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notes as a minimalist approach for someone aiming for a solid B grade. At
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already here?
Edexcel AS Revision
Unit 1: Lifestyle, Transport, Genes &
Health
Topic 1: Lifestyle, health & Risk
1.1.2
Property Explanation
Less dense as a solid Arctic ecosystems float, ice insulates water beneath it
etc
High SHC Cells do not heat up or cool down easily, therefore can
hold a fairly stable temp. (cf enzymes)
Present naturally in all Allows the water cycle to function
three states
Transparent Allows photosynthesis underwater
Cohesion Generates surface tension, capillary uptake,
transpiration etc
Good solvent Essential role in transport in biological systems
Immiscible with Allows membranes to form and, therefore, control
hydrophobic molecules movement in / out of cells
High latent heat of Evaporation of water has a strong cooling effect and
evaporation comparatively little water is required to lose a lot of
heat
Buffer Water is capable of accepting and donating protons,
therefore acts as a buffer
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes Written by Tim Filtness
1.1.3
Saccharides are made from sugar molecules, which are made from
combinations of the elements Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen only
OH
α Glucose Β Glucose
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes Written by Tim Filtness
1. Heat + HCL
2. OR an enzyme (e.g. Amylase)
1.1.5
Triglycerides are either fats or oils. They are made from the
elements C, H & O only.
1 x glycerol
3 x fatty acid
The C=C bonds form ‘kinks’ in the fatty acid chains, which push
adjacent triglycerides away from each other. This lowers the
effect of intermolecular forces (e.g. van der vaal’s forces), which
lowers the boiling and melting temp.
1.1.6
Fick’s law:
Distance
1.1.7
Aorta
Vena Cava
Pulmonary Artery
Semi-lunar Valve
Cuspid Valve
Vena Cava
0 – 0.2s Atrial Systole The atria contract, atrial pressure rises and
blood is pushed from atria → ventricles
0.2 – 0.3s Ventricular The ventricles contract, ventricular pressure
Systole rises above atrial pressure and the cuspid valves
shut (1)
3. The AVN conducts the wave into the Ventricles slowly, which
gives the ventricles time to fill.
1.1.8
Artery:
collagen &
connective tissue
smooth muscle
& elastic tissue
lumen (blood)
0.1-10mm
Key Points:
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes Written by Tim Filtness
Vein:
collagen &
connective tissue
smooth muscle
& elastic tissue
semilunar valve
lumen (blood)
0.1-20mm
Veins carry low pressure blood towards the heart.
Key Points:
Capillary:
basement
Small holemembrane
(collagen)
endothelium cell
8 µm
Capillaries are adapted for exchange – they are not connected
directly to the heart.
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes Written by Tim Filtness
Key Points:
1. Walls are one cell thick (cells are called endothelial cells)
2. Lumen is the same width as one RBC (therefore more of RBC
in contact with wall, therefore smaller diffusion distance)
3. No muscle or elastic tissue
4. Tiny (compare the scales and remind yourself what a чm is)
1.1.9
5. Atheroma forms
As hypertension speeds atheroma
6. Lumen narrows formation these steps are a vicious
7. Pressure increases cycle!
Clot formation:
Thromboplastin
1.1.12
Risk factors for CVD. There are lots, but these 7 are specifically
mentioned on your syllabus
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes Written by Tim Filtness
1.1.13
Antihypertensives
Diuretics – The Loop of Henle is the part of the nephron (in the
kidney) that regulates water reabsorption. Essentially, it puts Na+
back into the blood by active transport. This lowers the water
potential in the blood, so water follows the Na+ by osmosis. Most
diuretics block the protein that actively transports the Na+, so less
water is returned to the blood, thus reducing the pressure.
1. The blood gets more viscous, which makes the heart beat
harder
2. Dehydration can occur
3. Only treating the symptom
There are some side effects in some cases (e.g. sleep disturbance,
depression, vasoconstriction of the extremities) but generally
they’re pretty good. One of the main problems is bradycardia,
which can become serious if you have CHD. Can you explain why?
Ca2+ channel blockers – stop the heart muscle from contracting too
hard. You don’t need to know why, but if you’re interested look up
Starling’s Law of the heart…
1. General vasoconstriction
2. Causes the hypothalamus to release ADH (look it up from
GCSE, it was in Unit 3), which increases water reabsorption by
the kidney
3. Stimulates the brain to release aldosterone, which causes the
kidneys to increase salt reabsorption, which in turn increases
water reabsorption.
If this occurs too much you get hypotension, which can cause heart
attacks (not enough blood returns to the heart to fill it properly)
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes Written by Tim Filtness
Statins
Two effects;
Anticoagulants
1.1.14
1. Diet
2. It is made by the liver
Low Density Lipoproteins (LDLs) take cholesterol from the liver and
put it into the circulation to the liver. LDLs increase cholesterol
levels.
Crudely…
1.1.16
1.1.17
(Height)2
If two sets of data follow the same pattern they are correlated
If two sets of data follow the same pattern because one factor
directly affects the other they are causal
1.1.20
This is not mentioned on the syllabus, but it is in the text book. The
prudent man learns it anyway…
C B A
A: The haemoglobin is in the lung and is O2 loading. Affinity of Hb is
high, therefore it “fills up” with O2 easily.
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes Written by Tim Filtness
End of Topic 1
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes Written by Tim Filtness
Edexcel AS Revision
Unit 1: Lifestyle, Notes
Lifestyle, Transport, Genes &
Health
Topic 2: Genes & Health
1.2.2
1.2.3
1.2.4
Channel Proteins
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes Written by Tim Filtness
1 2 3
1.2.5
1.2.6
Fick’s law:
Distance
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes Written by Tim Filtness
Human Respiratory System
Larynx (voicebox)
Thachea
Ribs
Bronchiole
Alveolus Bronchus
Intercostal Muscle
Thoracic Cavity
contained within
pleural membranes
Diaphragm
Remind yourself why humans need lungs in the first place, why
can’t we just breathe through our skin like Amoeba do?
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes Written by Tim Filtness
1.2.7
- Alpha helix
- Beta sheet
1.2.8
In the Lock and Key hypothesis, the active site and the substrate
are completely complementary.
1.2.9
1.2.10
H / OH
Other differences:
DNA RNA
Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T) Adenine (A) pairs with Uracil (T)
Guanine (G) pairs with Cytosine (C) Guanine (G) pairs with Cytosine (C)
1.2.11
DNA synthesis is semi-conservative
DNA Synthesis: (i.e. half of each new strand is old DNA
& half is new DNA)
2nd generation DNA, some ½ and ½ (forms one band at top) & some all
new ∴ second band in the middle of centrifuge. No other theory
predicts formation of TWO BANDS
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes Written by Tim Filtness
1.2.12
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes Written by Tim Filtness
The genetic code is read from the sequence of bases in the DNA.
Each of the ~30,000 instructions in the code is a gene and tells the
body how to make one specific protein. Genes, therefore, code for
proteins.
A Gene
e.g. in this gene the code is ATG CCA CTA GCA CGC, which
corresponds to the following amino acids
A Protein
1.2.14
(i) Transcription
(ii) Translation
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes Written by Tim Filtness
Transcription:
Translation:
2. tRNA diffuses into P site and recognises the mRNA codon using
its specific anticodon
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes Written by Tim Filtness
4. The amino acids between the two tRNAs join together forming a
peptide bond
5. The tRNA in the P site diffuses into the cytoplasm and binds to
another specific amino acid.
6. The ribosome moves one codon down the mRNA chain so that the
P site is filled with the tRNA from the A site and the A site is
empty
Many ribosomes can translate the same piece of mRNA at the same
time. A polysome forms
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes Written by Tim Filtness
1.2.15
Mutation Explanation
The function of the protein is unchanged after the
mutation (i.e. the protein still does its job as well as it
did before the mutation). There are 2 possible causes;
Any mutation in the CFTR gene that stops / impairs the function of
the CFTR protein causes Cystic Fibrosis. To date over 2000
different mutations have been catalogued, each of which causes CF.
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes Written by Tim Filtness
1.2.16
Key Definitions:
A Genetic Diagram
♀ ♂
Parents’ Phenotype: Brown eyes Brown eyes
Parents’ Genotype: Bb Bb
Gametes: B b B b
F1 Genotype: B b
B BB Bb
b Bb bb
1.2.17
Cystic Fibrosis:
Water
X Na+ does not move into mucus as
there is no charge to balance.
Cl-
Mucus is hypotonic.
a) Lungs,
b) Digestive system
c) Reproductive system
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes Written by Tim Filtness
Tissue Effect of CF
Mucus produced is too sticky and blocks the
alveoli. This makes the person breathless. The
Lungs
mucus also provides ideal conditions for bacteria,
so chest infections are common.
Mucus blocks the vas deferens in boys and the
Reproductive fallopian tubes in girls, making the individual
system infertile
1.2.18
So how can you change DNA inside living cells? Answer: use gene
therapy, which attempts to add a normal copy of the CFTR gene to
the DNA inside epithelial cells.
Step 1: cut out a working copy of the gene from normal DNA using a
restriction enzyme. OR use reverse transcriptase enzyme to make
a copy of the gene from CFTR mRNA
Step 2: add the gene to a vector, which will insert the new gene into
the DNA of the target cell
Vectors are used to get the working gene into the epithelial cells.
Vector Explanation
An artificial vesicle. A little bubble of
membrane in which the CFTR gene is placed.
Liposome
When the liposome is inhaled the gene can
enter the epithelial cell by endocytosis.
Viruses naturally insert their own DNA into
host cells DNA. So, if we remove the viral
Virus
DNA and replace it with the CFTR gene that
ought to be inserted instead.
1.2.19
Method Summary
A long needle is inserted through the mother’s
abdomen into the amniotic fluid of the developing
Amniocentesis embryo. As this is produced by the embryo it will
contain embryionic cells and, therefore, embryo
DNA
As above, but cells are taken from the placenta,
Chorionic villus
which is also made by the embryo.
sampling
Gametes are fertilized in vitro (outside of the
Pre-implantation
body) and the resultant embryos are then tested.
genetic diagnosis
Only embryos known NOT to have the disease are
(PIGD)
implanted in the uterus.
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes Written by Tim Filtness
1.2.20
End of Topic 2
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes Written by Tim Filtness
Edexcel AS Revision
Unit 2:
2: Development, Plants & the
Environment
Topic 3: The Voice of the Genome
Prokaryotic Cell
Prokaryotic Organelles:
Eukaryotic Cell
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes Written by Tim Filtness
2.3.4
After synthesis, proteins are put into the rER, which folds primary
proteins into their specific secondary and tertiary forms. 20 and 30
proteins are packaged into vesicles and sent to the Golgi
2.3.5
Tissue: a group of specialized cells, which all carry out the same
function.
Although every cell contains the entire library of genes, each tissue
only expresses a select few of them. This is because, as cells
become specialized, they progressively switch off genes. This is
called cell differentiation.
The Cell Cycle
2.3.6
G1 Phase: Growth phase
Approximately 40% of cell cycle
Stage Explanation
Stage is: Prophase
1. Cytokinesis occurs
2. Cells separate
2.3.7
2. Independent assortment
i.e. AA BB → AB aa BB → aB
aa bb → ab AA bb → Ab
3. Crossing Over
2.3.9
A Mammalian Ovum:
Zona Pellucida
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Lysosomes
Lipid droplets
Cell membrane
Adaptations:
Zona pelludica Hardens once sperm has entered ova, stops further
cells entering.
A Mammalian Sperm:
Adaptations:
2.3.10
Mammalian fertilisation:
Plant fertilisation:
2. Pollen grain grows a pollen tube down into the stigma. The
pollen nucleus is at the tip of the tube
2.3.11
Stem Cell: an undifferentiated cell (i.e. a cell that can grow into
more than one type of cell).
Stem Cells are very useful because they can be used to grow
replacement organs. However, it is not yet possible to get a
differentiated cell to revert to being a stem cell. Therefore, stem
cells tend to be harvested from embryos, which causes serious
ethical problems.
2.3.12
2.3.13
2.3.14
Human Height:
Cancer:
2.3.15
End of Topic 3
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes Written by Tim Filtness
Edexcel AS Revision
Unit 2: Notes
2: Development, Plants & the
Environment
Topic 4: Biodiversity & Natural Resources
2.4.2
Animal and plant cells are both eukaryotic cells, they have common
eukaruyotic features. However, plant cells also have some features
unique to them.
Cell wall: A structure made from cellulose fibrils and pectin cross-
links. It strengthens the cell and allows it to be turgid without
bursting.
Pit: A thin patch in the cell wall where plasmodesmata can form or
have formed previously
2.4.3
2.4.4
Primary cell wall: First to form, cellulose fibres laid down in the
same direction
Secondary cell wall: Forms later, cellulose fibres laid down at right
angles to those in the primary wall. Provides much greater strength.
Collenchyma: found around the outside of the stem have their cell
walls further strengthened with more cellulose (secondary
thickening) to form thick supporting cells.
2.4.5
2.4.6
3. Biodegrade.
Plant materials are used as fibres (wood, cotton etc) as they have a
high tensile strength and can be used in clothing, building industry
etc. Oils from plants can be used as biofuels and starch can be used
in packaging, glues, absorbants as well as for food.
2.4.7
Xylem Sclerenchyma
2.4.8
2.4.9
1. Photosynthesis (~5%)
2. Cooling via transpiration (~90%)
3. Transport of substances (e.g. sucrose, mineral ions)
4. Maintain turgor
5. Solvent for chemical reactions
6. Gamete distribution
2.4.10
2.4.11
2.4.12
2.4.13
2.4.14
2.4.15
Allopatric speciation occurs when species are far from each other
2.4.16
A recent proposal along this line (the three domain theory) argues
that all organisms evolved into three broad groups;
2.4.17
This is not mentioned on the syllabus, but it is in the text book. The
prudent man learns it anyway…
epidermis
cortex
endodermis
pericycle
vascular
tissue
phloem
cambium
xylem
root
hairs
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes Written by Tim Filtness
Apoplast pathway: water moves from cell wall to cell wall. The cell
walls are quite thick and very open, so water can easily diffuse
through cell walls without having to cross any cell membranes.
Root Pressure:
The answer is that plant roots take up lots of ions from the soil,
which lowers the water concentration of their cytoplasm enough for
water to enter the root by osmosis, even if the soil if very dry. The
ions are taken up by active transport, by proteins in the cell
membrane of the root hairs. This uses up lots of energy (uses lots
of ATP).
Because of the low water potential root cells become very turgid.
This creates a small pressure, which forces water up the xylem in
the stem. This is called Root Pressure. In small plants root pressure
is very important for transpiration. In woody plants it does not
have a significant effect.
Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes Written by Tim Filtness
Xylem Tissue small xylem vessels
(tracheids)
microscope.
Lignin makes the xylem vessels very strong, so that they don’t collapse under
pressure, and they also make woody stems strong. The xylem vessels form
continuous pipes from the roots to the leaves. Water can move up through these
pipes at a rate of 8m h-1, and can reach a height of over 100m.
End of Topic 4