaGems.com)

Enhanced Blue & Yellow Diamonds ( AfricaGems.com)

Fancy Colored Synthetic Diamonds

Unlike natural diamond which can occur in completely colorless D, E, F grades, most synthetic diamonds will have a slightly yellowish hue due to nitrogen impurities that are dispersed throughout the crystal lattice structure during the growth phase. These impurities absorb the blue end of the light spectrum, making the stone appear yellowish. It is for this reason that manufacturers of synthetic diamonds tend to specialize in fancy colors.

Diamond Inclusion Library: Inclusion Photos

Over 100 High-Resolution Diamond Photos!

All Contents: Copyright 2010 AllAboutGemstones.com Clarity is one of the Four C's of diamond grading, representing the four main variables that are used to calculate the quality and value of a diamond. The term "clarity" refers to the presence, or absence of tiny imperfections known as "inclusions." These inclusions can occur within the stone, or on the surface of the cut stone, and can be naturally occuring, or human caused. Inclusions which are not visible to the naked eye (eye clean) fall into the GIA range of "IF" (Internally Flawless) to "SI2" (Small Inclusions). Inclusions which are visible to the naked eye are referred to as piqu, and so-called "piqu diamonds" fall into the GIA grading range of I1 to I3 (CIBJO grade P1 to P3). This section contains a compendium of photography depicting all of the various types of diamond inclusionsboth naturally occurring, and man-made imperfectionsthat can be found in raw and cut diamonds. All of the microscopic inclusion photographs on this page were generously contributed by the A.G.S.L. gemological testing laboratory in Las Vegas, Nevada, and beautifully photographed by their Director of Gem Services, Joe Vanells.

Internal Diamond Inclusion Photos

Carbon Tiny black spots caused by undigested carbon inclusions (natts). Black material found within internal fracture planes can also be crystallographic inclusions of graphite, ferropericlase, pyrrhotite and pentlandite. Piqu Carbon Inclusion Photos

Internal Carbon Pique Diamond Inclusion Photography

Piqu are tiny black spots caused by undigested carbon inclusions (natts) within diamonds. Black or dark material found within a diamond's internal fracture planes can also be particles or crystallographic inclusions of graphite, ferropericlase, pyrrhotite and pentlandite.

Microscopic Carbon Picque Inclusions

Hexagonal Platelet Inclusion in Trillion Cut Diamond

Carbon piqu inclusions are sometimes removed by diamond enhancements such as laser drilling, which can leave their own types of unique inclusions. All of the microscopic diamond carbon inclusion photography on this page was generously contributed by the AGSL gemological testing laboratory in Las Vegas, Nevada, and is reproduced with their permission. Clouds (Cld) A dense grouping of tiny pinpoints that create a cloudy zone which may not resolve as individual pinpoints at 10X Magnification. Cloud Inclusion Photos

Diamond Internal Cloud Inclusion Photography

Cloud Inclusions (Cld) within a diamond are caused by a tightly packed grouping of tiny pinpoints that resemble clouds or cloudiness. Internal cloud inclusions may not resolve as pinpoints at 10X

Magnification. These pinpoint cloud inclusions can have a dramatic effect on the clarity and brilliance of a faceted diamond as they interfere with the refraction of light within the stone.

Diamond Cloud Inclusion under UV Light.

Cloud Inclusion under Long-Wave Light.

Cloud Inclusion under Fluorescent Light.

Feathers (Ftr) Cleavage planes or internal stress fractures that have the appearance of feathers. Common around included crystals. Feather Inclusion Photos

Internal Diamond Feather Inclusion Photography

Feather inclusions (Ftr) are caused by cleavage planes or internal stress fractures that have the appearance of wispy feathers. Feather inclusions are common around included crystals such as garnet, which cause internal stress fractures during crystal growth. Feather inclusions can be accompanied by internal graining and/or twinning wisp inclusions.

Feather inclusions caused by stress fractures around included garnet crystal.

Pronounced stress fractures and feather inclusions can potentially weaken the stone, making it susceptible to fracturing when exposed to thermal or physical shock. This is especially true if the fracture breeches the stone's surface, and the stress inclusion occurs along the gem's natural cleavage plane. As a result, diamonds with significant stress fractures and feather should not be cleaned in an ultrasonic cleaner as this could cause the diamond to shatter.

Grain Center (GrCnt) A concentrated area of crystal growth that can appear light or dark. Grain Center Inclusion Photos

Internal Grain Center Diamond Inclusion Photography

Internal Grain Center (IntGr) inclusions (aka internal graining) are caused by irregular diamond crystal growth which creates internal distortions, waviness, and haze within a cut diamond.

Internal Trigons Grain Center Inclusions

Growth Tubes Imperfection formed during crystal growth, when a tube is generated by a formerly liquid filled cavity. Growth Tube Inclusion Photos

Internal Growth Tubes Inclusion Photography

Internal Growth Tube inclusions are natural Imperfections that are created during diamond formation, when a tube or tunnel is generated in the crystalizing diamond by an internal cavity that was once liquid filled.

Comet-Like Growth Tube Inclusions under UV Light

Included Crystals (Xtl) Included and undigested gemstones or fragments of garnet, diopside, spinel, olivine, calcite, iron oxides, or silica. Included Crystals Inclusion Photos

Internal Included Crystals in Diamond

Included Crystal inclusions are whole crystals or tiny included gem fragments of undigested crystals such as garnet, diopside, olivine, spinel, calcite, iron oxides, silica or other gem stone inclusions.

Green chrome diopside Inclusion within a Diamond

Garnet Inclusions within Diamond

Garnet fragment on Diamond Girdle

Grossularite Garnet Inclusions in Diamond

Internal Graining (IntGr) Irregular crystal growth causing internal distortions, waviness, and/or haze. Can be accompanied by internal strain. Internal Graining Inclusion Photos

Internal Graining Diamond Inclusion Photography

Internal Graining (IntGr) inclusions are caused by irregular crystal growth which creates internal distortions, waviness, or haze. Internal Graining imperfections may be accompanied by internal strain such as feather Inclusions.

Internal Graining with Cloud Inclusion

Internal Laser Drilling (LDH) Internal pathway caused by laser-drilling to remove large inclusions, and where pathway does not breach the cut diamond's surface. Internal Laser Drilling Inclusion Photos

Internal Laser Drilling (LDH) Inclusion Photography

Internal Laser Drilling (LDH) inclusions are man-made internal flaws that resulted from laser-drilling that was done to remove large piqu carbon inclusions in a rough stone. With internal laser-drilling inclusions, the drilled passage may not breach the cut diamond's surface.

Needles (Ndl) Rutile-like needle-shaped inclusions. Needle Inclusion Photos

Needle Inclusion Photography

Internal Needles (Ndl) or needle inclusions are naturally occurring rutile-like needle shaped inclusions within the diamond.

Pinpoints (Pp) Minute crystals within the diamond that appear white. Large groupings of small pinpoints can create a cloud effect. Pinpoint Inclusion Photos

Pinpoints (Pp) Inclusion Photography

Internal Pinpoints (Pp), or Pinpoint Inclusions are minute included crystals within the diamond that appear white under magnification. Large groupings of small pinpoints can create a cloud inclusion effect.

Twinning Wisps Inclusions and defects resulting from crystal-twining during crystal growth. Can be accompanied by graining and strain. Twinning Wisp Inclusion Photos

Twinning Wisps Inclusion Photography

Twinning Wisp inclusions are naturally-occurring structural defects with a diamond, resulting from crystal twining during the growth process. Twinning Wisp inclusions can be accompanied by internal graining and/or strain feathers.

Odds & Ends: Microscopic Diamond Inclusion Beauty Photos

Microscopic Diamond Inclusion Photography

This is an assortment of spectacular diamond-inclusion photography taken by Joe Vanells, showing the strange and beautiful world of microscopic diamond inclusions.

Natural Comet Inclusion

Darkfield Illumination of Feather and Maltese Cloud

Tabular Reflection in Diamond

Included Garnet Twins within Diamond

Included Dalmatian Garnet

Cloud Inclusion

Octahedron Inclusion with Angular Strain Feathers

Cloud Inclusion Under UV Light

Strain Feather 'Crashing Wave' Daimond Inclusion

Natural External Diamond Inclusions or Blemishes

Knots An inclusion that penetrates the surface, appearing as a raised area. Knot Inclusion Photos

Photography of Diamond Inclusion Knots

Knot inclusions are naturally occurring external inclusions or imperfections that penetrate the surface (convex), appearing as a raised area on the diamond's surface. Knot diamond inclusions can potentially be the cause of man-made drag-line inclusions.

Indented Natural (IndN) A naturally occurring indentation in the crystal that was not removed during cutting or polishing. Indented Natural Inclusion Photos

Indented Natural (IndN) Diamond Inclusion Photography

Indented Natural (IndN) inclusions (indented naturals) are external imperfections that are caused by naturally-occurring recessed (concave) indentations that penetrate the surface of a rough diamond, and were not fully removed during the stone's cutting or polishing process.

Lizard Skin A bumpy or wavy 'orange-peel' textured pattern on the polished surface of a diamond. Lizard Skin Inclusion Photos

Lizard Skin Diamond Surface Blemish Photography

A "lizard skin" surface blemish is a man-made external diamond imperfection that is created during polishing. The lizard-skin effect is caused by an orange-peel texture, made up of a bumpy or wavy pattern on the polished surface of a diamond.

Natural (N) A raised portion of the rough diamond's original surface structure that remains visible on the surface of a polished stone. Natural Inclusion Photos

Natural Diamond Inclusion Photography

Natural inclusions (aka Naturals) are naturally-occurring raised portions of the rough diamond's original surface structure that were not removed during the polishing process, and remain visible on the surface of a polished stone.

Pits Dislodged pinpoint inclusions at the surface. Surface Graining (SGr) Visible surface lines caused by irregular crystallization during formation. Surface Graining Inclusion Photos

Diamond Surface Graining (SGr) Photography

Surface Graining (SGr) is a natural imperfection or inclusion that creates visible surface lines which are caused by irregular crystallization during diamond formation.

Human Caused Surface Blemishes

Abrasion (Abr) A tightly grouped series of nicks along the sharp edge of facet junctions, creating a whitish fuzzy edge as opposed to a sharp edge. Bearded Girdle (BG) Fine cracks, chips, fringing, or feathers along the outer edge of girdle. Bruising (Br) A percussion mark or hole caused by impact and surrounded by tiny feathers.

Burn Marks Created during polishing, the overheating of a facet causes a burn mark. Cavities (Cv) An indentation resulting from a feather or damage during polishing. Chips Damage usually occurring on the sharp edge of a facet. Drag Lines Created when a rough particle is dragged along the surface, or caught by a included crystal, during cutting and/or polishing the diamond. Drag Line Photos

Diamond Surface Drag Lines Photography

Drag Lines are human-caused surface imperfections and blemishes that are created when a loose rough particle is dragged along the surface, or when abrasive material is caught by an included crystal such as garnet during the polishing of a diamond.

Extra Facet (EF) An asymmetrical and irregularly placed facet that is not part of the original faceting scheme. Filled Fractures Fractures or feathers that have been artificially filled to enhance clarity. Filled Fracture Photos

Internal Fracture Filling Inclusion Photography

Fracture-filling Inclusions are man-made diamond enhancements that are the result of natural cleavage-plane stress fractures or feathers which have been artificially filled with molten glass to enhance clarity, and remove cloudiness. This microscopic photograph shows the telltale orange or pink flash of a filled fracture enhancement within a cut diamond.

Laser Etching or Markings Careless or inadvertent laser etchings, markings, and inscriptions. Laser Etching Photos

Diamond Laser Etching Inscription Photography

Laser etching inclusions are surface blemishes and imperfections that are created when careless or inadvertent markings or inscriptions are made while laser etching, marking, or inscribing the external surface of a cut diamond.

Polish Lines (PL) Fine parallel surface groves resulting from the polishing process. Polish Marks (PM) Also known as "Wheel Marks," whitish film on the surface of a facet caused by excessive heat during polishing. Scratch (S) A fine whitish line that can be curved or straight.

Diamond Enhancements: Laser Drilling & Fracture Filling

Diamond Chemistry

| Optical Properties of Diamond

| Diamond Enhancement

Enhanced Diamonds
Diamond "enhancements" are specific treatments performed on cut, polished natural diamonds, which are designed to improve the visual or gemological characteristics of the stone, but not necessarily increase its value. Minor diamond inclusions or surface imperfections which are not visible to the naked eye ("VVS1" to "SI2") can be disguised, altered, or removed by employing several invasive techniques from fracture filling to laser drilling. These techniques do not eliminate the imperfection, but instead attempt to hide their visual effect.

There are also heating treatments to improve a white diamond's color grade, or treatments to give a fancy color to a off-white diamond. A trained gemologist should be able to identify most traditional "enhancements" made to a particular stone.

Unfilled Fractures around Garnet Inclusion - AGS Lab

Telltale Signs of Fracture Filling - AGS Lab

Diamonds that have been altered or enhanced by Fracture Filling and/or Laser Drilling should always be labeled and their "improvements" identified to the potential consumer, in accordance with Federal Trade Commission (FTC) guidelines for the gem trade.

Diamond Fracture Filling

Diamond clarity is sometimes improved and enhanced by filling tiny fractures or feathers with molten glass, much like you would repair a crack in a car's windshield glass. Such diamonds are sometimes then branded as "fracture filled diamonds." Reputable filling companies will always use filling agents which show an orange or pink flash of color when viewed under a microscope with certain controlled lighting conditions.

There should always be a significant price discount for any diamond that has been fracture-filled, and the GIA will not even grade a fracture-filled diamond, in part because the treatment isn't permanent. Due to its low melting-point, the heat generated by a blowtorch used to work on settings can cause damage to the filling material. It is therefor essential to inform anyone working on a setting where the diamond has been fracture-filled, so that the jeweler can use greater care while working on the piece. Reputable filling companies will often provide repeat treatments if heat causes damage to the filling.

Laser Drilling of Diamonds

Laser drilling involves the use of a laser to burn a tunnel or hole down to any dark carbon inclusions or piqu, followed by acid washing to remove the coloring agent. The drilling process leave tiny telltale shafts or tunnels that are visible under high magnification (see photos below).

Signs of Laser Drilling - AGS Lab

Laser Drilling Tubes - AGS Lab

The laser-drilling treatment is considered permanent, and both the GIA and AGS will issue grades for laser drilled diamonds. The final clarity grade will be the grade that is assigned after treatment. According to Fred Cuellar in his book How to Buy a Diamond, "One out of every three diamonds sold in the United States is laser-drilled."

Diamond Color Treatment

Color enhancement of diamonds in done to increase the color intensity of so-called "fancy" colored diamonds. These enhancements are achieved using low levels of radiation (irradiation), or subjecting the diamond to intense pressure and temperature, referred to as the HTHP process.

Natural Fancy Diamonds - AfricaGems.com

Color Enhanced Diamonds - AfricaGems.com

Radiation treatments are completely safe, and the diamonds are tested to ensure that no trace levels of radiation remain. Diamonds treated with HTHP have their molecular altered so that intense, "vivid" blue and yellow colors result.

Synthetic Diamonds & Man-Made Diamond Simulants

Synthetic Diamonds

| Cubic Zirconia

| Moissanite

The First Synthetic Diamonds

Article Copyright 2009 AllAboutGemstones.com The process of creating man-made diamonds (aka cultured diamonds, lab diamonds) was first conceived by French chemist Henri Moissan in 1892. With Moissan's process, tiny fragments of synthetic diamond were created by heating charcoal, or carbon to an extremely high temperature (4000 C) in a cast iron crucible. Using an electric furnace constructed with blocks of lime, the intense heat would render the crucible and its carbon contents into a molten liquid mass. Once the desired temperature had been achieved, the crucible and its contents were rapidly cooled by immersing them into cold water. This abrupt cooling caused the rapid shrinkage of the molten iron crucible, which created enough pressure to crystallize the molten carbon into tiny diamond fragments. The first practical commercial application of Moissan's process was developed in 1954, by H.Tracy Hall for the General Electric Company. The process, known as the HTHP (high-temperature, high-pressure) "belt press" process was used for synthesizing industrial-grade diamonds, and has been steadily improved upon throughout the last 50 years. These man-made synthetic diamonds are a laboratory-grown simulation of the natural gemstone, yet they have the identical carbon-based chemical properties of natural diamond. Although synthetic diamonds were originally conceived as a substitute for natural industrial-grade diamonds, they are increasingly used in fine jewelry as their quality increases.

Synthetic Diamond under Fluorescent - AGS Labs

Synthetic Yellow Chatham Diamond - AGS Labs

Today, there are two main processes for creating lab diamonds: the High-Temperature High-Pressure or "HTHP" method, and the Chemical Vapor Deposition or "CVD" method.

High-Temperature High-Pressure (HTHP)

The "High-Temperature High-Pressure" (HTHP) technique, also known as "GE POL," uses a four-anvil 'tetrahedral press,' or six-anvil 'cubic press' to create the necessary pressure. A diamond seed is placed into a growth camber, and a combination of heat and pressure are applied to the seed in a process that attempts to replicate the natural conditions for diamond-formation. Unlike their natural diamond counterparts, the HTHP diamond's growth process can take 7 to 10 days to complete. Synthetic diamonds can also be treated with the HTHP process to alter the optical properties of the stones, making them difficult to differentiate from natural diamonds.

Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)

The "Chemical Vapor Deposition" (CVD) method was developed during the 1980s, and uses a lowerpressure growth environment than the earlier HTHP method. With CVD, a seed or substrate material is placed into the growth camber, and a combination of heat and pressure are applied while a vaporized carbon-plasma that is combined with hydrogen is applied, or "deposited" onto the substrate in successive layers. The vaporized carbon gases are energized using microwave energy, which attracts the gas to the substrate. Using Chemical Vapor Deposition, the diamond's entire growth process takes several days to complete. A cultured synthetic diamond will have the identical cleavage, hardness, light dispersion, refractive index, specific gravity, and surface luster as its natural diamond counterpart. Like natural diamond, synthetic diamonds may contain small inclusions, ranging in clarity from IF to SI or I.

Synthetic Diamond Color & Optics

Unlike natural diamond which can occur in completely colorless form, most synthetic diamonds will have a slightly yellowish hue due to nitrogen impurities that are dispersed through out the crystal lattice structure during the growth phase. These impurities absorb the blue end of the light spectrum, making the stone appear yellowish. Synthetic diamonds can be detected using infrared, ultraviolet, or X-ray spectroscopy, or by measuring UV fluorescence with a DiamondView tester.

Diamond Simulants
Diamond "simulants," also known as "simulated diamonds" or "fake diamonds" are man-made gemstones that look like, or "simulate" the appearance of natural diamonds, but are not a carbonbased compound having a natural diamond's crystalline structure. Common diamond simulants include:
Cubic Zirconia (CZ) (1976-) Czarite, Diamonite, Diamond Essence, Phianite Gadolinium Gallium Garnet (GGG) (1972-1975) Strontium Titanate (ST) (1955 - 1970) Diagem, Fabulite Synthetic Rutile (1946-1955) Diamothyst, Java Gem, Rainbow Diamond, Rutania, Titangem Synthetic Sapphire (1900-1947) Diamondette, Diamondite, Jourado Diamond, Thrilliant Synthetic Spinel (1920-1947) Corundolite, Lustergem, Magalux, Radient Yttrium Aluminum Garnet (YAG) (1970-1975) Diamone, Diamonaire, Diamonte, Geminaire

In the early 1900's, colorless synthetic sapphire (aka Diamondite) was a popular diamond simulant. produced using the Verneuil (flame-fusion) Process. In the late 1940's Diamondite gave way to Synthetic Rutile which was popular until the advent of YAG in the early 1970's. With the advent of Cubic Zirconia in the mid 1970's, and Moissanite in 1998, most of these lesser simulants fell by the wayside.

Synthetic Diamond Manufacturers

Apollo Diamonds

Apollo Diamond, inc. in Boston, Massachusetts grows colorless (D to M) diamonds, and some fancy colored diamonds, using a proprietary variation of the Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) technique. Apollo Diamonds are cut and polished in sizes ranging from .25 carats to 1 carat, with clarity grades from IF to SI. Apollo Diamond's cut stones are available in round brilliant, emerald, princess, and rose cuts, and each cut stone is laser inscribed with the Apollo company logo and serial number. www.apollodiamond.com Chatham Created Diamonds Chatham Gems is a San Francisco based company that grows only fancy-colored diamonds in colors ranging from champagne and canary yellow to pink and midnight blue. Chatham's pricing ranges from $6,500 to $9,500 per carat (2004 est.), and each stone is laser inscribed with the company name and serial number. www.chatham.com Gemesis Cultured Diamonds Gemesis is located in Sarasota, Florida, and like Chatham, Gemesis only grows fancy-colored diamonds. To insure easy identification as a man-made product, each Gemesis cut stone over .25 carats is laser inscribed with the company name and serial number. www.gemesis.com Tairus Created Gems Tairus Created Gems is a Russian company that grows fancy-colored diamonds in their proprietary "Split Sphere" system, which they claim is the closest thing to mother nature. The Split Sphere system crystalizes the carbon seed in an alkaline, carbonate fluid solution that is similar to diamond-bearing metamorphic rock. Tairus produces rough sizes from .30 carats to 3 carats, and stones are cut to order. Tairus Created Gems are sold exclusively through Tairus Thailand Co., Ltd. of Bangkok Thailand.

Synthetic Diamonds

| Cubic Zirconia

| Moissanite

Cubic Zirconia
Article Copyright 2009 AllAboutGemstones.com To the average consumer, Cubic Zirconia (CZ) is the most familiar type of diamond simulant on the market. While a synthetic diamond is a man-made recreation of an actual carbon-based diamond, Cubic Zirconia (Zirconium Oxide ZrO2) has a completely different chemical structure, and CZ has a hardness of only 8.3 on the Mohs scale, while diamond has a hardness of 10. The toughness of Cubic Zirconia is rated as good.

In 1973, Soviet scientists at the Lebedev Physical Institute in Moscow perfected the technique of manufacturing cubic zirconia via the "Skull Crucible" process (photo below left). Zirconium oxide powder is heated, then gradually allowed to cool in the crucible. Once the mixture has cooled, the outer shell is broken off (photo below right) and the interior core of the "run" is used to make the final cut stones. The original name for cubic zirconia was "Jewel Fianit," but this name was never used outside of the Soviet Union (USSR). Unlike most natural diamonds, a CZ is optically flawless. Cubic Zirconia can be made in both colored, or colorless (white) versions, and CZs can be made in any "color grade, although D-colorless versions are more expensive to produce. The 1.80 to 2.17 refractive index (RI) of Cubic Zirconia is lower than a diamond's 2.41 (RI). Due to their low cost and consistency, CZ color-grading sets are used to do a comparative color analysis of natural diamonds.

Photos: Larry P Kelley

Identifying Cubic Zirconia

A trained gemologist will easily be able to distinguish a natural diamond from a synthetic CZ diamond, but there are visual differences that can be detected with the untrained eye. For instance, the greater dispersive power, or "prismatic" effect of CZ creates an abnormally high amount of fire when compared to natural diamond. CZ vs Diamond - Detectable to the Naked Eye
Light Dispersion: Greater prismatic effect of CZ creates an abnormally high amount of fire Lack of Flaws: CZ is virtually flawless, most natural diamonds have some inclusions Color: CZ can take on a gray tone when exposed to sunlight for prolonged periods

CZ vs Diamond - Detectable With Testing

Fluorescence : Under shortwave UV light, CZ typically luminesces a greenish yellow color Refractive Index: Cubic Zirconia refractive index of 1.800 - 2.170, Diamond's RI is 2.417 Thermal Conductivity: CZ is a thermal insulator, natural diamond is a thermal conductor Weight: Cubic Zirconia is heavier than diamond in a given size

Another method for distinguishing Cubic Zirconia from diamond is to mark the stone with a grease pencil or felt-tipped pen. Natural diamonds attract grease, while a Cubic Zirconia will repel grease. You can also Inspect the facet edges with a 10x loupe to look for any chipping or slightly rounded (not sharp) facet edges that are telltale signs of Cubic Zirconia.

Using Visual Optics To Detect CZ

The Hodgkinson "Visual Optics" technique was developed in the mid-1970s by Alan Hodgkinson as a method of detecting natural diamonds and diamond simulants. When holding the crown or table of a stone close to your eye while squinting, you would look towards a single pinpoint of light (pen flashlight, candle, etc.) in a totally dark room. You must be at least 10 feet from the light source when observing. The patterns will be very different for each type of stone (see samples below).

A small, sharply focused pattern seen in natural diamond is caused by secondary reflections due to a diamond's high refractive index. A significantly larger pattern will be visible in Moissanite due to its similarly high RI, while Cubic Zirconia's pattern will be diffused, being caused by primary reflections bouncing off of the inside surface of the pavilion. CZ's has a low RI compared to Moissanite or diamond.

Moissanite
Article Copyright 2009 AllAboutGemstones.com Gem-grade Moissanite (Silicon Carbide or Carborundum), manufactured by C3 and Cree Research, was introduced to the jewelry market in 1998. Moissanite was named after French chemist Dr. Henri Moissan (above, left) who won the Nobel Prize in 1906 for his discovery of a new mineral (moissanite6H) found within meteorite fragments of the ancient Barringer meteor crater (above, center) near Winslow, Arizona. Moissanite, found only in iron-nickel meteorites, is classified as an element rather than a compound. Moissanite has a hardness of 9.25 on the Mohs scale, while diamond has a hardness of 10. Moissanite is doubly refractive and the refractive index of Moissanite is 2.65 to 2.69. The Toughness of Moissanite is Excellent. Colorless synthetic Moissanite has the appearance of colorless diamond and is more difficult to detect than CZ.

Identifying Moissanite
Due to the anisotropic (doubly refractive) quality of Moissanite, when examining the gem through the kite facets, a doubled image of the opposite facet edges will be visible. Diamond is isotropic (singly refractive) with a refractive index (RI) of 2.417. Moissanite has an RI of 2.670. Moissanite has a very high dispersion index of 0.104 as compared to CZ at 0.060, and diamond at 0.044. Synthetic Moissanite has a thermal conductivity that is very similar to diamond, rendering a thermal conductivity test ineffective. Hodgkinson's 'Visual Optics' Detection The Hodgkinson technique (aka Visual Optics) was discovered by Alan Hodgkinson with Gem-A in the mid-1970s as a method for differentiating natural diamond from colorless gemstones and simulants. By holding the table or crown very close to your eye while squinting, you look at a single point of light (pen flashlight, candle, etc.) in a dark room. The refraction patterns are distinctly different from material to material.

A small, detailed and sharply focused pattern caused by secondary reflections will be seen when observing a diamond, due to its high refractive index. A similarly sharp, but significantly larger pattern will be visible in Moissanite due to its high RI. Cubic Zirconia's pattern will be more diffused, caused by primary reflections from the pavilion and CZ's low RI. Moissanite vs Diamond - Detectable to the Naked Eye
Dispersion Pattern: Secondary patterns of dispersion due to double refraction Color: Moissanite has a slight yellow color and does not come in grades better than 'J' Lack of Flaws: Moissanite is virtually flawless, most diamonds have some inclusions

Moissanite vs Diamond - Detectable With Testing

Double Refraction: Moissanite is double refractive, diamond is singly refractive Refractive Index: Moissanite has a refractive index of 2.670, Diamond's RI is 2.417

Moissanite is double refractive (anisotropic) while a natural diamond is singly refractive (isotropic). You can also Inspect the facet edges with a 10x loupe to look for any chipping or slightly rounded or soft (not sharp) edges that are telltale signs of Simulants.

Diamonds: Modern Diamond Cutting

Diamond Cutting Background

One of the hardest substances on earth, only a diamond is hard enough to cut other diamonds, although it can be easily cleaved or fractured due to its defined cleavage planes. Like wood, diamond has a "grain," and the rough stone must be cut with the grain, rather than against it. Diamond cutting can be traced back to the late Middle Ages. Prior to this time, diamonds were used in their natural octahedral state. The first improvements on nature's design involved a polishing of the crystal faces, which was called the "Point Cut." As further refinement progressed, one half of the crystal would be cut off, creating the "Table Cut." At the time, diamonds were valued primarily for their luster and hardness. Table Cut diamonds appeared black to the eye. The Modern Round Brilliant cut (below) is the culmination of several hundred years of experimentation and development.

Cutting a Rough Diamond

Cutting a raw diamond into a faceted and polished gem-quality stone is a multi-step process. Each step is critical to the final outcome. The steps are: Marking Cleaving Sawing Bruting (Girdling) Faceting Marking: A rough stone is marked prior to cleaving or sawing to determine the direction of the grain and cleavage, eliminate waste, and bypass any inclusions or imperfections. The natural shape of the rough stone will also be a major factor in deciding how to cut the stone. An octahedron can be cut into one or two Round Brilliants but a square Princess cut will result in the least amount of waste due to the square shape of the stone. Asymmetrical crystals such as macles are used primarily for fancy cuts. Cubic shapes are ideal for a square Princess or Radiant cut. High-tech computerized helium and oxygen analyzers are now used to evaluate a stone prior to cutting.

Cleaving: Cleaving refers to splitting a stone along its grain by striking it. A rough stone is cleaved if there are conspicuous defects and/or inclusions which would prevent it from being made into a single gemstone. Cleavage is the tendency of crystalline materials to split along defined cleavage plane. Due to its atomic structure, a diamond can be cleaved in four directions parallel to each of the four octahedron crystal faces. Cleaving is a critical step as a mistake by the "cleaver" could fracture, or shatter the stone. Sawing: A stone-cutting saw is a thin disk made of phosphor bronze. As the saw blade rotates it continues to pickup or "recharge" itself with diamond dust which is the cutting agent. It can take several hours for the saw blade to cut through a 1k rough diamond. Bruting: The rough is placed in a chuck on a lathe. While the rough stone rotates on the diamond lathe, a second diamond mounted on a dop is pressed against it, rounding the rough diamond into a conical shape. This step is also referred to as "rounding." Faceting: To facet a round brilliant, the "blocker" or "lapper" will cut the first 18 main facets, then a "brillianteer" will cut and polish the remaining 40 facets. The cutting (also called "placing") and polishing of each facet is accomplished by attaching the stone to a dop stick with cement, then pressing it against a revolving cast iron disk, on a scaife, or lap that has been "charged" with diamond dust. During this faceting stage the angles of each facet must be cut to an exacting standard in order to yield maximum brilliancy, and maintain symmetry.

Diamonds: Ideal Cut - Modern Round Brilliant Diamond

Ideal Cut vs Standard Cut Diamond

Article Copyright 2009 AllAboutGemstones.com When deciding how to cut a rough diamond, a cutter must make a cost-benefit analysis as to how to maximize the cut stone's value. An octehedral rough diamond will yield two round brilliant cut stones (see diagram below). The objective is always to maximize carat weight, but in order to do this, compromises would have to be made. The clarity of the stone, and the amount of internal inclusions will play an important part in the decisions as to how to maximize yield. This is accomplished by reconciling three key factors - weight retention, cut proportions, elimination of any inclusions.

Reconciling Cut & Weight Retention

If the rough stone has a colorless D through F rating and has very few inclusions, it would be cost effective to sacrifice some carat weight in order to finish with two "Ideal" cuts. If, on the other hand, the rough stone has some coloration and/or is heavily included, it may be better to aim for a higher carat weight utilizing a "Standard" cut.

Parameters

Ideal Cut

Standard (Premium) Cut

Rough Material Loss Finished Stones Cutting Time Crown Symmetry

Greater Loss Lower Carat Weight 2 to 4 Days Ideal

Higher Yield Higher Carat Weight 1 to 2 Days Shallow Crown

Pavilion Symmetry Girdle Symmetry

Ideal Ideal

Deep Pavilion Thick Girdle

When dealing with a near-perfect (or flawless) stone the cut that is generally preferred is the classic "round brilliant" cut. This is primarily due to the fact that this cut has yet to be improved on for two reasons: 1. it is the most efficient cut for maximizing yield, and 2. it is the best cut for showcasing a high-quality stone's fire and brilliance. This is why it is very rare to see flawless stones cut into fancy cuts such as emeralds, hearts, etc.

The Modern Round Brilliant Cut

The modern "Round Brilliant Cut" (below) was developed by Belgian diamond-cutter Marcel Tolkowsky in 1919. This cut is also known as the "Tolkowsky Cut" and "Tolkowsky Brilliant." Even with modern techniques, the cutting and polishing of a diamonds resulted in a loss of as much as 50% of the stone's total weight. The round brilliant cut was a partial solution to this problem. The round brilliant cut is beneficial when the crystal is an octahedron, as two stones could be cut from one crystal.

In the diagram of a "Round Cut" diamond (above and below), you will see that there are 8 "star" facets, 8 "kite" facets, 16 "upper girdle" facets, 16 "lower girdle" facets, 8 "pavilion" facets, 1 "culet" facet on the bottom, and one "table" facet on the top of the stone for a total of 58 facets.

An "Ideal Cut", "Premium Cut" or "Modern Round Brilliant" (Tolkowsky Round Brilliant) diamond as shown in the diagrams above would have the following basic proportions according to the AGS:

Table Size: 53% to 57% of the diameter Total Depth: 58% to 63% of diameter Crown Angle: 34 to 35.5 degrees Pavilion Depth: 42.5% to 43.5% Girdle Thickness: medium to slightly thick Culet: pointed, very small to small In the 1970s, Bruce Harding developed new mathematical models for gem design. Since then, several groups have used computer models and specialized scopes to design new diamond cuts.

Tolkowsky, Eppler & Scan D.N.

Variations on the Tolkowsky Brilliant (diagram below) are the "Eppler" (European Practical Fine Cut, or Feinschliff der Praxis) with a table width of 56%, crown height of 14.4%, and overall height of 57.7%. The "Scan D.N." (Scandinavian standard, or Scandinavian Diamond Nomenclature) diamond cut has a table width of 57.5%, crown height of 14.6% and overall height of 57.7%. Other variations of the MRB include the "Ideal Brilliant", invented in 1929, the "Parker Brilliant" invented in 1951, and the "Eulitz Brilliant" invented in 1972.

To quantify a diamond's cut quality, gem labs will use a variety of equipment such as a BrilliantScope, H&A Viewer, Ideal Scope, Sarin Diamension and/or FireTrace.

AGS Triple Ideal or 'Triple 0' Grade

The AGSL grades a diamond's cut quality using three parameters: Polish, Symmetry, and Proportions. Each parameter is given a 'grade' from 0 (Ideal) to 10 (Poor). When all three parameters are in perfect harmony the diamond is given a "Triple 0" or "Triple Ideal" grading. The AGSL grades a diamond's symmetry and proportions according to where facets intersect, and crown/pavilion angles, but does not measure or quantify relative facet angles and/or individual facet ratios. A perfect blending of facet symmetry, facet ratios, and facet angles will yield a perfect 'Hearts & Arrows' Diamond pattern when viewed through a H&A Viewer. As with all human endeavors, there is a constant attempt to 'build a better mousetrap;' and there has been numerous attempts to improve on this tried-and-true formula with the introduction of new signature diamond cuts that claim to have a higher light return, more brilliance and fire, etc..

Producers split hairs over cut angle, cut proportions, and number of facets, but at the end of the day it may simply come down to consumer preference and/or marketing. One thing is for sure - like Einstein's theory of relativity, Tolkowsky came up with a "brilliant" idea almost 90 years ago, and it still survives in some form today.

Diamonds: Patented Signature Diamond Cuts

Notable Patented & Proprietary Diamond Cuts

Since the early 1900s there has been a proliferation of elaborate diamond cuts that have been developed by master gem cutters, mathematicians, scientists, and entrepreneurs - each trying to improve on the tried-and-true Old European cuts, and their modest brilliance and light return. Every conceivable cutting theory is tried, (more facets, less facets, etc.) and when suitably scrutinized by the gem trade, it is put in front of the ultimate arbiter of quality - the consumer. Some have gone on to become household names such as the Asscher cut, or the widely marketed Leo cut which is a modified round-brilliant sold by Leo Schachter Diamonds; but some like the Barion Cut have disappeared into obscurity. Here is a collection of just a few of the many "signature" diamond cuts that have been produced over the last 100 years.

Asscher Cut The Asscher Cut was developed by Abraham and Joseph Asscher of the Royal Asscher Diamond Company of Amsterdam in 1902. Popular in Art Deco jewelry of the period, the Asscher diamond cut has a squarish octagonal shape with a step cut, cut corners and a small table. The cut has a deep pavilion and a high crown, and the culet is square. The Asscher brothers cut the famous 3,106 carat Cullinan Diamond into eleven gem stones, with the two largest stones, the Cullinan 1 and Cullinan 2 being set into the crown and sceptre of the British Crown Jewels. www.asscher.nl

Barion Cut

The Barion square cut (aka Barion square cushion cut) was invented by Basil Watermeyer of South Africa in 1971, and was the forerunner to the princess cut. The name "Barion" or "Barion cut" was never trademarked, and its patent has expired. The Barion square cut diamond has a 4-fold mirror-image symmetry, and a total of 81 facets, not including the 16 girdle facets.

Barocut The Barocut diamond cut is a patented, modified rectangular (baguette) cut that was developed by Baroka Creations, Inc. of New York in 2000. The Barocut is also called a "two heart diamond" due to the illusion of two mirrored hearts meeting at the culet. A Barocut diamond has a total of 77 facets, or to increase light-dispersion, 81 facets on the cut corner (cushion) version. Barocut stones are also sold in tapered shapes. Barocut diamonds are promoted and sold exclusively through the Baroka Creations catalog, or the company website. The Barocut is available in sizes from 20 points to 3 carats, and in all diamond colors and/or clarity grades. www.baroka.com

Context Cut The Context Cut is a square cut that was developed by Dr. Ulrich Freiesleben of Germany in the early 1980s then patented and trademarked in 1997. The Context Cut consists of two back-to-back pyramids (an octahedron), forming a square shape when viewed from the top. The Context Cut follows a rough diamond crystal's natural octahedral shape, with star-shaped cross facets cut diagonally into the pavilion. The cut has a total of 8 facets plus a girdle. The Context Cut design was based on an earlier patented design by Bernd Munsteiner from the early 1960s. The cutting process requires a high-quality rough, and creates a high amount of waste, adding up to 50% to the cost when compared to a Round Brilliant cut diamond. The Context Cut is used to cut colored gemstones by Julius Petsch of Idar-Oberstein, Germany. www.freiesleben.de

Eternal Cut The Eternal Cut diamond was designed and patented by master Israeli diamond cutter, Gabi Tolkowsky, nephew to the inventor of the Modern Round Brilliant cut, Marce Tolkowsky. It is sold exclusively through the 270 year old firm of Garrard & Company in London. In 1998, Garrard & Co. merged with the jewelry firm Asprey, to become Asprey & Garrard, parting ways in 2002 to again become Garrard. The Eternal Cut has a total of 81 facets, 23 more than a modern Round Brilliant cut, creating a unique 'flower petal' pattern surrounding the cutlet, and a 'softer' briliance than a traditional round brilliant cut. The Eternal Cut is being sold exclusively at Garrard's main London store and Harvey Nichols stores in Great Britain. www.garrard.com

Flanders Brilliant Cut The Flanders Brilliant Cut (aka Fire Brilliant) is a modified Radiant or Princess cut with truncated corners that form an octagon with brilliant faceting. The Flanders Brilliant has 33 crown facets and 28 pavilion facets for a total of 61 facets. The Flanders Fire-Brilliant was developed by Flanders Cut International of Antwerp in 1983, and the cut was named after the Flanders region of Belgium (Antwerp) where the cut was first preformed in 1987. The cut is distributed by the National Diamond Syndicate (NDS) of Chicago. www.flanders-cuts.com www.nationaldiamond.com

Flower Cut The 'Flower Cut' series was created by Gabi Tolkowsky in 1986, who was commissioned by De Beers to create new cuts as a way of marketing unusual, off-color stones. The Flower Cut is actually a series of five fancy cut shapes: the Dahlia, Fire-Rose, Marigold, Sunflower and Zinnia cut. The Flower Cuts employ unconventional cutting angles and dimensions, designed to maximize the brilliance and color of diamonds while increasing their yield. The Flower Cuts were never patented or trademarked by De Beers in order to increase their popularity and use. The Dahlia is a 12 sided oval shape with 63 facets. The Fire-Rose is a hexagonal shape designed to produce higher yields. The Marigold is an octagon shape with 73 facets, that is suited to a relatively flat rough. The Sunflower has 43 facets in unusual, angular shapes. The Zinnia is a round fancy shape with 73 facets, 48 of which are clustered around the culet to increase fire.

The Gabrielle Diamond The Gabrielle Cut is a modified brilliant cut (triple brilliant cut) that was created by DeBeers desinger/consultant Gabriel Tolkowsky in 2000. Unveiled at the Las Vegas Gem Show in 2001, the Gabrielle has a total of 105 facets, which is 47 more than a traditional 'Tolkowsky' round brilliant cut, adding greater brilliance and fire than standard brilliant cuts. Other than the traditional round brilliant shape, the Gabrielle Cut is available in carre, emerald, heart, marquise, oval, and pear shapes. www.gabriellediamonds.com

Leo Cut The Leo Diamond, (aka Leo Schachter Diamond), is a patented symmetrical round cut created by Leo Schachter Diamonds, LLC. The Leo diamond cut has a total of 66 facets, 8 more facets than the Round Brilliant cut's 58, maximizing the amount of light returned back as scintillation.

The Leo diamond cut is the first to be certified for fire and brilliance as measured by a 'BrillianceScope,' and each diamond comes with a "Return of Light Certificate." The Leo Diamond is marketed through the Kay Jeweler chain. www.diamondaires.com

Lucida Cut The Lucida (TM) Cut is a patented diamond cut that was created by Tiffany & Company in 1999. The Lucida diamond cut is a modified square or rectangular (Marquise) cut with truncated corners, a highstep crown (similar to the Asscher Cut), small table, brilliant-style faceted pavilion (similar to a Cushion Cut), and a total of has 50 facets. The Lucida is sold exclusively through Tiffany's retail chain. The Lucida diamond cut is marketed as a wedding cut, sold in solitaire engagement/wedding bands, eternity bands, and three-stone rings. www.tiffany.com

Quadrillion Cut The Quadrillion Cut (aka Squarillion Cut) is a modified square princess cut that was developed by Israel Itzkowitz and Betzalel Ambar in the late 1970s, and was patented and trademarked by Bez Ambar Jewelers of Los Angeles in 1980. Prior to the Quadrillion, square shaped diamonds were stepcut limiting their brilliance. The Quadrillion was the result of three years of optical research to create a square diamond cut that can claim a similar brilliance to a round diamond. There are a total of 49 facets. Bez Ambar

Radiant Cut The Radiant Cut is a modified emerald cut shape that was developed, patented and trademarked by Henry Grossbard of the Radiant Cut Diamond Company (RCDC) in 1977. It was the first emerald shaped diamond cut to have brilliance and fire similar to that of a round brilliant diamond. Upon the expiration of the patent, the Radiant Cut became a fully accepted diamond shape in the jewelry business. RCDC launched the 'Original Radiant Cut' diamond brand In 2002, and all Original Radiant Cut diamonds weigh at least 0.70 carats and come with a GIA Certificate and an "Original Radiant Cut Diamond Certificate" guarantying that the stone meets the ideal proportions as designed by Henry Grossbard. There are 25 crown facets and 36 pavilion facets for a total of 61 facets (not including 8 girdle facets). The pavilion is similar to a Barion cut, and the table is a bowed out rectangle. www.radiantcut.com

Starburst Cut

The Starburst Cut was patented and trademarked by the Louis Glick Diamond Corp. of New York in 1978. The Starburst cut was created to bring out the highest amount of color to fancy yellow diamonds. The crown of the Starburst Cut is similar to that of the radiant cut, but the pavilion is completely different. There are 49 crown facets and 40 pavilion facets, for a total of 89 kite and star shaped facets. The Starburst cut is especially suitable for a octahedral rough, with weight losses in the fifty percent range. The starburst faceting pattern is designed to focus color near the top of a stone, making the hue of fancy yellow diamonds more intense. Starburst Cuts are mounted and sold directly through Cartier, Harry Winston, Nieman Marcus and Tiffany. www.louisglick.com

Trilliant Cut The Trilliant Cut (aka Trielle, Trillian, Trillion) is a triangular cut designed and trademarked by the Henry Meyer Diamond Company of New York in 1962. The Trilliant trademark has since lapsed, and the Trilliant is now a generic term for a triangular brilliant cut. The Trilliant has the Schoenflies point group symmetry of a round brilliant, reworked into the shape of a trillion (triangle). The Trilliant Cut has a total of 31 facets. The pavilion has two differently sized sets triangular facets with a large triangular table. There are two variations of this cut: the Curved cut used for solitary stones, and Uncurved cut used for accent stones. The Trilliant cut gives a high brilliance, fire, and scintillation when cut to the correct proportions.

Old European Gem Cuts: Point, Old eight, Old Mine Cut

Evolution of the Faceted Diamond & Colored Gem

Article Copyright 2008 AllAboutGemstones.com The faceting of diamonds has come a long way in the last 700 years, but at each stage of advancement the pioneers of 'brillianting' diamonds have made great strides in bringing out the magic that is inherent in these gifts from nature. Since the day that humans first discovered 'adamas' (diamonds), craftsmen have attempted to "improve" on nature, but that has not always been easy as these little chunks of elemental carbon are harder that anything that could be found to cut them. Still, the precursor for the "design" of the first faceted diamond lay within the rough stone itself, and the natural octahedral symmetry of the rough stone's closed isometric form. With the realization that only a diamond could cut another diamond, this led to the invention of the first gem cutting machines (precursor to the "lap" or "Facetron") in the 1300s, and the career of the "diamantaire" (diamond cutter/polisher) was born. From this point forward it was a race to see who could design the perfect faceted cut which would bring out the maximum fire, brilliance, and light return from the stone.

Point Cut - early 1300s

The "point cut" (below left) is one of the first symmetrically faceted diamond cuts. The point cut design is dictated by the natural shape of an octahedral rough diamond. The "table cut" (below, right) was created by cutting off some of the top half of the point cut's octahedron to create a table.

Single Cut - late 1300s

Invented in the late 14th century, the "old single cut" (aka "old eight cut") diamond has the addition of corner facets to create an octagonal girdle, an octagonal table, eight bezel or crown facets, and eight pavilion facets. The single cut may or may not have a culet at the bottom.

Rose & Briolette Cut- 1500s

Invented in the mid 16th century, the "rose cut" is also known by the the "Antwerp rose," "crowned rose cut," "Dutch cut," and the Full Holland cut. The Rose cut can form a single hemisphere for a total of 24 facets or it can be two back-to-back hemispheres (Double Dutch rose) forming a total of 48 facets.

The "senaille cut" is a rose cut with irregular or non-symmetrical faceting. The "briolette cut" is a modified "double Dutch rose cut" with one of the hemispheres being elongated. The briolette cut was designed primarily for use in a pendant or as a dangling bauble in a crown. The briolette was the precursor to the "pendeloque cut" which is a pear-shaped modification of the round brilliant cut.

Old Mine Cut - 1700s

The "old mine" cut is the earliest form of the "brilliant cut" diamond. Also called the "cushion cut", it has a cushioned or rounded girdle shape. This Old Mine cut is basically square with gently rounded corners and "brilliant" style facets. The crown is typically tall, resulting in a smaller table. The culet is usually large enough to be visible when viewed through the table.

Old European Cut - 1800s

The "Old European" cut was the forerunner of the modern round brilliant cut. The Old European diamond cut has a very small table, a heavy crown, and very tall overall depth. Like the modern round brilliant, the old European diamond has a circular girdle.

The Modern Round Brilliant Cut - 1900s

The "modern round brilliant cut" (below) was developed by Belgian diamond-cutter Marcel Tolkowsky in 1919. This cut is also known as the "Tolkowsky Cut" and "Tolkowsky brilliant." Even with modern techniques, the cutting and polishing of a diamonds resulted in a loss of as much as 50% of the stone's total weight. The round brilliant cut was a partial solution to this problem.

As with its predecessor the "point cut" over 600 years earlier, the Modern Round Brilliant cut is beneficial when the crystal is an octahedron (diagram above), as two stones can be cut from one crystal with a minimum amount of waste.

Eight Cut & Swiss Cut

The "eight cut" is primarily used for small stones when a brilliant cut would be impractical. The eight cut is similar to the "single cut" in that there are eight four-sided trapezoidal facets at the crown, eight facets at the pavilion, and an octagon-shaped table for a total of 17 facets (18 if a culet is used).

A "Swiss cut" is a compromise between an eight cut and a brilliant cut, with a total of 33 facets (34 if a culet is used); 16 isosceles triangle facets on the crown and 16 facets on the pavilion. Both the eight cut Swiss cut are still used today for small very diamonds and gems (smaller than 2mm carat weight) as would be used in pav settings.

The Diamond Trade: The 'Diamond Pipeline'

Rough Diamond Producers
Article Copyright 2009 AllAboutGemstones.com The trade in gem-grade rough diamonds is primarily controlled by the De Beers, Trans Hex, Rio Tinto, BHP Billiton and a hand-full of other companies which use their cartel power to control the supply of diamonds on the wholesale market (diamond pipeline), thereby controlling and stabilizing prices. Unlike precious metals such as gold, silver or platinum, there is usually a substantial mark-up in the retail sale price of diamonds. There is a limited market for the resale of diamonds that are less than "investment grade."

The 'Diamond Pipeline'

Rough diamonds are sent directly from De Beers mining operations in Africa (#1), or secondary mining producers in Canada and Russia to De Beers' Diamond Trading Company (DTC) in London, Gaborone, Kimberley and Windhoek, for sorting and resale. The rough stones are separated into 16,000 categories based on size, color and quality, then divided by human or automated sorters into individual lots called "boxes." The DTC is part of the DeBeers Group supply-chain known as the Central Selling Organization (CSO), which combines ("aggregating") supplies of rough diamonds from multiple sources into one wholesale market (#2).

De Beers Sightholders
The DTC holds a sale called a "site" or "sight" ten times per year in London and Johannesburg, where De Beers sells the "boxes" to its select group ("supplier of choice") of 125 "sightholders" (#3) or diamond manufacturers, cutters, and retailers [5]. De Beers (DTC) sets the price of each box in advance, determining the quantity and quality that each site-holder will receive. A 'sight' can have a value of between $500,000 to $2,000,000 USD. The sightholder then transports the box of rough diamonds back to diamantaire firms (cutting and polishing factories) located around the world (#4). Many Sightholders are also cutters. Rough diamonds are cut in various geographic regions according to tradition and the skill-sets of the labor force. India cuts the vast majority of small stones (.20 carats or less) in Mumbai (Bombay) and Surat, while large stones are primarily cut in Antwerp, Tel Aviv, Ramat Gan, and New York. Other major cutting centers are located in Johannesburg, China, and Thailand. The diamonds are then re-sold from the cutting and polishing (manufacturing) centers to wholesalers (Diamond Bourses), or to jewelry manufacturers (#5) around the world. Both traders and manufacturers may sell diamonds "upstream" and "downstream" through the diamond pipeline [8], to take advantage of market fluctuations. Once the diamonds are set into jewelry, they are sold to retailers or direct to the customer.

De Beers and the Future

De Beers' (CSO's) control over the wholesale diamond market has diminished due to increased market penetration, and the breakaway from CSO's cartel by the Argyle Diamond Mine in Australia, and independent diamond producers in Canada, Russia and elswhere. Additionally, diamonds have underperformed since 1987 when compared to the "luxury goods" market or global GDP. De Beers is also facing increasing pressure from the manufactures of synthetic diamonds, which are increasing in popularity and consumer acceptance. As a reaction to their decrease in market share, De Beers, through their Diamond Promotion Service (DPS) and Diamond Information Centres (DIC) marketing divisions, has launched an aggressive branding and marketing campaign, reclaiming their "A Diamond Is Forever" moniker. (see DeBeers' Adiamondisforever.com website).

Forevermark Diamonds
As a way of staving off the onslaught of secondary diamond markets, and preventing the inherent product misidentification that will follow, the DTC has developed new inscription technologies to "invisibly" mark the table facet of polished diamonds with a "Forevermark" trademark. This mark is only visible via a point-of-sale electronic viewer, and will com with a certificate of authenticity. As of 2006, Forevermark diamonds will be available through sightholder/retailers in the U.S., Europe, Asia, China, and India (2007). De Beers is hoping that the combination of branding and security will increase consumer demand.

Diamond Industry Trade Organizations

World Diamond Council The World Diamond Council (aka: International Diamond Council) was established by the World Federation of Diamond Bourses (WFDB) to find ways to reduce the number of conflict diamonds entering the diamond market. The Council began in July 2000 after a joint meeting of the WFDB and its international headquarters are in New York City, NY [4]. The Council has approximately 70 members representing jewelers, traders and manufacturer/producers. In addition to its members, the WDC has observers from the governments of Belgium, Israel and South Africa and works with 35 independent Governments, the European Union and the United Nations to rid the diamond Industry of conflict diamonds. The Kimberley Process The Kimberley Process Certification Scheme or KPCS is designed to prevent conflict diamonds (aka "blood diamonds") entering into the mainstream rough diamond market [5]. KPCS originated in May 2000 during a meeting of South African diamond producing states in Kimberley, South Africa. The Diamond High Council (HRD) The HRD (Hoge Raad voor Diamant) Diamond High Council is a non-profit industry organization designed to promote and represent the Antwerp diamond trade. The HRD Certificates Department was founded in 1976 to meet an increased demand for quality diamond certificates [9]. The research arm of the HRD works in conjunction with Rijksuniversitair Centrum Antwerpen (Antwerp University RUCA) to increase the diamond knowledge-base.

The Diamond Trade: Diamond Bourses of Antwerp

Diamond Bourses
Article Copyright 2009 AllAboutGemstones.com The word "Bourse" refers to a private stock, bond, or commodities exchange similar to the NYSE. Diamond Bourses are basically trading exchanges for loose, cut and uncut diamonds. The largest diamond trading center in the world is located in Antwerp, Belgium but there are also Diamond Bourses in Israel, Hong Kong, London, Moscow, and Shanghai. Almost 85% of the world's rough diamonds, and about half of the polished diamonds, are sold in Antwerp every year, and the city is the hub of the global diamond trading industry (diamanthandel). Within Antwerp's diamond district, also known as the "World Diamond Center" or Diamantenzentrum, some 1,500 diamond dealers (diamantbedrijven) are ensconced in small, heavily guarded geographic area surrounded by three main streets, Hoveniersstraat, Schupstraat, and Rijfstraat.

Antwerp's Diamond District

Two of the oldest Diamond Bourse (Bourse van de diamant or diamantenbrsen) in Antwerp were the 'Diamond Club of Antwerp' (Diamantclub van Antwerpenat Pelikaanstraat 62, founded in 1893and the Beurs voor Diamanthande (at Pelikaanstraat 78) founded in 1904 [1]. Both bourse were founded by Hasidim diamantairs, and both are still in operation today. These first trading exchanges mainly dealt with the wholesaling of cut stones.

Beurs voor Diamanthandel - Photo: Wiki Public

The first trading exchange to deal exclusively with rough, uncut diamonds was the Antwerpsche Diamantkring (Antwerp Diamond Ring) [2], which was established in the same year that the 1930 World Expo was held in Antwerp. Members of the Diamond Bourses operate within a system based on mutual trust and each member pledges to uphold the traditions and principles of consideration, friendship and trust [2]. Most transactions conducted within the Bourses done with cash and a handshake, and disputes are handled by an internal arbitration process. After the liberation, and repatriation of Antwerp following the end of WWII, the Antwerpsche Diamantkring was reopened, and the World Federation of Diamond Bourses (WFDB) was founded in 1947. Control over the diamond trade is maintained through the WFDB's Constitution containing a series of rules, regulations, an by-laws that govern business practices, ethics and morality.

In Antwerp's 'Diamond Center' (Diamantenzentrum) today, there are around 4000 diamond-cutters (diamantaire) working in the several-square-block diamond district, bisected by Hoveniersstraat street. Around $16+ billion in polished diamonds pass through Antwerp's diamond bourses each year, making it the largest diamond-trading center in the world [3].

The Diamond High Council (HRD)

The HRD (Hoge Raad voor Diamant) Diamond High Council is a non-profit industry organization designed to promote and represent the Antwerp diamond trade. The HRD Certificates Department was founded in 1976 to meet an increased demand for quality diamond certificates [9]. The research arm of the HRD works in conjunction with Rijksuniversitair Centrum Antwerpen (Antwerp University RUCA) to increase the diamond knowledge-base.

The Diamond Trade: History & Culture of the Key Players

Article Copyright 2006 AllAboutGemstones.com

Diamonds and the Afrikaners

The Afrikaners & British Diamonds and the Jews The Hindustani Diamond Cutters The African Nationals The Americans
Photos: Public Domain

The Boers Historically, Afrikaners (aka Boers or farmers) were religious refugees from the Netherlands and other parts of northern Europe during the mid 1600s to late 1700s, most with Dutch Calvinist, Flemish, or German Protestant backgrounds. They settled in the 'Cape of Good Hope' on Africa's southern most tip, which at the time was administered by the 'Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie' or 'Dutch East India Company.' During the 1830s and 1840s, there was a mass exodus (the Great Trek) northward to 'Northern Cape,' 'Limpopo,' 'Gauteng,' and the 'Orange Free State' provinces to escape hostilities with the native 'Xhosa tribe' from which Nelson Mandela decended. Afrikaners who participated in the migration northward became known as the 'Trekboer' or Voortrekkers, who were in search of the "quiet sweet life." Three of South Africa's richest diamond mines are in Northern Cape (Kimberley Diamond Mine), Gauteng (Premier Diamond Mine), and Limpopo (Venetia Diamond Mine). The Voortrekkers had to contend with the native Zulu tribe over land they wished to settle on, and this eventually lead to all-out war, with 10,000 Zulu warriors attacking 470 Boer settlers. There was not a single Boer fatality, but 3000 Zulus were killed in what became known as the 'Battle of Blood River.' After the devastating Zulu defeat, the Zule's King Dingane agreed to a treaty allowing the Voortrekkers to settle in what would be called the Natalia Republic or Boer republics.

Diamonds and the British

The Second Wave of Europeans Needing a stopping-off point on the sea-route to Australia and India, England seized the Cape of Good Hope from the Dutch East India Company in 1797, and fully annexed the Cape Colony in 1806 [24]. The First Boer War (18801881) began with the Transvaal (Limpopo) Boers declaring independence from Great Britain. The Boers resisted British encroachments into their territory until the Second 'Anglo' Boer War (1899 1902), ending with the inclusion of all Boer territories into British colonies, under the Treaty of Vereeniging. This led to a new wave of emigrants and adventurer-seekers from England, coming for

the "mineral revolution." In 1906, self-government was restored, and in 1910 the 'Union of South Africa' was created. Amid all of this turmoil and chaos, a curious discovery was being made along the banks of the Orange River, in Northern Cape...

Photo: Pub. Domain

Cecil Rhodes Cecil Rhodes (18531902) is the undisputed father of the modern diamond industry. As founder of De Beers, he was able to build a monopolistic empire through skill and cunning, although Rhodes did not start out with an interest in diamonds. As a young lad from England, he began his business interests in South Africa by servicing the "ant hill" of humanity that was descending on Kimberley during the diamond rush of the late 1800s. Rhodes started out selling ice cream to the diamond-diggers and service workers, and later selling steam-powered water pumps to drain the open-pit mines of Kimberley. Cecil Rhodes' De Beers empire was started on a farm owned by two Boer settlers and brothers, D. A. and J. N. De Beer. Around 1873 the De Beer brothers sold out to a group of mining syndicates who later merged with Cecil Rhodes' pumping company to form 'De Beers Consolidated Mines.' Cecil Rhodes died a single man with no children and, no heirs to his empire. The African nation of Rhodesia was named after him (now the Republic of Zimbabwe).

Photo: Pub. Domain

Barney Barnato During the same period that Cecil Rhodes was building De Beers Consolidated Mines, a prospector, diamond speculator and fellow Englishman named Barney Barnato (18521897) was buying up pieces of the Big Hole in Kimberley to form the Kimberley Central Mine. De Beers and Kimberley Central were the two largest mining interests in South Africa at the time. With the help of the Rothschild bank in London, Rhodes made several aborted attempt to gain control over Barnato's interest in Kimberley Central Mine, but was eventually successful in convincing Barnato to merge with De Beers. In exchange, Barnato was given appointed to 'life governor' and temporary controlling interest in De Beers [6]. One of the richest men in the world, Barnato died several years later, mysteriously falling overboard on a ship passage back to England.

Photo: Pub. Domain

Thomas M. Cullinan

Sir Thomas Major Cullinan (18601936) was the founder of one of Africa's richest diamond mines, the 'Premier Diamond Mine,' 30 kilometers east of Pretoria, in Gauteng province, South Africa. Although Cullinan was already a successful building contractor in Johannesburg, he was also an amateur geologist who had heard about alluvial diamonds being found along a stream near the old 'Cornelis Minnaar Farm' in upper Gauteng. Cullinan was interested in purchasing the farm, which had already changed hands several times, but the present owner, Willem Prinsloo (who had purchased the land for 570 in 1861) was not interested in selling. Shortly after the close Anglo Boer War (18981902), Willem Prinsloo's widow agreed to sell the land to Cullinan for 52,000, and the 'Transvaal Premier Diamond Mining Company LTD' was officially registered on the December 1, 1902 [23]. On January 25th 1905, a 3,106 carat diamond was found at the mine, which remains the largest diamond ever found in the world. When news of Premier's success hit the board room of De Beers, several aborted attempts were made to purchase the mine, but Cullinan had no intention of selling [6]. In 1914, WW1 broke out in Europe, and diamond prices began to spiral. Layoffs at the mine caused enough friction that by August, mining operations were suspended. The Premier Mine had resumed production by January 1916, but in need of cash, Cullinan sold a major stake in the mine to the Transvaal government. Frank Oats, who was now the chairman of De Beers, was able to convince the Transvaal government to sell its controlling interest in 1917, and De Beers once again enjoyed a monopoly on South African diamonds.

Diamonds and the Ashkenazi, Sephardi and Hasidic Jews

There is perhaps no other ethnic group that is so inextricably intertwined with the diamond trade, than the jews. In an odd twist of fate, it may be Portuguese explorer, Vasco da Gama's discovery of a searoute to India around Africa's Cape of Good Hope in 1488, that set the stage for the Jewish/diamond connection. Da Gama's discovery opened up a direct diamond-trading route from India's Malabar Coast and the island of Borneo, to Portugal and on the Netherlands. With Lisbon now at the forefront of the European diamond trade, many Portuguese Sephardi businessmen opened cutting houses, and quickly gained a dominant roll in the diamond-polishing industry. The Sephardi were Jews who originated from Spain and Portugal (the Iberian Peninsula), many practicing a secret adherence to Judaism known as "Crypto-Judaism," while professing other faiths. Jews who practiced their religion in the open were expelled from Spain and Portugal, when the Catholic Monarchs issued the "Alhambra Decree" in 1492 (1497 for Portugal), fleeing to Morocco, the Ottoman Empire, Antwerp and Amsterdam. When the first Jewish emigrants (Ashkenazi) came to Antwerp in the 1200s, they were welcomed, but when the Black Plague swept across Antwerp in the mid 1300s, the Jews were one of the scapegoats. Although Amsterdam's Dutch were relatively tolerant when it came to religious freedom, in 1585 Antwerp came under Spanish rule, and the Jews (this time Sephardic), were once again the focus of scrutiny. With the Spanish Inquisition in high gear, Jews were now persecuted for conducting trade with the Ottoman Empire, or for being 'pseudo-Christian.' In the 1600s, wealthy Jewish diamond-traders now living in the Netherlands, financed the 'Dutch East India Company' and its exploration of new trade routes to India, but the British were beginning to see opportunity in the diamond trade, creating new competition for the Jewish/Dutch. Prior to being granted 'civil equality' in 1796, Amsterdam's Jews were not allowed to join trade guilds, leaving the unregulated diamond industry as one of the only means of employment. By the late 18th century, many of Amsterdam's Jews were working in the diamond trade, and many of these 'Sephardi refugees' had maintained connections with Portuguese traders who now had a monopoly on the trade of raw diamonds from India. By the early 1700s, India's mines were nearing exhaustion, but a new discovery in Brazil helped to reinvigorate the diamond trade. By this time, British naval superiority proved to be a great advantage, and the 'British East India Company' was born. The European center for the diamond trade now began to move away from Amsterdam, as Jewish traders set up shop in London. The cut stones were sold to the nobility and royalty of Europe, using the Hofjude (Court Jews) as purchasing agents to select the stones from the London diamond merchants.

Photo: Pub. Domain

The Pshevorsk Hasidic Dynasty Hasidic Judaism was founded by Polish (now Ukrainian) Rabbi 'Ba'al Shem Tov', aka 'Israel ben Eliezer' (16981760) in a time when European Jews were facing increasing hostility and pressure from the "Cossacks' Uprising" in Ukraine. The Hasidic movement is a sub-group of the theologically conservative Haredi or Charedi Judaism, aka Ultra-Orthodox Judaism. The movement was seen as a way of turning inward towards a 'deeper spiritualism and mysticism.' Hasidism spread westward, making its way to western Europe in the 1800s. The Hasidic movement in Antwerp began with Rabbi Moshe of Pshevorsk, who authored 'Ohr Pnei Moshe' in 1805 [26]. The Pshevorsk is a small sub-Hasidic movement based in Antwerp, Belgium, with their hub at the study hall (beth midrash), 'Beth Yitzchok' at Mercatorstraat 56. With the discovery of vast diamond reserves in South Africa during the late 1800s, concern over a glut in the diamond market spread throughout London's diamond merchants. A group of wealthy Jewish dealers pooled their resources to form "the syndicate," which was created to soak up all of the excess capacity being created by South Africa. Today, Antwerp and London's diamond trade is largely controlled by the Hasidic Jewish community, although Indian influence is on the rise in recent years. Many of these Hasidic entrepreneurs are nameless by choice, preferring to maintain their anonymity, but they have been the driving force behind the multi-billion dollar diamond industry for hundreds of years.

Photo: Pub. Domain

Alfred Beit Alfred Beit (18531906) was born into a prominent Jewish family in Hamburg, Germany. Beit worked for the diamond firm of Jules Porges and Co. in Amsterdam before emigrating to 'Cape Colony' in 1875 during the Kimberley diamond-rush [25]. Beit was part of a group of financiers, including Cecil Rhodes, who gained control of the diamond-mining claims in the Central Mine, Dutoitspan Mine, and De Beers Mine, thereby 'consolodating' the South African mining industry. becoming a 'life-governor' of De Beers Consolidated Mines. He was also the director of the Beira Railway Company, British South Africa Company, Rand Mines, and the Rhodesia Railways. Beit, along with partner Cecil Rhodes, financed the 1895 'Jameson Raid' which was an attempt to trigger an unsuccessful coup in the South African Republic of Transvaal. The Royal School of Mines, at the Imperial College London has a large memorial to Beit, in recognition of the Beit trust's bequeathment to the university, and to educational institutions in Britain, Germany South Africa, and Zimbabwe (Rhodesia).

Photo: Pub. Domain

Sir Ernest Oppenheimer Ernest Oppenheimer (18801957) was born in Friedberg, Germany to a large Jewish family, and with several brothers working for "the syndicate," Ernest was well positioned for his future vocation. He began his career at age 17, working for the diamond brokerage firm, Dunkelsbuhler & Company in London. Oppenheimer created the concept of "single-channel marketing" over 100 years ago, by funneling the world's supply of diamonds through a single clearing house. Oppenheimer gained control of Namibia's diamond mines, forming the Anglo American mining conglomerate. This gave him the financing and power to gain the chairmanship of De Beers. Today, Oppenheimer's Anglo American operates a fleet of diamond recovery ships off the coast of Namibia and South Africa under the umbrella of De Beers Consolidated Mines Limited (DBCM), and Central Holdings Limited (CHL), an Oppenheimer family holding company, and in partnership with Namdeb.

Photo: Pub. Domain

Nicky Oppenheimer Ernest's grandson, Nicky Oppenheimer (born 1945) studied philosophy at Oxford as a young man, and is now the chairman of the De Beers Diamond Mining Company and its subsidiary Diamond Trading Company. The Oppenheimer family and Anglo American maintains a 45% stake in De Beers today. Africa's richest man, and #134 on the Forbes list of the world's richest people, Nicky Oppenheimer is worth an estimated $4.5 billion. Under new legislation, passed by the African National Congress, Nicky Oppenheimer was forced to sell a 26% share of De Beers to the South African 'Black Economic Empowerment' group (BEE). This was the first major ownership change for De Beers in over a century. Of the legislation Oppenheimer said: "De Beers is here to make a profit, but we must benefit the people and communities where we operate."

Photo: Pub. Domain

Lev Leviev The Lev Leviev Group, created by Israeli national, Lev Leviev (born 1956 in Tashkent, Uzbekistan) is the worlds largest cutter and polisher (diamantaire) of rough diamonds, with factories in Armenia, India, Israel, and the Ukraine. The Lev Leviev Group also owns mining interests in Namibia's offshore dredging operations. Through his personal relationship to Vladimir Putin and other Russian heads of

state, Lev Leviev has formed a partnership with the ex Soviet state-owned diamond firm, now called ALROSA (Almazy-Rossii-Sakha) [7], formed by Decree 158C of the Russian Federation, in 1992. By circumventing the De Beers supply chain, Alrosa now sells direct to cutting factories throughout Russia, which are now owned by Lev Leviev. ALROSA produces 100% of Russia's rough diamond output and approximately 20% of the world's rough diamonds [9]. Using this model of "local control," the Leviev Group has found willing partners in several countries including Angola's ASCORP after De Beers' exit in 2001. Mr. Leviev's net-worth is estimated at $2.5 billion (#278 Forbes List). Lev Leviev lives in B'nei Brak, Israel, with his wife and their nine children.

Photo: Pub. Domain

Laurence Graff Laurence Graff (1938) is a DeBeers sightholder, founder of the House of Graff in the heart of London's posh New Bond Street, and one of the most successful diamond merchants in modern history. Graff's strategy of "vertically integration" has been to control every angle of the diamond pipeline, from wholesale and retail, to purchasing a 51% stake in Safdico (South African Diamond Corp.), a DeBeers sightholder in Johannesburg, which gives him access to some of the finest uncut diamonds coming out of South Africa. Raised by his grandparents, Laurence Graff was born into a Jewish orthodox family in London's poorer 'East End' district. Graff has been dubbed the "king of diamonds," and the "king of bling" by Forbes magazine [28], selling to the rich and famous from Elizabeth Taylor and Donald Trump, to Larry Ellison. Graff has co-authored (with Vanessa von Zitzewitz) "The Most Fabulous Jewels in the World," a compendium and history of his most famous jewels. One of his most notable acquisitions was the 603 carat "Lesotho Promise diamond, found on August 22, 2006 at the Letseng diamond mine in the tiny Kingdom of Lesotho in the center of the Republic of South Africa. Lesotho Promise is the 15th largest diamond ever found, and the largest rough unearthed in this century. It will ultimately be cut into an estimated 20 or so 'D-flawless' stones ranging from 75 carats to 1 carat in size. House of Graff is also located on London's Sloane Street, and has satellite locations in Wafi City, Dubai; Monte Carlo; New York's Madison Avenue; Hotel de Paris' salon priv in Paris; Tretiakovsky Proezd in Moscow, Russia; and on board the luxury residential ship The World ResidenSea. Graff's net worth is estimated at 2.5 billion dollars [28]. All House of Graff stones have a laser-inscribed girdle with the 'Graff' logo and GIA number.

The Hindustani Diamond Cutters

Photo: dnavin.com

Gujarat's Indian Diamantaires

Diamonds made their first reluctant appearance in human history over 2400 years ago, and were written about in an ancient Sanskrit manuscript called the "The Lesson of Profit" Arthasastra (c. 320 BC) by Kautiliya, a minister to the Indian king, Chandragupta. The Sanskrit word for 'diamond' was vajra, or "thunderbolt." The Indians would go on to enjoy a singular reign over the diamond-rich dominionknown as Hindustanfor another two thousand years, and although India's famous "Diamonds of Golconda" were mined-out hundreds of years ago, the Indians would not be giving up their rightful heritage as diamantaires. Much of India's diamond trade is controlled by a handful of wealthy families in Gujarat, the Hindustan Diamond Company Ltd. (HDC), and De Beers India. It is estimated that India cuts, polishes, and exports several billion dollars worth of gems per year, and the DTC has demonstrated Gujarat's power in the diamond cutting/polishing arena by increasing India's take of its 125 sightholder contracts to nearly 50 in 2006. Companies like Bhavani Gems, D. Navinchandra & Co (board of directors - above), Gitanjali Gems, M. Suresh & Co, Sanghavi Exports, Shree Ramkrishna Exports, Venus Jewels, and Vijaydimon are family owned operations run by Jains with the common surnames of Jhavari, Mehta, and Shah. Jainism is an ancient Indian religious sect believing in the 'Jain' philosophy, based upon eternal, universal truths. Gitanjali Gems is one of the largest manufacturers of diamonds and diamond jewelry in India, with diamond cutting factories located in Borivali, Mumbai, Gujarat, and Surat's 'Special Economic Zone' [12]. The Indo Argyle Diamond Council (IADC) formed in 1994 as a consortium of Indian jewelry manufacturers and cutting houses, to elevate quality standards, improve perceptions, heighten awareness of ethical business practices, and to develop an "understanding of the world market." The Bharat Diamond Bourse in Mumbai, is the newest addition to India's arsenal of global marketing tools to promote exports.

Photo: rosyblue.com

Dilip Mehta Indian diamantaire, Dilip Mehta of Mumbai, India (born 1949), is the CEO of the 'Rosy Blue Group' which is currently one of the world's largest diamond companies, with $1.7 billion in annual sales [17]. Harshad Mehta ("Diamond King of the world") is one of the founders of Rosy Blue, and is currently a Senior Partner and head of the UAE division. Several other divisions of the Rosy Blue Group, from Hong Kong to Israel, are headed and staffed by Mehta family members. Of the $26 billion per year diamond revenues that flow through Antwerp, The Indian communities' share has grown to around 60%, displacing the Hasidim as the dominant force in the industry [14]. This vast fortune is shared by some 300 to 500 Gujaratis families from Palanpur on the GujaratRajasthan border [15].

Photo: Pub. Domain

Bharat & Vijay Shah Bharat and Vijay Shah came from a family of jewelers going back three generations. The brothers, both college dropouts, started out thirty years ago by purchasing cheaper stones that the Dutch Hasidim, and Israelis didn't want to work with [19]. By slowly developing markets, they were able to gain an increasingly larger share of the wholesale diamond trade, propelling their twin companies,

Vijaydimon (Belgium) and B Vijaykumar (India) , into a global position with nearly $1 Billion a year in sales. Vijaydimon is a DTC sightholder with offices in Belgium, China, India, Hong Kong, Singapore, Thailand, UAE, and the United States. Vijaydimon also purchases rough diamonds from Canada's Diavik Mine and Argyle (Rio Tinto) and Russia [21]. The company has cutting factories in Antwerp, Bangkok, Bombay, Palanpur, Surat, and Tel Aviv, employing 22,000 workers.

Diamonds and the African Nationals

Photos: Public Domain

Kabila, Kabbah, dos Santos, Mandela, & Mogae Starting with Botswana's independence in 1966, and the end to South African apartheid in 1994, many of the ex-colonial nations of Sub-Saharan Africa are starting to emerge as powerful and legitimate forces in the diamond industry. At the age of 29, Joseph Kabila (above, left), succeeded his father (Laurent-Dsir Kabila) as president the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DROC) after his assassination in January 2001. After winning a disicive re-election victory in 2006, Kabila, who was a major general in the army, is receiving broad support from the South Africa, Angola and from mining magnates, all who have signed multi-million dollar trade deals. The president of Sierra Leone, Ahmad Tejan Kabbah, is making great strides in stabilizing the country after years of strife. In a post-conflict reconstruction effort, the 'United Nations Industrial Development Orginization' (UNIDO), working in cooperation with the government of Sierra Leone, created a program for capacity-building of 'small and medium-sized enterprise' (SME) development. After years of fighting between the PMLA and UNITA, the political situation in Angola has begun to normalize. On a somewhat darker note, president Jos Eduardo dos Santos is preventing democratic elections from taking place, only hinting at their possibility in 2007 or 2008. The last democratic election in Angola was in 1992. Botswana is a relatively wealthy African country, with one of the fastest per-capita income growth rates in the world. Botswana has held regular elections and has been one of the more stable governments in southern Africa. President Festus Mogae was elected for a second term in 2004, and enjoys broad support, both domestically and internationally.

Diamonds and the Americans

Photo: Pub. Domain

N.W. Ayer & Son

"A diamond is forever" is the legendary saying that was created by America's first advertising agency, N.W. Ayer & Son. The Great Depression had taken a heavy toll on luxury goods during the 1930s, and the diamond industry was particularly hard hit. De Beers president, Harry Frederick Oppenheimer enlisted the help of N.W. Ayer in 1938, and a series of diamond-related slogans were introduced into the American lexicon. In 1948 the famous "A diamond is forever" slogan was introduced.

Photo: Pub. Domain

Charles Lewis Tiffany Charles Lewis Tiffany (18121902), aka "the King of Diamonds," was the co-founder of Tiffany & Co. which started out as 'Tiffany & Young' of New York City in 1837. Tiffany & Young, located at 259 Broadway, was originally a 'fancy goods' emporium, specializing in one-of-a-kind baubles for New York's newly-minted industrialists and 'robber-barons.' During the 1800s, Charles Tiffany, who was known for his jewelry expertise, purchased diamonds, gems and jewelry from the estates of the European aristocracy, for resale in America. After the French revolution in 1799, the public's tolerance towards nobility was at a low point. With financial shockwaves caused by the French economy's collapse in 1847, and the subsequent overthrowing of King Louis-Philippe of France in 1848, the values of ostentatious gems and jewelry dropped precipitously, and Tiffany seized on the opportunity. Tiffany was able to purchase significant gems from such renowned estates as: the 'jewel-mad' Duke of Brunswick, Prince Esterhazy of Hungary, and from the Spanish Crown Jewels [27]. One of Tiffany's most notable diamond acquisitions was a 287.42 carat rough flawless-yellow diamond from the 'Compagnie Franais de Diamant du Cap' (Kimberley mine) in 1877. The stone was cut in Paris, producing the 128.54 carat 'The Tiffany Diamond.' The stone was set into a garish jewelry piece called "Bird on a Rock," by Jean Schlumberger in the 1960s. A 19.72 carat cushion-cut diamond (one of the "Diamonds of Golconda") was mounted by Tiffany, and sold to Nanaline Duke (now in the Doris Duke Collection). The 'Tiffany & Co.' brand was catapulted into the stratosphere by the 1961 movie 'Breakfast at Tiffany's,' staring Audrey Hepburn, and featuring the memorable scene in which Holly gazes longingly into Tiffany's window display. The Tiffany is still selling luxury jewelry in their trademarked 'Tiffany Blue Box,' at the flagship store on Fifth Avenue and 57th Street.

Photo: Pub. Domain

Hollywood in 1949 Coming just on the heels of the immortal "a diamond is forever" campaign, De Beers and the diamond industry got another shot in the arm; this time from playwriter, Jule Styne. Jule Styne (born Julius Kerwin Stein) was born in London, the son of Jewish immigrants from the Ukraine. After attending Chicago Musical College, Styne moved to Hollywood where he began a collaboration with lyricist Sammy Cahn. Styne wrote the score for the 1949 Broadway musical 'Gentlemen Prefer Blondes,' which was adapted to film in 1953. The movie version featured Marilyn Monroe's famous rendition of the song "Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend," after here charecter, Lorelei receives a diamond tiara from her suitor, Sir Francis "Piggy" Beekman.

Photo: Warner Bros. 2006

Hollywood in 2006 Blood Diamond is the latest incarnation of Hollywood's fascination with diamond. This time, the glamor is laid bare, as writer Charles Leavitt takes us through the dark underbelly of the diamond trade. Through interviews with human-rights organizations like Doctors Without Borders and Global Witness, Leavitt weaves a tale of Sierra Leone's impoverished "diamond diggers," and the terrible working conditions that these workers must endure. In a preemptive strike against any negative publicity that the movie would generate, the World Diamond Council placed ten full-page ads in newspapers around the county.

The Consumer Last, but not least, we have the faceless American consumer, the unsung hero in the diamond trade. Were it not for intrepid consumers, and their willingness to purchase the concept of "foreverness," there would be no "diamond trade."

Diamond Grading: Diamond Certificates (Certs)

Gemological Laboratory Certification

Why do you need a laboratory certification for your diamond? Although it may seem like a needless expense, a diamond certificates, grading report, certificate of authenticity, appraisal report, or "cert" may be your only assurance that you are getting exactly what you paid for. Diamonds are tested for

the basics (cut dimensions and proportions, clarity, color, and carat weight) and they are also tested for traces of gem enhancement, and wether they are synthetic. Although even a lay-person may be able to tell the difference between a triple-zero diamond and a cheap, poorly cut SI-3 grade stone, there is very little (visible) difference between a FL stone and a IF or VVS-1 stone - other than the price, which can be substantially different. If you are purchasing an "investment grade" diamond it is essential to have a detailed cert from a reputable gemological laboratory that specializes in diamonds - not only for resale, but for insurance appraisal as well.

GIA Certificate
A GIA (Gemological Institute of America) report provides detailed information about the dimensions, carat weight, shape and cut of a stone. GIA reports also cover any treatments or enhancements that have been done, and of corse, wether the stone is natural or synthetic. Although GIA's diamond grading methodology is the industry standard they are also known for their "colored stone grading system" used to quantify the hue, tone, and saturation of a colored stone.

The GIA was founded by Robert M. Shipley in 1931, the same year that Shipley published his groundbreaking book titled 'Gemology.' GIA's world headquarters are located in Carlsbad, California, with offices around the globe.

IGI Certificate
The International Gemological Institute (IGI) is the oldest institute of its kind in Antwerp, founded in 1975, and is the largest independent gem certification and appraisal institute in the United States, with operations in New York City, Los Angeles, Toronto, Antwerp, Bangkok, Mumbai, Tokyo, Dubai and Hong Kong. The IGI offers Identification Reports, Appraisal Reports, Certificates of Authenticity, and Attestations of Origin.

The IGI lab grades diamonds as well as colored gemstones along several basic criteria which include: shape and cut, clarity, origin (colored gems), mesurments, weight, color, and finish.

HRD Antwerp Diamond Certificate

The certificates department of HRD Antwerp in Antwerpen, Belgium issues quality reports for loose (unmounted) polished diamonds according to ISO 17025 international standards for gemelogical testing laboratories. All diamonds are examined anonymously, and the graders can not know the identity of the owner. HRD also offers gemelogical training and continuing education courses in diamond grading, the sorting of rough diamonds, jewellery design and gemology.

HRD uses the "Hearts and Arrows" measuring system which was developed by HRD Antwerp scientists, as well as quantifying the standard parameters of Clarity, Cut, Carat Weight, Shape, Color, and Fluorescence. HRD's refined Cut Grading system measures each of the three parameters (proportions, polish and symmetry) using a scale ranging from Excellent to Fair, with "Triple Excellent" being the highest overall designation.

As well as testing for synthetic diamonds, the HRD lab also uses state-of-the-art technology to test for subtle and hard to recognize enhancements such as HPHT. To insure the security of their documents, HRD uses complex watermarking to prevent copying or falsifying their reports, and gives you the option of having your diamond returned in a tamper-proof sealed container to insure that a given certificate and the accompanying diamond belong together. Aditionally, certificates issued after January 1, 2005 can be viewed online.

AGSL Certificate
The AGSL was the first gem lab to grade a diamond's cut quality using three parameters: Polish, Symmetry, and Proportions. Each parameter is given a 'grade' from 0 (Ideal) to 10 (Poor). In 2004 AGS added a new category referred to as "Light Performance" but to retained the "Triple Zero" monicker for diamonds with a perfect score, 'Polish' and 'Symmetry' were merged into one category called "Finish," and "Proportions" was renamed "Proportion Factors." The AGS Cut Grading system was developed through of years of research by gemologists, mathematicians, and optical physicists.

Diamond Grading AGS Diamond Quality Report (DQD)

AGS Gemological Laboratory Background

Article Copyright 2009 AllAboutGemstones.com The American Gem Society was founded in 1934 by Robert M. Shipley, creator of the Gemological Institute of America (GIA), along with a consortium of independent jewelers. The mission of the AGS is to increase consumer awareness, and to set a higher standard of business ethics and professional practices in the jewelry industry. The AGS Gemological Laboratories was established in 1996 to provide state-of-the-art diamond grading and appraisal services to the jewelry industry. Today, AGS is considered the premier diamond-grading laboratory, having the most rigid grading standards, as well as the most comprehensive system for grading the all-important 'cut' parameters. The AGS specializes in diamond testing and evaluation, and does not evaluate other types of colored gemstones. An AGS report, referred to as a "Diamond Quality Document" or "DQD," is not an appraisal of monetary value, but rather a comprehensive quality evaluation. The AGS Diamond Quality Document uses a unique and proprietary 0 to 10 grading system that is simpler for the consumer to understand than the GIA's grading nomenclature. AGS grades diamond color on a numeric sliding scale that is similar to GIA's alphabetical scale. A diamond's clarity is also graded on a simple numeric scale from 0 to 10, as opposed to GIA's vvs, vs, and s ratings.

Cut Grade: Finish, Proportions & Light Performance

The AGSL was the first gem lab to grade a diamond's cut quality using three parameters: Polish, Symmetry, and Proportions. Each parameter is given a numeric grade from 0 (Ideal) to 10 (Poor). In 2004 AGS added a new category that is referred to as "Light Performance," but to retained the "Triple Zero" monicker for diamonds with a perfect score, 'Polish' and 'Symmetry' were merged into one category called "Finish," and "Proportions" was renamed "Proportion Factors." The AGS Cut grading system was developed through years of research by gemologists, mathematicians, and optical physicists.

AGS uses the "Light Performance" designation to quantify 'light return' by using a ray-tracing software program to follow the path of light rays as they travel through the diamond. The ray-tracing program measures the quantity of the light being returned to the viewer by quantifying brightness, contrast, dispersion, leakage and light spread.

AGS Triple Ideal or 'Triple 0' Grade

The gold-standard for a diamond's AGS cut-grade is the "triple zero," or "ideal" rating. When all three parameters are in perfect harmony the diamond is given a "Triple 0" or "Triple Ideal" grading. The AGSL grades a diamond's symmetry and proportions according to the accuracy of crown/pavilion angles, where facets intersect with each-other, relative facet angles, and individual facet ratios; all measured in three spacial dimensions.

AGS Diamond Grading System

On the inside fold of an AGS Diamond Quality grading report there is a legend explaining the unique AGS nomenclature with comparisons to GIA's grading system, as well as the symbols used to identify inclusion or internal flaw types that are 'mapped' and marked on the 'Proportions' diagram. AGS uses a 3D-scan of the actual diamond, in conjunction with proprietary AGS mapping software (similar to a Sarin or OGI scan) to create the line diagram shown on the report (above).

AGS Diamond Color Saturation Designations

Colorless - 0 to 1.0 (GIA Equivalent: D to F) Near Colorless - 1.5 to 3.0 (GIA Equivalent: G to J) Faint - 3.5 to 4.5 (GIA Equivalent: K to M) Very Light - 5.0 to 7.0 (GIA Equivalent: N to R) Light - 7.5 to Fancy (GIA Equivalent: S to Z)

Diamond Fluorescence
As of 2003, the 'inert' and/or 'faint' fluorescence designations (lower left corner of document) have been replaced by a single term 'negligible,' meaning "not significant or important enough to be worth considering."

Document Security
Each AGS grading document is marked with a hologram (dark circle at lower right of report) and watermarking or embossing to prevent fraudulent duplication. In the upper left corner of the document there is a unique AGS reference number that can be used when contacting AGS with questions about your report.

Triple-0 Round Brilliant Setting

'American Star Diamond' 13.42 Carat D, Flawless

Other Services Supplied by AGS

The AGS will soon be entering into an alliance/partnership with one of the premier testing labs of colored gemstones, the American Gem Trade Association (AGTA), through AGS offices in Antwerp, Dubai, India and Israel. The AGS supplies 'facet arrangement' templates corresponding to their cutgrading system, which are used by non-contact measuring-device manufacturers such as Sarin Technologies, OctoNus Software, and OGI Systems. AGS will also provide analysis of a manufacturers 'cut performance' by analyzing a sample stone's Sarin file, so that the cutter can improve the light performance of their cut stones.

Obtaining an AGS Report

AGS is a 'trade-industry' testing laboratory that will only evaluate diamonds sent from jewelers or manufacturers. Additionally, AGS will only evaluate loose, unmounted diamonds. Pricing for a diamond grading report is based on carat weight. As of 2005, AGSL reports will also grade cut quality for emerald, princess, and octagon step-cut diamonds, and will soon be offering cut evaluations for other fancy shapes. AGS offers laser inscription services as well.

Diamonds: Gem & Diamond Mining Technology

Photos: Public Domain

Diamond & Gem Mining - Extraction Methods

Article Copyright 2009 AllAboutGemstones.com Diamonds and other precious and semi-precious gemstones are extracted from the earth using five basic mining techniques. These diamond extraction methods vary depending on how the minerals are deposited within the earth, the stability of the material that surrounds that desired gem or mineral, and the peripheral damage that will be done to the surrounding environment. The principle methods of diamond extraction are:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Artisanal Mining Hard Rock Mining Marine Mining Open Pit Mining Placer Mining

Hard-Rock Diamond Mining The term "hard-rock mining" (top of page, left) refers to various techniques used to extract gems, minerals, and ore bodies that are in situ, and can only be accessed by tunneling underground and creating underground "rooms" or "stopes" that are supported by timber pillars or standing rock.

Accessing the underground ore is achieved via a horizontal passageway called a "decline," or a by a vertical "shaft." A decline is a spiral (corkscrew) tunnel which circles the ore deposit, while a shaft is

vertical tunnel used for ore haulage, running adjacent to the ore. A decline is typically used for mining personnel, machinery, and access to the ore. Open Pit Mining Open-pit diamond mining, also known as "open-cast mining" (top of page, center) is a method of extracting rock and minerals from the earth by removal from a machine-dug open pit or burrow. Open pit mines are typically used when mineral deposits are found close to the surface or along defined kimberlite pipes.

Diamonds in Kimberlite Matrix - Photo: USGS

Alluvial Diamond - Smithsonian Museum

Open pit mining is used when the surface material (overburden) covering the deposit is relatively thin and/or the desired minerals are imbedded within structurally unstable earth (cinder, gravel, or sand) that is unsuitable for tunneling. Small "pit lakes" tend to form at the bottom of open-pit mines as a result of groundwater intrusion. Placer Mining Placer diamond mining, also known as "sand-bank mining" (top of page, right) is used for extracting diamonds and minerals from alluvial, eluvial, and or colluvial secondary deposits, and is a derivative form of open-cast mining used to extract minerals from the surface of the earth without the use of tunneling. Excavation is accomplished using water pressure (hydraulic mining), mechanized surface excavating equipment, or hand digging (artisanal mining). Diamonds and most gemstones are hard, highly resistant to weathering, and have a specific gravity that is higher than that of common minerals, rock or sedimentary soil, therefore, they tend to concentrate in alluvial deposits in the same way that gold placers develop. Gems are separated from waste material using various sifting and sorting techniques such as cone screens, box screens, or pans, which concentrate the heavier gems at the bottom, or sort material according to size. Marine Mining Marine mining technology only became commercially viable in the early 1990s. Marine diamond mining employs both "vertical" and "horizontal" techniques to extract diamonds from offshore placer deposits, at a maximum depth of 500 feet. Vertical marine mining uses a 6 to 7 meter diameter drill head to cut into the seabed and suck up the diamond bearing material from the sea bed. Horizontal mining employs the use of Seabed Crawlers (remotely controlled, CAT-tracked underwater mining vehicles) move across the sea floor pumping gravel up to an offshore vessel. While on board, the gravels are separated and sorted into three sizes, with the middle size being a candidate for final sorting. Artisanal Mining Artisanal diamond mining (aka "small-scale mining") involves nothing more that digging and sifting through mud or gravel river-bank alluvial deposits (above, right) with bare hands, shovels, or large conical sieves. Laborers who work in artisanal diamond mining are called "diamond diggers" (below left). Artisanal diamond mining is a form of "subsistence based" non-mechanized mining that is used in poorer countries throughout the world.

Artisanal diamond mining is used throughout west Africa, in conflict zones where mechanized mining is impractical and unsafe. Artisanal diamond mining accounts for 90% of Sierra Leone's diamond exports and is the country's second largest employer after subsistence farming. It is also used extensivly in Angola, the Congo (DROC), and Liberia.

Diamonds: Diamond Geology

Diamond Geology & Kimberlites
Kimberlite Pipes Diamonds form at a depth greater than 93 miles (150 kilometers) beneath the earth's surface. After their formation, diamonds are carried to the surface of the earth by volcanic activity. As this molten mixture of magma (molten rock), minerals, rock fragments, and diamonds approaches the earth's surface it begins to form an underground structure (pipe) that is shaped like a champagne-flute. These pipes are called "kimberlites" or "kimberlite pipes" (see diagram below). Kimberlite pipes can lie directly underneath shallow lakes formed in the inactive volcanic calderas or craters.

Kimberlite is a diamondiferous igneous-rock matrix composed of carbonate, garnet, olivine, phlogopite, pyroxene, serpentine, and upper mantle rock, with a variety of trace minerals. Kimberlite occurs in the zone of the Earth's crust in vertical structures known as kimberlite pipes (above, right). Kimberlites are found as "dikes" and "volcanic pipes" which underlie and are the source for rare and relatively small volcanoes or "maars" (above, left). Kimberlite pipes are the most significant source of diamonds, yet only about 1 in every 200 kimberlite pipes contain gem-quality diamonds. Many kimberlite pipes also produce alluvial diamond placer deposits. Diamond bearing kimberlite in some parts of South Africa is black in color (above, right). Most kimberlite is called "blue-ground" kimberlite (above, left) or "yellow-ground" kimberlite and can be found worldwide. The name "Kimberlite" was derived from the South African town of Kimberly where the first diamonds were found in this type of rock conglomeration (see section on "Kimberley - North Cape" below).

Open Pit Mine - Photo: Public Domain

Lamproite Pipes Lamproite pipes produce diamonds to a lesser extent than kimberlite pipes. Lamproite pipes are created in a similar manner to kimberlite pipes, except that boiling water and volatile compounds contained in the magma act corrosively on the overlying rock, resulting in a broader cone of eviscerated rock at the surface. This results in a martini-glass shaped diamondiferous deposit as opposed to kimberlite's champagne flute shape. The Argyle diamond mine in Western Australia is one of the first commercial open-cast diamond mines that is dug along an olivine lamproite pipe. The Argyle pipe is a diatreme, or breccia-filled volcanic pipe that is formed by gas or volatile explosive magma which has breached the surface to form a "tuff" (consolidated volcanic ash) cone. Breccia is a rock composed of angular fragments of several minerals or rocks in a matrix, or "cementing material," that may be similar, or different in composition to the fragments themselves. There are several types of breccia which are categorized based on their geological origin, including: hydrothermal breccia, igneous breccia, impact breccia, sedimentary breccia, and tectonic breccia. Alluvial (Placer) Diamond Deposits The location of alluvial (secondary or placer) diamond deposits is controlled by the surrounding topography. Alluvial diamond deposits are usually located within river terrace gravels that have been transported from their location of origin, usually from kimberlite deposits. Diamondiferous material tends to concentrate in and around 'oxbow lakes,' which are created by abandoned river meanders. These dried 'lakes' receive river water during seasonal flooding which transports large amounts of sediment held in suspension.

Alluvial Diamonds from Africa - Photo: Public Domain

Diamonds in Kimberlite Matrix - Photo: NASA

The alluvial terrace gravels (below, left) and marine gravels of the south-western coastline of Africa represent the some of the world's largest placer diamond deposits. The world's largest known gem quality alluvial diamond deposits are located along the Namib Desert coastline of southwestern Africa, known as the Sperrgebiet or "forbidden territory," and along the Orange River near Alexander Bay.

Namibia's placer diamond deposits are between 40 and 80 million years old, carried from their primary origination point on the Kaapvaal Craton, in central South Africa and Botswana. Alluvial diamond mining in Angola takes place along a meandering stretch of the Cuango River floodplain which is also along the south-western coastline of Africa. Some of the largest and highest gemquality diamonds produced from alluvial placer diamond mining have come from this region, including Angola's two largest diamonds at 105.9k and 101.8k.

Alluvial Terrace Gravels - Photo: Wiki

Diamond-Bearing 'Diamondiferous' Gravel

Many of these alluvial diamond deposits occur in Pleistocene and Holocene successions (1.8 million to 10,000 years ago). The diamonds within these deposits were transported from deeply-eroded diamondiferous kimberlites or, to a lesser extent, from olivine lamproites formed during the Cretaceous or Permo-Triassic period. Westward draining river systems transported these diamonds to Africa's continental coastline for final deposition within on-shore marine terrace gravels. Diamonds that were transported downstream, but were not deposited on land, made their way to the sea bed just offshore. Diamonds in marine areas are typically trapped in bedrock depressions such as gullies, potholes, depressions, channels or other trapsites for diamondiferous deposits.

Diamond Mines of the World: Active Diamond Mines

List of Active Diamond Mines

All Contents Copyright 2009 AllAboutGemstones.com

Currently there are eleven major 'diamond producing' nations, and a host of other counties with operational and/or historic alluvial, open pit, and hard rock diamond mines. There are also several African nations with ongoing off-shore dredging/vacuming operations.

These lists also contains new project explorations, mining operator info, mining industry inside news, links to satellite images of the mines (where available), and any relevant geographic data.

Active Mines

| Inactive Mines

| Future Exploration

| Mining Companies

Africa
Angola
1. 2. 3. 4. 1. 2. 3. 4. 1. 2. 1. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 1. 1. 2. Catoca Diamond Mine: Fourth largest diamond mine in world. Kimberlite pipe. map Fucauma Diamond Mine: Newly constructed. Owned by Endiama (40%) & Trans Hex (35%). Luarica Diamond Mine: Owned by Endiama (38%) & Trans Hex (32%). Luzamba Diamond Mine: Angola's largest alluvial mine, Endiama (50%), Odebrecht (50%). map Damtshaa Diamond Mine: (water for a tortoise) New open pit mine. De Beers / Botswana. map Jwaneng Diamond Mine: (place of small stones) richest mine in world. De Beers/Botswana. map Letlhakane Diamond Mine: ("little reeds") second oldest of four - De Beers / Botswana. map Orapa Diamond Mine: (resting place for lions) Largest/oldest of four - DeBeers/Botswana. map Bakwanga Mine: (aka Bushimae, Lubilash) Alluvial river mines in Kasa. MIBA. map Forminire Diamond Mine: Alluvial mine located on the River Tshikapa, in Kasa - closed. map Letseng Diamond Mine: Open-cast mine in Maluti Mountains 70 km from Mokhotlong. map Elizabeth Bay Mine: Open-cast mine in Namib desert, south of Lderitz. Namdeb. map Orange River (Daberas) Mines: Orange River alluvium. Namdeb Namib Gov. map Marine Mining: Namco Mining operates a dredging fleet off the west coast of Namibia. map Magna Egoli Mine: Largest mechanized mine in Sierra Leone. Waldman Resources, Israel. map Koidu-Sefadu Mines: Subsistence digging in alluvium pits west of Koidu. map Koidu Open Pit Mines: Kimberlite open-pit mines just south of Koidu. map Baken Diamond Mine: Located along Orange River in North Cape, So Africa. Trans Hex. map Cullinan Diamond Mine: Open Pit/Hard Rock diamond mine owned by De Beers. map Finsch Diamond Mine: Finsch is an open-pit mine near Lime Acres, De Beers operated. map Kimberley Diamond Mine: Started in 1871, the Kimberley Open Pits closed in 2005. map Koffiefontein Diamond Mine: The Koffiefontein mine opened in 1870. Closed in 2006. map The Oaks Diamond Mine: In Limpopo province. Open-pit mine De Beers operated. map Venetia Diamond Mine: Limpopo, produces over 40% of world's gem-quality diamonds. map Williamson Diamond Mine: (aka Mwadui mine) Open Pit mine. 75% De Beers ownership map Murowa Diamond Mine: Open Pit & Underground mine. 75% De Beers ownership. map River Ranch Diamond Mine: Open Pit & Underground mine. 75% De Beers ownership. map

Botswana

Congo (DROC or RDC) Lesotho Namibia

Sierra Leone

South Africa

Tanzania Zimbabwe

Australia
East Kimberley
1. Argyle Diamond Mine: Largest producer in world, mostly industrial grade. Rio Tinto. map

Borneo
Cempaka/Riam Kanan, South Kalimantan
1. Cempaka Diamond Mines: Alluvials mined by indigenous artisanal Kalimantan miners. map

Canada
North West Territories (NWT)
1. 2. Diavik Diamond Mine: The Diavik diamond mine is located in the NWT. map Ekati Diamond Mine: Canada's first diamond mining operation, located in NWT. map

India
Madhya Pradesh
1. Panna Diamond Mine: Alluvial mine in state of Madhya Pradesh. map

Russia
Siberia
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Aikhal GOK Mine: Three open-pit kimberlite pipe mines: Aikhal, Jubilee, and Sytykan. map Anabar GOK Mine: The norther most location of Russia's diomond mines. map Jubilee (Yubileinaya) Mine: Newer open-pit kimberlite mine near Udachny. Alrosa. Mirna Mine: Largest diamond deposit in Russia and one of the largest in the world. map Udachnaya (Udachny) Pipe Mine: One of the deepest diamond mines in the world. map