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ABSTRACT
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION 2
CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION
REFERENCE
1
Seminar Report - 2004
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
The problem with the simple-minded approach is that it takes lots of local
oscillators each locked to the others so that the frequencies are the exact
multiples that they should be. This is difficult and expensive. DSP to the
rescue! Each of the oscillators can be a digital representation of the sine
carrier wave that can be modulated in the numerical domain. This can
happen simultaneously for all of the carriers. The resulting output of each
channel is added and then blocked. Since we have a representation of the
signal in the frequency domain but need to modulate an actual carrier in the
time domain, we just perform an Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) to
convert the block of frequency data to a block of time data that modulates
the carrier. The receiver acquires the signal, digitizes it, and performs an
FFT on it to get back to the frequency domain. From there, it is relatively
easy to recover the modulation on each of the carriers.
CHAPTER 2
SUBJECT DETALING
th e general
Figure 0.4: Basic structure of a multicarrier system
The original data stream of rate R is multiplexed into N parallel data streams
of rate each of the data streams is modulated with a
different frequency and the resulting signals are transmitted together in the
same band. Correspondingly the receiver consists of N parallel receiver
paths. Due to the prolonged distance in between transmitted symbols the ISI
for each sub system reduces to
Such little ISI can often be tolerated and no extra counter measure such as an
equalizer is needed. Alas as far as the complexity of a receiver is concerned
a system with 8192 parallel paths still isn't feasible. This asks for a slight
modification of the approach which leads us to the concept of OFDM.
Fig. 3 The effect of adopting a multicarrier system. For a given overall data
rate, increasing the number of carriers reduces the data rate that each
individual carrier must convey, and hence (for a given modulation system)
lengthens the symbol period. This means that the intersymbol interference
affects a smaller percentage of each symbol as the
Orthogonal tones do not interfere with each other because the bandwidth of
a modulated carrier sinc shape (sinx/x) with nulls spaced by the bit rate. In
OFDM, the carriers fit in the nulls of the other carriers.
.
.
SO OFDM can be simply defined as a form of multicarrier modulation
where its carrier spacing is carefully selected so that each subcarrier is
orthogonal to the other sub carriers
The “orthogonal” part of the OFDM name indicates that there is a precise
mathematical relationship between the frequencies of the carriers in the
system. In a normal FDM system, the many carriers are spaced apart in such
way that the signals can be received using conventional filters and
demodulators. In such receivers, guard bands have to be introduced between
the different carriers and the lowering of the spectrum Efficiency. It is
possible, however, to arrange the carriers in an OFDM signal so that the
sidebands of the individual carriers overlap and the signals can still be
received without adjacent carrier interference. In order to do this the carriers
must be mathematically orthogonal. The receiver acts as a bank of
demodulators, translating each carrier down to DC, the resulting signal then
being integrated over symbol period to recover the raw data. If the other
carriers all beat down to frequencies which, in thtime domain, have a whole
number of cycles in the symbol period (t), then the integration process
results in zero contribution from all these carriers. Thus the carriers are
linearly independent (i.e. orthogonal) if the carrier spacing is a multiple of
1/t. Mathematically, suppose we have a set of signals y , where y p is the p-
th element in the set
The real signal is the real part of sc(t). Both Ac (t) and sc(t), the amplitude
and phase of the carrier, can vary on a symbol by symbol basis. The values
of the parameters are constant over the symbol duration period t. OFDM
consists of many carriers. Thus the complex signals s (t)) is represented
If the signal is sampled using a sampling frequency of 1/T, then the resulting
signal is represented by:
At this point, we have restricted the time over which we analyse the signal to
N samples. It is convenient to sample over the period of one data symbol.
Thus we have a relationship=NT
If we now simplify eqn. 3, without a loss of generality by letting w0=0, then
the signal becomes:
Now Eq. 4 can be compared with the general form of the inverse Fourier
transform:
In eq. 4, the
The incoming serial data is first converted form serial to parallel and
grouped into x bits each to form a complex number. The number determines
the signal constellation of the corresponding subcarrier, such as 16 QAM or
Fig 4a shows the spectrum of an OFDM sub channel and Fig. 4b and Fig. 6
present compositeOFDM spectrum. By carefully selecting the carrier
spacing, the OFDM signal spectrum can be made flat and the orthogonality
among the sub channels can be guaranteed.
In practice, some of the carriers are used for channel estimation and there are
extra bits added for error detection and correction. Doing this is called
Coded Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (COFDM). Coding is
now so common that many people drop the "C", as unnecessary, assuming
that coding is used.
2.8
When the radio signals travel from one location to another, they
maybounceoffsurrounding objects (Figure 1), resulting in multiple paths
between transmitter and receiver. This is analogous to echoes or reflections
causing multiple copies of the message to arrive at the receiver at different
times. The combination of all Modulated message signal to be distorted. A
simple example is where there are only two paths, the line of sight path and
reflected path from the ground. If message is sent at the right speed, then the
second (reflected) copy of the Message may arrive exactly one bit time later
than the first (direct) copy. The Receiver will then receive two different bits
mixed together, thus distorting the Original message bit (Figure 1). Wireless
Spectral efficiency
{The orthogonal sub channels are spaced 1/T Hz apartandoverlap in
frequency)
Simple implementation
{IFFT/FFT pair
ADC/DAC pair)
Mitigation of ISI
{Cyclic prefix/suffix guard interval)
3.2 The disadvantages of the OFDM
At the receiver, it is very difficult to decide the starting time of the FFT symbolOFDM
stands for Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing and is an up and
[1] R. Prasad, “An overview of millimetre waves for future personal wireless
communication systems”,
Proc. IEEE First symposium. on communications and vehicular technology
in the Benelux, K3, Delft,
Netherlands, Oct. 27-28. 1993.