Meat Science 80 (2008) 570–581

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Meat Science
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/meatsci

Review

A review of the nutritional content and technological parameters

of indigenous sources of meat in South America
A. Saadoun a,b,*, M.C. Cabrera a,c
a
Sección Fisiología and Nutrición, Facultad de Ciencias, Calle Igua 4225, CP11400 Montevideo, Uruguay
b
Departamento Básico de Medicina, Unidad Asociada de la Facultad de Ciencias, Hospital de Clínicas, Avda Italia s/n Montevideo, Uruguay
c
Laboratorio de Nutrición y Ciencia de los Alimentos, Facultad de Agronomía. Avda Garzon 780, CP12900 Montevideo, Uruguay

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Meat yields, proximate compositions, fatty acids compositions and technological parameters are
Received 17 September 2007 reviewed for species which might be further developed as indigenous sources of meat in South America.
Received in revised form 20 March 2008 These include the alpaca (Lama pacos), capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris), guanaco (Lama guanicoe),
Accepted 20 March 2008
llama (Lama glama), nutria (Myocastor coypus), collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu), greater rhea (Rhea amer-
icana), lesser rhea (Rhea pennata), yacare (Caiman crocodilus yacare), tegu lizard (Tupinambis merianae)
and green iguana (Iguana iguana).
Keywords:
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Native species
South america
Meat sources
Indigenous meat

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
2. Native animals species used as meat sources in South America. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
2.1. Capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
2.1.1. Yield of carcass and proximate composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
2.1.2. Fatty acid composition of meat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
2.2. Nutria (Myocastor coypus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
2.2.1. Yield of carcass and proximate composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
2.2.2. Fatty acids composition of meat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
2.3. Guanaco (Lama guanicoe) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
2.3.1. Yield of carcass and proximate composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
2.3.2. Fatty acids composition of meat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
2.4. Alpaca (Lama pacos) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
2.4.1. Yield of carcass and proximate composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
2.4.2. Fatty acids composition of meat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
2.5. Llama (Lama glama). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
2.5.1. Yield of carcass and proximate composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
2.5.2. Fatty acids composition of meat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
2.6. Collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
2.6.1. Yield of carcass and proximate composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
2.6.2. Fatty acids composition of meat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
2.7. Greater rhea (Rhea americana) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
2.7.1. Yield of carcass and proximate composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
2.7.2. Fatty acids composition of meat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576

* Corresponding author. Address: Sección Fisiología and Nutrición, Facultad de Ciencias, Calle Igua 4225, CP11400 Montevideo, Uruguay. Tel.: +598 2 5258619; fax: +598 2
5258617.
E-mail address: asaadoun@fcien.edu.uy (A. Saadoun).

0309-1740/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2008.03.027
 A. Saadoun, M.C. Cabrera / Meat Science 80 (2008) 570–581 571

2.8. Lesser rhea (Pterocnemia pennata) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576

2.8.1. Yield of carcass and proximate composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
2.8.2. Fatty acids composition of meat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
2.9. Yacare (Caiman crocodilus yacare) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
2.9.1. Yield of carcass and proximate composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
2.9.2. Fatty acids composition of meat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
2.10. Tegu lizard (Tupinambis merianae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
2.10.1. Yield of carcass and proximate composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
2.10.2. Fatty acids composition of meat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
2.11. Green iguana (Iguana iguana) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
2.11.1. Yield of carcass and proximate composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
2.11.2. Fatty acids composition of meat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
3. Minerals composition of indigenous meat consumed in South America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
4. Fatty acids indices related to human health and South American indigenous meats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
5. Technological parameters of meat from native animals from South America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580

1. Introduction
In certain rural areas of South America, wild meat can be an eas-
ily accessible, cheap and significant source of animal protein (Rao &
McGowan, 2002). The use of indigenous meats may also be associ-
ated with the commercial trade of different products as, for exam-
ple, skin from the yacare (Caiman crocodilus yacare), fur from the
nutria (Myocastor coypus) and feathers from the rhea (Rhea ameri-
cana). Thus, in many cases, meat may be a by-product rather than
the main product (Mares & Ojeda, 1984).
The indiscriminate use of wildlife resources is unacceptable and
policies are needed for a legal, sustainable and ethical development
of the commercial trade in products from native animals species
(Marie, 2006; Mauro, 2002; Mourão, Campos, & Coutinho, 1996).
In the last decade, the number of farms developed specifically to
produce native species has increased substantially in South Amer-
ica. The main objective of these farms is to produce meat and prod-
ucts for local markets. But international interest in new and exotic
meats exists, and South American farmers see this as a new com-
mercial possibility (Uhart & Milano, 2002). Another possible collat-
eral benefit of the farm rearing of native animal species in South
America could be a reduction of hunting pressures on wild animals,
although this aspect is still controversial (Bulte & Damania, 2005).
Scientific information on yields, meat quality and nutritional
contents is required if farmers are to promote indigenous meat
in both local and international markets. But this information is

Table 1
Live weight, carcass yield and weight of edible organs of some South American indigenous animals

Animals Live weight Carcass weight Yields of Yield of meat Heart weight Liver weight Kidney weight References
(kg) (kg) Carcass (%) (%/LBW) (kg) (kg) (kg)
Alpaca # n = 40 46.07 ± 2.23 24.4 ± 1.53 55.7 ± 0.84 n/a 0.38 ± 0.02 0.89 ± 0.05 0.08 ± 0.02 Cristofanelli et al.
(2004, 2005)
Capybara # 44.2 ± 0.98 n/a 51.5 ± 0.33 n/a n/a n/a n/a Gonzalez (1995)
n = 13
Guanaco # 101.2 ± 12.52 59.58 ± 7.75 58.88 ± 2.47 32.9 ± 2.50 0.89 ± 0.19 2.08 ± 0.17 0.28 ± 0.02
n = 70
Gonzalez et al.
(2004)
Llama
Chile # n = 5 100.6 ± 19.4 56.2 ± 11.2 55.8 ± 1.9 n/a 0.50 ± 0.1 1.6 ± 0.2 0.2 ± 0.0 Perez et al. (2000)
Chile $ n = 5 104.6 ± 22.6 56.7 ± 12.2 54.2 ± 1.2 n/a 0.3 ± 0.1 2.0 ± 0.5 0.3 ± 0.1 Perez et al. (2000)
Peru # n = 20 63.2 ± 2.92 31.2 ± 1.93 52.4 ± 1.06 n/a 0.44 ± 0.02 1.07 ± 0.07 0.10 ± 0.03 Cristofanelli et al.
(2004, 2005)
Nutria* # n = 4 5.95 ± 0.68 3.34 ± 0.56 56.2 ± 0.80 31.7 ± 0.92 n/a n/a n/a Cabrera et al. (2007)
Nutria* $ n = 4 4.79 ± 0.26 2.65 ± 0.13 55.4 ± 0.8 31.0 ± 2.58 n/a n/a n/a Cabrera et al. (2007)
Peccary # 17.1 – n/a 59.5 – 29.7 – n/a n/a n/a Nildo da Silva et al.
n = 16 (2002)
Greater rhea
Argentina # 27.3 ± 2.94 17.6 ± 2.35 64.1 ± 2.43 40.7 ± 2.92 0.31 ± 0.05 n/a n/a Garriz et al. (2003)
n=9
Argentina $ 24.1 ± 2.94 15.0 ± 2.35 62.3 ± 2.43 38.3 ± 2.92 0,24 ± 0.05 n/a n/a Garriz et al. (2003)
n=9
Argentina # 24.3 ± 3.78 15.4 ± 3.01 63.5 – 38.8 – 0.29 ± 0.04 0.45 ± 0.02 n/a Sales et al. (1997)
n=3
Uruguay # 21.4 – 12.7 – 59.6 – 38.5 – 0.28 – 0.43 – 0.10 – INAC (2003)
n = n/a
Lesser Rhea # 25.1 ± 2.14 15.0 ± 1.36 59.6 – 39.7 – 0.28 ± 0.04 0.57 ± 0.06 n/a Sales et al. (1997)
n=5
Tegu lizard # 4.23 ± 0.70 2.17 ± 0.36 51.4 ± 1.34 n/a n/a n/a n/a Basso et al. (2004)
n = 12
Yacare # n = 5 19.4 – 11.55 – 59.5 – 48.4 – n/a n/a n/a Romanelli and de
Felicio (1999)

Data were mean ± SD (* ± SEM). n/a = unavailable or not reported. – = SD or SEM unavailable or not reported.
572 A. Saadoun, M.C. Cabrera / Meat Science 80 (2008) 570–581

Table 2
Proximate composition of meat from South American indigenous animals

Animals Moisture (%) Proteins (%) Total lipids (%) Cholesterol (mg/100 g) Ash (%) References
Alpaca # n = 40 73.64 ± 1.66 23.33 ± 0.69 0.49 ± 0.01 51.14 ± 2.01 2.54 ± 0.20 Cristofanelli et al. (2004)
Capybara # n = 13 75.57a ± 0.20 21.95a ± 0.60 1.75a ± 0.15 26.99a ± 2.92 1.05a ± 0.02 Oda, Bressan, Cardoso, et al. (2004)
Capybara $ n = 7 76.17a ± 0.27 22.26a ± 0.50 0.98b ± 0.19 29.21a ± 4.01 1.12a ± 0.03 Oda, Bressan, Cardoso, et al. (2004)
Guanaco # n = 70 73.9 – 20.9 – 1.0 – 27.2 1.1 – Gonzalez et al. (2003, 2004)
Llama
Chile # n = 5 67.2 ± 3.4 21.8 ± 3.1 10.1 ± 3.0 n/a 1.0 ± 0.3 Perez et al. (2000)
Chile $ n = 5 69.7 ± 5.8 19.9 ± 1.7 9.3 ± 4.9 n/a 1.0 ± 0.2 Perez et al. (2000)
Peru # n = 20 73.94 ± 1.87 23.12 ± 0.88 0.51 ± 0.01 56.29 ± 2.89 2.43 ± 0.25 Cristofanelli et al. (2004)
Nutria* # n = 5 73.75 ± 4.85 20.95 ± 0.31 1.59 ± 0.18 71.15 ± 2.20 n/a Saadoun et al. (2006)
Nutria* $ n = 5 72,76 ± 7.49 21.46 ± 1.44 1.70 ± 0.24 72.05 ± 1.45 n/a Saadoun et al. (2006)
Peccary # n = 16 71.21 – 19.57 – 7.96 – 48.8 – 0.81 – Nildo da Silva et al. (2002), Freire et al. (2000)
Greater rhea # n = 3 73.25 ± 1.49 n/a 1.17 ± 0.49 59.0 ± 6.80 n/a Sales et al. (1999)
Lesser rhea # n = 5 74.15 ± 1.33 n/a 1.29 ± 0.64 55.0 ± 7.1 n/a Sales et al. (1999)
Yacare # n = 5 75.23 ± 2.18 18.43 ± 1.03 5.32 ± 0.83 85.48 ± 5.80 1.08 ± 0.06 Romanelli and de Felicio (1999)
Tegu lizard # n = 9 72.0 ± 0.7 23.6 ± 0.7 4.0 ± 1.3 18.2 ± 5.8 1.2 ± 0.2 Caldironi and Manes (2006)
Iguana n = 20 74.7 ± 0.3 20.8 ± 0.36 3.49 ± 0.12 n/a 1.18 ± 0.3 De Moreno et al. (2000)

Data were mean ± SD (* = ±SEM). n/a = data unavailable or not reported. – = SD or SEM unavailable or not reported. For capybara, within the columns, different letters show
significant differences between males and females (P < 0.05).

Table 3
Proximate composition of some Brazilian commercial meat cuts of capybara (from Oda, Bressan, de Freitas, et al., 2004)

Cuts Moisture (%) Proteins (%) Total lipids (%) Cholesterol (mg/100 g) Ash (%)
Loin 75.1a ± 0.28 22.62a ± 0,42 0.83a ± 0.32 33.61a ± 3.12 0.92a ± 0.07
Rib Rack 75.1a ± 0.28 22.05a ± 0.42 1.18a ± 0.32 31.36a ± 3.12 0.83a ± 0.07
Belly 76.0b ± 0.28 21.29a ± 0.42 1.25a ± 0.32 30.0a ± 3.12 0.89a ± 0.07
Shoulder 77.0c ± 0.28 21.48a ± 0.42 0.60a ± 0.32 17.7b ± 3.12 0.94a ± 0.07
Hind leg 75.9b ± 0.28 22.45a ± 0.42 0.36a ± 0.32 26.1a ± 3.12 0.93a ± 0.07

Data are Mean ± SD. n = 5 (males and females mixed) and mean live body weight of 63.8 kg. Within the columns, different letters show significant differences between the
cuts (P < 0.05).

Table 4
Fatty acids (% of total fatty acids) of meat of male and female capybara (Hydrochoerus
and they first need to be protected (IUCN, 2004). Therefore, this re-
hydrochaeris) and guanaco (Lama guanicoe) view is restricted to animals where experimental or commercial
rearing in South America has already been initiated and where
Fatty Capybara # Capybara $ Guanaco Guanaco
acids Longissimus dorsi Semimembranosus
there are no issues with depletion of endangered species.

14:0 3.93 ± 0.33 3.35 ± 0.31 2.7* 3.2*

16:0 29.8 ± 1.17 29.35 ± 1.10 19.6 23.1
2.1. Capybara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris)
18:0 5.60 ± 0.42 7.53 ± 0.39 25.4 26.0
18:1n9 28.05 ± 1.58 25.73 ± 1.49 30.6 26.7 The capybara is the world’s largest rodent and inhabits the envi-
18:2n6 18.97 ± 1.53 19.41 ± 1.44 8.9 9.3 rons of rivers and swamps from Venezuela, Brazil, Uruguay, north-
18:3n3 5.06 ± 0.47 4.87 ± 0.49 3.5 4.5
east of Argentina and Paraguay (FAO, 1996). Capybaras are easily
20:4n6 3.00 ± 0.85 3.89 ± 0.89 n/a n/a
20:5n3 0.45 ± 0.12 0.52 ± 0.12 n/a n/a domesticated and, in a natural environment, they are gregarious
22:6n3 0.16 ± 0.03 0.20 ± 0.03 n/a n/a and live in family groups. In South America, the products obtained
SFA 38.76 39.78 47.7 52.3 from capybara are meat and hides for gloves, belts, leather jackets
MUFA 30.83 27.17 30.6 26.7 and handbags. These products are both used locally and exported.
PUFA 28.27 29.88 12.4 13.8
Total 22.6 23.99 8.9 9.3
The live weight of the capybara is around 25 kg at one year of age
n-6 and >40 kg at 2 years. The female capybaras have two births each
Total 5.67 5.59 3.5 4.5 year, after 5 months of gestation, with a mean litter size of 3.8
n3 newborn per birth (Alvarez & Kravetz, 2006).
n-6/n-3 3.98 4.29 2.54 2.07

n/a = Data unavailable or not reported. * = SD or SEM not reported. Data for capy-
bara were from Longissimus dorsi muscle of 20 animals with an average live body
weight of 45.7 kg. (Oda, Bressan, Cardoso, et al., 2004). Data for guanaco (Gonzalez
et al., 2004), 70 males from south of Chile were used. SFA = Saturated fatty acids,
MUFA = Monounsaturated fatty acids, PUFA = Polyunsaturated fatty acids.
scattered and sparse. This review gathers the available information
for easy access and identifies where further research is required.
2. Native animals species used as meat sources in South
America
In South America, there are many wild animals that might be
suitable for farm rearing, but some of them are endangered species,
2.1.1. Yield of carcass and proximate composition
The data presented in Table 1 show that with a body weight of
44.2 kg, the carcass yield in capybara is 51.5% (Gonzalez, 1995).
Although the capybara is one of the most studied South American
native mammals, no published studies on the yield of retail cuts or
on the relative weights of edible organs were found in the scientific
literature.
The proximate composition of capybara meat is quite well
known (Table 2). The level of protein is similar in males and fe-
males (Oda, Bressan, Cardoso, et al., 2004). For commercial cuts
(Table 3), the protein levels in loin, rib rack, belly, shoulder and
hind leg are similar showing values between 21.29% and 22.62%.
In the report of Girardi et al. (2005), the levels of protein found
in the loins of young capybaras (live weight 20 kg) reared with
 A. Saadoun, M.C. Cabrera / Meat Science 80 (2008) 570–581 573

and without access to a pond, were 20.9% and 21.4%, respectively.
Thus, differences in live weight may explain the differences be-
tween these two investigations. For total lipids (Table 2), the cap-
ybara meat has low levels in both, males and females (Oda,
Bressan, Cardoso, et al., 2004). In the report of Oda, Bressan, de Fre-
itas, et al. (2004), the total lipids were similar in the loin, rib rack,
belly, shoulder and hind leg (Table 3). The lipid level in the loin is
low when compared with results presented by Girardi et al. (2005)
who found 1.81% and 2.26% in capybaras reared with and without a
pond, respectively. The differences between the two studies can be
explained not only by the age of the animals, but probably also by
other factors such differences in nutrition and analytical methodol-
ogy. In the report of Girardi et al. (2005) the young capybaras
showed more elevated levels of cholesterol in the loin when com-
pared to the older capybaras reported by Oda, Bressan, de Freitas,
et al. (2004). These differences might have a physiological basis
(age of animals), or might be caused by methodological differences,
as previously proposed for the total lipid composition of capybara
meat. Further investigations on the chemical composition of capy-
bara meat are necessary for a better understanding of this aspect.
view. In males and females, the level of MUFA is 30.8% and 27.2%,
respectively (Table 5). When the polyunsaturated fatty acids
(PUFA) are considered, the data show that capybara meat contains
28.3% and 29.9% of PUFA in males and females, respectively (Table
4). The level of PUFA in capybara meat is one of the highest com-
pared with the other animals presented in Table 5.
2.2. Nutria (Myocastor coypus)
Nutria or coypu are also rodents that inhabit the southern part
of South America. Male nutrias are heavier than females, and a wild
adult specimen can weigh between 5 kg and 10 kg in a favorable
habitat. The wild nutria lives in freshwater, marshes and lagoons
with abundant emerging vegetation. Nutria have been reared in
semi-captivity since the 1920s, and nowadays in South America,
nutria are reared in farms using an intensive system of production.
The gestation duration is between 128 and 138 days with an aver-
age of 2.5 l per year, and between 4 and 6 offspring by litter. The
obtained products are principally pelt and meat (FAO, 1996; NAP,
1991).

2.1.2. Fatty acid composition of meat

2.2.1. Yield of carcass and proximate composition
No gender differences in the fatty acids of the Longissimus dorsi
Cabrera, del Puerto, Olivero, Otero, and Saadoun (2007) evaluated
muscle capybara with a live body weight of 45.7 kg were noted. In
nutrias produced in an intensive farm system in South America that
males and females, the saturated fatty acids (SFA) determined in
were slaughtered between 5 and 8 months of age. The live weight of
the Longissimus dorsi muscle by Oda, Bressan, Cardoso, et al.
nutria was 5.95 kg and 4.79 kg in males and females, respectively
(2004) were 38.8% and 39.8% of total fatty acids, respectively (Ta-
(Table 1). After slaughtering, the carcass weight differed signifi-
ble 4). This level of SFA is the lowest of the indigenous mammals
cantly between males and females (3.34 kg and 2.65 kg, respec-
presented in Table 5. When the level of monounsaturated fatty
tively). However, the yield of carcass (as % of live weight) did not
acids (MUFA) is considered, capybara meat can be ranked as one
differ significantly between genders. Gender also had no influence
of the lowest from the native animals discussed in the present re-
on yield (as % of live body weight) of meat (Table 1). In another report
using nutria slaughtered at 14 months of age, the animals showed a
Table 5 higher yield of meat (33.6% and 32.4% in males and females, respec-
Fatty acids indices related to human health in indigenous meat and usual meat tively) (Cabrera et al., 2007; Faverin, Corva, & Hozbor, 2002). The dif-
consumed in South America ferences in slaughtering age of nutria between the two studies
Meat S M P M+P P:S S:M S:(M + P) probably accounts for the different yields of meat. However, in a
(%) (%) (%) (%) commercial intensive farm system, rearing nutria for meat and fur
Capybara # 38.8 30.8 28.3 59.1 0.72 1.25 0.65
production over 14 months is not advised due to economic reasons.
Capybara $ 39.8 27.2 29.9 57.0 0.75 1.46 0.65 The proximate composition of meat (average from pectoral
Greater rhea # 32.8 26.8 39.7 66.5 1.21 1.22 0.49 muscles and thigh muscles) from nutria slaughtered at 5 months
Guanaco # 47.7 30.6 15.8 46.4 0.33 1.55 1.03 of age showed no significant differences in the level of protein be-
Llama # 47.4 37.8 5.38 43.2 0.11 1.25 1.10
tween males and females (Table 2; Saadoun, Cabrera, & Castellucio,
Lesser rhea # 33.3 32.2 33.6 65.8 1.00 1.03 0.51
Nutria # 40.0 32.4 27.6 60.0 0.69 1.23 0.66 2006). In the same study, the level of total lipids was 1.59% and
Nutria $ 40.9 33.0 26.0 59.0 0.63 1.24 0.69 1.70%, in males and females, respectively. The total cholesterol
Tegu lizard # 23.8 50.9 26.0 76.9 1.09 0.47 0.31 content in nutria meat did not differ significantly between males
Recommended indicesa 20– 45– 25– 70– 0.40– 0.40– 0.25– and females (Table 2). In a more recent report using nutria slaugh-
25 55 30 85 1.00 0.45 0.30
Beef pasture (Realini 49.1 41.0 10.0 50.9 0.20 1.20 0.96
tered at 8 months of age (Cabrera et al., 2007), the levels of protein
et al., 2004) (average from pectoral muscles and thigh muscles composition),
Beef concentrate 47.6 46.4 6.0 52.4 0.13 1.03 0.91 lipids and cholesterol were similar to the study of Saadoun et al.
(Realini et al., 2004) (2006).
Breast chickens (Rule 34.7 40.7 24.6 65.3 0.71 0.85 0.53
et al., 2002)
Pig outdoor (Nilzen 35.0 47.7 14.2 61.9 0.40 0.73 0.56 2.2.2. Fatty acids composition of meat
et al., 2001)
Fatty acid compositions were determined in pectoral muscles
Pig indoor (Nilzen et al., 36.9 48.2 12.4 60.6 0.34 0.76 0.61
2001) (superficial and deep pectoral muscles) and thigh muscles (all ma-
Sheep pasture (Santos- 44.9 40.1 15.0 55.1 0.33 1.12 0.81 jor muscles are included) in males and females nutria reared inten-
Silva et al., 2002) sively (Saadoun et al., 2006). In thigh muscles, there are
Sheep concentrate 44.6 42.7 12.7 55.4 0.28 1.04 0.80 significantly more SFA, MUFA and PUFA in females. For the pectoral
(Santos-Silva et al.,
2002)
muscles, the females show significantly higher SFA and PUFA con-
tents and similar MUFA to the males (Table 6). The pectoral muscle
S = saturated fatty acids, M = monounsaturated fatty acids, P = polyunsaturated of nutria considered in the study of Saadoun et al. (2006) had no
fatty acids. The indices were calculated from precedent tables corresponding at
detectable amounts of Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5n3),
each animal for indigenous meat. Data for llama were means from intact llama
presented in Table 7. Data for guanaco were from the Longissimus dorsi (Table 4). whereas the level of Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n3) was
a
Based on an ingested level of fat between 30% and 35% of total energy intake in higher in females. Also, as presented in Table 6, the thigh muscles
diet (German & Dillard, 2004; Grundy, 1997; Kris-Etherton, 1999; Ramirez et al., show more EPA in females than in males. DHA was only detected in
2005; Simopoulos, 1999, 2001; Wolfram, 2003).
the thigh muscle of male nutria.
574 A. Saadoun, M.C. Cabrera / Meat Science 80 (2008) 570–581

Table 6 in beef produced in South America (Realini, Duckett, Brito, Dalla

Fatty acids (mg/100 g of wet tissue) of meat in nutria (Myocastor coypus) reared in Rizza, & De Mattos, 2004). The most abundant SFA in the two mus-
Uruguay (Saadoun et al., 2006)
cles were palmitic acid and the stearic acid. The two fatty acids are
Fatty Pectoralis Pectoralis Thigh Thigh present in similar levels in the two muscles. This observation is
acids muscles # muscles $ muscles # muscles$ also in accord with the data presented by RIRDC (2007) in camel
14:0 40.67 ± 5.05a 63.55 ± 13.24b 13.85 ± 1.45a 31.04 ± 1.98b (Camelus dromedaries).
16:0 251.7 ± 31.3a 381.0 ± 79.4b 185.0 ± 19.5a 326.8 ± 20.8b For the MUFA, the most representative in guanaco meat is oleic
18:0 96.5 ± 12.0a 119.0 ± 24.8a 113.3 ± 11.9a 165.3 ± 10.5b
18:1n9 280.6 ± 34.9a 340.2 ± 70.9a 127.5 ± 13.4a 222.2 ± 14.1b
acid (Table 4), which is present in the two muscles considered in
18:2n6 244.7 ± 30.4a 311.7 ± 64.9a 170.7 ± 17.9a 239.9 ± 15.3b the investigation (Gonzalez et al., 2004). These levels are slightly
18:3n3 nd nd nd 2.66 ± 0.17 lower than those observed in other camelids (Table 5), including
20:4n6 20.1 ± 2.50a 38.9 ± 8.09b 34.36 ± 3.60a 42.8 ± 2.72b the domestic camel (RIRDC, 2007). The ratio of MUFA found in gua-
20:5n3 nd nd 1.98 ± 0.21a 3.29 ± 0.21b
naco meat seems to be similar to that of the capybara and slightly
22:6n3 0.89 ± 0.11a 1.29 ± 0.27b 2.68 ± 0.28 a nd
SFA 433.2 ± 53.8a 573.8 ± 119.5b 331.8 ± 59.8a 532.0 ± 33.9b reduced compared to the other indigenous meats. However, this le-
MUFA 429.2 ± 53.3a 492.5 ± 186.3a 215.7 ± 22.9a 403.3 vel is the lowest when compared with the meat usually consumed
2 ± 5.7b in South America (Table 5).
PUFA 284.6 ± 35.2a 395.7 ± 85.7b 238.3 ± 25.0a 311.7 ± 19.8b The principal PUFA in guanaco meat are linoleic acid and the
Total n-6 274.4 ± 34.1a 367.6 ± 76.6b 217.0 ± 22.7a 290.0 ± 18.5b
linolenic acid (Gonzalez et al., 2004). The level of the n-3 fatty acids
Total n3 6.24 ± 0.77a 9.20 ± 1.90b 12.9 ± 1.4a 10.0 ± 0.65b
n-6/n-3 44.0 40.0 16.8 29.0 maybe slightly underestimated because the data for other n-3 fatty
acids, such EPA and DHA, are omitted in their report. The data indi-
Data are means ± SEM from 5 males and 5 females with a live body weight of
cates that guanaco meat has a level of PUFA similar to pork and to
5.95 kg and 4.79 kg, respectively. (Saadoun et al., 2006). nd = not detected. For the
same muscle, different letters show significant differences between males and beef produced on pasture (Table 5). The n-6/n-3 ratio for the gua-
females (P < 0.05). naco meat was 2.54 and 2.07 for the Longissimus dorsi and Semi-
SFA = Saturated fatty acids, MUFA = Monounsaturated fatty acids, PUFA = Polyun- membranosus, respectively. In camel (Camelus dromedaries), this
saturated fatty acids.
ratio was between 3 and 3.74 (RIRDC, 2007).

2.4. Alpaca (Lama pacos)

When compared to the other animals (Table 5), nutria meat
shows a SFA level similar to capybara (around of 40%). The level of
MUFA is high in comparison with the native animals reported here,
whilst the level of PUFA is one of the lowest presented (Table 5).
2.3. Guanaco (Lama guanicoe)
The guanaco is a wild camelid, widely distributed in South
America from the Tierra del Fuego to the Andean areas of northern
Peru and Bolivia, covering most of Argentina and Chile. There are
some farms in Chile and Argentina which have initiated operations,
to produce fiber and meat from guanaco (Campero, 2005). The ges-
tation period in guanaco is between 345 and 360 days, giving birth
to a litter of one newborn (FAO, 1996).
2.3.1. Yield of carcass and proximate composition
The live weight of the male guanaco is around 100 kg as pre-
sented in Table 1, from the report of Gonzalez et al. (2003). In
the same report, the yield of meat and the weight of some edible
organs were determined.
The proximate composition of guanaco meat (Table 2; Gonzalez,
Smulders, Paulsen, Skewes, & Konig, 2004) shows a reduced level
of lipids (1.0%) in comparison with the other native animals re-
ported here. Gonzalez et al. (2003) reported 27.2 mg cholesterol/
100 g of wet tissue for this species. This is a very low level of cho-
lesterol in the meat. For comparison, the levels of cholesterol in
camel meat are between 42 and 47 mg/100 g of wet tissue (RIRDC,
2007). Therefore, the guanaco shows, if confirmed, the lowest level
of cholesterol in meat in comparison with the other farm reared
camelids. These results can be explained probably by factors such
differences in nutrition and analytical methodology.
2.3.2. Fatty acids composition of meat
The analysis of fatty acids in the Longissimus dorsi and the Semi-
membranosus muscles shows a high level of SFA in the two muscles
(Table 4). Although there are more saturated fatty acids in the
Semimembranosus muscle than in the Longissimus dorsi, the authors
did not test the statistical significance between the two muscles
(Gonzalez et al., 2004). The proportion of SFA in the two muscles
(Table 4) is of the same order as those found in camel meat and
Alpaca, one of the domestic South American camelids, lives in
the Andes zone of Peru, Bolivia and Chile in altitudes between
2800 and 5000 m. The products obtained from Alpaca are fiber
and meat (Arestegui, 2005). The female alpaca have a gestation
period between 336 and 349 days giving birth to a litter of one
(Davis, Dodds, Moore, & Bruce, 1997).
2.4.1. Yield of carcass and proximate composition
Cristofanelli, Antonini, Torres, Polidori, and Renieri (2004,
2005), evaluated the carcass characteristic of Peruvian male alpa-
cas weighing 46.07 kg at a slaughter age of 25 months (Table 1).
The proximate composition of alpaca meat (Longissimus dorsi mus-
cle) showed high levels of proteins when compared to that re-
ported for Chilean alpaca and the other indigenous meats
presented here (Table 2). Similarly, the level of lipids encountered
in the same muscle is very low in comparison to the meats nor-
mally consumed in South America (Table 5). This interesting low
level of lipids in the meat of alpaca needs to be confirmed in fur-
ther investigations. The level of cholesterol in the Longissimus dorsi
muscle was low (56 mg/100 g meat) in comparison to the other
meats (Table 2).
2.4.2. Fatty acids composition of meat
No data on the fatty acid composition of Alpaca meat could be
sourced in the scientific literature.
2.5. Llama (Lama glama)
The llama, the most common of the Andean camelids, has been
domesticated, 4000-5000 years ago, by the Incas for traction and
for its meat (Campero, 2005; Marcus, Sommer, & Glew, 1999).
The llama has an average live weight between 80 and 115 kg and
its habitat is located, similar to that of the other Andean camelids,
between 2800 and 5000 m of altitude in Peru, Bolivia, Chile and
Argentina (Campero, 2005). The consumption of llama meat is tra-
ditional in the Andeans region, especially in Bolivia. The future
development of llama meat is promising, and it has been exported
as an exotic meat (Campero, 2005). After a gestation period
 A. Saadoun, M.C. Cabrera / Meat Science 80 (2008) 570–581 575

between 342 and 345 days the female llama gives birth to one Table 7
offspring. Fatty acids (% of total fatty acids) of meat in llama (Lama glama) reared in Argentina
and Peru

2.5.1. Yield of carcass and proximate composition Fatty Llama Llama Llama Buenos Llama Perub
The data concerning live weight and yield of carcass are pre- acids Neuquena(Castrated) Neuquena(Intact) Airesa

sented in Table 1. The results are of two experiments carried out 14:0 3.57 3.11 2.44 4.09 ± 1.09
in two different countries, Chile and Peru (Cristofanelli et al., 16:0 24.23 23.0 22.03 24.78 ± 2.01
18:0 14.80 19.63 21.53 35.75 ± 4.11
2004, 2005; Perez et al., 2000). In both experiments the animals 18:1n9 34.1 33.13 30.67 ±4.11
were reared and fed on pasture in an extensive system. In the work 18:2n6 3.61a 3.11b 2.28 3.13 ± 0.86
of Perez et al. (2000) carried out in Chile, the animals were older 18:3n3 1.06 0.86 0.53 0.82 ± 0.17
than 3 years and had a live body weight of 100.6 kg and 104.6 kg 20:4n6 0.24 0.28 1.78 1.78 ± 0.29
20:5n3 n/a n/a n/a n/a
in males and females, respectively. The weight and the yield of car-
22:6n3 n/a n/a n/a n/a
cass obtained in the same report were 56.2 kg and 55.8%, respec- SFA 42.6 45.74 46.0 50.34
tively, for males and 56.7 kg and 54.2%, respectively for females MUFA 39.32 37.0 34.08 42.48
(Table 1). No data for yield of meat were presented in the report PUFA* 5.01 4.35 4.61 7.18
of Perez et al. (2000). In the same report, the weights of heart, liver Total 3.85a 3.39b 3.98 4.91
n-6
and kidney were presented (Table 1). In the second report carried
Total 1.16 0.96 0.63 0.83
out in Peru (Cristofanelli et al., 2004, 2005), the llamas were n3
25 month-old males, and had a live weight of 63.2 kg with a car- n-6/n- 3.31 3.53 6.32 5.95
cass weight and a yield of carcass of 31.2 kg and 52.4%, respectively 3
(Table 1). Data are the mean ± SD. n/a = Data unavailable or not reported.
The differences between the two reports can probably be ex- Means with different letters between intact and castrated llama from Neuquen are
plained by the different ages of the animals. However in the report significantly different based on a multi-range Duncan’s test.
a
The Longissimus dorsi muscle of males llama (n = 6) were used. There were no
of Perez et al. (2000), another experiment with younger animals
SD or SEM (Coates & Ayerza, 2004). The animals were from commercial farms in
(9–12 months-old, data not showed in the present review) is also two different localities, Neuquen and Buenos Aires (Argentina).
reported. For those animals, the live body weights were 104.4 kg b
The Longissimus dorsi muscles were from animals (n = 20) reared in Andean
and 67.6 kg in males and females, respectively. These results highlands in Peru (Polidori, Renieri, et al., 2007).
*
showed important differences compared with the live weight of Total n-3 and n-6 fatty acids were calculated from data in the present table.
animals used in the experiment of Cristofanelli et al. (2004). The
individual variability during growing in llama may explain the ob- 2007). For the MUFA, the level observed in llama meat is one of the
served differences between the two experiments. Another possible highest in native animals (Table 5), and that can compensate the
explanation for the observed live body weight differences can be negative effect of the saturated fatty acids in the human health
due to the differences in the quality of food offered to the animals, concerns (German & Dillard, 2004; Simopoulos, 1999). The level
in the two different countries. of PUFA registered in the llama meat is presented in Table 7. This
The protein levels in the meat of llama (Table 2) reared in Chile level is very low in comparison to the other indigenous meats con-
were 21.8% and 19.9% in males and females, respectively (Perez sidered in the present work (Table 5). Although the total of PUFA
et al., 2000). The animals from Peru (Cristofanelli et al., 2004, were low, the ratio between the n-6 and n-3 fatty acids (Table 7)
2005) showed a slightly more elevated protein (23.12%) level. are in compliance with the recommended ratio for human con-
The level of lipids in meat observed in llama reared in Chile (Perez sumption (Simopoulos, 1999). In camel, the levels of polyunsatu-
et al., 2000) were higher in males and females, compared with the rated fatty acids in meat are between 6.1% and 14.7% (RIRDC,
results obtained by Cristofanelli et al. (2004, 2005) with animals 2007), depending of the considered muscle analyzed. The castrated
reared in Peru. These different results are probably associated with llama shows more linoleic acid that the intact llama. Although the
the fact that Cristofanelli et al. (2004) extracted the lipids from the linolenic acid is higher in castrated llamas, this is not significant
Longissimus dorsi muscle, whereas Perez et al. (2000) extracted the (Table 7). No EPA and DHA values were noted in the reports from
lipids from muscles and fat grounded and mixed as specified in Argentina (Coates & Ayerza, 2004) or Peru (Polidori, Renieri,
the materials and methods section of their report. If confirmed, et al., 2007).
the data obtained by Cristofanelli et al. (2004, 2005) rank both, lla-
ma and alpaca described previously, as the leaner meat compared 2.6. Collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu)
with other indigenous meats presented in the present work. This
low level of lipids in meat from the llama and alpaca would be of The peccary is a gregarious mammal found in tropical and sub-
great importance in the promotion of these kinds of meat. Conse- tropical areas of South America. Two species are widely distributed
quently, these contradictory results on lipid contents in llama meat in South America, White-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari) and Col-
between the works of Perez et al. (2000) and Cristofanelli et al. lared peccary (Tayassu tajacu). Wild adult have an average weight
(2004) need to be clarified by further investigation. of 30 kg for White-lipped peccary and 20 kg for Collared peccary.
However, only the Collared peccary has been used for farming,
2.5.2. Fatty acids composition of meat probably because of the aggressive temperament, and the low
The fatty acid data presented in Table 7 were obtained from the reproduction capacity observed in the White-lipped peccary. The
report of (Coates & Ayerza, 2004), using castrated and intact llamas obtained products are mainly meat but sometimes the skin is also
reared in the province of Neuquen (Argentina), and intact llamas utilized (NAP, 1991). The gestation period lasts an average of
from the province of Buenos Aires (Argentina), and from Peru pre- 145 days, twice per year, with a litter of 2–4 newborns (FAO, 1996).
sented in the report of Polidori, Renieri, Antonini, Passamonti, and
Pucciarelli (2007). 2.6.1. Yield of carcass and proximate composition
The proportion of saturated fatty acids in llama (Coates & Ayer- In the report of Nildo da Silva, Pedrosa Pinheiro, Bezerra Neto,
za, 2004; Polidori, Renieri, et al., 2007), can be considered as one of and Paula Braga (2002), the males used in the experiment were cas-
the most elevated after the guanaco (Table 5). For comparison, in trated and showed a live weight of 17.1 kg, with a yield of carcass of
camel meat, the levels of SFA are between 47.7% and 59.7% (RIRDC, 59.6%, and a yield of meat of 29.7% of the live body weight (Table 1).
576 A. Saadoun, M.C. Cabrera / Meat Science 80 (2008) 570–581

No data concerning the weight of edible organs in peccary were
encountered in the scientific literature.
All data on proteins and lipids were obtained for castrated
males (Table 2). Castrated males had 19.57% of total protein and
7.96% total lipids in meat (Nildo da Silva et al., 2002).
The level of cholesterol presented in Table 2 was obtained from
intact (Freire, Beserra, Pinheiro, Nogueira, & Carraro, 2000). Galvez,
Arbaiza, Carcelen, and Lucas (1999) noted levels of protein and lip-
ids in meat of 21.4% and 1.07%, respectively in adult peccary reared
in Peru. The differences between the two reports can be explained
by the type of samples used in the two reports. Whilst in the work
realized by Nildo da Silva et al. (2002), the meat samples were
obtained after mixing different muscles, including the attached
adipose tissue. In the experiment of Galvez et al. (1999), the sam-
ples were obtained from dissected muscles without the attached
adipose tissue. More investigations are necessary to characterize
this very promising native animal in South America.
2.6.2. Fatty acids composition of meat
The data concerning the composition of fatty acids of peccary
meat is presented in the Table 8 (Freire et al., 2000). Unfortunately,
the authors showed only the range of the levels for the different fatty
acids detected in the meat. The SFA show a range between 21.58%
and 24.00% for palmitic acid, and 10.59% and 10.77% for stearic acid.
The MUFA, mainly oleic acid, range between 28.37% and 37.77% (Ta-
ble 8). The PUFA detected in the meat of peccary are represented by
linoleic acid (13.86% and 22.33%) and linolenic acid (0.26% and
0.67%). No data were recorded for any of the other PUFA.
The limited data presented for the meat of peccary is from only two
reports, and needs to be confirmed with more informative studies.
2.7. Greater rhea (Rhea americana)
under captive conditions, an average of 40 eggs per year with a
hatchability of 60% (Navarro & Martella, 2002). The incubation
time is between 38 and 42 days.
2.7.1. Yield of carcass and proximate composition
Greater rhea males and females of greater rhea from Argentina
weigh 27.3 kg and 24.1 kg, respectively at 18 months of age (Garriz
et al., 2003). Sales et al. (1997), noted that 12 month-old greater
rhea males weighed 24.3 kg. The weights of the carcasses, the car-
cass yields, the meat yield, and the weight of some edible organs
are presented in Table 1.
Data on the proximal composition of great rhea meat is limited.
Sales et al. (1997) noted that the greater rhea have 1.17% lipids and
59.0 mg cholesterol/100 g of wet meat (Table 2). No data on about
the protein level in greater rhea meat were available in the scien-
tific literature. On the contrary, data on ostrich and emu, the other
two ratites reared for meat; are more easily encountered in the sci-
entific literature. The meat of ostrich and emu seems to have a rel-
atively high level of protein as presented for birds reared in
Australia (RIRDC, 2007). In the same report, the results show a lipid
level in emu meat of 1.5–1.8% and between 0.7% and 1.4% in
ostrich. In another report by Horbañczuk et al. (1998), the different
subspecies of ostrich (Red Neck and Blue Necks) show a level of lip-
ids in meat of 1.28–1.54%. These low levels of lipids in ostrich and
emu are in the same order as those observed in greater rhea reared
in South America and presented here. Also, the levels of cholesterol
in meat registered in greater rhea are in the same order as those
registered in ostrich (53–54 mg/100 g of wet tissue) and emu
(50–54 mg/100 g of wet tissue); RIRDC (2007). In the report of Hor-
bañczuk et al. (1998), the different subspecies of ostrich show a
muscle cholesterol level of meat between 63.04 and 68.38 mg/
100 g of wet tissue.

Greater rhea is a large flightless bird native to South America 2.7.2. Fatty acids composition of meat
and which inhabits extended areas in Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, The meat of greater rhea shows (Table 8) a level of SFA of 32.8%,
Southern Brazil and Uruguay. The products from greater rhea are 26.8% MUFA (mainly the oleic acid) and 39.7% of PUFA (Sales et al.,
eggs, meat, feathers and oil (FAO, 1996). The great rhea produces, 1999).
The level of SFA in greater rhea is in the same order, or slightly
lower, than in ostrich and emu. The levels of SFA observed in these
Table 8 ratites were between 32.7% and 37.9%. For the MUFA, the level ob-
Fatty acids (% of total fatty acids) in meat of tegu lizard (Tupinambis merianae), greater
rhea (Rhea americana), lesser rhea (Pterocnemia pennata) and peccary (Tayassu tajacu)
served in greater rhea is much lower than the 37–39.4% in ostrich,
and around of 40% in emu (Horbañczuk et al., 1998; Arestegui,
Fatty acids Tegu lizarda Greaterb Rhea Lesserb Rhea Peccaryc 2005). For the PUFA, the level observed in greater rhea is much
14:0 0.15 ± 0.02 n/a n/a 1.08–1.37 higher than the 23–30% in ostrich, and 21.4–23.4% in emu (RIRDC,
16:0 18.49 ± 1.77 19.0 ± 1.01 a 22.8 ± 2.76 b 21.58–24.00 2007; Horbañczuk et al., 1998). The level of PUFA in greater rhea is
18:0 5.14 ± 0.46 13.9 ± 1.41 a 10.5 ± 1.65 b 10.59–10.77
18:1n9 42.77 ± 3.94 25.9 ± 1.75 a 29.5 ± 3.25 b 28.37–37.77
higher than that found in the other meats consumed in South
18:2n6 22.66 ± 1.20 28.0 ± 0.64 a 23.3 ± 3.33 b 13.86–22.33 America (Table 5).
18:3n3 1.33 ± 0.20 1.0 ± 0.38 a 4.6 ± 3.00 b 0.26–0.67
20:4n6 0.51 ± 0.05 10.0 ± 1.80 a 5.0 ± 1.42 b 1.76–3.1 2.8. Lesser rhea (Pterocnemia pennata)
20:5n3 0.11 ± 0.02 0.7 ± 0.18 a 0.8 ± 0.24 a n/a
22:6n3 0.02 ± 0.01 n/a n/a n/a
SFA 23.78 32.8 ± 0.52 a 33.3 ± 1.96 a 33.25–36.14 Lesser rhea inhabits the Patagonian area of Argentina and
MUFA 50.87 26.8 ± 1.79 a 32.2 ± 1.96 b 31.07–41.87 Southern regions of Chile. There are also two subspecies, which
PUFA 25.99 39.7 ± 1.68 a 33.6 ± 4.41 b 15.88–26.10 need to be protected, Pterocnemia pennata garleppi located in the
Total n-6 23.38 38.0 28.3 15.62–25.43 Andean area at an altitude between 3000 and 4000 m in the
Total n-3 1.53 1.70 5.40 0.26–0.67
north-west of Argentina, south-west of Bolivia and southern Peru
n-6/n-3 15.3 22.3 5.24 37.9–60.0
(Cajal, 1988), and Pterocnemia pennata tarapacensis which inhabits
a
Data are means ± SD in male Tegu lizard (n = 9) with an average live body Northern Chile. The rearing of lesser rhea is conducted in some
weight of 2700 g, born and reared in captivity at the Faculty of Agronomy Tucuman,
commercial farms in the Argentinean Patagonia (Sales et al.,
Argentina (Caldironi & Manes, 2006).
b
Data are means ± SD for greater rhea (n = 3) and lesser rhea (n = 5) reared in 1999). The obtained products from lesser rhea are eggs, meat,
commercial farms in Argentina. The muscle used for the assay were a mix of illio- feathers and oil. The lesser rhea produces, under captive condi-
fibularis, iliotibialis lateralis, femorotibialis medius, iliotibialis cranialis, gastrocnemius tions, an average of 24 eggs per year with a hatchability of 51%
pars externa For rheas, different letters show significant differences (P < 0.05)
(Navarro & Martella, 2002).
between the two species (Sales et al., 1999).
c
Data were from male (n = 4) and female (n = 4) peccary reared on a farm in
Brazil (Freire et al., 2000).. SFA = Saturated fatty acids, MUFA = Monounsaturated 2.8.1. Yield of carcass and proximate composition
fatty acids, PUFA = Polyunsaturated fatty acids. n/a = data unavailable or not The lesser rheas used in the experiment of Sales et al. (1997)
reported. were 11–12 month-old, obtained from farms in Argentina. The live
 A. Saadoun, M.C. Cabrera / Meat Science 80 (2008) 570–581 577

body weights were 25.1 kg and the weight and yield of carcasses Table 9
were 15.0 kg and 59.6%, respectively. In the same report, the Meat yield and proximate composition of edible cuts meat of yacare (Caiman
crocodilus yacare) reared in Brazil (Romanelli et al., 2002)
authors found that the yield of meat in relation to the live body
weight was 39.7% (Table 1). The weight of some edible organs is Cuts Feeta Trunkb Tailc
also presented in Table 1. Yield
The proximate composition of meat from lesser rhea is pre- Total weight (kg) 1.28 ± 0.24 7.09 ± 0.80 3.18 ± 0.39
sented in Table 2 and shows that the total lipids were 1.29%. The Meat (kg) 1.02 0 ± .21 5.51 0 ± .64 2.87 ± 0.38
%* 79.68 77.72 90.25
level of cholesterol in the meat of lesser rhea was 55.0 mg/100 g Bones weight (kg) 0.26 ± 0.05 1.58 ± 0.27 0.31 ± 0.01
of tissue (Sales et al., 1999) and is similar to that in greater rhea %* 20.32 22.38 9.75
(Table 2), ostrich and emu (RIRDC, 2007). There is not published Composition
data about the level of protein in lesser rhea. Moisture (%) 75.4 ± 0.68 75.6 ± 0.79 74.7 ± 0.56
Proteins (%) 19.4 ± 0.23 18.4 ± 0.48 18.5 ± 0.57
2.8.2. Fatty acids composition of meat Total Lipids (%) 4.9 ± 0.29 5.05 ± 0.78 5.36 ± 0.36
Collagen (mg/g) 18.3 ± 0.37 17.8 ± 0.36 18.8± 0.82
The level of SFA is one of the lowest compared to other indige-
Ash (%) 1.00± 0.04 1.05 ± 0.06 1.03 ± 0.08
nous meats (Table 5), and is similar to that for greater rhea (Table
8). The level of SFA registered in lesser rhea is slightly lower to that Data are mean ± SD of 5 males yacare between 16.5 kg and 20.9 kg of live body
weight born and reared in captivity (Pantanal, Brazil).
of the ostrich and emu (Horbañczuk et al., 1998; RIRDC, 2007). The a
Debonned meat from posterior and anterior feet.
MUFA level was significantly (Sales et al., 1999) more elevated (Ta- b
Total meat from flank of the trunk of the animals. Visible fat and cartilage were
ble 8) in the lesser rhea than in the greater rhea. In comparison to not included.
c
the ostrich and emu, the levels of MUFA in lesser rhea is slightly Total meat from the muscle of tail.
*
lower, whilst the level of PUFA were significantly (Sales et al., Respect to the corresponding cut.

1999) more reduced in the lesser rhea than in the greater rhea.
However, these levels remain higher than that of the ostrich and
emu (Horbañczuk et al., 1998; RIRDC, 2007; Sales, 1998). As pro-
posed for greater rhea, the high levels of PUFA observed in lesser
rhea, in comparison to the Australian and the African ratites, would
be an advantage in the promoting of this kind of meat for rhea pro-
ducers in South America.
2.9. Yacare (Caiman crocodilus yacare)
The yacare inhabits Bolivia, Paraguay and the north-east of
Argentina, the southwest of Brazil and the northwest of Uruguay.
There are some commercial farms producing yacare principally
for its leather and meat, which is often offered salted to the con-
sumers. The yacare takes six years to reach sexual maturity. The
female builds a nest, and lays two twice per year, an average num-
ber of 29. The duration of incubation is between 65 and 84 days
(FAO, 1996; NAP, 1991).
2.9.1. Yield of carcass and proximate composition
The males yacare used in the work of Romanelli & de Felicio
(1999) had a live body weight of 19.4 kg and the weight and yield
of carcasses were 11.55 kg and 59.5%, respectively. In the same re-
port, the proportion of different parts of body in the yacare (after
total bleeding) with a live body weight between 16.5 and 20.9 kg
were 10.48% for the head, 11.19% for the viscera, 17.57% for the
skin and 1.39% for the feet. The remaining 59.4% were represented
by the carcass which is used in the meat industry. The yield of meat
calculated from the report of Romanelli & de Felicio (1999) were
48.4%, one of the highest compared to the other native animals
presented here (Table 1).
The commercial carcass of the yacare is divided into the trunk,
feet and tail, the last being highly valued by consumers. The yields
of meat from the tail were 90.25% whilst the feet and the trunk
showed a meat yield of 79.68% and 77.72%, respectively (Table
9). Table 9 presents data on the weight and the proportions of
bones for each one of the three cuts of the carcass of yacare.
Table 2 presents the proximate composition obtained from a
mixture of the meat from the trunk and the tail, and indicates lev-
els of 18.43% for proteins, 5.32% for lipids and 85.48 mg choles-
terol/100 g (Table 2). In other reptilians reared for meat, such as
crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) farmed in Australia, the levels of
protein in the meat are slightly more elevated (22% versus
18.43%) and the levels of lipids are much lower (1.9% versus
5.32%) compared to the levels presented for yacare in the present
review (RIRDC, 2007). However, in Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus nil-
oticus) the levels of lipids in meat are 6.23%, a proportion which
is close to the results observed in yacare (Hoffman, Fisher, & Sales,
2000). Further investigations are needed to explain these differ-
ences between the yacare and the crocodile (Crocodylus porosus)
reared in Australia.
2.9.2. Fatty acids composition of meat
In our knowledge, no data are published about the fatty acids
composition of yacare’s meat produced in South America.
2.10. Tegu lizard (Tupinambis merianae)
Tegu is a large South American lizard which inhabits the south
of Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay. Tegu are used for their skin, meat
and, sometimes, as pets. Wild Tegu is active only during the hot
summer (Andrade, Sanders, Milsom, & Abe, 2004). This behavior
makes their farming difficult. However, there are some attempts
to produce Tegu from farms in Argentina. The female builds a nest
and lay 30–46 eggs. The duration of incubation is between 60 and
70 days (Basso et al., 2004; Caldironi & Manes, 2006; González, De
Caro, & Vieites, 1999).
2.10.1. Yield of carcass and proximate composition
The live body weight of farmed tegu was 4.23 kg, and after the
slaughtering the obtained carcass weight was 2.17 kg with a yield
of 51.4% (Table 1; Basso et al., 2004). The proximate composition of
tegu meat from animals with a live body weight of 2.7 kg and a
weight of carcass of 1.57 kg (Caldironi & Manes, 2006), indicate
23.6% proteins one of the most elevated levels presented in Table 2.
The different cuts with commercial use indicated in the report
of Caldironi & Manes (2006) are the back (also called loin), leg
and tail. In Table 10 the proximate composition of these commer-
cial cuts offered to the consumers are depicted. The level of choles-
terol in tegu meat shows a very low value and this ranks the tegu
as one of the animals, used in meat production, with the lowest le-
vel of cholesterol. This result needs to be confirmed in future
investigations.
2.10.2. Fatty acids composition of meat
The level of SFA in tegu meat shows a level of 23.78% (Table 8),
the lowest compared to the other meats presented in Table 5. Fur-
thermore, the level of MUFA found in tegu meat shows a very
578 A. Saadoun, M.C. Cabrera / Meat Science 80 (2008) 570–581
Table 10
Proximal meat composition of edible cuts of tegu lizard (Tupinambis merianae) from
Caldironi and Manes (2006)
Cuts Moisture (%) Proteins (%) Total lipids (%) Cholesterol
(mg/g)
Loin 71.2 ± 2.9 23.2 ± 0.6 5.5 ± 1.1 24.8 ± 4.8
Lega 72.3 ± 4.0 24.1 ± 0.7 3.2 ± 1.0 14.2 ± 4.1
Tailb 72.6 ± 1.8 23.5 ± 0.7 3.4 ± 1.8 15.5 ± 1.0
Data are means ± SD from 9 males Tegu lizard with an average live body weight of
2700 g born and reared in captivity (Faculty of Agronomy Tucumán, Argentina).
a
Debonned meat from posterior feet.
b
Total meat from the muscle of tail.
interesting level of 50.9%, the most elevated proportion in compar-
ison to the other indigenous meats presented (Table 5). The PUFA
show a level of 26.0% in tegu meat, which is similar to some other
indigenous meats such as nutria and capybara (Table 5).
2.11. Green iguana (Iguana iguana)
Green iguana or iguana inhabits Peru, Venezuela, Paraguay and
the north of Argentina. An adult male iguana can weigh between 2
and 4 kg, and an adult female between 2 kg and 2.6 kg. The prod-
ucts obtained from iguana are the meat and skin. Sometimes, the
iguana is reared as pet in South America. The females lay a clutch
of 14–76 eggs in a communal nesting site. The incubation period is
of 3 months (FAO, 1996; NAP, 1991).
2.11.1. Yield of carcass and proximate composition
To our knowledge, there is not any scientific and trustworthy
data about the yield of carcass and meat for iguana reared and pro-
duced in South America. However, in the work of De Moreno et al.
(2000), the proximate composition were presented and showed
that the moisture of meat iguana was 74.7%, the level of protein
20.8%, the lipids showed a level of 3.49% and the ash a level of
1.18%. No published data about the cholesterol level in iguana
meat could be sourced.
2.11.2. Fatty acids composition of meat
No information about the fatty acids composition of the iguana
meat produced in South America could be sourced.
3. Minerals composition of indigenous meat consumed in
South America
There is very limited data concerning the minerals composition
of the indigenous meats produced and consumed in South Amer-
ica. Published data of llama, alpaca and iguana meats are reported
in Table 11 (De Moreno et al., 2000; Polidori, Antonini, Torres,
Beghelli, & Renieri, 2007). The animals were all reared in South
America. The data were from the Longissimus dorsi muscle in llama
and alpaca, and from a mixture of carcass meat for the iguana.
The levels of calcium, sodium and magnesium in the meat are
similar in llama, alpaca and iguana. The level of potassium, zinc,
phosphorus and iron in the meat of llama, and alpaca are more ele-
vated than in iguana (Table 11).
4. Fatty acids indices related to human health and South
American indigenous meats
Meat is a valuable source of some fatty acids with potential ben-
efits in preventing cardiovascular diseases in human (Lunn & The-
obald, 2006; Simopoulos, 2001; Williamson, Foster, Scanner, &
Buttriss, 2005).
In Table 5, data on the fatty acids and the indices associated
with them, of the indigenous meats are presented. The correspond-
Table 11
Minerals content (mg/100 g) of wet meat in llama, alpaca and iguana
Minerals Llama (n = 20) Alpaca (n = 30) Iguana (n = 20)
Ash (%)
Calcium 11.6 ± 3.31a 8.79 ± 2.21b 10.14 ± 0.4
Magnesium 28.4 ± 7.11a 23.1 ± 5.43a 21.91 ± 0.54
1.1 ± 0.2 Potassium 447.1 ± 69.5a 411.7 ± 80.1b 266.1 ± 13.18
1.3 ± 0.3 Phosphorus 379.4 ± 67.7a 338.1 ± 58.9b 217.0 ± 6.97
1.2 ± 0.2 Sodium 105.6 ± 33.1a 91.8 ± 22.7b 89.31 ± 2.60
Zinc 4.44 ± 0.81a 3.87 ± 0.93a 2.53 ± 0.06
Iron 3.26 ± 0.71a 3.03 ± 0.89a 1.93 ± 0.09
Copper n/a n/a 0.22 ± 0.02
Manganese n/a n/a 0.046 ± 0.0025
Data for llama and alpaca, are means ± SEM (Polidori, Antonini, et al., 2007). Sig-
nificant differences in minerals content of meat (Longissimus dorsi) between llama
and alpaca were indicated by different letters (P < 0.05). For iguana, data (meat
carcass mixture) are means ± SD (De Moreno et al., 2000). n/a = data unavailable or
not reported.
ing data for the usual meat, consumed in South America (i.e. beef,
lamb, pig and chickens) are also presented. Data about the optimal
indices associated with the fatty acids linked to human health, and
accepted today as a result of numerous investigations and reports
are also indicated (German & Dillard, 2004; Grundy, 1997;
Kris-Etherton, 1999; Lunn & Theobald, 2006; Ramirez et al.,
2005; Simopoulos, 1999, 2001; Williamson et al., 2005; Wolfram,
2003).
In comparison to the recommended indices, the tegu lizard
seems to be the one which has the best indices related to the
health parameters presented (Table 5). Three indices presented
in Table 5 are important and should be considered first for a good
evaluation of the lipids composition of meat (Lunn & Theobald,
2006; Williamson et al., 2005). The first is the level of SFA (20–
25% are recommended). Only the tegu meat is in accord with this
recommendation. However, an order can be established, from the
most reduced level of saturated fatty acids to the more elevated:
tegu < greater rhea < lesser rhea < capybara < nutria < llama <gua-
naco. The second parameter is the level of MUFA (recommended
45–55%) and the indigenous meats presented here can be ordered
as following tegu > llama > nutria > lesser rhea > guanaco > capy-
bara > greater rhea. The third parameter, probably the most impor-
tant of the three, is the ratio between the PUFA and the SFA (P:S in
Table 5). Most of the indigenous meats presented in the present re-
view are in accord with the recommended level (between 0.40 and
0.45), and only the guanaco and the llama had levels below the rec-
ommended indices (Table 5). When the P:S ratio was evaluated for
the usual meat consumed (Table 5), the results show that only
chickens and pigs reared-outdoor were in accord with the recom-
mended P:S indices. Also, it is interesting to remark that the gua-
naco and the llama show a P:S ratio similar to the ratio observed
for beef and sheep, two other ruminants usually consumed in
South America (Table 5).
5. Technological parameters of meat from native animals from
South America
All indigenous meats produced in South America, and presented
here, have a great commercial potential to be introduced not only
to the local market, but also in the international market as new or
exotic meat. To be successful, these new markets, the indigenous
meats have to respond to the meat quality parameters, advised
for usual meat so as to ensure the consumer satisfaction.
The non-nutritional parameters most often considered as meat
quality indicators, are physicochemical and include, for example,
the ultimate pH, the drip loss, the water holding capacity (WHC),
the color of meat, the cooking loss and the tenderness. There is
other more specific and complementary indicators such as myofi-
bril deterioration, sarcomere length, marbling and fat content, or
 A. Saadoun, M.C. Cabrera / Meat Science 80 (2008) 570–581 579

Table 12
Some technological parameters (means ± SD) of Longissimus dorsi muscle in capybara (n = 28) reared in South America (Bressan et al., 2004)

pH post-mortem Meat color Other parameters

Time (h) # $ # $ # $
2 6.30 ± 0.20 6.27 ± 0.23 L* 35.02 ± 3.13 33.3 ± 3.74 WHC (%) 49.0 ± 5.00 45.0 ± 5.00
5 6.31 ± 0.20 6.27 ± 0.21 a* 9.88 ± 2.30 11.89 ± 2.99 CL (%) 31.28 ± 2.68 33.60 ± 3.35
8 6.28 ± 0.17 6.23 ± 0.22 b* 1.85 ± 1.65 1.60 ± 1.81 SF (N) 50.9 ± 6.67 51.2 ± 5.78
24 6.02 ± 0.17 6.00 ± 0.17

WHC = Water holding capacity. CL = Cooking loss. SF = Shear force as AMSA (1978).

Table 13
Some technological parameters (means ± SD) of meat* in llama and alpaca reared in Table 15
South America pH post-mortem in the Longissimus dorsi muscle of yacare (Caiman crocodilus yacare)
reared in Brazil
Time post-mortem (h) Alpaca (n = 40) Llama (n = 20)
Time (h) pH post-mortem
pHa
1 6.86 ± 0.04 6.85 ± 0.05 0 6.7
6 6.64 ± 0.03 6.62 ± 0.03 12 6.4
12 6.04 ± 0.02 6.06 ± 0.02 24 6.2
24 5.57 ± 0.02 5.60 ± 0.01 36 5.8
48 5.56 ± 0.01 5.57 ± 0.01 40 5.6
72 5.56 ± 0.01 5.55 ± 0.01 48 5.6

Data extracted from Fig. 1 of the report of Taboga et al. (2003).

WHC (%)a
1 49.09 ± 2.08 50.53 ± 2.14
6 49.18 ± 2.01 48.61 ± 2.11
12 49.30 ± 2.51 49.78 ± 3.08 (2007) are presented in Table 13. The WHC in llama and alpaca
24 51.17 ± 3.01 50.68 ± 2.74 was measured by Cristofanelli et al. (2004, 2005), at different times
48 52.80 ± 2.77 49.60 ± 2.61
post-mortem and no significant differences between the two spe-
72 53.76 ± 4.11 49.78 ± 2.23
cies were noted (Table 13).
(days) Alpaca (n = 8) Llama (n = 8) For greater and lesser rhea, the data, reported by Sales et al.
Shear forceb (kg/cm2) (1998), concerned the evolution of post-mortem pH in different
2 6.06 ± 0.61 6.56 ± 0.73 muscles (Table 14). There were no significant differences between
7 4.15 ± 0.23 4.78 ± 0.36 the studied muscles in the greater rhea.
a
Cristofanelli et al. (2004, 2005). For yacare, the evolution of the post-mortem pH was determined
b
Polidori, Antonini, et al. (2007). by Taboga, Romanelli, Felisbino, & Borges (2003). The data for pH,
*
Longissimus dorsi. Shear force unit = kg/cm2. WHC = water holding capacity. presented in Table 15, has been extracted from Fig. 1 in the report
of Taboga et al. (2003).
There is other data for yacare, concerning the salting of meat as
the connective tissue type (Aaslyng, 2002; Lawrie, 1998; Swatland, a method of conservation (Lopes Filho, Romanelli, Barboza, Gabas,
2002). However, the final evaluator of meat quality is the con- & Telis-Romero, 2002; Telis, Romanelli, Gabas, & Telis-Romero,
sumer. Therefore the sensorial evaluation of indigenous meat has 2003). These methods are often preferred by farmers because the
to be included as another quality parameter. salting process is relatively simple, has a low cost, and can be real-
The studies on the technological aptitude and qualitative char- ized in distant and hard to access farms. To determine the most
acteristics of meat obtained from native animals from South Amer- favorable conditions to obtain an optimum salting of yacare meat,
ica are incipient. However, some information was available in the Telis et al. (2003) evaluated the sodium chloride diffusion kinetics
scientific literature. in the meat of yacare produced in Brazil. The main results show
For capybara, data on the post-mortem pH, meat color and that the salting process of yacare meat is influenced principally
some other parameters as the water holding capacity, the cooking by the initial brine concentration and to a lesser extent by the tem-
loss and the shear-force of meat are presented in Table 12. perature during salting and the muscle/brine ratio (Fig. 1). The salt
For llama and alpaca data concerning some technological effective diffusion coefficients are in a range between 0.47  10 10
parameters (pH post-mortem, WHC and shear-force) published by and 9.62  10 10 m2/s as documented in the report of Telis et al.
Cristofanelli et al. (2004, 2005) and Polidori, Antonini, et al. (2003).

Table 14
pH post-mortem (means ± SD) in different muscles of greater and lesser rhea reared in South America (Sales et al., 1998)

Time (h) Greater rhea (n = 3) muscles Lesser rhea (n = 5) muscles

Gastrocnemius pars externa Iliofibularis Iliotibialis lateralis Gastrocnemius pars externa Iliofibularis Iliotibialis lateralis
pH post-mortem
0.5 6.20 ± 0.26 5.99 ± 0.31 6.29 ± 0.13 6.69 ± 0.04 5.97 ± 0.05 6.54 ± 0.39
2.0 5.68 ± 0.59 5.97 ± 0.37 6.16 ± 0.03 6.50 ± 0.33 5.70 ± 0.12 6.37 ± 0.26
3.5 5.83 ± 0.10 5.80 ± 0.09 5.72 ± 0.14 6.36 ± 0.19 5.82 ± 0.11 6.38 ± 0.14
6.5 6.01 ± 0.20 5.73 ± 0.03 5.83 ± 0.14 6.07 ± 0.13 5.80 ± 0.12 6.07 ± 0.23
8.5 5.85 ± 0.01 5.73 ± 0.05 5.82 ± 0.14 6.04 ± 0.07 5.84 ± 0.08 5.99 ± 0.09
24.0 5.99 ± 0.17 5.76 ± 0.04 5.95 ± 0.12 6.03 ± 0.18 5.82 ± 0.09 6.07 ± 0.13
580 A. Saadoun, M.C. Cabrera / Meat Science 80 (2008) 570–581

tigations, and showed good possibilities to be farmed and

Effective diffusivity x 10-10 (m2/s)

10
exploited to produce meat responding to the local, as well as the
15 %
8 20 % Initial brine concentration (% w/w) international market, interested by native or exotic meat and by-
25 % products.
6 There is a big challenge for the scientists in South America to
investigate the native species not only in aspects related to the eco-
B/M 3
4 logical protection, but also in the rational productive aspect. This
approach will be very useful economically for many communities
2 in South America.

0 Acknowledgement

The authors are grateful to Zulma Alicia Saadoun for English

Effective diffusivity x 10-10 (m2/s)

10
revision.
8
References
6 Aaslyng, M. D. (2002). Quality indicators for raw meat. In J. Kerry, J. Kerry, & D.
B/M 4 Ledward (Eds.), Meat processing improving quality (pp. 157–174). Cambridge,
4 England: Woodhead Publ. Ltd.
Alvarez, M. R., & Kravetz, F. O. (2006). Reproductive performance of capybaras
(Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) in captivity under different management systems
2 in Argentina. Animal Research, 55, 153–164.
AMSA (1978). Guidelines for cookery and sensory evaluation of meat. Chicago, IL:
0 American Meat Science Association.
Andrade, D. V., Sanders, C., Milsom, W. K., & Abe, A. S. (2004). Overwintering in tegu
lizards. In B. M. Barnes & H. V. Carey (Eds.), Life in the cold evolution, mechanisms,
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10 adaptation, and application. Twelfth international hibernation symposium

8 Arestegui, D. (2005). Alpaca and vicuña: General perspectives. In Proceedings of the
6
4 Bressan, M. C., Jardim, N. S., Perez, J. R. O., Thomazini, M., Lemos, A. L. S., Oda, S. H. I.,
2 24, 357–362.
0 conservation. Conservation Biology, 4, 1222–1233.
10 ºC 15 ºC
Temperature during salting
Fig. 1. Effective diffusivity at different brine/muscle ratio (B/M n) and temperature
during salting of yacare meat (Caiman crocodilus yacare). From the report of Telis
et al. (2003).
6. Conclusion
The nutritional characteristics of the meat from South American
native species presented here, show interesting aspects in compar-
ison to the usual meat consumed in South America. When related
to the human health parameters, shows that this kind of meat can
be favorably accepted by the consumers not only in South America,
but also in other countries outside the region. Most of the meats
from the native species presented have a low level of lipids and
cholesterol, and often show a beneficial relationship between the
different fatty acids. Also, the human health parameters of indige-
nous meat can be favorably compared to the usual meat consumed
in South America. The technological transformation of this kind of
meat can open a new and very promising market. This approach
can strongly help the major development of these valuable prod-
ucts. There are limited, but interesting attempts, in the technolog-
ical transformation of meat products in capybara, yacare and
nutria.
The rational and sustainable farming and use of meat from na-
tive species, shows a very important potential to be considered in
the economical development of many countries in South America.
As shown in the present work, numerous native species (most of
them presented here) have been subject to limited scientific inves-
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