583
Lasers and Co
11. Lasers and Coherent Light Sources
This chapter describes lasers and other sources
of coherent light that operate in a wide wave-
length range. First, the general principles for
the generation of coherent continuous-wave and
pulsed radiation are treated including the inter-
action of radiation with matter, the properties
of optical resonators and their modes as well
as such processes as Q-switching and mode-
locking. The general introduction is followed by
sections on numerous types of lasers, the em-
phasis being on today’s most important sources
of coherent light, in particular on solid-state
lasers and several types of gas lasers. An im-
portant part of the chapter is devoted to the
generation of coherent radiation by nonlin-
ear processes with optical parametric oscillators,
difference- and sum-frequency generation, and
high-order harmonics. Radiation in the extended
ultraviolet (EUV) and X-ray ranges can be gener-
ated by free electron lasers (FEL) and advanced
X-ray sources. Ultrahigh light intensities up to
1021 W/cm2 open the door to studies of relativistic
laser–matter interaction and laser particle accel-
eration. The chapter closes with a section on laser
stabilization.
11.1 Principles of Lasers ............................... 584
11.1.1 General Principles ....................... 584
11.1.2 Interaction of Radiation
with Atoms................................. 590
11.1.3 Laser Resonators and Modes ......... 595
11.1.4 Laser Rate Equations
and Continuous-Wave Operation .. 602
11.1.5 Pulsed Laser Behavior .................. 605
11.2 Solid-State Lasers ................................. 614
11.2.1 Basics ........................................ 614
11.2.2 UV and Visible Rare-Earth Ion
Lasers ........................................ 619
11.2.3 Near-Infrared Rare Earth Lasers .... 636
11.2.4 Mid-Infrared Lasers ..................... 660
11.2.5 Transition-Metal-Ion Lasers ......... 674
11.2.6 Overview of the most Important
Laser Ions in Solid-State Lasers ..... 694
11.3 Semiconductor Lasers............................ 695
Part C 11
11.3.1 Overview .................................... 695
11.3.2 Resonator Types
and Modern Active Layer Materials:
Quantum Effects and Strain .......... 698
11.3.3 Edge-Emitting Laser Diodes
with Horizontal Resonators .......... 703
11.3.4 Basics of Surface-Emitting Lasers
with Vertical Resonators (VCSELs) ... 720
11.3.5 Edge-Emitting Lasers and VCSELs
with Low-Dimensional Active
Regions...................................... 725
11.3.6 Lasers with External Resonators .... 725
11.4 The CO2 Laser........................................ 726
11.4.1 Physical Principles....................... 726
11.4.2 Typical Technical Designs.............. 737
11.5 Ion Lasers ............................................ 746
11.5.1 Ion-Laser Physics ........................ 747
11.5.2 Plasma Tube Design..................... 749
11.5.3 Ion-Laser Resonators................... 751
11.5.4 Electronics.................................. 753
11.5.5 Ion-Laser Applications ................. 755
11.6 The HeNe Laser ..................................... 756
11.6.1 The Active Medium ...................... 756
11.6.2 Construction and Design Principles 758
11.6.3 Stabilization ............................... 762
11.6.4 Manufacturing ............................ 763
11.6.5 Applications ............................... 764
11.7 Ultraviolet Lasers:
Excimers, Fluorine (F2 ), Nitrogen (N2 ) ...... 764
11.7.1 The Unique Properties
of Excimer Laser Radiation ........... 765
11.7.2 Technology of Current Excimer Lasers
and the N2 Laser ......................... 765
11.7.3 Applications ............................... 770
11.7.4 Outlook: Radiation in the EUV ....... 775
11.8 Dye Lasers ............................................ 777
11.8.1 Overview .................................... 777
11.8.2 General Description ..................... 777
11.8.3 Flashlamp-Pumped Dye Lasers ..... 777
11.8.4 Tunable Dye Lasers Pumped by
High-Power Short-Wavelength
Lasers ........................................ 778
584 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources
11.8.5 Colliding-Pulse Mode-Locked
Dye Lasers .................................. 778
11.8.6 Tunable Continuous-Wave
Dye Lasers .................................. 779
11.8.7 Advanced Solid-State Dye Lasers ... 779
11.9 Optical Parametric Oscillators.................
11.9.1 Optical Parametric Generation ......
Part C 11.1
11.9.2 Phase Matching ..........................
11.9.3 Optical Parametric Oscillators ........
11.9.4 Design and Performance
of Optical Parametric Oscillators ....
11.10 Generation of Coherent Mid-Infrared Ra-
diation by Difference-Frequency Mixing .
11.10.1 Difference-Frequency Generation
(DFG) .........................................
11.10.2 DFG Laser Sources ........................
11.10.3 Outlook ......................................
11.11 Free-Electron Lasers .............................
11.11.1 Principle of Operation ..................
11.11.2 Current Status and Perspective
Applications of Free-Electron
Lasers ........................................
11.11.3 Suggested further reading ............
11.1 Principles of Lasers
11.1.1 General Principles
A laser (an acronym for light amplification by stim-
ulated emission of radiation) is a device that produces
and amplifies an intense beam of highly coherent, highly
directional light. The original proposal of extending the
maser (microwave amplification by stimulated emission
of radiation) idea to the infrared or visible region of
the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum, thus giving a laser,
was however first made in 1960 by Maiman [11.1] us-
ing a flash-pumped rod of ruby with polished ends
(ruby laser) after a proposal in 1958 by Townes and
Schawlow [11.2]. Nowadays laser devices range in size
from semiconductor lasers as small as a grain of salt to
solid-state lasers as large as a storage building. Lasers
are widely used in industry for, e.g., cutting and weld-
ing metals and other materials, in medicine for surgery,
in optical communications, in optical metrology, and
in scientific research. They are an integral part of such
familiar devices as bar-code scanners used in supermar-
kets, laser printers, compact disc and digital versatile
disc (DVD) players. The output wavelength of a laser is
11.12 X-ray and EUV Sources........................... 819
11.12.1 X-Ray Lasers ............................... 819
11.12.2 High-Order Harmonics ................. 822
11.13 Generation of Ultrahigh Light Intensities
and Relativistic Laser–Matter Interaction 827
785 11.13.1 Laser Systems for the Generation
786 of Ultrahigh Intensities ................ 827
787 11.13.2 Relativistic Optics
790 and Laser Particle Acceleration...... 834
790 11.14 Frequency Stabilization of Lasers ........... 841
11.14.1 Characterization
801 of Noise, Stability, Line Width,
Reproducibility, and Uncertainty
802 of the Laser Frequency ................. 842
809 11.14.2 Basics
813 of Laser Frequency Stabilization .... 845
11.14.3 Examples
814 of Frequency-Stabilized Lasers...... 852
814 11.14.4 Measurement
of Optical Frequencies ................. 863
11.14.5 Conclusion and Outlook ............... 864
815
819 References .................................................. 864
determined by the properties of its active medium. Alto-
gether, several thousand lasing lines have been reported
ranging from the soft-X-ray down to the far-infrared
spectral region and new lines appear frequently in optics
and laser journals. Depending upon the type of laser and
its operational regime, the corresponding output power
may vary from a fraction of a milliwatt to several hun-
dred kilowatts in continuous-wave operation, and from
tens of kilowatts to petawatt peak power in pulsed-mode
operation.
A laser consists of at least three components
(Fig. 11.1):
1. a gain medium that can amplify light by means of
the basic process of stimulated emission;
2. a pump source, which creates a population inversion
in the gain medium;
3. two mirrors that form a resonator or optical cavity
in which light is trapped, traveling back and forth
between the mirrors.
The laser beam is usually the fractional part of light
trapped in the cavity that escapes from one of the two

R1 = 100 % R2
l E2
2
Laser beam
Gain medium
1
Pumping
Mirror Output
mirror
Resonator
Fig. 11.1 Schematic of a laser oscillator
mirrors (the output coupler), which has a nonvanish-
ing transmission at the laser oscillation wavelength. The
gain medium can be solid (including semiconductors),
liquid, or gas, and the pump source can be an electrical
discharge, a lamp, or another laser. Other specific com-
ponents of a laser vary depending on the gain medium
and whether the laser is operated continuously or pulsed.
Lasers may be in fact divided into two broad groups:
1. continuous wave (CW) or quasi-CW,
2. pulsed.
A CW laser exhibits a steady flow of coherent energy
and its output power undergoes little or no change with
time. Many gas lasers, such as HeNe and Ar-ion lasers,
operate CW; several solid-state lasers, such as Nd3+
and Ti3+ :Al2 O3 lasers, are also often operated in CW
mode. In pulsed lasers, the output beam power changes
with time so as to produce a short optical pulse, usu-
ally in a repetitive way and with pulse duration usually
ranging from nanoseconds (1 ns = 10−9 s) to femtosec-
onds (1 fs = 10−15 s). Typical examples of pulsed lasers
are many solid-state and liquid lasers, such as Nd:YAG,
Ti:Al2 O3 , and dye lasers.
Spontaneous
and Stimulated Emission, Absorption
A laser exploits three fundamental phenomena that occur
when an electromagnetic wave interacts with a mater-
ial, namely the processes of spontaneous and stimulated
emission, and the process of absorption (Fig. 11.2).
Spontaneous emission and nonradiative decay. Let
us consider the energy levels of some given material and
indicate by E 1 and E 2 the energies of the ground level,
1, and of an excited level, 2, of the medium. If the atom
is initially raised in the excited state 2, it spontaneously
tends to decay into the stable ground state 1. If the avail-
able energy for the transition, E 2 − E 1 is released in
Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.1 Principles of Lasers 585
a) b) c)
2 E2 2 E2 2
hí
hí hí hí
hí
E1 1 E1 1 E1 1
Part C 11.1
Fig. 11.2a–c Fundamental interaction processes of a quan-
tized atom with an EM wave. (a) Spontaneous emission.
(b) Stimulated emission. (c) Absorption
the form of an EM wave, the process is referred to as
spontaneous, or radiative, emission (Fig. 11.2a). Owing
to energy conservation, the frequency ν0 of the emitted
radiation is given by:
(E 2 − E 1 )
ν0 = , (11.1)
h
where h is the Planck’s constant. Since the previous re-
lation can also be written as E 2 − E 1 = hν0 , we can say
that a single photon of energy hν0 is emitted during each
spontaneous emission process. Note also that this pro-
cess occurs even if the atom is isolated and no external
perturbation is applied. The probability of spontaneous
emission can be characterized in the following way. Let
us consider an ensemble of atoms and assume that, at
time t, there are N2 atoms per unit volume (population)
in level 2.
Quantum mechanical calculations show that the rate
of decay of these atoms due to spontaneous emission,
i. e., ( dN2 / dt)sp , is proportional to N2 according to:


dN2 N2
=− , (11.2)
dt sp τs
where τs is referred to as the spontaneous emission life-
time and depends on the particular transition involved.
The direction, the polarization, and the phase of the
emission event are random, so that the overall emitted
light by the different atoms of the given population is
said to be incoherent.
If the atom is not isolated but interacts, e.g., by col-
lisions with other atoms, the decay from the excited
state 2 to the ground state 1 may occur by a release
of the internal energy (E 2 − E 1 ) into some form other
than EM radiation (e.g., into kinetic or internal energy
of surrounding atoms in a gas or lattice vibrations in
a crystal). The phenomenon is referred to as nonra-
diative decay. The corresponding rate of decay from
the excited state 2 can usually be expressed in a sim-
ilar manner as (11.2), namely ( dN2 / dt)nr = −N2 /τnr ,
586 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources
where τnr is the nonradiative lifetime. When both radia-
tive and nonradiative decay are taken into account, the
rate of decay of population N2 can be written as:


dN2 N2 N2 N2
=− − ≡− , (11.3)
dt decay τs τnr τ perturbations, such as collisions with other atoms or with
where the time constant τ, defined by 1/τ = 1/τs +
Part C 11.1
1/τnr , is referred to as the lifetime of the excited state 2.
Stimulated emission. If an EM wave of frequency ν
close to ν0 is incident onto the atom while in its excited
state 2, the interaction of the wave with the atom may
stimulate the atom to decay to level 1 with the simultane-
ous emission of EM radiation. The process is referred to
as stimulated emission. In this case, one photon, with the
same frequency ν of the incoming radiation and with the
same propagation direction, polarization state and phase
is emitted (Fig. 11.2b). This is a major distinction to
spontaneous emission. It is the fundamental reason why
a laser emits coherent light as compared to the incoher-
ent light emitted by other light sources [such as lamps
or light-emitting diodes (LEDs)], which exploit sponta-
neous emission. Quantum mechanical calculations show
that the process of stimulated emission can be described
by the equation


dN2
= −W21 N2 , (11.4)
dt st
where W21 is the rate of stimulated emission. This rate is
proportional to the photon flux F = I/(hν) of the incom-
ing wave, where I is the wave intensity. We can in fact
write W21 = σ21 F, where σ21 is a quantity having the
dimension of an area (the stimulated emission cross sec-
tion), which depends on the characteristics of the given
transition and on the frequency difference ∆ν = ν − ν0 ,
i. e., σ21 = σ21 (∆ν). Owing to energy conservation in the
a) b)
óaa
F (z) F (z + dz)
óa
óa
z óa
óa
dz
Fig. 11.3a,b Coherent amplification of an EM wave. (a) Photon
flux-balance diagram in an infinitesimal section dz of the amplifier.
(b) Physical meaning of the transition cross section
process of stimulated emission, the function σ21 (∆ν) is
very narrow at around ∆ν = 0.
Absorption. Lastly, let us consider the case of an atom
initially lying in its ground state 1. In the absence of
photons, the atom stably remains in this state. However,
if an EM radiation of frequency ν  ν0 is incident onto
the atom, there is a finite probability that the atom will be
raised to level 2. The energy difference E 2 − E 1 required
by the atom to undergo the transition is obtained from
the energy of the EM wave, namely one photon of the
incoming wave is destroyed. This process is referred to
as absorption (Fig. 11.2c). As for stimulated emission,
the absorption process can be described by


dN2
= −W12 N2 , (11.5)
dt a
where W12 is the rate of absorption. Again one can show
that W12 = σ12 F, where σ12 is the absorption cross
section. Einstein showed at the beginning of the 20th
century that, for nondegenerate levels, W12 = W21 , and
thus σ12 = σ21 . If levels 1 and 2 are g1 -fold and g2 -fold
degenerate, respectively, one then has g2 σ21 = g1 σ12 .
Coherent Amplification of Light
Consider a monochromatic EM plane wave at fre-
quency ν which propagates along the z-direction inside
a medium made of a collection of atoms. Let E 1 and E 2
be the energies of two nondegenerate levels 1 and 2 of
the atom (this time 1 is not necessarily the ground state).
We assume that the resonance frequency of the transi-
tion, ν0 = (E 2 − E 1 )/h, is coincident (or very close) to
ν. If F(z) is the photon flux of the EM wave at plane z
and N1 , N2 are the populations in levels 1 and 2 (which
are assumed to be z-independent), the change dF of the
photon flux due to the processes of absorption and stim-
ulated emission along the elemental length dz of the
material is given by (Fig. 11.3a)
óa
S dF = σ(N2 − N1 )F(z) dz , (11.6)
óa
where σ ≡ σ21 = σ12 is the transition cross section. Note
that in writing (11.6) we did not consider radiative and
nonradiative decays since nonradiative decay does not
add new photons whereas spontaneous emission cre-
óa
ates photons which are emitted in any direction and
thus gives negligible contribution to the incoming pho-
ton flux. Most importantly, note that for N2 > N1 , one
has dF/ dz > 0 and the EM wave is amplified during
propagation, i. e., the medium acts as a coherent optical
amplifier. Conversely, for N2 < N1 , one has dF/ dz < 0

and the medium behaves as an absorber. If we let l be
the length of the medium, the photon flux F(l) at the out-
put plane is related to the one F(0) at the input plane by
the relation F(l) = F(0) exp(g), where g = (N2 − N1 )σl
is the gain coefficient. The condition for light amplifica-
tion (g > 0) is therefore N2 > N1 , which is often referred
to as population inversion. We note that in the previous
calculation N1 and N2 have been assumed independent
of the intensity I of propagating wave. This is fine how-
ever provided that I is weak enough so as that changes
of N1 and N2 due to absorption and stimulated emis-
sions can be neglected; however, for strong intensities
one needs to account for the phenomenon of saturation.
As a final comment, we note that an examination of
(11.6) leads to a simple physical interpretation of the
transition cross section σ. First, let us suppose that all
the atoms of the medium are in the ground state and let
us associate with each atom an effective absorption cross
section σa in the sense that, if a photon enters this cross
section, it is absorbed by the atom (Fig. 11.3b). If S is
the cross-sectional area of the EM wave, the number of
atoms in the element dz of the material is Nt S dz (Nt is
the total atomic population, i. e., N1 = Nt and N2 = 0),
thus giving a total absorption cross section of σa Nt S dz.
The fractional decrease of photon flux in the element dz
of the material is therefore ( dF/F) = −(σa Nt S dz/S) =
−σa Nt dz. If we compare this expression with (11.6),
we conclude that σa = σ, so that the meaning we can
attribute to σ is that of an effective absorption cross
section as just defined.
Population Inversion: The Pumping Process
At thermal equilibrium any material behaves as an ab-
sorber. In fact, the distribution of populations N2e and
N1e of levels 1 and 2 at thermal equilibrium is described
by the Boltzmann statistics


N2e E2 − E1
= exp − , (11.7)
N1e kB T
where kB is the Boltzmann constant and T is the absolute
temperature. Note that N2e < N1e ; in particular N2e is neg-
ligible as compared to N1e if kB T  E 2 − E 1 ; at room
temperature (T = 300 K) one has kB T  208 cm−1 .
[A reciprocal centimeter is a simple convenient unit
for measuring energies in spectroscopy and refers to
the inverse of the wavelength of a photon possess-
ing the given energy E. The actual energy E in the
SI unit (Joule) can be obtained by multiplying cm−1
by hc, with c = 3 × 1010 cm/s and h = 6.63 × 10−34 Js].
Therefore the condition N2e  N1e is well satisfied for
transitions in the near-infrared and visible. To obtain op-
Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.1 Principles of Lasers 587
tical amplification instead of optical absorption, we need
to create population inversion in the medium by means
of a pumping process [11.3, 4], which drives the popu-
lation distribution far from thermal equilibrium. At first
sight one might think to achieve population inversion
between levels 2 and 1 through the interaction of the
material with some strong EM radiation at frequency
Part C 11.1
ν0 , such as that emitted by a flash or arc lamp. Since
at thermal equilibrium N1e > N2e , absorption will domi-
nate over stimulated emission, and this will produce an
increase of N2 and a decrease of N1 from their thermal
equilibrium values. However, when N1 tends to reach
the same value of N2 , absorption and stimulated emis-
sion processes compensate each other, i. e., the medium
tends to become transparent. Such a situation is referred
to as saturation of the two-level transition. Therefore,
owing to saturation, it is impossible to produce popu-
lation inversion in a two-level system (at least in the
steady state). This goal can be achieved, however, when
more than two energy levels are considered. Typically
three or four energy levels are involved (Fig. 11.4), and
correspondingly one speaks of three-level or four-level
lasers. In a three-level laser (Fig. 11.4a), atoms are raised
from the ground level 1 to the level 3 through a pump-
ing mechanism. If the material is such that, once an
atom excited into level 3 rapidly decays into a lower
level 2 (by, e.g., a fast nonradiative decay), then popu-
lation inversion can be obtained between level 2 and 1.
Note that, in a three-level laser scheme, to achieve pop-
ulation inversion it is necessary to raise at least half of
the atoms from the ground state 1 to state 3. In a four-
level laser (Fig. 11.4b), atoms are again raised from the
ground level 0 to an excited state 3, with a rapid decay
to the upper laser level 2; however this time laser ac-
tion takes place from level 2 to an excited lower-lying
level 1. Once laser oscillation starts, level 1 is populated
by stimulated emission; therefore to maintain popula-
a) b)
Pump level Pump level
3 3
Fast decay Fast decay
2 2
Laser
Laser
Pumping Pumping
1
Fast decay
1 0
Ground state Ground state
Fig. 11.4a,b Schematic of the energy-level diagram for (a) a three-
level laser, and (b) a four-level laser
588 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources
tion inversion in stationary conditions (continuous-wave
operation), the lower laser level 1 should rapidly depop-
ulate through, e.g., a very fast nonradiative decay into
the ground state 0. Compared to a three-level laser, the
four-level laser offers the great advantage that population
inversion is ideally achieved when just one atom is raised
to the pumping level 3. Four-level lasers are thus more
Part C 11.1
used, whenever possible, than three-level lasers. More
recently, the so-called quasi-three-level lasers have also
become a rather important laser category. In these lasers
the energy level scheme is similar to that of a four-level
laser, however levels 0 and 1 are now nondegenerate
sublevels of the ground energy level. The population of
the ground state is distributed in all the sublevels ac-
cording to Boltzmann statistics, and therefore, at room
temperature, some population is left in level 1.
The mechanism that allows atom excitation from the
ground energy level into the excited pump level 3 is re-
ferred to as the pumping process. The rate of population
of the upper state, 2, due to the pumping, ( dN2 / dt)p ,
can be written as:


dN2
= Wp Ng , (11.8)
dt p
where Wp is the pumping rate and Ng is the popula-
tion of the ground state. For a four-level laser, one can
assume Ng to be constant (and much larger than N2 ).
In this case one can write from (11.8) ( dN2 / dt)p = Rp ,
where Rp = Wp Ng is the pump rate per unit volume. The
energy required for pumping is generally supplied either
optically or electrically. The minimum pump power Pm
needed to produce a given pump rate Rp is given by
Pm = ( dN2 / dt)p Vhνmp , where ( dN2 / dt)p is the num-
ber of atoms per unit volume and time raised to the upper
laser level by the pumping process, V is the volume of
the active medium, and νmp is the minimum pump fre-
quency, given by the difference between the ground level
and the upper laser level. For either electrical or opti-
cal pumping, the actual pump power Pp turns out to be
larger than the minimum value Pm , so that one can define
a pump efficiency ηp = Pm /Pp . Therefore, the relation
between the pump rate Rp and the actual pump power
Pp is given by:


Pp
Rp = ηp . (11.9)
Vhνmp
Optical pumping. In optical pumping by an incoherent
source, light from a powerful lamp (usually medium- to
high-pressure Xe and Kr flashlamps for pulsed lasers,
or high-pressure Kr lamps for CW lasers) is absorbed
by the active medium. Solid-state gain media, such as
Nd:YAG, and liquid lasers are particularly well suited
to optical pumping: absorption lines are in fact very
broad and this makes the absorption of the (broadband)
light of the lamps efficient. The flashlamps generate sig-
nificant heat into the material that must be dissipated
by water cooling. The pumping source may, however,
itself be a laser; in this case one speaks of laser pump-
ing. Among the most used laser pump sources, we just
mention semiconductor lasers (diode laser pumping),
argon-ion laser and second-harmonic or third-harmonic
generation of Nd lasers. With the advent of powerful
and reliable semiconductor lasers, diode-laser pumping
is nowadays commonplace for many solid-state and fiber
lasers.
Electrical pumping. In gas lasers and semiconductor
lasers, the excitation mechanism usually consists of
an electrical current flow through the active medium.
Gas lasers generally need to be electrically pumped be-
cause, due to the small width of their absorption lines,
optical pumping would be very inefficient. In gas lasers,
electrical pumping is achieved by passing an electric
current either CW, at radio frequency or pulsed, directly
through the gas itself. During the discharge, ions and
free electrons are produced which acquire kinetic en-
ergy from the applied field and are able to excite neutral
atoms via collisions: A + e → A∗ + e, where A∗ denotes
the atomic species in an excited state. Since electron im-
pact excitation is a nonresonant process, it is a rather
efficient pumping method for a gas. In some cases, the
gas may contain two species, one of which is first excited
by the discharge and then undergoes resonant energy
transfer with the other via collision (an example is the
HeNe laser). Electrical pumping in semiconductor lasers
is achieved by flowing a large current density in a p–n
or p–i–n diode. Though optical pumping can be used for
semiconductor lasers, electrical pumping proves to be
much more convenient.
Pumping processes different from optical or elec-
trical pumping may also be employed in some special
lasers; we just mention chemical pumping in chemical
lasers, where population inversion is produced directly
from an exothermic reaction.
Laser Oscillation
To obtain laser oscillation, the amplifying medium is
placed between two mirrors, forming a laser cavity
(Fig. 11.1). Light propagating along the cavity axis and
passing through the pumped laser medium is reflected
back through it, stimulating further emission in the same

direction. This means that laser photons undergo mul-
tiple reflections within the cavity, being amplified at
each pass through the laser medium. One mirror (to-
tal reflector) reflects almost all the incident light back
through the laser medium while the other (partial reflec-
tor or output coupler) transmits a fraction T2 = 1 − R2 ,
which constitutes the output laser beam. The combina-
tion of laser gain medium, pumping source and optical
cavity forms a simple laser oscillator: if the amplifi-
cation is large enough to overcame losses, i. e., when
a threshold condition is reached, a single photon (which
is always present due to quantum noise) can be ampli-
fied by several orders of magnitude to produce a huge
number of coherently generated photons trapped inside
the resonator. In addition, for an open resonator, only the
photons which propagate in the paraxial direction of the
resonator axis can reach the threshold for oscillation, so
that an important property of the output laser beam is that
it is directional. We can obtain the threshold condition
for laser action by a simple argument based on gain/loss
balance of light photons in one cavity round-trip. In
fact, in one round-trip the photons pass twice through
the gain medium and hence the round-trip gain of pho-
tons is exp(2σ Nl), where N = N2 − N1 is the population
inversion, and l is the length of the active medium. On
the other hand, the round-trip loss for photons can be
written as (1 − T1 )(1 − T2 )(1 − L i )2 , where T1 = 1 − R1
and T2 = 1 − R2 are the power transmission of the two
mirrors whereas L i accounts for the one-way internal
loss in the cavity (due to, e.g., scattering or diffraction
loss for open resonators). The population inversion Nc
needed to reach threshold (also called critical inversion)
is simply obtained by equating the round-trip gain and
loss. After setting γ1 = −ln(1 − T1 ), γ2 = −ln(1 − T2 )
and γi = −ln(1 − L i ), the critical inversion turns out to
be given by
γ between their electric fields at time t = 0 is zero. If the
Nc = , (11.10)
σl
where
γ1 + γ2
γ = γi + (11.11)
2 P1 , which is called the coherence area. The high degree
is referred to as the single-pass logarithmic loss of the
cavity. Once the critical inversion is reached, oscillation
builds up from spontaneous emission.
To calculate the pump rate Rcp needed to reach the
threshold condition (the critical pump rate), let us con-
sider the four-level laser (Fig. 11.4b). In steady-state
conditions and in the absence of lasing, the popula-
tion accumulated on the upper laser level can simply
Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.1 Principles of Lasers 589
be calculated from a balance between the number of
atoms pumped per unit volume and time in the upper
laser level and the number of atoms that decay via ra-
diative and nonradiative ways. Assuming N1  0, one
obtains ∆N  N2 = Rp τ. When N2 = Nc , from the pre-
vious equation and with the help of (11.10) the critical
pump rate is obtained as Rcp = γ /(στl). Note that the
Part C 11.1
critical pump rate increases as στ decreases. Therefore
the product στ, which depends on the properties of the
given transition, can be regarded as a figure of merit for
a given laser.
Properties of Laser Beams
Laser radiation shows an extremely high degree
of monochromaticity, coherence, directionality and
brightness as compared to other noncoherent light
sources [11.3].
The monochromaticity of laser radiation results from
the circumstance that light oscillation sets in at one res-
onance frequency of the optical cavity, and owing to the
balance between gain and loss in CW operation the line
width ∆νL of the oscillating mode is ultimately limited
by quantum noise. Conversely, light from incoherent
sources which exploit spontaneous emission (including
LEDs) has a much lower degree of monochromaticity (as
much as 11 orders of magnitude) since the spectral distri-
bution of spontaneously emitted photons is broadened at
around the atomic resonance frequency ν0 owing to var-
ious broadening mechanisms. For laser radiation in the
visible or near-infrared, line widths ∆νL as low as a few
Hz may, in fact, be achieved in frequency-stabilized laser
sources.
The coherence of laser radiation refers to either tem-
poral or spatial coherence. To define spatial coherence,
let us consider two points P1 and P2 that, at a time t = 0,
belong to the same wavefront, i. e., the phase difference
difference ϕ2 (t) − ϕ1 (t) of their phases also remains zero
at times t > 0, we say that there is perfect spatial coher-
ence between the two points P1 and P2 . In practice, for
any point P1 , in order to have some degree of phase cor-
relation, point P2 must lie within some finite area around
of spatial coherence of laser radiation stems again from
the fact that the spatial field distribution of the beam gen-
erated by stimulated emission is a mode of the optical
resonator.
To define temporal coherence at a given point P, let
us consider the phase difference ϕ(t + τ) − ϕ(t) for the
electric field at P at times t + τ and t. For a given de-
lay τ, if the phase difference is independent of time t,
590 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources
we say that there is temporal coherence over a time τ.
If this occurs for any value of τ, the EM wave is said
to have perfect temporal coherence. If, conversely, this
occurs only for delays τ smaller than a given delay τ0 ,
the wave is said to have partial temporal coherence,
and τ0 is called the coherence time of the EM wave at
point P. The concept of temporal coherence is closely
Part C 11.1
related to that of monochromaticity; in fact, for a CW
laser one can show that the coherence time τ0 is re-
lated to the laser line width ∆νL by the simple relation
τ0 ≈ 1/∆νL . The high degree of temporal coherence of
laser radiation is therefore due to its extreme degree of
monochromaticity.
The directionality of the laser beam is due to the fact
that the gain medium is placed inside an open optical
resonator and, as a consequence, stimulated emission
preferentially occurs in the direction orthogonal to the
two cavity mirrors (Fig. 11.1), where feedback from the
mirrors is most effective and diffraction losses are the
smallest. The laser beam emitted from the output cou-
pler shows a divergence angle which, in the ideal case, is
limited by diffraction. From diffraction theory, the diver-
gence angle for a monochromatic beam of wavelength
λ turns out to be given by


λ
θd = β , (11.12)
2w
where β is a numerical coefficient (of order 1) whose
specific value depends on the particular transverse field
11.1.2 Interaction of Radiation with Atoms
Absorption and Stimulated Emission Rates
Consider a monochromatic EM wave of frequency ν in-
cident on a two-level atom with a transition frequency
ν0 = (E 2 − E 1 )/h close to ν. The calculation of the ab-
sorption and stimulated emission rates W12 and W21 can
be done following a semiclassical approach, in which
the atom is treated quantum mechanically whereas the
EM wave classically [11.3,5–9]. If the atom is initially in
its ground state (level 1), the incident wave may induce
a transition to level 2 owing to the coupling of the elec-
tromagnetic field with the electric and magnetic dipole
(and multipole) moments of the atom. The strongest in-
teraction is usually that arising between the electric field
E(t) = E0 cos(2πνt) of the EM and the electric dipole
moment of the transition, which is defined by the ma-
trix dipole element µ12 = u ∗2 (r)eru 1 (r) dr, where r is
the distance of the electron of the atom, with charge
e, from its nucleus, and where u 1 (r) and u 2 (r) are the
electronic eigenfunctions for the atomic energy levels 1
and 2 respectively. In this electric-dipole approximation,
a perturbation theory, which assumes that the interaction
between the EM wave and the atom is not disturbed by,
e.g., collisions or other phenomena (including sponta-
neous emission), leads to the following expression for
the absorption and stimulated emission rate
2π 2
W12 = W21 = |µ12 |2 ρδ(ν − ν0 ) , (11.14)
3n 2 0 h 2
distribution and 2w is the diameter of the beam. For
example, considering laser radiation in the visible (λ =
500 nm), the divergence of a laser beam of transverse
diameter 2w ≈ 1 cm is solely θd ≈ λ/2w  5 × 10−5 rad.
This means that, after propagation for a length L = 1 km,
the beam size is increased to solely w + θd L ≈ 6 cm!
The brightness of laser radiation is closely related to
the directionality and stems from the capability of a laser
oscillator to emit a high optical power in a small solid
where ρ = n 2 0 E 02 /2 is the energy density of the EM
wave, n is the refractive index of the medium, and δ is the
impulse Dirac function. In particular, for a plane wave
of intensity I = cρ/n, from (11.14) the following ex-
pression for the cross section σ12 = W12 /F = hνW12 /I
can be derived:
2π 2
σ12 = |µ12 |2 νδ(ν − ν0 ) . (11.15)
angle of space. For a given emitting source, of area ∆S,
if P denotes the optical power delivered in a fractional
solid angle ∆Ω of space, the brightness of the emitter
is defined as B = P/(∆S∆Ω). The brightness of a laser
source, in which the solid angle of emission ∆Ω is
determined by its divergence angle θd , is given by


2 2
B= P. (11.13)
βπλ
A laser of moderate power (e.g., a few milliwatts) has
a brightness several orders of magnitude greater than
that of the brightest conventional sources.
3n0 ch
Analogously, if initially the electron is on level 2, owing
to the interaction with the EM wave there is a prob-
ability that the electron decays into state 1 emitting
a photon by stimulated emission. The semiclassical per-
turbation calculation leads for the stimulated emission
cross section σ21 = hνW21 /I the same expression as that
of σ12 , i. e., σ21 = σ12 , provided that the two levels are
not degenerate.
The expression for σ12 = σ21 as given by (11.15) is
unphysical since it implies that the transition probability
is zero for ν = ν0 and ∞ for ν = ν0 . The inconsis-
tency is removed by observing that the interaction of
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.1 Principles of Lasers 591

the monochromatic EM wave with the atom is not per-

fectly coherent, but it is disturbed by, e.g., collisions a) g b) g*
0.939
with other atoms or with lattice phonons, spontaneous Äí*0
emission and nonradiative decay of the atom. The effect 0.637
of such disturbing interactions is to broaden the tran- Äí0
sition line of each atom in the ensemble, in the sense
Äí*0
that in (11.15) the Dirac δ function δ(ν − ν0 ) should be Äí0

Part C 11.1
replaced by a new function g(ν − ν0 ), symmetric about
ν = ν0 with g(ν − ν0 )dν = 1, which is generally given 0 í – í0 0 í– í0
by the Lorentzian function (Fig. 11.5a):
Fig. 11.5 Lorentzian (left side) and Gaussian (right side) line
2 1 shapes corresponding to homogeneous and inhomogeneous tran-
g(ν − ν0 ) = , (11.16)
π∆ν0 1 + [2(ν − ν0 )/∆ν0 ]2 sition broadening, respectively

where ∆ν0 depends on the particular broadening mecha- assumes the most general form:
nism involved. Note that the full width at half-maximum
(FWHM) of the Lorentzian function is simply ∆ν0 . 2π 2
σ= |µ12 |2 νgt (ν − ν0 ) , (11.18)
The resonant character of the stimulated emission and
absorption processes is maintained since the line broad-
ening ∆ν0 is typically several orders of magnitude
smaller than ν0 (e.g., in a low-pressure gas, for a tran-
sition in the visible one has ν0 ≈ 5 × 1014 Hz whereas
∆ν0 ≈ 106 –108 Hz). Since the aforementioned broad-
ening mechanism act in the same way on each atom
of the ensemble, it is referred to as a homogeneous
broadening mechanism.
A somewhat different case occurs when the reso-
nance frequencies ν0 of the atoms in the ensemble are
distributed around a central frequency ν0 (inhomoge-
neous broadening). This distribution
 is described by the
function g∗ (ν0 − ν0 ) such that g∗ (ν0 − ν0 ) dν0 = 1 and
g∗ (ν0 − ν0 ) dν0 is the fractional part of the atoms in the
ensemble whose resonance frequency lies in the inter-
val (ν0 , ν0 + dν0 ). For the most common mechanisms
of inhomogeneous line broadening (such as Doppler
broadening in a gas or local-field effects in ionic crys-
tals or glasses) the distribution g∗ (ν0 − ν0 ) is given by
a Gaussian function (Fig. 11.5b):


2 ln2 1/2
g∗ (ν0 − ν0 ) =
∆ν0∗ π sition does not vanish. Transitions between atomic or
 
4ln2(ν0 − ν0 )2
× exp − , (11.17)
∆ν0∗2
where ∆ν0∗ is the transition line width (FWHM), which
depends on the particular broadening mechanism.
Taking into account the simultaneous presence
of both homogeneous and inhomogeneous broaden-
ing mechanisms, one can show that the cross section
σ = σ12 = σ21 for stimulated emission and absorption
3n0 ch
where the total line shape gt is given by the convolution:

gt (ν − ν0 ) = g∗ (ν0 − ν0 )g(ν − ν0 ) dν0 . (11.19)
If we consider an ensemble of atoms and indicate by
N1 and N2 the populations of atoms in the energy
levels 1 and 2, as discussed in the previous section
a small-signal EM wave of frequency ν which prop-
agates inside the medium experiences amplification
for N2 > N1 or absorption for N2 < N1 . In the for-
mer case, one can introduce the absorption coefficient
per unit length α(ν) = σ(ν − ν0 )(N1 − N2 ), whereas
in the latter case one can introduce the gain coeffi-
cient per unit length g(ν) = σ(ν − ν0 )(N2 − N1 ). For
a weak-signal wave, so that saturation can be ne-
glected, the intensity of the propagating wave is thus
exponentially attenuated or amplified along the propa-
gation direction according to I(z) = I(0) exp(−αz) or
I(z) = I(0) exp(gz), respectively.
These considerations apply to atomic or molecu-
lar transitions which are electric-dipole allowed, i. e.,
for which the dipole matrix element µ12 of the tran-
molecular energy levels with the same parity (e.g., be-
tween s states in an atom) are electric-dipole forbidden.
This does not mean however that the atom or molecule
cannot pass from level 1 to level 2 when interacting
with an EM wave; in this case the transition can oc-
cur owing to the interaction of the EM wave with, e.g.,
the magnetic dipole moment (or the electric quadrupole
moment) of the transition, though the strength of the
cross section describing this process is much smaller
than that of an allowed electric dipole transition. For an
 592 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

electric dipole transition the absorption transition rate
W e is proportional to ∼ |µ e E 0 |2 , where µ e is the elec-
tric dipole moment of the transition, E 0 the amplitude of
the electric field of the EM wave and −E 0 µ e is the clas-
sical energy of an electric dipole in an external field E 0 .
Likewise, for a magnetic dipole interaction, the transi-
tion rate Wm is proportional to ∼ |µm B0 |2 , where µm
Part C 11.1
where ρ(ν) is such that ρ(ν) dν is the EM energy per
unit volume of the cavity associated to modes with fre-
quencies in the interval (ν, ν + dν). We note that in
(11.21) the factor (8πν2 /c3 ) represents the density of
EM modes per unit volume of the cavity, whereas the
term hν/[exp(hν/kB T ) − 1] is the energy per mode. The
populations N1e and N2e in the atomic levels 1 and 2 at

is the magnetic dipole of the transition, B0 is the ampli- thermal equilibrium are described by a Boltzmann statis-
tude of the magnetic field of the EM wave, and −B0 µm tics (11.7); on the other hand, at steady state the number
is the classical energy of a magnetic dipole in an exter- of excitation per unit time from level 1 to level 2 due
nal magnetic field B0 . By approximating µ e ≈ ea and to the absorption of black-body radiation should bal-
µm ≈ β, where a = 0.529 × 10−10 m is the Bohr radius ance the number of decays per unit time from level 2 to
and β = 9.27 × 10−24 Am2 is the Bohr magneton, one level 1 due to both stimulated emission and spontaneous
then obtains: emission, i. e., W12 N1e = W21 N2e + N2e /τs . One then



 obtains 1/τs = W12 exp(hν0 /kT ) − W21 . For a spec-
We eaE 0 2 eac 2
= =  105 . (11.20) trally broad radiation (such as  black-body radiation)
Wm β B0 β one can write W12 = W21 = dνcσ(ν − ν0 )ρ(ν)/nhν
= 2π 2 |µ12 |2 ρ(ν0 )/(3n 2 0 h 2 ), where we used (11.15).
Spontaneous Emission Using this expression for W12 = W21 and (11.21) for
Spontaneous emission is the phenomenon by which ρ(ν0 ), one finally obtains
an atom in an excited energy level tends to decay to-
ward the ground state (even in absence of any external
perturbation) by emitting an EM wave, i. e., one photon.
A correct explanation of spontaneous emission requires
a quantum electrodynamic approach in which both the
atom and the EM field are quantized. In practice, due to
quantization of the EM field, the mean values of both
E 2 and H 2 fields are nonvanishing even in the absence
of a (classical) EM wave (zero-point field fluctuations).
Such intrinsic fluctuations always perturb the atom in an
excited state and trigger its decay toward a lower energy
level with the emission of one photon with frequency
ν close to the atomic transition frequency ν0 . Atomic
decay due to spontaneous emission follows an exponen-
tial law with a time constant τs , which is referred to
as the spontaneous emission lifetime [see (11.2)]. The
quantum electrodynamic calculation of τs in the electric
dipole approximation and for an atom placed in an op-
tical cavity was done by Weisskopf and Wigner [11.10].
A simple and rigorous calculation of τs may be derived
using an elegant thermodynamic argument, which was
proposed by Einstein well before any development of the
quantum electrodynamics [11.11]. Assume that the ma-
terial is placed inside a black-body cavity whose walls
are kept at a constant temperature T . Once the thermo-
dynamic equilibrium is reached, the spectral EM energy
density distribution ρ(ν) inside the cavity is given by the
Planck distribution


8πν2 hν
ρ(ν) = (11.21)
c3 exp(hν/kT ) − 1
3h0 c3
τs = . (11.22)
16π 3 ν03 n|µ12 |2
Using a similar thermodynamic argument, one can also
show that the spectrum of the photon emitted by spon-
taneous emission is given by the line shape gt (ν − ν0 ) of
the transition (11.19), i. e., the probability that the pho-
ton emitted by spontaneous emission has a frequency in
the range (ν, ν + dν) is given by gt (ν − ν0 ) dν. This prop-
erty is very interesting since it enables one to measure
the transition line shape gt (ν − ν0 ) simply in an emission
experiment by passing the spontaneously emitted light
through a spectrometer of sufficiently high resolution.
To estimate the radiative lifetime τs , let us con-
sider for instance an electric-dipole-allowed transition
at a frequency corresponding to the middle of the visi-
ble range (λ0 = c/ν0 = 500 nm). Assuming |µ12 |  ea
(where a  0.1 nm is the atomic radius), from (11.22)
one obtains τs  10 ns. For a magnetic dipole transition
1/τs turns out to be 105 times smaller, i. e., τs  1 ms.
Note that, according to (11.22), τs decreases as the cube
of the transition frequency, so that the importance of
spontaneous emission increases rapidly with frequency.
This implies that, as spontaneous emission is often neg-
ligible in the middle- to far-infrared, where nonradiative
decay dominates, in the X-ray region (e.g., λ0 < 5 nm)
spontaneous emission is the dominant decay process
and τs becomes exceedingly short (10–100 fs). Such
a short lifetime represents a major challenge for achiev-
ing a population inversion in X-ray lasers. It should
finally be noted that the rate of spontaneous emission as

given by (11.22) can be either enhanced or reduced when
the atom radiates in a dielectric cavity whose density of
EM modes (i. e., the number of resonant cavity modes
per unit frequency and per unit volume) is changed from
the value (8πν2 /c3 ) due to, e.g., tight spatial confine-
ment, such as in microlasers. For instance, spontaneous
decay is fully inhibited for an atom placed inside a pho-
tonic crystal whenever the atomic transition frequency
ν0 falls inside a bandgap of the photonic crystal.
Line Broadening Mechanisms
Homogeneous broadening. A line broadening mech-
anism is said to be homogeneous when it broadens the
line of each atom in the same way. In this case the line
shape of the single-atom cross section and that of the
overall absorption cross section are identical. There are
two main homogeneous broadening mechanisms: colli-
sional broadening and natural broadening.
Collisional broadening occurs in a gas, where the
atom may collide with other atoms, ions, free elec-
trons, or with the walls of the container, as well as in
a solid, where collisions are due to the interaction of
the atom with the lattice phonons. During a process of
absorption or stimulated emission of a two-level atom
with a monochromatic EM wave, the collisions inter-
rupt the coherent interaction of the EM with the atom;
if we write the electronic wave function ψ of the atom
during the transition as ψ = c1 (t)u 1 (r) exp[−iE 1 t/ ] +
c2 (t)u 2 (r) exp[−iE 2 t/ ], assuming that the collision
does not induce a decay, it simply introduces a ran-
dom and rather instantaneous relative phase jump of the
coefficients c1 and c2 , and
 thus of the oscillating part of
the atomic dipole µ = −er|ψ(r, t)|2 dr, which is pro-
portional to c1 c∗2 . Since in the electric-dipole interaction
the radiation–atom coupling is expressed by the energy
term −µ e E, a different but equivalent picture is to as-
sume that it is the phase of the electric field that shows
random phase jumps rather than the atomic dipole mo-
ment (Fig. 11.6). Therefore we can consider the case of
coherent (i. e., not disturbed) interaction of the two-level
atom with an EM wave which is not monochromatic but
whose spectral content is broadened at around ν owing
to the phase jumps. Let I(ν ) = Ig(ν − ν) be the spec-
tral intensity distribution of the EM wave with random
phase jumps (Fig. 11.6), where I is the total field inten-
sity and g its spectral shape (with g(ν − ν) dν = 1).
For each fractional spectral component Ig(ν − ν) dν of
the EM wave, we may introduce an elemental absorp-
tion transition rate dW12 given, according to (11.14), by
Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.1 Principles of Lasers 593
1
í
t
Part C 11.1
ô
Fig. 11.6 Schematic of the sinusoidal electric field of fre-
quency ν showing random phase jumps at time intervals τ
by W12 = σ12 (ν − ν0 )I/hν, where the cross section σ12
is given by (11.15) after replacing the delta function
δ(ν − ν0 ) with g(ν − ν0 ). To calculate the line shape g,
let us assume that the distribution of the time interval τ
between two successive collisions be described by an ex-
ponential probability density, p(τ) = [exp(−τ/τc )]/τc ,
where τc is the mean value of τ. According to the
Wiener–Kintchine theorem, the spectrum g can be cal-
culated as the Fourier transform of the autocorrelation
function of the sinusoidal field with phase jumps at
time intervals τ (Fig. 11.6). This yields a Lorentzian
line shape (11.16) with a FWHM of ∆ν0 , related to the
mean value of collision time τc by the equation
1
∆ν0 = . (11.23)
πτc
For instance, for an atomic or molecular gas at pres-
sure p and absolute temperature T , from kinetic theory
and employing the hard-sphere model of a gas, one has
τc = (2MkB T/3)1/2 [1/(8π pa2 )], where M is the atomic
mass and a its radius. Note that τc is inversely propor-
tional, and hence ∆ν0 is directly proportional, to the gas
pressure p. As a rough rule of thumb, we can say that,
for any atom in a gas, collisions contribute to the line
broadening by an amount (∆νcoll / p) ≈ 1 MHz/Torr.
For an atom or an ion in a crystal, collisions occur
with lattice phonons. Since the number of phonons in
a given lattice vibration is strongly dependent on the
lattice temperature T , the corresponding line broad-
ening ∆ν0 increases with increasing values of T . For
instance, in the Nd:YAG laser Nd3+ ions are hosted
in the YAG crystal, and collision broadening increases
from ∆ν0 ≈ 126 GHz at room temperature (T = 300 K)
to about 250 GHz at T = 400 K.
A second homogeneous line broadening mechanism
originates from spontaneous emission and is referred
dW12 = [2π 2 |µ12 |2 /(3n0 ch 2 )]δ(ν
 − ν0 )Ig(ν − ν) dν . to as natural (or intrinsic) line broadening. It can be
The total transition rate, W12 = dW12 , is then given shown that the natural broadening is again described by
594 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources
a Lorentzian function with a FWHM of ∆ν0 given by
1 mass for Ne, one obtains ∆ν0∗  1.7 GHz. As a general
∆ν0 = , (11.24)
2πτs
where τs is the spontaneous lifetime. For, e.g., an
electric dipole transition at the center of the vis-
ible (λ ≈ 500 nm), one has ∆νnat  16 MHz. Since
Part C 11.1
τs ≈ 1/ν3 , the natural line width rapidly increases for
transitions at shorter wavelengths (to the UV or X-ray
spectral regions).
We finally note that, when the two aforementioned
homogeneous line broadening mechanisms act simul-
taneously, the overall line shape is obtained from the
convolution of the two corresponding Lorentzian func-
tions. One then obtains a Lorentzian function with
a FWHM given by ∆ν0 = ∆νcoll + ∆νnat .
Inhomogeneous broadening. A line broadening mech-
anism is said to be inhomogeneous when it distributes
the atomic resonance frequencies over some spectral
range. A first case of inhomogeneous broadening is that
of ions in ionic crystals or glasses, where the local crys-
tal field induces, via the Stark effect, a local variation of
the energy-level separation of the ion. For random lo-
cal field variations, the corresponding distribution of the
transition frequencies g∗ (ν − ν0 ) turns out to be given by
a Gaussian function (11.17) with a line width ∆ν0∗ that
depends on the amount of field inhomogeneity within
the crystal or glass.
A second inhomogeneous mechanism, typical of
gases, arises from atomic motion and is referred to as
Doppler broadening. In fact, due to the motion of the
atom, the frequency ν of the EM wave as seen in the
rest frame of the atom is shifted as compared to the fre-
quency ν of the wave in the laboratory reference frame
according to the relation ν = ν[1 − (vz /c)], where vz
is the component of the atomic velocity in the propa-
gation z-direction of the EM wave. From the point of
view of atom–radiation interaction, this shift is equiva-
lent to a change of the resonance frequency of the atom
rather than to a change of the EM frequency. Taking into
account the Maxwellian distribution of molecular ve-
locities in a gas, one can show that the distribution of
the transition frequencies g∗ (ν − ν0 ) is given again by
a Gaussian function (11.17) with a line width ∆ν0∗ given
by


2kB T ln 2 1/2
∆ν0∗ = 2ν0 , (11.25)
Mc2
where M is the atomic (or molecular) mass and T the gas
temperature. As an example, for the λ = 632.8 nm line of
the HeNe laser, at T = 300 K and using the appropriate
rule, Doppler broadening in a gas is usually larger than
collisional broadening for a gas pressure lower than the
atmospheric pressure; collisional broadening, in turn, is
usually larger than the natural broadening.
Nonradiative Decay
Besides decaying via radiative emission, an atom in an
excited state may decay toward a lower-lying level in
a nonradiative way. A first mechanism of nonradiative
decay arises from collisions and is called collisional de-
activation. In this case, for a liquid or a gas, the transition
energy is released as excitation and/or kinetic energy
of the colliding species, or it is transferred to the con-
tainer walls; for an ion in a crystal or in a glass the
deactivation occurs through the interaction with lattice
phonons or glass vibrational modes. When, e.g., the ex-
citation energy of an atomic excited species B ∗ in a gas
is released as a kinetic energy of the species A, the col-
lisional deactivation process occurs via the superelastic
collision B ∗ + A → B + A + ∆E, where ∆E, the exci-
tation energy to be released, is left as kinetic energy of
the colliding partners. When the electronic energy of
species B ∗ is released in the form of the internal energy
of species A, we have instead B ∗ + A → B + A∗ + ∆E,
where now ∆E is the difference between the internal
energies of the two colliding species. In this latter case,
deactivation process is efficient provided that ∆E is
appreciably smaller than the thermal energy kB T of col-
liding species. A simple description of the nonradiative
decay of a given species in an excited state is expressed
by a nonradiative lifetime τnr such that N2 /τnr is the
number of atoms, per unit volume and time, that decay
owing to the deactivation process.
Nonradiative decay acts in combination with spon-
taneous emission and, according to (11.3), the overall
lifetime τ of an excited state is given by: τ = (1/τnr +
1/τs )−1 .
Concluding Remarks
From the preceding discussions, we can say that the most
important material parameters of interest for a laser are
the transition wavelength λ, the transition cross sec-
tion at the peak σp , the lifetime of the upper laser level
τ, and the line width ∆ν0 of the transition line shape.
These parameters, for the most common gas, liquid and
solid-state lasers, are summarized in Table 11.1. We
note that, as compared to gas and liquid lasers, the cross
sections for solid-state lasers (Nd:YAG, Nd:glass, and
Ti3+ :Al2 O3 ) are relatively small and, correspondingly,
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.1 Principles of Lasers 595

Table 11.1 Main parameters for transitions in most common gas, liquid and solid-state lasers
Transition λ (nm) σp (cm2 ) τ (µs) ∆ν0
HeNe 632.8 5.8 × 10−13 30 × 10−3 1.7 GHz
Ar+ 514.5 2.5 × 10−13 6 × 10−3 3.5 GHz
Nd:YAG 1064 2.8 × 10−19 230 120 GHz
Nd:glass 1054 4 × 10−20 300 5.4 THz
3.2 × 10−16 5.5 × 10−3

Part C 11.1
Rhodamine 6 G 570 46 THz
Ti3+ :Al2 O3 790 4 × 10−19 3.9 100 THz

the lifetimes relatively long because in these lasers the
transitions are electric-dipole forbidden (or weakly al-
lowed). We note also that the line widths of gas lasers
are much smaller than those of solid-state or dye lasers.
11.1.3 Laser Resonators and Modes
As discussed in the introductory section, in a laser os-
cillator the inverted amplifying medium is placed inside
a laser resonator or laser cavity, which can be viewed
as a trapping box for light radiation capable of sustain-
ing stationary (i. e., monochromatic) or weakly damped
electromagnetic field configurations at some selected
optical frequencies [11.3, 5]. Such EM field configu-
rations and the corresponding optical frequencies are
called cavity modes and resonance frequencies, respec-
tively. The most widely used resonators for lasers are
open cavities, composed of at least by two plane or spher-
ical mirrors of circular shape (spherical resonators),
placed in front each other at some distance L. Ex-
cept for microlasers, in ordinary lasers the resonator
length L is typically much larger than the oscillat-
ing wavelength λ, ranging from a few centimeters to
a few tens of centimeters, whereas mirror dimensions
range from a fraction of centimeter to a few centime-
ters. The optical cavity is open to reduce drastically the
number of modes that can oscillate with low loss. In
fact, if the cavity were closed, the number N of res-
onant modes that might oscillate, i. e., the number of
modes whose resonance frequency falls within the gain-
line of the active medium, is approximately given by
N ≈ (8πν2 /c3 )V ∆ν0 , where (8πν2 /c3 ) is the density of
modes, ∆ν0 the line width of the gain medium, and V
is the cavity volume. Note that V is usually several or-
ders of magnitude larger than λ3 at optical wavelengths.
To estimate N, let us consider an active medium with
a narrow line width, such as the λ = 633 nm transition
of the HeNe laser (∆ν0∗ = 1.7 GHz). Assume a res-
onator length L = 50 cm closed by a lateral cylinder
with diameter 2a = 3 mm. The cavity volume is then
V = πa2 L, and the number of cavity modes that fall
under the gainline of the HeNe laser is N ≈ 1.2 × 109 .
In the open optical resonant cavities only those modes
traveling nearly parallel to the resonator axis experience
low losses to allow for laser oscillation. Therefore, the
oscillating modes are expected to show a field distri-
bution mostly confined around the optical axis of the
resonator and propagating paraxially along it, making
the output laser beam highly directional. These cavity
modes and corresponding resonance frequencies depend
upon three integer numbers n, m and l, which are re-
ferred to as mode indices. The latter two indices m and l
(transverse mode indices) determine the transverse field
distribution (i. e., in a plane orthogonal to the paraxial
resonator axis) of the mode, whereas the former index
n (the longitudinal mode index) determines the longitu-
dinal field distribution (i. e., along the resonator axis) of
the mode and gives, in particular, the number of longitu-
dinal nodes of the standing wave. For spherical mirrors
with sufficiently wide apertures, transverse modes are
expressed by Gauss–Hermite or Gauss–Laguerre func-
tions, depending on rectangular or circular boundary
conditions. In particular, the leading-order mode, cor-
responding to transverse mode indices m = l = 0, is
a Gaussian beam and represents the most common trans-
verse field distribution of any output laser beam. For this
reason the study of laser modes is closely related to the
propagation properties of Gaussian (or Gauss–Hermite)
beams.
Gaussian Beams
The electric field of a monochromatic (and uniformly
polarized) light wave propagating at a small angle (i. e.,
paraxially) along the z-direction of an xyz cartesian
system of coordinates can be described as follows:
E(x, y, z, t) = E 0 u(x, y, z) ei(ωt−kz) + c.c. , (11.26)
where ω = 2πν, ν is the optical frequency, k = 2π/λ is
the wavenumber, λ is the optical wavelength, u(x, y, z)
is the complex field envelope obeying the so-called
paraxial wave equation, which in case of free-space
596 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

 z
2 
propagation reads R
R(z) = z 1 + , (11.30)
z
∂2u ∂2u ∂u

+ 2 − 2ik =0. (11.27) z
∂x 2 ∂y ∂z ϕ(z) = tan−1 , (11.31)
zR
Among the solutions of (11.27) that retain their
where z R = πw20 /λ is a parameter referred to as the
functional form during propagation, the fundamental
Rayleigh range. Note that u(x, y, z) is given by the prod-
Gaussian beam solution turns out to be particularly
Part C 11.1

uct of three terms: an amplitude factor with a transverse

suited to describe laser beams both inside and outside
Gaussian distribution, (w0 /w) exp[−(x 2 + y2 )/w2 ] (see
the resonator [11.12]. A Gaussian beam is a solution of
Fig. 11.7a); a transverse phase factor, exp[−ik(x 2 +
the paraxial equation (11.27) of the form:
y2 )/(2R)]; and a longitudinal phase factor exp(iϕ). The

2 
w0 x + y2 amplitude factor in (11.28) shows that, while propagat-
u(x, y, z) = exp − 2 ing, the beam intensity distribution retains its shape, but
w(z) w (z)

 its transverse size w, which is called the beam spot size,
x 2 + y2 changes along the propagation direction z according to
× exp −ik
2R(z) (11.29). Note that w(z) is a symmetric function of z with
× exp[iϕ(z)]. (11.28) a minimum spot size w = w0 at the plane z = 0, which
is hence referred to as√the beam waist (Fig. 11.7b). For
In the preceeding equation, w(z), R(z) and ϕ(z) are given z = z R , one has w = 2w0 so that the Rayleigh range
by z R represents the distance from the beam waist√ at which
 the beam spot size increases by a factor 2. At large

2
z distances (i. e., for z  z R ), w increases linearly with z,
w(z) = w0 1 + , (11.29)
zR according to w ≈ (w0 /z R )z. Hence we can define a beam
divergence due to diffraction as θd = limz→∞ w(z)/z,
obtaining
a) E (r) b) w/w0 λ
E0 θd = . (11.32)
4
πw0
The transverse phase factor in (11.28) has the same form
E0 /e 2 as that for a spherical wave in the paraxial approxima-
tion, R playing the role of the radius of curvature of the
èd
spherical wavefront. Thus, we can say that a Gaussian
w r 0 1 2 3 z/zR beam has an approximately spherical wavefront with
c) R/zR a radius of curvature varying along propagation accord-
ing to (11.30). Note that R(z) is an odd function of z
(Fig. 11.7c), showing a minimum Rmin = 2z R at z = z R ;
4 for z  z R , R increases linearly with z, whereas one has
R → ∞ as z = 0. Thus the wavefront is flat at z = 0 and,
2 at large distances, its radius increases linearly with z just
as for a spherical wave. The longitudinal phase factor ϕ
–3 –2 –1
provides, in addition to the usual phase shift −kz of
1 2 3 z/zR
plane waves, a longitudinal phase shift (sometimes re-
2 ferred to as the Gouy phase shift), slowly varying with z
from −(π/2) to (π/2) on going from z  z R to z  z R .
4 An important parameter of a Gaussian beam at
a given propagation plane z is the so-called complex-q
parameter, defined by the relation:
1 1 λ
Fig. 11.7a–c The fundamental Gaussian beam in free-space prop- = −i . (11.33)
agation: (a) the Gaussian transverse amplitude profile, being q R πw2
r = (x 2 + y2 )1/2 ; (b) the beam spot size w(z); (c) the wavefront It can be shown that, for a Gaussian beam propagating in
radius of curvature R(z) free space, the q parameter changes along propagation
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.1 Principles of Lasers 597

according to

q(z) = z + iz R . (11.34)

TEM00 TEM10 TEM20

Equations (11.29) and (11.30) can indeed be obtained
upon inserting the parameter q from (11.33) into (11.34)
and then separating the real and imaginary part of the

Part C 11.1
resulting equation.
The fundamental Gaussian beam described above
belongs to a more general set of eigensolutions of (11.27)
which can be written as the product of an Hermite poly- TEM30 TEM50 TEM11
nomial with a Gaussian function. These are known as
Hermite–Gaussian beams, and assume the following
form [11.3, 5]
√  √ 
w0 2x 2y
u l,m (x, y, z) = Hl Hm
w(z) w(z) w(z) TEM21 TEM22 TEM23

2 
x + y2 Fig. 11.8 Grey scale intensity patterns of a few low-order
× exp − 2
w (z) Hermite–Gaussian modes
 
x 2 + y2
× exp −ik z = z 2 , into the distribution
2R(z)
1+l+m
1
× exp[i(1 + l + m)ϕ(z)] , (11.35) u(x, y, z 2 ) =
A + (B/q1 )
√  √ 
where w(z), R(z) and ϕ(z) are given by (11.29, 30, 31), 2x 2y
respectively, and Hl , Hm are Hermite polynomials of or- × Hl Hm
w2 w2
der l and m. The lowest-order Hermite–Gaussian beam
is obtained by setting l = m = 0 in (11.35). These solu- × exp[−ik(x 2 + y2 )/(2q2 )] , (11.36)
tions are often referred to as TEMlm beams, where TEM where the values q1 and q2 of the complex-q parameter at
stands for transverse electric magnetic: within the parax- the input (z = z 1 ) and output (z = z 2 ) planes are related
ial approximation, both electric and magnetic fields of by the so-called ABC D law
the EM wave are, in fact, approximately transverse to the
Aq1 + B
z-direction. Note that, for a TEMlm beam, the number of q2 = . (11.37)
zeros of the field along the x- and y-directions is given Cq1 + D
by the subscripts l and m, respectively, and therefore As a particular case, note that for free-space propagation
the intensity distribution of the TEMlm beam consists of from z 1 = 0 to z 2 = z one has A = 1, B = z, C = 0, and
l + 1 lobes in the horizontal direction and m + 1 lobes in D = 1, so that the ABC D law (11.37) yields (11.34).
the vertical direction (Fig. 11.8).
As a final remark, it should be noted that Gauss– Optical Resonators: Introductory Concepts
Hermite beams maintain their functional shape as The simplest optical resonator is the plane-parallel or
they propagate along an arbitrary paraxial optical Fabry–Pérot resonator, consisting of two plane metallic
system, described by a paraxial ray matrix ABC D. or dielectric mirrors set parallel to one another [11.13].
Beam propagation, in this case, is simply ruled by At first approximation, the modes of this resonator can be
an algebraic relation for the complex q parameter of considered as the superposition of two plane EM waves
the Gaussian beam, which is known as the ABC D propagating in opposite directions along the cavity axis
law. In fact, if z = z 1 and z = z 2 are the input and (Fig. 11.9a). In this approximation, resonance frequen-
output planes of the ABC D paraxial optical sys- cies can be readily obtained by imposing the condition
tem,√a Gauss–Hermite
√ field distribution u(x, y, z 1 ) = that the cavity length L must be an integer multiple of
Hl ( 2x/w1 )Hm ( 2y/w1 ) exp[−ik(x 2 + y2 )/(2q1 )] at half-wavelengths, i. e., L = n(λ/2), where n is a posi-
the input plane z = z 1 is transformed, at the output plane tive integer. This is a necessary condition for the electric
598 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources
field of the EM standing wave to be zero on the two, e.g.
metallic, mirrors. It follows that the resonant frequencies
are given by
c
stable when, in bouncing back and forth between the
νn = n . (11.38)
2L
Note that (11.38) can also be obtained by imposing the
condition that the phase shift of a plane wave due to
Part C 11.1
one round-trip through the cavity must equal an inte-
gral number times 2π, i. e., 2kL = 2nπ. This condition
is readily obtained by a self-consistency argument: if the
frequency of the plane wave is equal to that of a cav-
ity mode, the phase shift after one round-trip must be
zero (apart from an integer multiple of 2π). Only in this
case, in fact, do the amplitudes at any arbitrary point,
due to successive reflections, add up in phase to give
an appreciable total field. According to (11.38) the fre-
quency difference between two consecutive modes, i. e.,
differing by 1 in the longitudinal mode index n, is given
by
c for the resonance frequencies of longitudinal (or axial)
∆ν = . (11.39)
2L
This difference is referred to as the frequency difference
between two consecutive longitudinal (or axial) modes.
Note that, since the number n indicates the number of
half-wavelengths of the mode along the resonator axis,
the two consecutive modes have a different longitudinal
pattern.
A more general class of laser resonators is the one
made of spherical resonators, which are formed by two
spherical mirrors of radius of curvatures R1 and R2 ,
either concave (R > 0) or convex (R < 0), placed at
a) b)
R2
R1
C2 C1
L
c) d)
Fig. 11.9 (a) Plane-parallel resonator; (b) Spherical two-
mirror resonator; (c) An unstable resonator; (d) A unidirec-
tional ring resonator
some arbitrary distance L (Fig. 11.9b). These resonators
can be divided into two categories: stable resonators
and unstable resonators. A resonator is said to be un-
two mirrors, an arbitrary paraxial ray diverges indefi-
nitely away from the resonator axis, either radially or
angularly. Conversely, a resonator whose paraxial rays
remain bounded is said to be stable. An example of an
unstable resonator is shown in Fig. 11.9c. Among stable
spherical resonators, symmetric resonators (i. e., hav-
ing R1 = R2 ) are of particular importance; the confocal
resonator, in which the two spherical mirrors have the fo-
cus in common (R1 = R2 = L), is a noteworthy example
of a spherical symmetric resonator. Another important
scheme for laser cavities is that employing a ring res-
onator, where the path of the optical rays is arranged
to form a closed loop (Fig. 11.9d). Also in this case the
resonant frequencies can be obtained by imposing the
condition that the total phase shift along the ring path
must equal an integer number of 2π. The expression
modes is thus given by


c
νn = n (11.40)
Lp
where L p is the length of the closed loop path. In
general, a standing-wave pattern may be formed in
ring resonators, because the beam can propagate either
clockwise or counterclockwise along the loop. Anyway,
unidirectional ring resonators can be realized by means
of optical diodes inserted along the beam path.
Stability Condition
In general, a laser cavity can be viewed as made of two
spherical mirrors comprising a set of intermediate op-
tical elements like lenses, mirrors, prisms, and so on
(Fig. 11.10a). If we define an arbitrary plane β orthog-
onal to the cavity optical axis, it is intuitive (and can
be rigorously demonstrated) that the round-trip propa-
a) b)
â â â
Cavity r0 r1
A B
optical
elements C D
L 2L
Fig. 11.10 (a) A general laser cavity, and (b) its equivalent
representation given by resonator unfolding with respect to
an arbitrary β plane
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.1 Principles of Lasers 599

gation along the cavity is equivalent to the propagation

g2
in a suitable optical system S having β as input and
output planes, a transformation known as the unfolding g 1g 2 = 1
of the resonator. Paraxial propagation in such a sys-
tem can be described by means of the ABC D cavity b
round-trip matrix (Fig. 11.10b). Accordingly, if we let C
r0 and r0 be, respectively, the transverse coordinate and

Part C 11.1
angle that a ray make with the optical axis when in-
B g1
tercepting plane β at time t = 0, and rn and rn be the
coordinate of the same ray after n cavity round-trip, we A
have
   n    
       
 rn   A B   r0  n  r0  g 1g 2 = 1
 =   =M   . (11.41)
 rn   C D   r0   r0 
Therefore, the optical resonator is stable if and only
if, for any initial set of coordinates (r0 , r0 ), the cor-
responding coordinates (rn , rn ) do not diverge as n
increases. This condition is met provided that the eigen-
values λ1,2 of M are, in modulus, not larger than
one. Since λ1,2 = exp(±iθ), where cos(θ) = (A + D)/2,
the stability condition requires that θ be real, i. e.,
that
Fig. 11.11 Stability diagram for a general two-mirror spher-
ical resonator. Stable resonators correspond to (g1 , g2 )
points lying in the gray region of the plane
The stability condition given by (11.44) can be con-
veniently displayed in the (g1 , g2 )-plane as reported
in Fig. 11.11. Stable resonators correspond to those
 
 A+ D points in the gray region of the plane, excluding those
 
 2 
1. (11.42)
For the particular case of two-mirror resonators, we
can go one step further by explicitly calculating the cor-
responding ABC D matrix. We recall that a given overall
matrix can be obtained by the product of matrices of in-
dividual optical elements traversed by the beam, with
the matrices written in the reverse order compared to
ray propagation through the corresponding elements. In
our case, the ABC D matrix is then given by the or-
dered product of the following matrices: reflection from
mirror 1, free-space propagation from mirror 1 to 2,
reflection from mirror 2, free-space propagation from
mirror 2 to 1:
which lie on the boundaries, (i. e., satisfying the con-
ditions g1 g2 = 0 or g1 g2 = 1), which are referred to
as marginally stable resonators. Note that symmetric
resonators (i. e., having mirrors of the same radius of
curvature R1 = R2 = R) lie on the bisector line b. As
particular examples of these symmetric resonators, one
can see that those corresponding to point A, B and C of
the figure are the concentric (L = 2R), confocal (L = R)
and plane (R = ∞) resonators, respectively. Since points
A, B and C lie on the boundary of the stability region,
the corresponding resonators are only marginally stable.
Laser Modes
The modes of an optical resonator are defined as the sta-
      
       tionary (i. e., monochromatic) or weakly damped field
A B  1 0  1 L  1 0  1 L 
 =    . distributions that can be sustained inside the cavity and
 C D   −2/R1 1   0 1   −2/R2 1   0 1 
that satisfy the boundary conditions imposed by the cav-
ity mirrors. We note that, in open resonators, diffraction
After performing matrix multiplication we obtain losses due to the finite aperture of the mirrors make the



A+ D L L modes always leaky. The electric field for a mode in
= 1− 1− −1 . (11.43)
a leaky resonator can then be generally represented as
2 R1 R2
It is customary to define dimensionless quantities, re- E(x, y, z, t) = a(x, y, z) cos(ωt)
 
ferred to as the g1 and g2 parameters, defined as −t
g1 = 1 − L/R1 and g2 = 1 − L/R2 . In terms of these × exp (t > 0) , (11.45)
2τc
parameters, the stability condition transforms into the
where a(x, y, z) is the mode field distribution, ω is the
very simple relation:
resonance frequency, and τc describes field decay due
0 < g1 g2 < 1 . (11.44) to cavity losses and is referred to as the cavity pho-
600 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources
ton lifetime. In order to determine the resonator modes,
the corresponding resonance frequencies and diffraction
losses let us consider the rather general class of res-
onators with an optical axis z, as shown in Fig. 11.10a.
Propagation of an EM wave back and forth between
the two end mirrors of the cavity is equivalent to the
unidirectional propagation of an EM wave in a peri-
Part C 11.1
odic sequence of optical elements (e.g., a lens guide)
which is obtained by unfolding the resonator, as shown
in Fig. 11.10b. Note that, in the unfolding scheme, the
end spherical mirrors should be replaced by thin spheri-
cal lenses with focal length equal to the mirror radius of
curvature.
Let us first consider the propagation of a monochro-
matic EM field in a periodic lens guide. By
writing the electric field along the lens guide as
E(x, y, z, t) = Ẽ(x, y, z) eiωt + c.c., due to the linear-
ity of the Huygens–Fresnel integral the complex field
amplitude Ẽ after one period of the lens guide can gen-
erally be written by an integral transformation, namely
(Fig. 11.12)
Ẽ(x, y, 2L)
= exp(−i2kL)

× K (x, y; x1 , y1 ) Ẽ(x1 , y1 , 0) dx1 dy1 , (11.46)
1 shift ∆ϕ accounting for field propagation. Hence
where K (x, y; x1 , y1 ) is a function of the transverse co-
ordinates of both input and output planes, known as
the propagation kernel. Note the phase term (−2kL),
which represents the phase shift if the wave were
a plane wave. The kernel K accounts for all the
elements encountered during propagation from in-
put plane 1 (z = 0) to output plane 2 (z = 2L) and
represents, from a physical viewpoint, the field dis-
tribution observed at the (x, y)-plane (i. e., at z = 2L)
~
1 E (x1, y1, 0) 2
y1 y = σ̃ Ẽ(x, y, 0) .
x1 x Note that the mode distribution Ẽ(x, y, 0) is an eigen-
0 2L z function of a Fredholm homogeneous integral equation
Optical
system
S ® K (x1, y1; x, y) ~ integral equation admits a doubly infinite discrete set of
E (x, y, 2L)
Fig. 11.12 Field calculation at plane 2 (z = 2L) when the field
Ẽ(x1 , y1 , 0) at plane 1 (z = 0) is known
when a point-like source at the (x1 , y1 ) point is
placed at the z = 0 input plane. Indeed, if Ẽ(x1 , y1 , 0)
were a bidimensional Dirac δ-function centered at
x1 = x1 and y1 = y1 , i. e., if Ẽ(x1 , y1 , 0) = δ(x1 −
x1 , y1 − y1 ), then from (11.46) one would readily get
Ẽ(x, y, 2L) = K (x, y; x1 , y1 ) exp(−2ikL). For a gen-
eral optical system, the calculation of the kernel K
is usually rather complicated. However, within the as-
sumption of infinite aperture of all optical elements, the
kernel K is simply expressed in terms of the round-
trip resonator-matrix elements ABC D by the relation
(Huygens–Fresnel–Kirchhoff kernel)
K (x, y; x1 , y1 )
i ik
= exp −
λB 2B
 
× A(x12 + y12 ) + D(x 2 + y2 ) − (2xx1 + 2yy1 )
(11.47)
and the integral in (11.46) can be extended from −∞
to ∞.
Let us now define a mode of a periodic lens
guide as a field distribution which reproduces itself
after one guide period except for an overall ampli-
tude reduction, due to lens-guide losses, and a phase
Ẽ(x, y, 2L) = |σ̃| exp(i∆ϕ) Ẽ(x, y, 0), where |σ̃| < 1.
It is now convenient to write the phase shift as
∆ϕ = −2kL + ϕ, where −2kL is the shift of a plane
wave and ϕ is an additional phase term due to the fact
that the lens-guide mode is not a plane wave. Hence, for
a lens-guide mode we require the condition
Ẽ(x, y, 2L) = σ̃ exp(−2ikL) Ẽ(x, y, 0) , (11.48)
where σ̃ = |σ̃| exp(iϕ). Substitution of (11.48) into
(11.46) yields

K (x, y; x1 , y1 ) Ẽ(x1 , y1 , 0) dx1 dy1
1
(11.49)
of the second kind corresponding to the eigenvalue σ̃. As
a rather general property, it turns out that the Fredholm
confined eigensolutions, which can be distinguished by
a pair of integer positive numbers l and m. Accordingly,
the corresponding eigenvalues will generally be indi-
cated as σ̃lm = |σ̃lm | exp(iϕlm ), with |σ̃lm | < 1 owing to

the overall losses (namely, diffraction losses, scattering
losses from optical elements, and so on) encountered in
one period of propagation along the lens guide.
Now, let us return to the problem of cavity mode
calculation. In this case, the mode Ẽ of the lens guide
corresponds to a mode of the resonator of Fig. 11.10a
provided that, after one cavity round-trip, the overall
phase shift ∆ϕ accumulated in one cavity round-trip
is zero apart from an integer number of 2π, i. e.,
∆ϕ = −2kL + ϕlm = −2πn. From this condition and
using the relation k = 2πν/c between the wavenumber
k and frequency ν of the mode, one readily obtains the
cavity resonance frequencies as
c ϕlm
at the same point, after a round-trip time τR = 2L e /c,
νnlm = n+ . (11.50)
2L 2π
Note that we have indicated explicitly that these frequen-
cies depend on the three integer numbers l, m, and n. The
integers l and m define the transverse field profiles of the
mode (Fig. 11.8), i. e., they represent the number of zeros
of the field along the x- and y-coordinates, respectively.
The integer n defines the longitudinal field configura-
tion, i. e., the number of zeros of the EM standing wave
(nodes) as previously discussed for the plane-parallel
resonator (11.38).
For stable resonators with infinite apertures the
eigenmodes of the Fredholm equation are given by
the Gauss–Hermite functions, and their resonance fre-
quencies can be calculated from (11.50) using the
propagation law (11.36). For instance, for the impor-
tant case of two-mirror spherical resonators, it turns out
√
that ϕlm = 2(1 + l + m) cos−1 (± g1 g2 ), where the plus
or minus sign depends on whether g2 (and hence g1 ) is
positive or negative. The resonance frequencies of the
two-mirror spherical resonator are thus given by:
 
c 1+l +m −1 √ the power spectrum of the emitted light has a Lorentzian
νnlm = n+ cos (± g1 g2 ) .
2L π
(11.51)
For, e.g., a confocal resonator, one has g1 = g2 = 0,
and hence νnlm = [c/(4L)](2n + 1 + l + m). Note that
modes with the same value of (2n +l + m) have the same
resonance frequency, and they are said to be frequency
degenerate. Note also that, for a confocal resonator, the
mode spacing is c/(4L).
Photon Lifetime and Cavity Q
The modes of an optical resonator are always leaky and
therefore show a finite photon cavity lifetime τc . In fact,
besides diffraction losses due to finite aperture effects
of mirrors or intracavity optical elements, some other
Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.1 Principles of Lasers 601
loss mechanisms are always present in a laser resonator.
For instance, the mirror reflectivity of the output coupler
is always smaller than 100%, which means that a frac-
tional part of the photons φ stored in the cavity escapes
from the resonator at each round-trip. Scattering or ab-
sorption losses of intracavity optical elements are also
another common cause of photon leakage. To calculate
Part C 11.1
the rate of energy decay in a given cavity mode, let I0 be
the initial intensity corresponding to the field amplitude
at a fixed point within the cavity, and let R1 and R2 be
the (power) reflectivities of the two mirrors and L i the
fractional internal loss per pass, which accounts for scat-
tering, absorption and diffraction losses. The intensity
is I(τR ) = R1 R2 (1 − L i )2 I0 = I0 exp(−2γ ), where L e is
the cavity optical length and γ is the logarithmic loss
per pass, defined by the relation
γ1 + γ2
γ= + γi (11.52)
2
with γ1 = −ln(R1 ), γ2 = −ln(R2 ), and γi = −ln(1 −
L i ). In view of the exponential decay law introduced
in (11.45), after a round-trip time we must have
I(τR ) = I0 exp(−τR /τc ), and thus we conclude that the
photon lifetime is given by
τR Le
τc = = . (11.53)
2γ cγ
Having calculated the photon lifetime, the time
behavior of the electric field at any point inside the res-
onator can be written as E(t) = E 0 exp(−t/2τc + iωt) +
c.c., where ω is the angular frequency of the mode. The
same time behavior then applies for the field of the wave
leaving the resonator through the output mirror. Taking
the Fourier transform of this field (for t > 0) we find that
line shape with line width (FWHM) given by
1
∆νc = . (11.54)
2πτc
We can now introduce an important quality factor which
is strictly related to the photon lifetime. This is the cavity
Q-factor which is defined, for any resonant system, as
2π times the ratio between the energy stored in the res-
onator and the energy lost in one oscillation cycle. Thus
a high cavity Q-factor implies low losses in the resonant
system. Since in our case the energy stored is φhν and
the energy lost per cycle is (− dφ/ dt)h we obtain
2πνφ ν
Q=− = , (11.55)
dφ/ dt ∆νc
602 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources
where the exponential decay law φ(t) = φ0 exp(−t/τc )
for the stored cavity photons φ has been used and where
the expression for ∆νc given by (11.54) has also been
utilized.
As an example, consider a two-mirror spherical res-
onator with R1 = R2 = R = 0.98 and assume L i  0.
From (11.53) we obtain τc = τT /[−ln(R)] = 49.5 τT ,
Part C 11.1
where τT = L/c is the transit time of the photon for
a single pass in the cavity. Note that the photon life-
time is much longer than the transit time, a typical
result of low-loss cavities. If we now assume L = 90 cm,
we get τT = 3 ns and τc  150 ns. From (11.54) we
can then calculate ∆νc  1.1 MHz. Finally, assuming
a laser wavelength λ  630 nm corresponding to an op-
tical frequency ν = 5 × 1014 Hz, from (11.55) we have
Q = 4.7 × 108 . Thus laser resonators have a remark-
ably high Q-value, which means that a very small
fraction of the energy is lost during one oscillation
cycle.
11.1.4 Laser Rate Equations
and Continuous-Wave Operation
A simple and powerful approach for understanding the
basic dynamical behavior of a laser is based on a rate-
equation model, in which simple balance equations for
the total number of atoms undergoing a transition and
the total number of photons created or annihilated are
written [11.3]. For a more-refined treatment of laser dy-
namics based on either a semiclassical or a full-quantum
electrodynamic approach, which may account for certain
phenomena such as dynamical laser instabilities, laser
coherence and photon statistics, we refer the reader to
more-specialized literature [11.6, 8].
Laser Rate Equations
Let us consider a four-level laser scheme (Fig. 11.4b)
and make the following assumptions:
1. the laser transition is homogeneously broadened,
2. the lifetime τ1 of the lower laser level 1 is short
enough that we may neglect the population in level 1,
3. a single longitudinal and transverse mode is oscil-
lating in the cavity,
4. we neglect the precise transverse and longitudinal
spatial variation of the cavity mode,
5. we assume uniform pumping of the active medium.
Under these assumptions, we can write the fol-
lowing rate equations for the population inversion
N = N2 − N1  N2 in the active medium and the number
of photons φ of the oscillating mode stored in the cavity:
dN N
= Rp − BφN − (11.56)
dt τ
dφ φ
= − + Va BφN , (11.57)
dt τc
where Rp is the pump rate per unit volume, τ is the
lifetime of the upper laser level 2, and τc is the photon
lifetime for the oscillating mode. In (11.56), the terms
Rp , N/τ and BφN = W21 N account for the pumping
process, radiative and nonradiative decay, and stimulated
emission, respectively. The constant B, which represents
the stimulated transition rate per photon, per mode is re-
lated to the transition cross section σ by the simple
equation B = σc/V , where V is the mode volume in
the laser cavity [11.3]. The first term on the right-hand
side in (11.57), φ/τc , represents the number of cavity
photons that are lost per unit time due to internal loss,
diffraction loss and output coupling through the mirrors.
Finally, the second term in (11.57) represents the number
of photons (per unit time) that are created in the oscil-
lating mode owing to stimulated emission: since BφN
represents the number of atoms per unit volume and per
unit time that decay creating a photon in the oscillat-
ing cavity mode, the total number of photons created
per unit time can be expressed as the product of BφN
with the volume Va occupied by the cavity mode inside
the gain medium. Spontaneous emission in not included
in the balance equation (11.57) since only a negligi-
ble fraction of spontaneously emitted photons belongs
to the oscillating mode. However, spontaneous emission
photons are important to allow laser action starting.
The laser output power Pout is related to the photon
number φ by the simple relation
γ2 φ γ2 c
Pout = (hν) = hνφ . (11.58)
2γ τc 2L e
In fact, (hν)(φ/τc ) is the total EM energy lost in the
cavity per unit time, and solely a fraction γ2 /(2γ ) of
this power is available due to transmission through
the output mirror. For a typical CW laser operated in
the continuous-wave regime, the number of photons φ
stored in the cavity may vary from about 1010 photons
for low-power lasers (such as a HeNe laser delivering
Pout = 10 mW power at λ = 632.8 nm) to 1017 photons
for high-power lasers (such as a CO2 laser delivering an
output power Pout = 10 kW at λ = 10.6 µm).
Threshold Condition
The population inversion needed to reach the threshold
for laser oscillation is simply obtained from (11.57) by

imposing dφ/ dt = 0. An initially small number of pho-
tons turns out to be exponentially damped for N < Nc
or exponentially amplified for N > Nc , where:
1 γ
Nc ≡ = (11.59)
τc BVa σl
is referred to as the critical inversion (or threshold
inversion). In this equation, l is the length of the ac-
tive medium and the threshold condition σ Ncl = γ
is reached when the gain in the inverted medium,
g = σ Nl, equals the logarithmic loss γ of the cavity.
The pump rate corresponding to the threshold condi-
tion is Rcp = Nc /τ = γ /(σlτ); the corresponding pump
power at threshold Pth is then obtained using (11.9). The
perturbation that starts the laser action when the pump
rate Rp reaches the critical value Rcp is provided by
spontaneous emission.
Output Power and Slope Efficiency
For a pump rate Rp > Rcp , the rate equations (11.56, 57)
admit the solution N0 = Nc and φ0 = [1/(Bτ)](x −
1), corresponding to laser being above threshold
(Fig. 11.13). Here x = Rp /Rcp = Pp /Pth > 1 is the
above-threshold pump behavior parameter, where Pp is
the pump power and Pth is its threshold value. The cor-
responding output laser power can be then calculated
from (11.58) and can be cast in the form
Pout = ηs (Pp − Pth ) , (11.60)
where
ηs = ηp ηc ηq ηt . (11.61)
Equation (11.60) shows that, within the approximation
made, a linear relation is obtained between the output
power and the pump power. One can then define the slope
efficiency of the laser as ηs = dPout / dPp . According to
(11.61), ηs is given by the product of four contributions:
1. the pump efficiency ηp
2. the output coupling efficiency ηc = γ2 /(2γ )
3. the laser quantum efficiency ηq = (hν)/(hνmp )
4. the transverse efficiency ηt = Ab /A
where Ab = Va /l is the transverse mode area in the active
medium and A the transverse pumping area. The slope
efficiency of a laser may typically vary from less than
1% in low-efficiency lasers (such as in the HeNe laser)
to 20–50% or even higher in high-efficiency lasers.
Relaxation Oscillations
One can show that the solution, given above, for lasers
above threshold is stable, i. e., that any initial pertur-
Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.1 Principles of Lasers 603
N, ö
Nc N
ö
Part C 11.1
0
Rcp Rp
Laser below Laser above
threshold threshold
Fig. 11.13 Behavior of population inversion N and photon
number φ in the oscillating mode versus the pump rate Rp
for a four-level laser. Rcp is the critical pump rate above
which laser action takes place
bation of the system (e.g., of cavity losses) is damped.
When the ratio τ/τc between the upper laser level life-
time and cavity photon lifetime is larger than 1 (or much
larger, such as in laser transitions which are electric-
dipole forbidden), relaxation to the steady state occurs
through damped oscillations in both photon number and
population inversion. This results in damped oscillations
of the output power referred to as relaxation oscilla-
tions. In solid-state lasers, the frequency of relaxation
oscillations typically fall in the 10 kHz–10 MHz region,
whereas, in semiconductor lasers, it falls in the GHz re-
gion. Relaxation oscillations in slow-gain media (such
as in solid-state lasers) triggered by technical noise or
by pump power fluctuations are one of the major cause
of amplitude noise in the output laser power. Whenever
a high degree of intensity stability is required, laser am-
plitude stabilization may be provided by a suitable active
feedback loop.
Laser Tuning
The gain line width of some lasers (e.g., dye lasers or
vibronic solid-state lasers) is very wide and, for sev-
eral applications, one needs to tune the laser output
wavelength away from the line center and across the
entire available line width. In other cases, different las-
ing transitions may compete or may potentially be used,
and one needs to select one of them. In both circum-
stances, one can employ a wavelength-selective element
inside the laser cavity, which is often referred to as
laser tuner. For lasers in the middle infrared (such as
CO2 lasers), one generally uses a diffraction grating
in the so-called Littrow configuration (Fig. 11.14a) as
one of the cavity mirror. Wavelength tuning is simply
604 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

birefringent plate does not change the polarization state

a) of the beam and thus allows for laser oscillation with
Gain medium ë2 low loss. Upon rotation of the plate around the axis or-
thogonal to its faces (Fig. 11.15) the direction of the
birefringence axes of the plates is changed and this cor-
ë1 respondingly changes the wavelength at which low loss
occurs.
Part C 11.1

Mirror Grating Single Mode Selection

b)
Gain medium
ë2
ë1
Prism
Mirror Mirror
Fig. 11.14 (a) Laser tuner based on a diffraction grating in
the Littrow configuration. (b) Laser tuner based on the use
of a dispersive prism
achieved by grating rotation. In the visible or near-
infrared spectral regions (such as for the Ar3+ laser),
a dispersive prism is more commonly used and wave-
length tuning is simply achieved by prism, or mirror,
rotation (Fig. 11.14b). To reduce insertion losses, the
two prisms facets are approximately inclined at Brew-
ster angle. A third wavelength-selective element, which
is becoming increasingly popular in the visible or near-
infrared, uses a birefringent filter inside the cavity.
This device exploits a birefringent plate, inclined at
the Brewster angle, which generally changes the po-
larization state of the intracavity laser beam. In the
presence of an intracavity polarizer, or just exploiting
the polarizing properties of the Brewster-angle filter, the
birefringence filter thus generally produces additional
cavity losses. However, at certain wavelengths, λ, the
Rotation
for tuning
Birefringent
Brewster plate Resonator
angle axis
Polarizer
Mirror
Fig. 11.15 Schematic of a birefringent laser tuner made of
an intracavity birefringent plate and polarizer
and Limit to Laser Monochromaticity
Most often, lasers tend spontaneously to oscillate on sev-
eral transverse and longitudinal modes, especially when
the gainline is relatively broad. The reasons for mul-
timode oscillations are rather involved and their study
goes beyond the scope of the present contribution. For
many applications, single-mode operation may be re-
quired, and therefore one needs to force the laser to
oscillate on a single transverse (usually the fundamen-
tal TEM00 Gaussian mode) and longitudinal mode. For
stable resonators, single transverse mode oscillation is
easily achieved by placing an aperture inside the cav-
ity of appropriate size in order to increase diffraction
loss of higher-order modes with respect to the TEM00
mode. In some cases, such as in longitudinally pumped
solid-state lasers, limitation on the pump spot size lends
itself to TEM00 mode selection.
Even when a laser is oscillating on a single trans-
verse mode, it can still oscillate on several longitudinal
modes. This usually occurs since the longitudinal-mode
separation ∆ν = c/(2L) is smaller (or much smaller)
than the gain line width ∆ν0 . For some gas lasers,
where the gain line width is relatively small (up to a few
GHz), single-longitudinal-mode selection is simply ob-
tained by making the cavity length short enough that the
longitudinal-mode separation ∆ν becomes larger than
∆ν0 /2. For, e.g., a HeNe laser (∆ν0∗  1.7 GHz), this
condition implies L ≤ 17.5 cm. For solid-state lasers
with a bandwidth up to a few hundred GHz, this condi-
tion requires cavity lengths in the sub-millimeter region
(microchip lasers). For lasers with much larger band-
widths (e.g., dye lasers or tunable solid-state lasers),
the required length is too small to make the tech-
nique of practical relevance and to make the gain in
the medium large enough to reach threshold. In these
cases, different techniques are employed. For solid-
state or dye lasers, the simplest method is to use one
(or more) Fabry–Pérot etalons within the cavity, which
acts as a narrow frequency spectral-selective element
(Fig. 11.16). The etalon thickness and finesse should be
designed to ensure single mode selection. This implies
that:

1. the half width ∆νFP /2 of the transmission peaks
of the Fabry–Pérot must be smaller than the
longitudinal-mode separation ∆ν = c/(2L);
2. the etalon free spectral range ∆νFSR must be
larger than the half width of the gain line ∆ν0 /2
(Fig. 11.16).
For semiconductor lasers, single mode selection is
achieved by using a distributed feedback (DFB) struc-
ture, in which a longitudinal corrugation of the
refractive index in the semiconductor induces fre-
quency mode selection according to Bragg scattering
theory.
A special case of single mode selection that deserves
mention is that of a laser with a homogeneously broad-
ened line (e.g., Nd:YAG and dye lasers). In this case,
multimode oscillation is mainly due to the standing-
wave character of the laser mode arising from the
interference of counter-propagating waves established
between the two cavity mirrors. The use of a ring
resonator instead of a linear cavity, in which unidirec-
tional operation is forced by, e.g., an intracavity optical
diode, may be enough in this case to achieve single
longitudinal-mode operation.
We finally discuss the limit of monochromaticity
(and hence of temporal coherence) of a laser. The line
width ∆νL of a laser that oscillates on a single longi-
tudinal mode is ultimately established by spontaneous
emission noise. The quantum theory of a laser shows
that the spectral shape of emitted light is Lorentzian with
a FWHM given by the well-known Schawlow–Townes
formula:
N2 2πhνL (∆νC )2
∆νL = , (11.62)
N2 − N1 P a periodic sequence of optical pulses [11.3,5]. Addition-
where P is the output power, ∆νC = 1/(2πτc ) is the line
width of the cold cavity mode, N2 and N1 are the steady-
state populations in the upper and lower laser levels,
respectively, and νL is the emission frequency. Typi-
cally the line width predicted by the Schawlow–Townes
formula is negligibly small compared to that produced
by other cavity disturbances (e.g., fluctuations of cavity
length or technical noise), except for the very important
class of semiconductor lasers. For, e.g., a typical HeNe
laser oscillating on its red transition (λ = 632.8 nm), τc
is of the order of tens of µs, so that ∆νL is of the or-
der of  1 mHz, which turns out to be much smaller
than the line broadening due to technical noise. For in-
stance, a small cavity length change ∆L, due to technical
noise, contributes to the frequency broadening ∆νL by
an amount given by |∆νL | = (∆L/L)νL ; for L = 1 m
and νL = 4.7 × 1014 Hz (visible transition), a change of
Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.1 Principles of Lasers 605
Gain line
ÄíFSR
Fabry Perot
transmission
peaks
Äí0
ÄíFP
Part C 11.1
c í
2L
Fig. 11.16 Schematic of single longitudinal mode selection by use
of an intracavity Fabry–Pérot etalon
∆L by just ≈ 10−8 times the atomic dimension leads to
a contribution to ∆νL comparable to the quantum limit.
Conversely, in semiconductor lasers the quantum limit
of ∆νL is considerably larger and typically falls in the
MHz range, owing to the much short photon lifetime (τc
is of the order of few ps). Therefore, the laser line width
of a typical semiconductor laser arises from quantum
noise.
11.1.5 Pulsed Laser Behavior
In lasers operating in the CW or quasi-CW regimes, the
maximum achievable optical output power is limited by
the maximum available pump power. For high-power
CW lasers (such as CO2 lasers), power levels up to
≈ 100 kW can be reached; however larger power lev-
els, which can be of interest for many applications, are
prevented in the CW regime. Transient laser behavior al-
lows one to obtain higher peak powers by concentrating
the available energy in a single, short optical pulse or in
ally, transient laser behavior is a powerful tool for the
generation of ultrashort optical pulses, with durations
down to ≈ 10 fs in lasers with a broad gainline (notably
the Ti3+ :Al2 O3 laser). From a dynamical viewpoint,
pulsed laser behavior can be divided into two rather
distinct categories:
1. Laser transients occurring on a time scale of the or-
der of the cavity photon lifetime τc , i. e., appreciably
larger than the cavity round-trip time. This in-
cludes the so-called Q-switching and gain-switching
regimes, which enable the generation of optical
pulses as short as a few nanoseconds with optical
peak powers typically in the megawatt range. These
are basically single-longitudinal-mode regimes and
can be described by means of a rate equation model
(11.56, 57).
606 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources
2. Laser transients occurring on a time scale appre-
ciably shorter (and often much shorter) that the
cavity round-trip time. These are basically multi-
longitudinal-mode regimes, i. e., they involve the
simultaneous oscillation of many longitudinal laser
modes, and include the so-called mode-locking
regime, which enables the generation of trains of
Part C 11.1
ultrashort laser pulses with durations down to a few
femtoseconds.
Laser Q-switching: Dynamical Aspects
Q-switching is a technique that enables the generation
of a short optical pulse (of the order of the cavity photon
lifetime τc ) by a sudden switching of the cavity Q factor,
i. e., of the cavity loss γ . The change of Q is produced, in
principle, upon placing inside the laser cavity an opaque
shutter which can be opened or closed. When the shut-
ter is closed (i. e., the cavity Q is low), laser action is
prevented and the population inversion N can reach a rel-
atively large value (well above the critical value Nc ) due
a)
Rp N
Rp (t)
N¥
N (t)
ô tp
b)
N, ö Ni
N (t)
Nc
ö (t)
Nf
Äôp
ôdelay
Fig. 11.17a,b Dynamics of fast switching in a four-level
laser. (a) Temporal behavior of pump rate and population
inversion when the cavity Q is low. (b) Temporal behavior
of population inversion and cavity photons when the cav-
ity Q is suddenly switched to a high value, showing the
formation of the Q-switching pulse
to pumping. When the shutter is opened, the Q factor
is suddenly switched to a high value and the laser ex-
hibits a gain g = σlN that greatly exceeds the loss γ .
Light emission then occurs via the generation of a short
and intense laser pulse. The duration of a Q-switching
pulse typically ranges from a few nanoseconds to a few
tens of nanoseconds, whereas its peak power is in the
megawatt range. To achieve sufficient population inver-
sion when laser action is prevented, a long lifetime τ of
the upper laser level is required. Thus Q-switching can
be effectively used for electric-dipole-forbidden laser
transitions, where τ generally falls in the millisecond
range. This is the case of most solid-state lasers (e.g.,
Nd, Yb, Er in different host materials; Cr-doped mater-
ials, such as alexandrite, Cr:LiSAF, and ruby) and some
gas lasers (e.g., CO2 or iodine).
To understand the basic dynamics of Q-switching,
let us consider a four-level laser and assume that a step
pump pulse is applied at time t = 0, i. e., Rp (t) = 0 for
t < 0 and Rp = constant for 0 < t < tp , where tp is the
duration of the pump pulse; meanwhile the shutter is
closed (Fig. 11.17a) and laser action is prevented. From
(11.56) with φ = 0, one then obtains that the transient
population inversion increases accordingly to the rela-
tion N(t) = N∞ [1 − exp(−t/τ)], where the asymptotic
value N∞ is given by N∞ = Rp τ (Fig. 11.17a). After
a pump time of about 2τ, the population inversion al-
ready reaches a value close to its asymptotic limit N∞ ,
and therefore the pump pulse can be switched off and
the shutter opened. In fact, for tp larger than ≈ 2τ the
energy supplied to the medium is not useful for increas-
t
ing the population inversion any further but is lost as
radiative and nonradiative decay. Suppose now that the
shutter is opened very rapidly at time tp (fast switching),
and take the origin of time at the instant when switching
occurs (Fig. 11.17b). From this time on, the evolution
of both population inversion and number of photons in
the cavity can be numerically computed by solving the
rate equations (11.56) and (11.57) with the initial con-
ditions φ(0)  1 and N(0) = Rp τ[1 − exp(−tp /τ)] ≡ Ni ,
where the initial condition φ(0)  1 accounts for the fact
that the laser action is started by spontaneous emission
(the so-called extra photon). The qualitative transient
t behavior of both N and φ is shown in Fig. 11.17b and
can be simply understood by observing that, just after
the switching time t = 0, the gain g = σ Nl in the gain
medium greatly exceeds the single-pass cavity loss γ ;
therefore the number of photons, which increases nearly
exponentially with time starting from the extra photon
due to spontaneous emission, typically takes from sev-
eral hundreds to a few thousand cavity round-trips to
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.1 Principles of Lasers 607

reach a sufficient value to saturate the laser transition,

çE
thus producing a reduction of the available inversion
1
(Fig. 11.17b). This means that the time delay for the
peak of the laser pulse, τdelay typically ranges from sev- 0.8
eral tens to a few hundred of nanoseconds. Note that,
on such a time scale, the radiative and nonradiative 0.6
decays of the population N (which typically occur on
0.4

the millisecond time scale) are negligible, and therefore
population decay just occurs by stimulated emission.
The decrease of N as φ increases leads, in turn, to a de-
crease of the gain g = σ Nl. The peak of the pulse occurs
at the delay time, τdelay , such that the population inver-
sion N decreases to its critical value, Nc . In this case, in
fact, laser gain g equals cavity loss γ and one has from
(11.57) dφ/ dt = 0. For t > τdelay , one has N < Nc and
dφ/ dt < 0. This means that the number of photons now
decreases towards zero. Meanwhile, due to stimulated
emission, the population inversion also keeps decreas-
ing until the photon pulse has decreased to zero. At
this time some population inversion, say Nf , is gener-
ally left in the medium after Q-switching (Fig. 11.17b).
Note that the quantity ηE = (Ni − Nf )/Ni represents the
fraction of the energy initially stored in the material that
goes into stimulated emitted photons, usually referred
to as the inversion, or energy, utilization factor. The du-
ration ∆τp of  the Q-switched pulse, the output energy
E = (1/τc )[ φ(t) dt](hν)(γ2 /(2γ )), the energy utiliza-
tion factor ηE , as well as the time τdelay needed for pulse
formation can be derived in a closed form by an analysis
of the rate equations (11.56) and (11.57) in which pump-
ing and radiative and nonradiative decay are neglected.
One obtains:
(Ni /Nc )ηE
∆τp = τc , (11.63)
(Ni /Nc ) − ln(Ni /Nc ) − 1


γ2
E= (Ni ηE Va )(hν) , (11.64)
2γ
τc
τdelay ≈ ln(φp /10) , (11.65)
(Ni /Nc ) − 1
Part C 11.1
0.2
0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Ni/Nc
Fig. 11.18 Behavior of the energy utilization factor ηE ver-
sus the normalized initial inversion Ni /Nc
of this energy, only the fraction [γ2 /(2γ )] goes into the
output beam.
Q-switched lasers may generally be operated in two
distinct regimes. In so-called pulsed Q-switching, the
pump rate Rp (t) generally consists, as explained above,
of a pulse with duration comparable to the upper-state
lifetime τ. Of course, the pulsed operation can be pe-
riodically repeated upon repeating the pulsed pump
(generally up to a rate of a few tens of Hz). In so-
called CW repetitive Q-switching, the pump rate Rp is
held constant and cavity losses are periodically switched
from a high to a low value (generally with a rate from
a few to a few tens of kHz).
So far we have considered the dynamic behavior
corresponding to fast switching, where the switching
of the cavity loss is treated as instantaneous (in prac-
tice, much shorter than the time τdelay ). In the case of
slow switching, the dynamic behavior is somewhat more
complicated and multiple pulses may result, as shown
g, ã, ö
ã (t)

where Ni /Nc is the ratio between the initially stored

population inversion and critical inversion; φp is the
peak photon number of the Q-switching pulse, given by
φp = Va (Ni − Nc ) − Nc Va ln(Ni /Nc ); and ηE is the en- g (t)
ergy utilization factor. The value of ηE can be calculated ö (t)
from the implicit equation (Ni /Nc )ηE = −ln(1 − ηE )
from which a plot of (Ni /Nc ) vs. ηE can readily be
obtained (Fig. 11.18). Note that (11.64) can readily be
t
obtained by a simple energy-balance argument: the
stored energy in the medium released as EM wave is Fig. 11.19 Gain and photon dynamics in a slow-switching
in fact equal to hν(Ni − Nf )Va = hν(ηE Ni )Va , and, out laser, showing the formation of multiple pulses
608 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources
in Fig. 11.19. In the figure, the behavior of the cavity
loss γ and laser gain g = σ Nl is depicted. The multiple
intersections of the slowly decaying curve for the loss
γ (t) with the gain curve g(t) explain the formation of
multiple Q-switching pulses.
Methods of Q-Switching
Part C 11.1
Several methods have been developed to achieve switch-
ing of the cavity Q; the most common are [11.3, 4]:
1. Electrooptic Q-switching;
2. Rotating prism;
3. Acoustooptical Q-switching;
4. Saturable absorber Q-switching.
Electrooptic Q-switching. In this case the shutter placed
inside the laser cavity is made of a Pockels cell and
a polarizer in the configuration shown in Fig. 11.20
(electrooptic shutter). The Pockels cell consists of a suit-
able nonlinear electrooptic crystal (such as KD*P or
lithium niobate for the visible-to-near-infrared region or
cadmium telluride for middle-infrared), in which an ap-
plied dc voltage induces a change in the crystal refractive
indices. The induced birefringence turns out to be pro-
portional to the applied voltage. The transmission axis
of the polarizer is set at 45o with respect to the birefrin-
gence axes of the crystal. When no dc field is applied
to the crystal, no polarization losses are introduced in
the cavity by the electrooptic shutter, i. e., cavity losses
are low. However, when a dc field is applied such that
the phase difference ∆ϕ between the ordinary and ex-
traordinary waves in the birefringent-induced crystal is
equal to π/2, the Pockels cell operates as a λ/4 bire-
fringent plate. Therefore, the linearly polarized light,
coming from the polarizer, is rotated by 90◦ after a dou-
ble pass through the cell and it is then fully reflected out
of the cavity by the polarizer. The electrooptic shutter is
now closed and cavity Q is zero. The dc voltage to the
E Voltage
Polarizer
Electro-
Gain optic
medium
crystal
Mirror Mirror
Fig. 11.20 Schematic of a Q-switched laser using a Pockels
cell
crystal required to produce the phase shift ∆ϕ = π/2
is referred to as the quarter-wave voltage and typically
ranges from 1 to 5 kV. To avoid multiple pulses, this
voltage must be switched off in a time typically smaller
than 20 ns.
Rotating prism. In this simple Q-switching technique,
one of the cavity mirror is generally made of a roof-
top prism and rotation is made through the axis parallel
to the other mirror and orthogonal to the prism edge
(Fig. 11.21). The high-Q condition is achieved when
the prism edge passes through a position parallel to the
other cavity mirror. Although rotating prisms are simple
and inexpensive devices which can be used at any wave-
length, they suffer the limitation arising from the limited
rotation speed (≈ 400 Hz). The Q-switching time is then
rather long (typically ≈ 400 ns) which often results in
the production of multiple pulses (slow switching).
Acoustooptic Q-switching. In this case the shutter
consists of an acoustooptic modulator, driven by a radio-
frequency (RF) oscillator, which is placed inside the
laser cavity. The modulator consists of a transparent
block of material (usually fused quartz in the visi-
ble to near-infrared or cadmium selenide in the mid-
to far-infrared) bonded on one side to a piezoelectric
transducer and to an acoustic absorber on the other
(Fig. 11.22). When the transducer is on, traveling sound
waves are then produced in the material in the direc-
tion orthogonal to the plane of the transducer. Due to the
photoelastic effect, the resulting strain in the material
results in local changes of the material refractive index,
i. e., in the generation of an index grating which is travel-
ing along the material itself. Bragg scattering of the laser
Rotating
prism
Gain medium
Rotation
axis Mirror
Fig. 11.21 Schematic of a Q-switched laser using a rotating
prism

rber
Abso
stic Diffracted
Acou e
wav beam
Laser
2èB
beam
èB
Piezoelectric
RF voltage transducer
Fig. 11.22 Schematic of an acoustooptic modulator used for
laser Q-switching (θB is the Bragg angle)
beam propagating across such a grating (Fig. 11.22) thus
produces a diffracted beam and hence additional losses
in the cavity (low-Q condition). Maximum diffraction
efficiency is achieved when the incident light angle θB
satisfies the Bragg condition θB = λ/(2λa ), where λ
and λa are the optical and acoustical wavelengths, re-
spectively. The high-Q condition is simply obtained
by switching off the transducer voltage. Acoustoop-
tic modulators have the advantages of introducing low
values of optical insertion losses and can be driven
at high repetition rates (several kHz). Therefore they
are used mainly for repetitive Q-switching of low-gain
CW-pumped lasers (e.g., Nd:YAG or Ar-ion lasers).
Saturable absorber Q-switching. The Q-switching
techniques discussed so far use active Q-switches, in
the sense that they need an external control source.
A notable passive Q-switching technique, in which no
external driving control is required, consists of placing
a suitable saturable absorber inside the laser cav-
ity. This absorber is basically an unpumped two-level
medium which absorbs at the laser wavelength with
a comparatively low saturation intensity. Thus, due to
the phenomenon of saturation, the absorption coeffi-
cient of the absorber decreases as the intensity of the
intracavity laser beam increases. To model this phe-
nomenon we write the rate equation for the absorber as
( dN2 / dt) = σa (N1 − N2 )I/(hν) − N2 /τ, where N2 and
τ are the population and lifetime of the excited level 2,
N1 is the population in the lower (ground) level 1, and
I = I(t) is the intracavity laser intensity. In CW opera-
tion or if τ is short enough as compared to the changes
of I(t), we may assume that ( dN2 / dt) ≈ 0 and therefore
Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.1 Principles of Lasers 609
obtain N1 − N2  Nt /(1 + I/Is ), where Nt = N1 + N2 is
the total absorber population and Is ≡ hν/(2στ) is the
saturation intensity of the absorber. Since now the ab-
sorption coefficient is α = σa (N1 − N2 ), from the last
two equations we obtain
α0
α= , (11.66)
1 + I/Is
Part C 11.1
where α0 = Nt σa is the unsaturated absorption coef-
ficient of the absorber. Equation (11.66) then shows
that, as the intracavity laser intensity I increases, the
losses introduced by the saturable absorber decrease
and the cavity Q correspondingly increases, i. e., Q-
switching is achieved. The detailed dynamics underlying
the formation of a Q-switching pulse with the saturable-
absorber Q-switch, is however more involved than the
one previously discussed. Here we just say that the
saturable absorber should have a low value of the sat-
uration intensity so that, when laser action starts, the
absorber is bleached earlier (i. e., at lower intensity)
than the time when population inversion in the gain
medium starts to decrease appreciably owing to stim-
ulated emission.
Typical absorbers used for passive Q-switching con-
sist of dyes in an appropriate solvent; the main drawback
of these absorbers is their photochemical degradation,
i. e., poor chemical stability, and inadequate thermal
properties. Recently, the advent of solid-state absorbers
(notably absorbers based on chromium doped into vari-
ous crystalline hosts) are replacing dye absorbers, thus
avoiding the problem of degradation.
Laser Mode-Locking: Dynamical Aspects
Mode-locking is a laser operation regime in which many
longitudinal modes of the cavity are simultaneously
forced to oscillate with a precise phase relation so that
the output laser beam shows a repetitive train of ultra-
short optical pulses [11.3, 5]. To achieve mode-locking
operation, a suitable device, which is usually referred
to as the mode locker, must be placed inside the cavity.
For a given laser medium, the lower limit to the achiev-
able pulse duration ∆τp is set by the gain line width
(∆τp  1/∆ν0 ), whereas the pulse repetition rate 1/τp
is usually equal to the difference frequency between two
consecutive longitudinal modes ∆ν (or an integer mul-
tiple of ∆ν, as for harmonic mode-locking). Therefore,
pulse duration, depending upon the gain line width, usu-
ally ranges from about 1 ns, in gas lasers, down to 10 fs in
broad-bandwidth solid-state lasers. Pulse repetition rate
depends, of course, upon the cavity length and usually
ranges from about 100 MHz to a few GHz.
 610 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources
Frequency-domain description. The basic principle of
laser mode-locking can be explained as follows. Let us
consider, for simplicity, a traveling-wave ring laser of
optical length L e , and assume that the separation of the
longitudinal cavity modes ∆ν = c/L e be smaller (usu-
ally much smaller) than the gain line width ∆ν0 . In
this case, even in the absence of the mode locker, the
Part C 11.1
laser tends spontaneously to oscillate on several longi-
tudinal modes (free-running regime). Let νl = ν0 + l∆ν
be the frequency and El = Al exp(iϕl ) the complex am-
plitude of the l-th oscillating longitudinal cavity mode,
where l is an integer number and l = 0 corresponds to the
longitudinal mode closest to the center of the gainline
(Fig. 11.23). The electric field E(z, t) inside the laser
cavity is then given by the superposition of the oscillat-
ing longitudinal modes and can be written in the form
E(z, t) = A(t − z/c) exp[2πiν0 (t − z/c)], where z is the
longitudinal coordinate measured along the perimetric
axis of the ring and the envelope A(t ) is given by
 case, one has:
A(t ) = Al exp(2πil∆νt + iϕl ) , (11.67)
l A(t ) =
where t = t − z/c is a retarded time. Note that, owing to
the dependence of the field on t − z/c, the field distribu-
tion in the cavity is a traveling wave which propagates
with the speed of light; therefore we may limit the dis-
cussion to the field behavior at a given reference plane
z = 0, e.g., at the output coupler of the laser. The output
laser power, averaged over the rapidly varying optical
cycle, will be then proportional to |A(t)|2 . Note that, if
the mode amplitudes Al and phases ϕl are constant or
slowly varying in time compared to the cavity round-trip
time τR = L e /c = 1/∆ν, the signal A(t) is basically pe-
riodic in time with a period equal to τR . However, the
specific form of the signal in one period depends on the
precise distribution of the mode amplitudes Al and, most
importantly, on their phases ϕl .
Gain line
Äí0
–3 –2 –1 l = 0 1 2 3
Äí
ÄíL
Fig. 11.23 Schematic of a laser oscillating on several longi-
tudinal modes in the frequency domain
In a free-running laser, the phases ϕl do not have
a precise relation to each other; they may also fluctuate in
time. The superposition of N modes with, e.g., the same
amplitude Al = A0 but with randomly distributed phases
typically leads to a spiking signal |A(t)|2 made of a pe-
riodic sequence of irregular pulses (Fig. 11.24a), each
with duration approximately equal to ∆τp ≈ 1/∆νL ,
where ∆νL = N∆ν is the oscillating bandwidth. Note
that, since the response time of a conventional photode-
tector is usually much longer than a few picoseconds,
the complex temporal behavior shown in Fig. 11.24a is
usually not resolved for free-running multimode lasers,
instead its average value – proportional to N A20 – is
monitored.
In a mode-locked laser, the role of the mode locker
is to lock the phases of oscillating modes in a precise
manner. The most common and interesting case is that
of a mode locker that imposes a linear phase locking
condition, i. e., ϕl = lϕ, where ϕ is a constant. In this
∞

Al exp(2πil∆νt ) , (11.68)
l=−∞
a) |E (t)|2
TR
Äôp
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
t /TR
b) |E (t")|2
ôp = TR ôp = TR
Äôp
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
t"/TR
Fig. 11.24a,b Behavior of output power in a laser oscil-
lating on many longitudinal modes with equal amplitude
(a) Free-running regime, corresponding to random phases
φl . (b) Mode-locking regime, corresponding to linear phase
locking φl = lφ
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.1 Principles of Lasers 611

where t is a translated time given by t = t + Time-domain description. The previous analysis of

ϕ/(2π∆ν). Usually, in a mode-locked laser the en-
velope of the mode amplitudes Al follows the shape
of the gainline, i. e., Al is maximum at the center of
the gainline (l = 0) and decreases toward zero as |l|
increases; for instance, for active mode-locking in a ho-
mogeneously broadened medium, one can show that
mode-locking is often referred to as the frequency-
domain description since the onset of the periodic pulse
train is viewed as due to the coherent superposition of
longitudinal modes of the laser cavity. A different de-
scription of the mode-locking regime, complementary
to the frequency-domain approach, is also possible in

Part C 11.1
Al follows a Gaussian distribution. However, to cal- the time domain. In fact, according to the results shown
culate the series in (11.68) simply, we assume that in Fig. 11.24b and since τR is the time for a round-trip,
Al = A0 = const. for |l| ≤ N and Al = 0 for |l| > N, a single pulse of duration ∆τp is circulating within the
i. e., we assume an odd number 2N + 1 of oscillating laser cavity (Fig. 11.25a). Note that the spatial extension
modes with the same amplitude. In this case one ob- of the pulse ∆z = c∆τp , according to (11.70) is given
tains in (11.68) a geometric progression which can be by ∆z = L e /(2N + 1) where L e is the length of the ring
calculated in a closed form, yielding perimeter. For a sufficiently large number (2N + 1) of os-
  cillating modes, ∆z is then much smaller than the cavity
sin (2N + 1)π∆νt
A(t ) = A0 . (11.69) length L e . The temporal periodicity of the output laser
sin(π∆νt ) beam then simply results from the successive transits
A plot of the squared amplitude of the electric field of the intracavity circulating pulse at the output mirror,
|A(t )|2 is reported in Fig. 11.24b. Note that a pulse which occur at intervals τp = L e /c equal to the cavity
train, at a repetition rate τp = 1/∆ν equal to the cavity transit time. According to this picture, we readily under-
round-trip time τR , is obtained. The squared ampli-
tude of the electric field at the peak pulse is given by a) Gain
(2N + 1)2 A20 , whereas the FWHM pulse duration ∆τp medium Output
is approximately given by beam
1 1 c
∆τp  = , (11.70)
(2N + 1)∆ν ∆νL
Pulse
where ∆νL = (2N + 1)∆ν is again the oscillating band- Mode
width. Therefore, for broad oscillating bandwidths, locker
phase locking among longitudinal modes leads to the
generation of short laser pulses with high peak power.
The physical limit to the maximum number of phase-
b) Gain Mode
locked modes that can be forced to oscillate is ultimately Pulse
medium locker
determined by the gain bandwidth of the active material, c
Output
i. e., ∆τp is longer than or equal to 1/∆ν0 . beam
In general, when the actual shape (e.g., Gaus-
sian) of the mode amplitudes Al is taken into
L
account, the overall field amplitude A(t ) can be
Gain medium
obtained approximately from (11.68) upon trans-
forming the sum  +∞over all modes into an integral, c) Mode
namely A(t )  −∞ A(l) exp(2πil∆νt ) dl. From this locker
last equation one then sees that the pulse amplitude c c c
Output
A(t ) is the Fourier transform of the spectral mode beam
envelope A(l). Therefore, in this case, i. e., under lin-
ear phase-locking conditions, the pulse amplitude is
2L/3 L/3
said to be transform limited. Note, however, that un-
Gain medium
der phase-locking conditions different from the linear
case (e.g., ϕl = ϕ1 l + ϕ2l 2 , as in so-called frequency Fig. 11.25a–c Schematic of the mode-locking regime in the
mode-locking) the mode-locked pulses are no longer time domain. (a) Mode-locking in a ring cavity. (b) Mode-
transform-limited, i. e., their temporal duration is larger locking in a linear cavity. (c) Harmonic mode-locking in
than that predicted by the Fourier limit. a linear cavity (harmonic order n = 3)
 612 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources
stand that the mode-locking regime can be achieved by
placing a suitable fast shutter inside the cavity. In fact,
if an initially non-mode-locked beam is present within
the cavity, its spatial amplitude distribution can be rep-
resented as in Fig. 11.24a, with the time t replaced by
z/c. By periodically opening the shutter for a short time
interval (of the order ∆τp ) with period τp = L e /c, pos-
Part C 11.1
sibly at the time when the most intense noisy pulse in
Fig. 11.24a reaches the shutter, then only this pulse will
survive in the laser cavity, producing the mode-locking
condition of Fig. 11.24b. After a transient leading from
the temporal pattern of Fig. 11.24a to that of Fig. 11.24b,
the mode-locked pulse will consistently reproduce itself
after each transit in the cavity.
It should be noted that all considerations made above
for a ring laser resonator apply mutatis mutandis to a lin-
ear (i. e., Fabry–Pérot) laser cavity. In this case, however,
self-consistent propagation of the mode-locked pulse in
one cavity round-trip requires that the shutter must be
placed close to one end mirror of the cavity (Fig. 11.25b).
Note that, if the shutter is placed at a distance L/2, L/3,
· · · , L/n from one end mirror and is opened at inter-
vals τR /2, τR /3, · · · , τR /n, where L is the cavity length,
multiple pulses (precisely 2, 3, · · · , n pulses) may be
simultaneously generated and the repetition rate of the
pulse train is correspondingly increased by a factor of
2, 3, · · · , n (see, e.g., Fig. 11.25c for the case n = 3).
Such a mode-locking regime is referred to as harmonic
mode-locking. Harmonic mode-locking is typically em-
ployed in active mode-locked fiber lasers to increase the
pulse repetition rate (≈ 1–40 GHz); owing to the rel-
atively long cavity length (≈ 1–10 m), to reach high
repetition rates harmonic orders n up to ≈ 1000 are
usually needed.
Mode-Locking Methods
The methods to achieve mode-locking can generally be
divided into two categories:
1. Active mode locking, in which the mode-locker is
driven by an external source.
2. Passive mode locking, in which the mode-locker is
not externally driven but exploits some nonlinear
optical effect, such as the saturation of a saturable
absorber or the nonlinear change of the refractive
index in a Kerr medium.
Active mode locking. Active mode locking is usu-
ally achieved by placing, inside the laser cavity, either
an amplitude modulator, which produces a periodic
modulation in time of the cavity loss [amplitude-
modulation (AM) mode locking], or a phase modulator,
which periodically varies the optical length of the res-
onator [frequency-modulation (FM) mode locking]. In
lasers with upper-state lifetimes shorter than the cavity
round-trip time (e.g., dye lasers), active mode lock-
ing can also be achieved by periodic modulation of
the laser gain at a repetition rate equal to the longi-
tudinal mode separation ∆ν (synchronous pumping).
We limit here to describe the basic principle of AM
mode locking, since it is the most common among
the three mentioned techniques. In AM mode locking,
the mode locker is usually a Pockels-cell electroop-
tic modulator for pulsed and high-gain lasers, or an
acoustooptic modulator for low-gain lasers. The elec-
trooptic or acoustooptic modulator sinusoidally varies
the cavity loss γ (t) at a given modulation frequency
νm (Fig. 11.26). It is thus expected that the mode-
locked pulse circulating inside the cavity (Fig. 11.25b)
will pass through the modulator at the time t1 of the
cycle where the cavity loss γ (t) is minimum. Since
the pulse propagating inside the cavity passes again
through the modulator at times t2 = t1 + τR , t3 = t2 + τR ,
etc., where τR = 1/∆ν is the cavity round-trip time,
a steady mode-locking regime can be reached provided
that the synchronization condition ∆ν = νm is satisfied.
It should be noted that the steady-state pulse dura-
tion, ∆τp , is given by the inverse of the oscillation
bandwidth, (2N + 1)∆ν, and, thus, it is ultimately es-
tablished by the gain bandwidth ∆ν0 . However, the
finite bandwidth of the gain medium influences the
steady-state pulse duration in a quite different way
for homogeneous or inhomogeneous lines. For an in-
homogeneously broadened line, and for a laser well
above threshold, the oscillating bandwidth tends to
cover the whole gain bandwidth ∆ν0∗ even in the ab-
sence of AM modulation, and the main role of the
mode-locker is just to lock the phases of these os-
cillating modes. The resulting temporal duration of
the mode-locked pulse is therefore given approxi-
ã TR = 1/ím
ã (t)
|E (t)|2
t1 t2 t3 t
Fig. 11.26 Schematic of AM active mode locking

mately by
0.44
∆τp  . (11.71)
∆ν0∗
Conversely, for a homogeneously broadened gain
medium the number of longitudinal modes oscillating
in the free-running regime is usually rather modest and
the role of the mode-locker is both to enlarge the oscil-
lating bandwidth of the laser (by power transfer from
the central to lateral longitudinal modes) and to lock
the phases of the oscillating modes. Under steady-state
conditions, band enlargement due to the modulator is
counteracted by band reduction due to the gain medium
and the pulse duration is given by [11.14]
0.45
∆τp  √ . (11.72)
νm ∆ν0
As an example, we will consider a mode-locked Nd:YAG
laser oscillating on its homogeneously broadened line at
λ = 1064 nm. Assuming ∆ν0  126 GHz (T = 300 K),
a linear cavity of length L e = 1.5 m and an AM mode-
locker placed close to one cavity mirror, the modulator
loss must be driven at a frequency νm = ∆ν = c/(2L e ) 
100 MHz, and the expected mode-locked pulse duration,
according to (11.72), is ∆τp  125 ps.
It should be noted that in AM mode-locked lasers
(as well as in the other active mode locking techniques)
even small detunings of the modulation frequency νm
from the cavity axial mode separation ∆ν may result in
the destruction of the mode-locking operation. In prac-
tice a detuning |νm − ∆ν|/νm of the order of ≈ 10−4
is enough to destroy mode-locking. To obtain stable
AM mode-locking, active control of the cavity length
is sometimes required, especially when relatively long
cavities are employed (such as for AM mode-locked
fiber lasers).
Passive mode-locking. There are two main types of
passive mode-locking (ML):
1. Fast saturable-absorber ML, which uses the satura-
tion properties of a suitable absorber (e.g., a dye
or a semiconductor) with a very short upper-state
lifetime;
2. Kerr-lens mode-locking (KLM), which exploits the
self-focusing property of a suitable transparent Kerr
medium.
Fast saturable-absorber ML [11.15]. Consider a sat-
urable absorber with a low saturation intensity and
a relaxation time shorter than the duration of the mode-
locked pulses. According to (11.66), the absorption
Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.1 Principles of Lasers 613
ã, g
ã (t)
g
I (t)
Part C 11.1
t
Fig. 11.27 Mode-locking with a fast saturable absorber
loss experienced by a pulse crossing the absorber is
dependent on the instantaneous pulse intensity I(t),
and decreases as the intensity increases. Thus, start-
ing from the random sequence of light bursts occurring
in the unlocked case (Fig. 11.24a), the gain–loss bal-
ance will favor the growth and stabilization of the noise
pulse with the highest intensity. The steady-state sit-
uation, occurring in this case, can be described with
the help of Fig. 11.27. Here, gain saturation drives the
gain g below the cavity losses γ (t) except at those in-
stants where, due to the arrival of the pulse I(t) at
the saturable absorber, the losses are reduced due to
absorber saturation. During the time intervals corre-
sponding to the hatched regions in Fig. 11.27, the gain
is then larger than the instantaneous loss γ (t). A so-
called window of net gain is thus produced, which
tends to increase the peak of the pulse and decrease
its wings, i. e., it tends to narrow the pulse. This nar-
rowing is again counteracted by pulse broadening due
to the finite amplifier bandwidth until a steady-state
pulse duration, whose duration again depends on the in-
verse of the gain bandwidth, is eventually reached. Good
candidates for saturable absorbers must have a short re-
laxation time τ (∼ a few picoseconds or shorter) and
a small saturation intensity, given by Is = hν/(2σa τ).
Thus, very large values for the absorption cross section
σa (≈ 10−16 cm2 or larger) are needed. Ideal absorbers
are therefore dye molecules (e.g., cyanine dyes) or,
even better, semiconductors. A particularly interest-
ing saturable-absorber geometry consists of integrating
a multiple-quantum-well absorber between two mirrors
whose spacing is such that the resulting Fabry–Pérot
etalon operates in antiresonance. Such a device has
been convincingly proven to generate both picosecond
and femtosecond laser pulses from several broadband
solid-state lasers.
Kerr-lens mode-locking. This technique is based on
the use of a nonlinear loss element simply consist-
ing of a nonlinear Kerr medium placed in front of
 614 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources
an aperture (Fig. 11.28). The nonlinear medium shows,
via the optical Kerr effect, an intensity-dependent re-
fractive index n = n 0 + n 2 I, where n 0 is the linear
refractive index of the medium, I is the local light
intensity and n 2 is a positive coefficient (for a self-
focusing medium) which depends on the strength
of the nonlinearity (e.g., n 2  4.5 × 10−16 cm2 /W
Part C 11.2
for fused quartz and n 2  3.45 × 10−16 cm2 /W for
sapphire). A light beam with, e.g., a transverse
Gaussian intensity distribution I(r) = Ip exp[−2(r/w)2 ]
that crosses a thin slice of the Kerr medium of
length l thus experiences a transversely varying phase
shift δϕ = 2πln 2 I(r)/λ = (2πln 2 /λ)Ip exp[−2(r/w)2 ].
Close to the beam center r = 0, one can write
δϕ ≈ (2πln 2 Ip /λ)[1 − 2(r/w)2 ], i. e., the thin medium
introduces a quadratic phase change of the field and
thus acts, for n 2 > 0, as a positive lens (called a Kerr
lens) of dioptric power 1/ f = 4n 2lIp /(n 0 w2 ), which
increases as the beam intensity Ip increases. If an aper-
ture is placed at some suitable distance from the Kerr
medium, a beam with higher intensity will be focused
tighter and a higher fraction of the beam will be trans-
11.2 Solid-State Lasers
11.2.1 Basics
Solid-State Lasers
Based on Dielectric Insulators
The demonstration of the ruby laser [11.16]
(Cr3+ :Al2 O3 ) in 1960 led to a decade with the realization
of a number of crystalline and glass lasers. Especially
Nd:YAG [11.17], Nd-doped yttrium aluminum garnet
(Nd:Y3 Al5 O12 ), rapidly emerged as one of the most im-
portant crystalline dielectric lasers. The first glass laser
was a fiber laser [11.18], which decades later led to
the development of highly efficient Er-doped fiber am-
plifiers (EFDA) with important applications in optical
communications.
In the last two decades progress in the area of
diode-pumped lasers has contributed very much to
a renaissance in the field of solid-state lasers. With
diode laser pumping it is possible to obtain higher
efficiencies and to build rigid all-solid-state devices
with simpler and more compact design. Besides Nd3+
various efficient diode-pumped rare-earth lasers have
been operated with Er3+ , Tm3+ , Ho3+ [11.19–21],
and Yb3+ [11.22, 23]. In addition, the successful op-
eration of Cr3+ -doped [11.24–27] and Ti3+ -doped
r Kerr Aperture
medium Low
intensity
w
z
High
intensity
l
Fig. 11.28 Schematic of a Kerr lens with an aperture used
in KLM
mitted through the aperture. Therefore, the Kerr medium
with the aperture, like a fast saturable absorber, intro-
duces losses that decrease when the instantaneous pulse
intensity is increased, thus leading to mode-locking.
Note that, by appropriately controlling the cavity dis-
persion, the shortest mode-locked pulses (≈ 6 fs) have
been achieved by this technique for Ti3+ :Al2 O3 lasers.
crystals [11.28, 29] as tunable room-temperature lasers
has stimulated further research in transition-metal ions.
Interesting new results have been obtained with the Cr4+
ion [11.30–33] and recently also with the divalent Cr2+
ion [11.34].
Nowadays, average and CW output powers for
Nd3+ - and Yb3+ -doped crystals in the kW range are
commercially available. Fiber lasers reach output pow-
ers in the 100 W range with nearly diffraction-limited
beam quality.
Compact solid-state lasers in the visible spectral re-
gion (see for instance [11.35]) are of potential interest,
especially for display and high-density optical data stor-
age applications. Optical efficiencies of more than 20%
with respect to the pump power can be obtained in Nd
lasers by internal frequency doubling with nonlinear
crystals. An alternative approach enables the genera-
tion of visible laser radiation by upconversion schemes,
which incorporate energy transfer processes or two-
step pump processes as ground-state and excited-state
absorption.
In a most general sense lasers based on solids include
both dielectric insulators and semiconductors as gain
media. However, the development in the past yielded

a subdivision into two laser classes based on solids:
solid-state lasers (the topic of this chapter) and semi-
conductor lasers (Sect. 11.3).
Nearly all modern, important solid-state lasers are
based on impurity-doped crystals or glasses. Typically,
the impurity ions have unfilled electronic shells. So far,
only laser ions from the iron, rare-earth and actinide
group are known. The most important laser lines of these
ions correspond to 4f–4f, 4f–5d, and 3d–3d transitions.
In special cases the laser active ions can also be fully
substituted into the lattice (stoichiometric laser mater-
ials). It should be noted that in the past lattice defects
also have been used as laser-active centers (color cen-
ter lasers); these lasers are however not included in this
chapter.
Spectra of Rare-Earth
and Transition-Metal Ions in Solids
4f–4f transitions in rare-earth ions. In the free rare-
earth ion the electrostatic interaction between the 4f
electrons creates a splitting of the energy levels of the
4fn configuration into different L S terms. The resultant
wave functions are characterized by the quantum num-
bers L, S, M L , and M S . The electrostatic energy splitting
of the {2S+1} L terms is typically 104 cm−1 , and each level
is (2L + 1)(2S + 1)-fold degenerate with respect to M L
and M S .
In addition, the energy levels are further split by
spin–orbit coupling. If the energetic separation between
different L S terms is large compared with the spin–
orbit coupling energy there is only a small mixing of
the L S terms. If this mixing is very small, the Russel–
Saunders approximation holds and the wave functions
are characterized by the quantum numbers L, S, J, M J
with a degeneration of (2J + 1). The typical splitting of
{2S+1} L terms is of the order of 1000 cm−1 . Although
J These diagrams are distinguished by the number of elec-
L S coupling is not strictly valid for rare-earth ions, it is
usual to describe the 4f energy states with the Russel–
Saunders approximation [11.36].
The interaction of the 4f electrons with the crystal
field, i. e., the electrostatic field of the surrounding lig-
ands, results in a Stark splitting of the free ion {2S+1} L J
terms. This interaction can be treated as a perturbation of
the free ion levels. The crystal field splitting and the re-
maining degeneracy depend on the symmetry of the local
crystal field. Lower symmetries increase the number of
split levels. However, according to Kramers theorem an
odd number of electrons always yields at least twofold
degeneracy. The Stark splitting is typically in the energy
range of several 100 cm−1 . The ground state of a special
4fn configuration (the number of 4f electrons n = 1–14)
Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 615
can be determined according to Hund’s rule. Fig. 11.29
shows the 4fn energy levels of rare-earth ions (Dieke
diagram [11.37]).
Electric dipole transitions within the 4f-shell are par-
ity forbidden in the free ion. When doped in a solid,
acentric perturbations of the crystal field can however
create admixtures of wave functions with opposite parity
Part C 11.2
(for instance 4fn−1 5d1 states) yielding so-called forced
electric dipole transitions. Due to the screening of the
outer filled 5s2 and 5p6 orbitals, the crystal field per-
turbation is small and electron–phonon coupling is very
weak. So, for rare-earth ions at acentric sites one ob-
serves electric-dipole zero-phonon transitions with very
weak vibronic sidebands. When doping occurs at cen-
tric sites, parity remains a good quantum number and all
4f–4f transitions remain electric dipole forbidden. The
magnetic-dipole emission cross sections are then very
small and are not useful for laser applications.
Further selection rules for electric dipole transitions
between 4fn states are:
• ∆J ≤ 6; ∆S = 0, ∆L ≤ 6 (Russel–Saunders approx-
imation)
• J = 0 ⇔ J = 0 is forbidden.
3d–3d transitions in transition-metal ions. The 3d
electrons of transition-metal ions are not shielded and
experience a strong perturbation from the crystal field
of the surrounding ligand ions. Therefore, the energy-
level scheme and also the spectroscopic characteristics
of a transition metal ion depend strongly on the strength
and the symmetry of the crystalline field originating
from the surrounding ions. The energy-level schemes
of the transition-metal ions in crystalline hosts are de-
scribed by so-called Tanabe–Sugano diagrams [11.38].
trons within the 3d electron shell. In these diagrams the
energy levels of the transition-metal ion are presented as
a function of the crystal field strength (for some exam-
ples, see Sect. 11.2.3). For detailed reading appropriate
literature can be found in [11.36, 39–42].
Due to the strong interaction with the surrounding
ions of the lattice, transition-metal ions mostly exhibit
broadband emission because of the electron–phonon
coupling between the electronic 3d levels and lattice
vibrations. As in the case of 4f–4f transitions, only
acentric perturbations can induce electric dipole transi-
tions. Generally the spectra consist of a purely electronic
zero-phonon line with vibronic sidebands. In contrast
to the situation in rare-earth ions, transition-metal ions
at centric sites may also have reasonable transition
 616 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

Energy E (103 cm–1)

1S 6D 1S
40 0
U
7
9
2
2
U
T
38 3P
2
6I 1I
4G 3P 6
9
Part C 11.2

Z T 1
36 C 7
2 Y
2

O 2D 3P
N 5D 5 P 0
M 4 2
X S

34 R
6P L W 3L
R 7
2
3 V 3M 8 2K
Q 2 U
T Q 10 Q 13
P B 5 K 2
2
32 O
A 7
2 2P
S P 3
L J 2
R
N Q
30 M
P P
I O
H 5G
4D 3
1 2G
2 G 2 7
K 5D N
28 L 3
2
P
J
I 4
F
E
2
M N
3H
6 O
N
2
2 K 15 1D
M 9/2 2 2
U O 5 G'
H D
L 5 M
5L 4G
2P G C 10 3K 11
T N L
26 K 3
2
S
F B 5D
3
K
J
L
K
7 2
M 5G
E 4 2H
L I 9
R 5D 2
2D K D 3 K
24 5
2 Q
P I 4G
J 5
2P 11
I 1 H 2
2O 4F
3P H 5F 3
4I I 2
1
22 1I
2
4G
11 M
N G G 15
2
I
3K
6 H 5
2
F C 2 8 1G
6 2 4F H
1 G 3/2 9 9 G 4
2 E 5D F 2 2 4F
P D F 7
0 4G A 4 3 G 2
20 2G
3
2
L
K
C 7
2 2H
F 11
7 4F 2
E 2 5 S 1 F
S 2 4 4S
E E 3
4G 5S
18 2G
7
I
A 5
2
2 2

2 5 H
1D D 2 A 0
2 G
2H
11 5F
16 C
2
F 5 5F
5 4F
D 9
4F D 3F
2 2
B 9
2E 4
4S D 5S 6F 3
14 3
2
2 1
2
A 7 C 3
3 5I
2H
9 2 E 2 C 4
2 4
S 5 B 2 5
2
1
9 4
2A 1 B 2
D
12 3
R 2 7
2 B 5
6F C
O 11 6H 2F
1G 2 5 A 11
10 4
B
9
2 2 5
2
9 2 7
P 2 A 2 3H
A 6
5
11
8 R
5
5
2
W
2
9
2
3F 2 6H
R
4 4I V 8 S 15 13
2 Y 2
3 15 T 3
2 7F
6 2
U 1
2 0 X
11
2
4
7F 1
2 13 2 Y 7
3H W 7 V 2 6
6 13 3
4 2
W 11
2
5
13
X 6 4 Y 2
4
7 X 9
2 5 11 2
2 2
Y 5
3
5

Y 7
2 2

Z 1
0 Z Z Z Z

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
F5/2 H4 I9/2 I4 H5/2 F0 S7/2 F6 H15/2 I8 I15/2 H6 F7/2
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Ce3+ Pr 3+ Nd3+ Pm3+ Sm3+ Eu3+ Gd3+ Tb3+ Dy3+ Ho3+ Er3+ Tm3+ Yb3+

Fig. 11.29 Energy level diagrams of trivalent rare earth ions of RE3+ in LaCl3 (“Dieke-diagram”) [11.37]

probabilities due to dynamical admixtures of wave func-
tions with different parity by acentric phonons. On the
other hand, strong electron–phonon coupling can yield
higher temperature-dependent nonradiative decay rates
compared to 4f–4f transitions. The main interest in
transition-metal ions is based on their broad tunability.
Interconfigurational 4f–5d transitions in rare-earth
ions. Typically 4f↔5d interconfigurational transitions
of rare-earth ions are located in the ultraviolet spec-
tral range. In some cases 4f↔5d transitions are also
observed in the visible spectral region. In contrast to
3d↔3d and 4f↔4f transitions, 4f↔5d transitions are
electric-dipole allowed, because they obey the parity
selection rule. Thus high transition probabilities and
hence large absorption and emission cross sections
(≈ 10−18 –10−17 cm2 ) are observed.
Similar to 3d↔3d transitions strong electron–
phonon coupling yields broad absorption and emission
spectra with spectral half-widths of more than
1000 cm−1 . Therefore 4f↔5d interconfigurational tran-
sitions are in principle suitable for the generation of
tunable laser oscillation.
However, the difficulty in finding suitable pump
sources and often also excited-state absorption processes
are major drawbacks with respect to the realization of
5d–4f lasers.
Basic Spectroscopic Properties
and Laser Parameters
Ground-state absorption. The ground-state absorption
of an ion is characterized by the absorption coefficient
α and the ground-state absorption cross section σGSA .
These values are derived using the Lambert–Beer law:
−n ion σ
GSA (λ)d ,
I (λ) = I0 (λ) e−α(λ)d = I0 (λ) e
(11.73)
where I(λ) is the intensity transmitted through the crys-
tal at wavelength λ, I0 (λ) is the intensity in front of the
crystal, n ion is the ion concentration, α(λ) is the absorp-
tion coefficient, σGSA (λ) is the absorption cross section,
and d is the crystal thickness.
The ground-state absorption spectrum contains in-
formation about the energy-level structure of the ion,
the cross sections σGSA (λ) and the oscillator strengths
of the observed transitions. Note, that the calculation
of cross sections needs a second independent measure-
ment of the ion concentration, which is usually done by
X-ray microprobe analysis. The relation between the ab-
sorption coefficient and the transition-matrix elements
can be derived using Fermi’s golden rule [11.36]. The
Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 617
energy-level structure of transition-metal ions is theo-
retically described by the ligand field theory and the
angular overlap model (AOM), see for instance [11.43].
Spontaneous emission and emission cross section.
The spontaneous emission is characterized by the Ein-
stein coefficient A. In an emission measurement, the
Part C 11.2
photon flux (the number of photons per area per time)
is usually measured. The normalization process with
respect to the instrument response function can be per-
formed either with respect to photon flux or to the
spectral intensity distribution Iλ (λ) (energy per area per
time). The relation between the spectral intensity dis-
−1
tribution Iλ (λ), the Einstein coefficient A (A = τrad )
and the emission cross section σem (λ) is given by the
Füchtbauer–Ladenburg equation [11.44]:
λ5 Iλ (λ)A
σem (λ) =  , (11.74)
8πn 2 c Iλ (λ)λ dλ
where n is the refractive index and c is the speed of light.
The emission cross sections can also be calculated
from the absorption cross sections by the reciprocity
method


Zl E zl − hc/λ
σem (λ) = σGSA (λ) exp ,
Zu kT
(11.75)
where Z l and Z u are the partition functions of the lower
and upper energy levels, E zl is the energy of the zero-
phonon line of the corresponding transition, k is the
Boltzmann constant, and T is the temperature.
For Gaussian band shapes, which are often observed
for emission spectra of transition-metal ions, the Mc-
Cumber formula can be used for the determination of
the peak emission cross section [11.45, 46]

ln 2 A λ40
σem = , (11.76)
π 4πcn 2 ∆λ
where λ0 is the peak emission wavelength and ∆λ is the
full width at half-maximum (FWHM).
Excitation spectra. The excitation spectra allow the de-
termination of those absorption transitions, which yield
a specific emission. These measurements are interesting
in the case of different absorbing and emitting centers
and also for finding energy transfer channels between
different optical active centers.
Emission lifetime. The decay time of the metastable
level of an ion in a crystal is usually measured after
excitation with a short pulse. The measured decay rate
 618 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources
(measured as the number of transitions per unit time)
is the sum of radiative and nonradiative decay rates. In
general, the nonradiative decay of an ion can consist of
intra-ionic multiphonon processes and intra-ionic nonra-
diative transfer processes (for details of energy transfer
processes see [11.36]). The equation for the decay is
1 1 1 1
Part C 11.2
= A+ = + or
τ τnr τr τnr
W = A + Wnr = Wr + Wnr , (11.77)
where τ, τr , and τnr are the total, radiative, and nonra-
diative decay times, respectively, and W, Wr , and Wnr
are the total, radiative, and nonradiative decay rates,
respectively.
The determination of the Einstein coefficient A is not
an easy task, because in a simple decay measurement
the combined lifetime is always measured. An addi-
tional measurement of the emission quantum efficiency
ηQE would allow the determination of the radiative and
nonradiative decay rate
τ Wr Wr
ηQE = = = ηp σse (λl ) τ
τr W Wr + Wnr
τ τr τ
⇒ τr = and τnr = . (11.78)
ηQE τr − τ
However, a direct measurement of the quantum effi-
ciency is difficult and usually contains a high error.
Another approach is the indirect determination of
the quantum efficiency by analysis of the temperature
dependence of the emission lifetime. The two most com-
monly used models are the simple Mott model of the
activation energy [11.47] and the more-sophisticated
model of Struck and Fonger [11.48] using the so-
called single-configurational-coordinate model, which
describes in a simplified way the interaction between
the electronic center and the vibrating crystalline envi-
ronment.
Excited-state absorption (ESA). Measurements of the
excited-state absorption (ESA) spectrum give further
insight into the energy-level structure of an ion. In
the ground state absorption measurements spin-allowed
transitions are mainly observed and often spin-flip tran-
sitions are hidden under these absorption bands. Thus
the determination of the energy of these spin-flip transi-
tions is often not possible. If the metastable level of the
ion has a different spin to the ground state (e.g., Cr3+
in strong crystal fields, Mn5+ , Fe6+ ), the ESA spec-
trum reveals the energetic positions of these states with
different spin. By using these data the crystal field pa-
rameters can be determined with higher accuracy. The
knowledge of ESA processes is also very useful for
the determination of their influence on the efficiency of
a laser material. ESA may also inhibit gain and hence
laser action.
The laser aspect. In this section only the case of steady-
state conditions for laser oscillation will be discussed.
For more details and for the case of pulsed excitation,
see e.g. [11.49–52].
The efficiency of a laser system can be described
by the laser threshold Pthr and the slope efficiency
η = dPout / dPabs , where Pout and Pabs are the laser out-
put power and the absorbed pump power, respectively.
Under the assumptions of only one metastable level (i. e.,
the upper laser level), ideal overlap between pump beam
and resonator mode, homogeneous pump profile, low
mirror transmission and low passive losses as well as the
absence of excited-state absorption, the following equa-
tions hold for continuous-wave operation [11.49, 50]
hνp
Pthr =
  V
× T + L + 2dσGSA (λl ) (n ion − n thr )
2d
(3-level system) , (11.79)
hνp V
Pthr = (T + L)
ηp σse (λl ) τ 2d
(4-level system) , (11.80)
λp T
η = ηp , (11.81)
λl T + L
where hνp is the energy of pump photon, ηp is the
pumping efficiency, i. e., the fraction of absorbed pump
photons that are converted into excited ions in the upper
laser level, σse is the stimulated emission cross section,
τ is the lifetime of the upper laser level, T is the mir-
ror transmission, L is the passive losses, d is the length
of the laser crystal, σgsa is the ground-state absorption
cross section, n is the concentration of laser ions, n thr
is the threshold inversion density, λp is the pump wave-
length, λl is the laser wavelength, and V is the pump
volume.
In the following, several factors affecting the pump
power threshold and the slope efficiency will be dis-
cussed.
Influence of the emission quantum efficiency ηQE .
A quantum efficiency less than unity leads to lifetime
shortening and therefore to an increase in the laser
threshold, as can be seen from (11.79) and (11.80) after
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 619

replacing τ by ηqe τr level according to

   
hνp n 1 σESA λp
Pthr = (11.82) ηp = ηp,0 1−     ,
ηp σse (λl ) ηqe τr n 1 σESA λp + (n ion − n 1 ) σgsa λp
 
× T + L + 2dσgsa (λl ) (n ion − n thr ) (11.87)
V 1 where ηp,0 is the pumping efficiency without ESA, n ion is
× ∝ , (3-level) (11.83) the concentration of active ions, and n 1 is the population
2d ηqe

Part C 11.2
hνp V 1 density in the upper laser level. Therefore the pump
Pthr = (T + L) ∝ (4-level) . threshold is increased and the laser slope efficiency is
ηp ηqe σse τr 2d ηqe reduced according to (11.79, 80, 81).
(11.84) ESA on the laser wavelength also affects the laser
The quantum efficiency does not influence the slope threshold and the slope efficiency. The stimulated emis-
efficiency directly (11.81). However in practice a cor- sion cross section σse (λl ) in (11.79) and (11.80) is
responding, significant contribution of nonradiative replaced by σEFF (λl ) = σse (λl ) − σESA (λl ) and (11.81)
transitions increases the temperature in the pump vol- has to be extended [11.54]
ume and usually leads to a lower slope efficiency due λp σse (λl ) − σESA (λl ) T σEFF
η = ηp ∝ .
to further lifetime reduction and other problems such as λl σse (λl ) T +L σse
thermal lensing. (11.88)
If σESA (λl ) > σse (λl ) laser oscillation is not possi-
Influence of passive losses L. Passive losses in a laser ble.
system are due to imperfect optical components in the
laser resonator. This can be due to, e.g., stray centers 11.2.2 UV and Visible Rare-Earth Ion Lasers
and residual absorptions. Passive losses influence both
the threshold and the slope efficiency (11.79, 80, 81). In Lasers based on 5d ↔ 4f transitions of trivalent
a four-level system, the passive losses can be determined and divalent rare-earth ions
by the Findlay–Clay method [11.53]. For such an anal- In this section an overview of lasers oscillating in the
ysis, the laser threshold is measured as a function of ultraviolet and visible spectral range based on transi-
the output mirror transmission. The following equation tions of rare-earth ions is given. The first part deals with
holds: laser and possible laser systems based on interconfigu-
hνp V hνp V rational transitions, i. e., 4fn−1 5d → 4fn . In the second
Pthr = T+ L = mT + b , part, visible and UV lasers based on intraconfigurational
ηp σse τ 2d ηp σse τ 2d
(4fn →4fn ) transitions will be discussed. Both parts deal
(11.85)
with crystals as host materials. Finally, in the third part
hν an overview of fiber lasers in the visible spectral range
with slope m = ηp σsep τ 2d
V
and axis parameter b = m L.
is given.
From a linear fit to Pthr = Pthr (T ) both m and b are The 4f↔5d interconfigurational transitions of some
determined and thus the value of the passive losses L. divalent (RE2+ ) and trivalent (RE3+ ) rare-earth ions
An alternative way to determine the passive losses is to are located in the visible and ultraviolet spectral
rewrite (11.81) for a so-called Caird plot [11.54]: range. They are in principle suitable for the realiza-
1 λ L λ 1 tion of (tunable) laser oscillation. The transitions are
= + = m + b , (11.86) electric-dipole allowed and have high transition proba-
η ηp λp T ηp λp T
bilities and large absorption and emission cross sections
with slope m = ηpλλp L = b L. From a linear fit to η1 = of the order of 10−17 to 10−18 cm2 . Due to their

strong electron–phonon coupling, the observed absorp-
1 1
η T both m and b can be determined and thus the tion and emission transitions are broad (> 1000 cm−1 ).
value of the passive losses L. Difficulties with respect to laser operation are the non-
availability of efficient and simple excitation sources
Influence of excited-state absorption. ESA at the and the high probability of excited-state absorption and
pump wavelength reduces the number of pump pho- solarization (photoionization), e.g., Ce3+ :LiCaAlF6 and
tons converted into excited ions in the metastable laser Ce3+ :LiSrAlF6 depicted in Fig. 11.30.
620 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

degenerated 2 T2 state and of a twofold orbital degener-

Conduction band of host ated 2 E level, from which the 2 T2 (2 E) state is at lower
energy in octahedral (cubic) symmetry. In Fig. 11.31 the
room-temperature absorption and emission spectrum of
óesa â ósol Ce3+ :LiYF4 is shown. In general, in the absorption spec-
3+ trum two to five broad bands are expected, depending
Ce
t2g (5d1) Impurity on the crystal field symmetry. In emission two bands
Part C 11.2

trap corresponding to the 5d→ 2 F5/2 and 5d→ 2 F7/2 tran-

óem
óabs
28 ns 0.3 s
Ce 3+
2
F5/2 (4f1)
Valence band of host
Fig. 11.30 Scheme of the energy levels in Ce3+ -doped
LiCaAlF6 and LiSrAlF6 , where sABS , sEM , sESA , and sSOL ,
are the absorption, emission, ESA, and solarization cross
sections, respectively. From [11.55]
In the following the trivalent and divalent rare-
earth ions exhibiting short-wavelength emission will
be briefly discussed together with a summary of the
obtained laser results.
Ce3+ Lasers. The Ce3+ 4f1 ground-state configura-
tion splits into the 2 F5/2 ground state and the 2 F7/2
excited-state multiplet with an energy separation of ≈
2000 cm−1 . The 5d excited configuration consists in an
ideal octahedral or cubic symmetry of a threefold orbital
sitions with an energetic separation of approximately
2000 cm−1 are observed. The high cross sections of
the electric-dipole- and spin-allowed 4f1 ↔5d1 transi-
tions correspond to an emission lifetime in the ns range.
Ce3+ -doped materials were therefore thoroughly inves-
tigated for application as tunable solid-state lasers and
scintillators, see e.g., the overview articles by Coutts
et al. [11.57] and Dorenbos [11.58]. Laser oscillation
was thus far achieved in YLiF4 [11.56], LuLiF4 [11.59],
LiCaAlF6 [11.60], LiSrAlF6 [11.55, 61], LaF3 [11.62],
and BaY2 F8 [11.63] crystals. The laser data are sum-
marized in Table 11.2. For Ce3+ -doped materials the
main obstacle with respect to laser oscillation is excited-
state absorption assigned to transitions to the conduction
band, e.g., as is the case for Ce3+ :YAG [11.64, 65]. For
Ce3+ -doped LiCaAlF6 and LiSrAlF6 the ESA transi-
tion leads to a solarization, i. e., impurity traps with
long lifetimes are populated (Fig. 11.30). With the help
of an anti-solarent pump, these traps are depleted and
higher efficiencies are obtained [11.66, 67].
Pr3+ (4f 2 ). The energy-level scheme of Pr3+ is shown
schematically in Fig. 11.32. Pr3+ has a 4f2 ground-state

Absorbance Fluorescence (arb.units) Output energy (mJ)

3 0.3

2.5 0.25
5d

2 0.2
Fluorescence Slope 47 %
1.5 0.15
} 4f

1 Absorption 0.1

0.5 0.05

0 0
200 250 300 350 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Wavelength (nm) Absorbed input energy (mJ)

Fig. 11.31 Left: Absorption (solid line) and emission (dotted line) spectra of Ce3+ :LiYF4 . The inset shows the schematic
energy level diagram. From [11.56]. Right: Input-output characteristic of a 2% Ce3+ , 2% Na:LiSrAlF6
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 621

Table 11.2 Overview of lasers based on the 5d→4f transitions of trivalent and divalent rare-earth ions (CVL: copper vapor laser,
RS: Raman-shifted)
Laser material λlas (nm) Eout , Pout ηsl Tuning range (nm) Pump source Ref.
Ce3+ :LiYF4 325.5 KrF, 249 nm [11.56]
Ce3+ :LiLuF4 309 27 mJ 17% 307.8– 311.7 & 323.5– 326.5 KrF, 249 nm [11.75]
2.1 mJ 55% 307.6– 313.5 & 324 –328.5 Ce:LiSAF, 290 nm [11.76, 77]
309 77 µJ 309.5– 312.3 & 324.5– 327.7 Nd:YAG, 5ω(213 nm) [11.78]

Part C 11.2
309.5 300 mW 38% 305.5– 316 & 323–331 CVL, 2ω(289 nm), 7 kHz [11.79]
309 67 mW 62% RS Nd:YAG, 4ω(289 nm), [11.80]
10 kHz
Ce3+ :LiCaAlF6 290 21% Nd:YAG, 4ω(266 nm) [11.55]
289 60 mJ 26% Nd:YAG, 4ω(266 nm) [11.81]
289 30 mJ 39% 284–294 Nd:YAG, 4ω(266 nm) [11.82]
289 550 mW 27% 280–311 Nd:YAG, 4ω(266 nm), 1 kHz [11.83]
288.5 530 mW 32% 280.5– 316 2ω CVL, 271 nm, 7 kHz [11.79]
289 0.53 µJ 31% 283–314 Nd:YVO4 , 4ω(266 nm), 1 kHz [11.84]
289 230 µJ 49% 280–317 Nd:YLiF4 , 4ω(263.3 nm), [11.85]
0.1–4.3 kHz
Ce3+ :LiSrAlF6 290 29% Nd:YAG, 4ω(266 nm) [11.55]
290 47% Nd:YAG, 4ω(266 nm) [11.66]
+ 2ω(532 nm)
281–315 nm Nd:YAG, 4ω(266 nm) [11.86]
Ce3+ :LaF3 286 ≈ 5 µJ KrF, 249 nm [11.62]
Ce3+ :BaY2 F8 345 XeCl, 308 nm [11.63]
Nd3+ :LaF3 172 Kr, 146 nm [11.87, 88]
F2 Laser, 157 nm [11.89, 90]
Sm2+ :CaF2 708.5 708.5–745 nm (20–210 K) Xe flash lamp [11.91, 92]
(20 K)

configuration. In this configuration 91 energy levels
exist, distributed over 11 manifolds, from which the
3 H level is the ground state and 1 S is the highest
4 0
level at approximately 46 500 cm−1 . In the 4f1 5d1 con-
figuration, 140 energy levels exist. Depending on the
crystal field strength and splitting, either the lowest
4f1 5d1 level or the 1 S0 state is lower in energy. Thus
after UV excitation, emission occurs either from the
4f1 5d1 level as a 4f1 5d1 →4f2 transition or from the 1 S0
level as a 4f2 →4f2 transition. In any case, the emis-
sion spectrum consists of several bands, because several
4f2 terminal levels exist. Spectroscopic investigations
of the 4f↔5d transitions have so far been carried out
for a number of materials, e.g., Y3 Al5 O12 [11.68, 69],
YAlO3 [11.68, 70, 71], CaF2 , LiYF4 [11.71–73], and
K5 PrLi2 F10 [11.71]. Thus far laser oscillation based
on the 4f1 5d1 →4f2 or on the 1 S0 →4f2 emission of
Pr3+ has not achieved. The main reason seems to be
excited-state absorption into the conduction band, e.g.,
for YLiF4 [11.73], and into higher-lying 4f1 5d1 levels,
e.g., for Y3 Al5 O12 [11.74].
Other RE3+ ions. The lowest 4fn−1 5d1 energy levels for
ions from Nd3+ to Yb3+ are at even higher energies
and therefore in the vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) spec-
tral region. Thus the corresponding transitions are not
easy to access spectroscopically. A systematic study and
detailed analysis of the VUV spectroscopy of trivalent
rare-earth ions were performed by Wegh et al. [11.93].
The exploitation of these VUV transitions for laser os-
cillation still requires much experimental efforts. Laser
oscillation on a 5d→4f transition besides for Ce3+ has
thus far only been realized with Nd3+ :LaF3 at 172 nm
with a Kr2 laser at 146 nm as the pump source [11.87].
Divalent rare-earth ions. Rare-earth ions have a strong
tendency to be incorporated into crystals in the trivalent
state. In order to obtain the divalent state, the RE3+ ion
needs to be reduced. Eu2+ , Yb2+ , Sm2+ and, with some
limitations, Tm2+ can already be obtained in significant
amounts during crystal growth by using suitable lattices
containing divalent cation sites, appropriate codopants,
and a reducing growth atmosphere. The other RE2+ ions
 622 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

a) E (×1000 cm–1) b) E (×1000 cm–1)

Pr3+: LiYF4 Pr3+: YF3

90 90

80 80
Part C 11.2

70 70
t2g t2g
60 4f5d 60 4f5d
eg eg
50 50
1 1
S0 S0
Excitation
40 Excitation 40

30 30 Emission
1
Emission S 0 ® 1I 6
3
P2,1,0, 1I 6 3
P2,1,0, 1I 6
20 20
1
1
D2 D2
1
10 1
G4 10 G4
3
F4,3,2
3
F4,3,2 ×4
3 3
0 H6,5,4 0 H6,5,4

Fig. 11.32a,b Energy-level schemes of Pr3+ (a) Pr3+ :LiYF4 , E(4f 1 5d1 ) < E(1 S0 ), (b) Pr3+ :YF3 , E(4f 1 5d1 ) > E(1 S0 ).
(After [11.94])

are rather difficult to obtain in crystals; usually special
growth conditions as well as pre- and post-treatments
are necessary, e.g., the use of sealed Ta ampoules dur-
ing crystal growth, pre-synthesis of REF2 and RECl2 ,
electron-beam irradiation etc.
5d→4f transitions are expected to occur for systems
in which the 4fn−1 5d level is energetically located within
a large energy gap between 4fn multiplets. These ions
are Sm2+ , Eu2+ , Tm2+ , and Yb2+ .
Sm2+ (4f6 ). The 4f6 energy-level scheme of Sm2+ is
spectroscopically similar to that of Eu3+ (Fig. 11.29).
For most crystals, Sm2+ emission occurs as a 4f6 →4f6
transition from the metastable 5 D0 level, which is located
at about 15 000 cm−1 . In CaF2 , the lowest 4f5 5d1 level
is located just below the 5 D0 level and broadband emis-
sion occurs. Laser oscillation based on a 4f5 5d1 →4f6
transition was realized with Sm2+ :CaF2 [11.91,92]. The
Eu2+ (4f7 ). The 4f7 energy-level scheme of Eu2+ is
spectroscopically similar to that of Gd3+ (Fig. 11.29).
A large energy gap between the 8 S7/2 ground state and
the 6 P7/2 first excited state exists. Depending on the
crystal field strength, the lowest 4f6 5d1 energy level is
located above or below the 6 P7/2 level. Therefore, either
narrow line emission due to the 6 P7/2 → 8 S7/2 transi-
tion in the UV region or broadband emission due to the
4f6 5d1 → 8 S7/2 transition in the blue to yellow spectral
range occurs. Laser oscillation based on a 4f6 5d1 →4f7
transition of Eu2+ has not been realized thus far due to
excited-state absorption from the lowest 4f6 5d1 level to
the conduction band and to high-lying 4f7 levels [11.96].
Tm2+ (4f13 ). The 4f13 energy-level scheme of Tm2+ is
spectroscopically similar to that of Yb3+ (Fig. 11.29).
Laser oscillation of Tm2+ was realized in CaF2 on the
5/2 → F7/2 transition at 1116 nm at temperatures be-
2F 2

laser wavelength is 708.5 nm at 20 K and increases with
temperature to 745 nm at 210 K, which is the highest op-
eration temperature of the Sm2+ :CaF2 laser. This laser
is affected by excited-state absorption assigned to tran-
sitions to the conduction band and to high-lying 4f6
levels [11.95, 96].
low 27 K [11.97,98] (Table 11.9). Laser oscillation based
on the 4f12 5d1 → 4f13 transition has not been obtained
thus far. However, Tm2+ is an interesting candidate for
laser oscillation on a 4f12 5d1 → 4f13 transition, because
there are no high-lying 4f13 energy levels, which could
interfere with the 4f12 5d1 energy levels and thus act as
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 623

possible terminal levels for excited-state absorption tran-

sitions or quenching processes. The transition between E (103 cm–1)
the lowest 4f12 5d1 level and the ground state is parity » 720 nm
30 » 700 nm » 910 nm
allowed, but spin forbidden. Thus the emission cross » 640 nm » 470 nm
» 600 nm » 530 nm
sections are expected to be about one to two orders of » 540 nm » 880 nm
» 490 nm » 630 nm
magnitude smaller compared to, e.g., those of the 5d→4f 3
1
I6 P2
transitions of Ce3+ . The Tm2+ → Tm3+ conversion ob- 3 3
P1
20 P0

Part C 11.2
served under UV/VIS lamp excitation [11.98] indicates
the strong tendency of the Tm ion towards the triva- 1
D2
lent state and has to be considered as a possible major
drawback for laser applications.
10 1
G4
3
Yb2+ (4f14 ). The ground-state configuration of the Yb2+ F4 3
F4
ion is 4f14 . This completely filled shell leads to a 1 S0 3
H2 3
H6
ground state of the free ion and other 4f14 levels 3
H5
3
do not exist. In an octahedral crystal field, this state 0 H4
transforms like the 1 A1 irreducible representation. The
excited 4f13 5d1 configuration consists in total of 140 Fig. 11.33 Energy-level scheme of the Pr3+ ion. The ob-
energy levels. The 4f13 5d level splits in a highly sym- served laser transitions in the visible spectral range are
metric crystal field into a threefold degenerated T2 indicated by arrows
and a twofold degenerated E level. The 4f13 elec-
trons can be considered as a Yb3+ -ion configuration ions. Laser oscillation has been realized under flashlamp
with the two manifolds 2 F7/2 and 2 F5/2 separated by pumping, direct laser pumping into the upper laser level
about ∆E 4 f ≈ 10 000 cm−1 . The spin of the 5d elec- or higher-lying energy levels and under upconversion
tron can either be parallel or antiparallel to that of pumping.
the 4f13 core, thus the whole energy-level scheme
exists for singlet and for triplet states, from which, Pr3+ lasers. The Pr3+ ion is a very interesting and
according to Hunds’ rule, the triplet states are ener- promising ion for obtaining efficient visible laser os-
getically lower. Note furthermore that for the Yb2+ cillation. Its energy-level scheme is shown in Fig. 11.33.
free ion the 6s level is energetically lower than the
5d level. Therefore it might be the case that in
some materials the 4f13 6s level is also the lowest óem (10–19 cm2)
excited state. This would lead to a parity- and spin- 4
E II a 3
forbidden transition requiring ∆L = 3 and ∆S = 1. The P 0 ® 3H 6
3
emission spectra of Yb2+ -doped materials consists of 2 P 0 ® 3F 4
a broad band (≈ 6000 cm−1 ) with the peak emission
3 3
P0 ® H 4 3
3 3
P0 ® F 2 3 3
P0 ® F 3
P 0 ® 3H 5
wavelength strongly dependent on the host material
0
(λpeak ≈ 390–575 nm) [11.99–103]. Laser oscillation E II b
has not been obtained thus far. The main reason is 5
3
P 1 ® 3H 4
excited-state absorption. In Yb2+ :MgF2 strong ESA 3
P 1 ® 3F 2
3
P 1 ® 3F 4
3 3 3 3
transitions in the whole spectral range of absorption P1 ® H 5 P1 ® H 6 3
P 1 ® 3F 3
and emission are observed, preventing laser oscillation. 0
The ESA cross section is about one order of magnitude E II c
larger than the absorption cross section and three orders 5
of magnitude larger than the stimulated emission cross
section [11.102, 103].
0
Lasers based on 4f ↔ 4f transitions of trivalent 500 550 600 650 700 750
Wavelength ë (nm)
and divalent rare-earth ions
This section deals with UV and visible lasers based on Fig. 11.34 Emission spectra of Pr3+ :BaY2 F8 at room temperature
the 4f↔4f transitions of trivalent and divalent rare-earth for different polarizations
 624 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

Laser transitions in the visible spectral range occur from
the 3 P0 and the thermally populated 3 P1 and 3 P2 levels.
In Fig. 11.34 the emission spectrum of the Pr3+ :BaY2 F8
as an example is shown. The peak cross sections are in
the range of ≈ 1 to 5 × 10−19 cm2 and thus comparable
to the values of the Nd3+ 4 F3/2 → 4 I11/2 transition. The
highest cross sections are in the orange and red spectral
Part C 11.2
characterization of a Pr3+ -doped laser material. For
Pr3+ :LiYF4 , laser oscillation on several transitions
has been obtained with slope efficiencies up to
≈ 26% and output powers up to ≈ 270 mW [11.106]
(Fig. 11.36). However, the wavelength match be-
tween the Ar+ pump and Pr3+ absorption is bad
(Fig. 11.35). Furthermore Ar+ -ion laser pumping

range, therefore the most efficient lasers are expected itself is very inefficient, therefore the overall ef-
there. The first Pr3+ laser (λ = 1047 nm) was realized ficiency of a gas-laser-pumped Pr3+ laser is very
in CaWO4 as early as 1962 by Yariv et al. [11.104]. low.
Since then, laser oscillation has been obtained in more 2. Pumping with a frequency-doubled Nd3+ laser op-
than 20 materials on several transitions and under differ- erating on the 4 F3/2 → 4 I9/2 ground-state transition.
ent pumping conditions, see e.g., the review article by These ground-state lasers operate, depending on the
Kaminskii [11.105]. The major drawback of Pr3+ lasers host material, between 910 nm and 960 nm, i. e.,
is their excitation; see the discussion in section on Pr3+ the frequency doubling yields wavelengths between
laser. 455 nm and 480 nm. A Pr3+ laser directly pumped by
a frequency-doubled Nd3+ :YAG ground-state laser
Directly pumped Pr3+ lasers. In Fig. 11.35 the absorp- operating at 473 nm has been successfully demon-
tion spectrum of Pr3+ :BaY2 F8 for the spectral range strated by Heumann et al. [11.107]. Pr3+ laser
between 420 nm and 500 nm is shown. Direct pumping oscillation occurred at 639.5 nm on the 3 P0 → 3 F2
of the 3 P0 upper laser level is possible for several wave- transition with an output power of nearly 100 mW
lengths in the blue spectral range corresponding to the and a slope efficiency of 12%. Also for frequency-
3 H → 3 P , 3 P , 3 P , and 1 I transitions. In principle doubled Nd3+ ground-state lasers the match between
4 2 1 0 6
the following pumping schemes for direct excitation are the pump and absorption wavelength is crucial.
possible:
Pout (mW)
1. Ar+ -ion laser pumping. Ar+ -ion lasers offer the 200
possibility of continuous-wave pumping with a high- ë = 522 nm
quality pump beam. Therefore it allows the 150 T = 3.7 %, ç = 14.5 %
T = 3.4 %, ç = 3.8 %
100 T < 0.1 %, ç = 0.8 %
óabs (10–19 cm2)
6 50
3+ 3+
Pr , Yb : BaY2F8
300K, E II c 3 0
H 4 ® 3P 0
5 300 ë = 639.5 nm
Ar+, Nd: YAG SHG
T = 0.7 %, ç = 25.9 %
4 200
T = 12.8 %, ç = 20.4 %
Laserdiode Ar+ Ar+ Ar+ Ar+ Ar+
100
3 3
H 4 ® 3P 2
0
2 ë = 907.4 nm
3
H 4 ® 3P 1, 1I 6 20 T = 2 %, ç = 7.3 %
1
10
0
420 440 460 480 500 0
Wavelength (nm) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Pabs (mW)
Fig. 11.35 Absorption cross section spectrum of Pr3+ ,
Yb3+ :BaY2 F8 at room temperature. The relevant transi- Fig. 11.36 Input–output diagram of the CW Pr3+ :LiYF4
tions are assigned. The possible pump laser wavelengths laser at different laser wavelengths pumped by an Ar+ -ion
are also shown laser at 457.9 nm. (After [11.106])

3. Frequency-doubled optically pumped semiconduc-
tor lasers (OPS). These lasers are commercially
available with powers up to 200 mW [11.108]. In
principle, the laser wavelength is adjustable (by
choosing the material parameters of the semiconduc-
tor) and can be tuned to match the absorption line
of the Pr3+ ion. Output powers of approximately
35 mW with slope efficiencies of approximately
30% have been obtained [11.109]. Furthermore,
Richter et al. used an OPS operating at 480 nm as
a direct pump source [11.110]. A slope efficiency
of 40% and a maximum output power of 75 mW
were obtained for Pr3+ :YLiF4 . For Pr3+ :BaY2 F8 ,
the corresponding data are 30% and 51 mW. It is
worth noting that intracavity frequency doubling
leads to continuous-wave UV radiation of about
19 mW for Pr3+ :YLiF4 and Pr3+ :BaY2 F8 . Due to
the multi-wavelength operation of Pr3+ lasers, UV
generation at 360 nm, 303 nm and even 261 nm
seems possible. These pump lasers are still expen-
sive; however power scalability of OPS lasers can be
expected making these pump sources very attractive
for Pr3+ .
4. Blue and UV GaN laser diodes. These diodes operate
thus far in the spectral region below 450 nm and with
output powers in the mW range. Recently, Richter
et al. obtained laser oscillation at room temperature
with Pr3+ :YLiF4 under pumping with a 442 nm GaN
laser diode [11.35]. The Pr3+ laser emits 1.8 mW
at 639.7 nm. The threshold pump power and slope
efficiency were 5.5 mW and 24%, respectively. If the
development of these diodes towards higher output
powers proceeds, laser diodes will certainly be one
of the best choices for the direct pumping of Pr3+
lasers.
5. Flashlamp pumping [11.111]. Under flashlamp exci-
tation only a small fraction of the emitted radiation
of the lamp can be used for the excitation of the
Pr3+ 3 P0 level, because of the narrow line width
of the Pr3+ absorption lines and of the small spec-
tral range of these lines. Output energies up to
87 mJ and slope efficiencies of 0.3% have been
obtained [11.111].
6. Dye-laser pumping. The pump laser wavelength is
tunable and thus can be adjusted to match the absorp-
tion lines of the Pr3+ ion. Therefore, the obtained
lasers exhibit a high efficiency. For Pr3+ :LiGdF4
lasers, oscillation on several wavelengths and tran-
sitions with slope efficiencies up to 37% have been
reported [11.112]. However, dye lasers are limited
in their practical use.
Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 625
Table 11.3 lists Pr3+ lasers operating in the visible
spectral range under direct excitation. In Table 11.4 an
overview of the room-temperature laser data for visible
Pr3+ lasers is given.
Upconversion pumped Pr3+ lasers. Because of the dif-
ficulties of direct excitation, other pumping schemes
Part C 11.2
using upconversion processes are under investigation
for Pr3+ lasers. Upconversion describes a process in
which the photon energy of the excitation light (pump
light) is converted via interaction with the active ions
inside the optical material into higher-energy pho-
tons [11.113–116]. For Pr3+ with its high-lying energy
levels upconversion is a suitable way to obtain visible
laser oscillation under infrared pumping. Especially the
photon-avalanche pumping scheme, which is a com-
bination of different upconversion and energy transfer
processes, has been efficiently exploited for the Pr,Yb
codoped system. For crystals the Ti:Al2 O3 laser is
mainly used as the excitation source, but investigations
are being performed on the use of commercially avail-
able laser diodes. In fibers, efficient laser operation has
already been achieved under laser-diode pumping (see
page 633, Visible fiber lasers).
The principle scheme of the photon-avalanche pro-
cess is shown in Fig. 11.37. A weak ground-state
absorption yields the excitation of a few ions into the
intermediate (reservoir) level. The strong ESA process
efficiently brings these ions to the emitting level. An
effective feedback mechanism for the reservoir level
(in our system a cross-relaxation process) is necessary,
which couples the emitting level, the reservoir level and
the ground-state level. After these two steps there are
two ions in the reservoir level. This cycle repeats and
thus the population of the emitting (upper laser) level
increases like an avalanche. If the threshold population
is reached, the laser oscillation on any transition from the
upper laser level may start. The general characteristics
are described in detail in [11.113, 114, 117–119]; here
only the main points are given for the example of Pr3+ ,
Yb3+ :BaY2 F8 [11.120, 121]. The pump-power depen-
dence of the emission intensity exhibits a threshold-like
behavior. At this threshold, the slope increases sig-
nificantly. A second characteristic of the avalanche
mechanism is the temporal S-shaped evolution of the
upconverted emission (Fig. 11.38).
The photon-avalanche process has already been ob-
served in a variety of materials, see e.g. [11.113, 114].
However, laser oscillation has only been obtained in
a few materials, see Table 11.5 for Pr3+ systems and
Table 11.6 for other rare-earth-ion-doped systems. The
626 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

Table 11.3 Pr3+ lasers in the visible spectral range under direct excitation (bold: laser oscillation on some transitions
obtained at room temperature)
Crystal Transition Wavelength (nm) Ref.
LiYF4 3 P →3 H 479.0 [11.35, 106, 107, 110, 111, 122–126]
0 4
3 P →3 H 522.0
1 5
3 P →3 H 537.8, 545.0
0 5
Part C 11.2

3 P →3 H 604.4, 607.2, 609.2, 613.0

0 6
3 P →3 F 615.8, 618, 620.1
1 2
3 P →3 F 638.8, 639.5, 644.4
0 2
3 P →3 F 670.3
1 3
3 P →3 F 695.4, 697.7, 705.5
0 3
3 P →3 F 699.4
1 4
1 I →3 F 708.2
6 4
3 P →3 F 719.5, 720.9, 722.2
0 4
LiLuF4 3 P →3 H 538 [11.127, 128]
0 5
3 P →3 H 604.2, 607.1
0 6
3 P →3 F 639.9, 640.1
0 2
3 P →3 F 695.8, 697.7
0 3
3 P →3 F 719.2, 721.5
0 4
LiGdF4 3 P →3 H 522 [11.106, 112]
1 5
3 P →3 H 545
0 5
3 P →3 H 604.5, 607
0 6
3 P →3 F 639
0 2
3 P →3 F 697
0 3
3 P →3 F 720
0 4
KYF4 3 P →3 F 642.5 [11.106, 112]
0 2
BaY2 F8 3 P →3 H 607.1 [11.110, 125, 129–131]
0 6
3 P →3 F 638.8
0 2
3 P →3 F 693.5–693.8
0 3
3 P →3 F 719.1
0 4
LaF3 3 P →3 H 598.5, 600.1 [11.132–135]
0 6
3 P →3 F 719.4, 719.8
0 4
PrF3 3 P →3 H 598.4 [11.136]
0 6
LaCl3 3 P →3 H 489.2 [11.137–139]
0 4
3 P →3 H 529.8
1 5
3 P →3 H 616.4, 619.0
0 6
3 P →3 F 645.1
0 2
PrCl3 3 P →3 H 489.2 [11.137, 140]
0 4
3 P →3 H 529.8, 531
1 5
3 P →3 H 617, 620, 622
0 6
3 P →3 F 645.2, 647
0 2
LaBr3 3 P →3 H 532.0 [11.140]
1 5
3 P →3 H 621.0
0 6
3 P →3 F 632.0
2 3
3 P →3 F 647.0
0 2
PrBr3 3 P →3 H 622 [11.137, 140]
0 6
3 P →3 F 645.1, 649
0 2
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 627

Table 11.3 (continued)

Crystal Transition Wavelength (nm) Ref.
Y3 Al5 O12 3 P →3 H 487.2 [11.141, 142]
0 4
3 P →3 H 616
0 6
3 P →3 F 747
0 4
YAlO3 3 P →3 H 613.9, 621.3, 621.6 [11.143–147]
0 6
3 P →3 F 662

Part C 11.2
0 2
3 P →3 F 719.5, 719.7, 722
0 3
3 P →3 F 746.9
0 4
1 D →3 F 743.7, 753.7
2 3
LuAlO3 3 P →3 H 615.5 [11.144, 145, 147]
0 6
3 P →3 F 722.0
0 3
3 P →3 F 749.6
0 4
SrLaGa3 O7 3 P →3 H 488 [11.148]
0 4
3 P →3 F 645
0 2
CaWO4 3 P →3 F 649.7 [11.149]
0 2
Ca(NbO3 )2 3 P →3 H 610.5 [11.149]
0 6
LiPrP4 O14 3 P →3 H 604.8, 608.5 [11.150]
0 6
3 P →3 F 639.6
0 2
3 P →3 F 720.4
0 4
LaP5 O14 3 P →3 F 637 [11.151]
0 2
3 P →3 F 717
0 4
PrP5 O14 3 P →3 F 637.4 [11.152–154]
0 2
LaP5 O14 3 P →3 F 637.0 [11.151]
0 2

Table 11.4 Overview of room temperature laser data of directly pumped Pr3+ lasers in the visible spectral range
Host Transition λlaser (nm) Pump Pthr /Ethr Pout /Eout η (%) Ref.
LiYF4 3P
1 →3 H5 522.0 457.9 nm 163 mW 144 mW 14.5 [11.106]
3P
0 →3 H5 545.0 CW, Ar+ -ion laser 19 mW
3P
0 →3 H6 607 110 mW 7 mW 1.2
3P
0 →3 F2 639.5 8 mW 266 mW 25.9
3P
0 →3 F3 697 105 mW 71 mW 10.3
3P
0 →3 F4 720 98 mW 40 mW 7.2
3P
0 →1 G4 907.4 280 mW 23 mW 7.3
LiYF4 3P
0 →3 F2 639.5 473 nm CW, SHG Nd:YAG 40 mW ≈ 100 mW 12 [11.107]
LiYF4 3P
0 →3 H6 613 476 nm CW, Ar+ − ionlaser 45 mW ≈ 400 fs (ML) [11.124]
LiYF4 3P
0 →3 F2 639.5 442 nm CW, GaN laser diode 5.5 mW ≈ 1.8 mW 24 [11.35]
LiYF4 3P
0 →3 F2 639.5 480 nm CW OPS 37 mW 72 mW 40 [11.110]
LiYF4 3P
0 →3 F2 639.5 Xe flashlamp (60 µs) ≈ 7J 87 mJ ≈ 0.3 [11.111]
LiGdF4 3P
1 →3 H5 522 468 nm 197 µJ 83 µJ 27 [11.112]
3P
0 →3 H5 545 pulsed dye laser 49 µJ 2 µJ
3P
0 →3 H6 604.5 144 µJ 32 µJ 37
3P
0 →3 H6 607 50 µJ 2 µJ
3P
0 →3 F2 639 4 µJ 98 µJ 32
3P
0 →3 F3 697 73 µJ 31 µJ 26
3P
0 →3 F4 720 6 µJ 80 µJ 35
KYF4 3P
0 →3 F2 642.5 457.9 nm CW, Ar+ -ion laser 15 mW [11.106]
KYF4 3P
0 →3 F2 642.5 465 nm pulsed dye laser [11.112]
YAlO3 3P
0 →3 F4 746.9 476.5 nm CW, Ar+ -ion laser 25 mW 130 mW 24.6 [11.146, 155]
628 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

obtained for the Pr3 , Yb3+ codoped system, a so-called

Energy
25 sensitized photon avalanche, in YLiF4 (YLF) [11.156–
Emitting 158] and BaY2 F8 (BYF) [11.121]. The principle scheme
20 level of the Pr-Yb system is shown in Fig. 11.39 [11.159–
ë pump CR 163]. The excitation around 840 nm corresponds to
15 a very weak ground-state absorption process (very
ESA probable into a phonon tail of the Yb3+ absorption), fol-
Part C 11.2

10 Reservoir lowed by energy transfer (process r in Fig. 11.39) from

level
5 process (1 G4 → (1 I6 , 3 P1 )), followed by fast phonon de-
GSA CR
Ground state
0 the emitting level). The cross-relaxation process s
level
Fig. 11.37 Scheme of the photon-avalanche process (GSA:
ground-state absorption, ESA: excited-state absorption,
CR: cross-relaxation)
reason is that there exist special requirements for an effi-
cient avalanche process; its efficiency depends strongly
on the transfer rates between the ions, the ground-
and excited-state absorption cross sections, the ionic
concentration, the emission branching ratios and the
lifetimes of the energy levels involved. In principle it
is possible to describe the photon-avalanche excitation
mechanism for Pr,Yb-doped systems with rate equation
systems [11.113, 114, 117, 118, 120]. However, due to
its complexity, it is not possible to predict the overall
efficiency solely from knowledge of the spectroscopic
parameters.
In Table 11.5 an overview of photon-avalanche
pumped Pr3+ laser systems is given. Room-temperature
avalanche-pumped laser oscillation in bulk crystals was
Yb3+ to Pr3+ (2 F5/2 , 3 H4 ) → (2 F7/2 , 1 G4 ). The ESA
excitation [(1 I6 , 3 P1 ) → 3 P0 ] feeds the 3 P0 level (i. e.,
(3 P0 , 2 F7/2 ) → (1 G4 , 2 F5/2 ) followed again by the trans-
fer process r re-feeds the reservoir level. In this way,
at each step, an increase of the population in the 1 G4
level is obtained and consequently a strong population
will be build up in the 3 P0 level (because of the strong
1 G → (1 I , 3 P ) ESA process). The upconverted emis-
4 6 1
sion excitation spectrum and the excited-state absorption
spectrum are shown in Fig. 11.40 indicating the good
match between these two spectra. The peak excited-
state absorption cross section of the 1 G4 → (1 I6 , 3 P1 )
transition is about 1.5 × 10−19 cm2 .
The laser input–output curves for Pr,Yb:YLF and
Pr,Yb:BYF under Ti:sapphire pumping are shown in
Fig. 11.41; the results are summarized in Table 11.5.
The realization of diode pumping using commercially
available infrared laser diodes is under investigation in
several research groups. However, at the moment ion-
doped fibers as materials for upconversion and avalanche
pumped lasers are more efficient, because they allow
waveguiding of both the pump and the laser beam.

ncalc (cm3) I (arb.units) I (arb.units)

1019
2 100
100
1018

10
1017 Slope 8

1
1016
Slope 2

1015 0.1
0 0
1000 0 3 6
P (mW) t (ms)
Fig. 11.38 Characteristics of the photon-avalanche excitation mechanisms. Left: pump-power dependence of the upcon-
verted emission intensity (experiment, open circles) and 3 P0 population (calculated, filled squares). Right: temporal
evolution of the upconverted emission intensity (solid line: experiment, squares: rate equation model). (After [11.120])
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 629

Table 11.5 Photon-avalanche pumped crystalline CW Pr3+ lasers in the visible spectral range (T : temperature, η: slope
efficiency)
Dopant ions Host λlaser (nm) Transition λpump (nm) T Output (mW) η (%) Ref.
Pr3+ LaCl3 644 3 P →3 F 677 80–210 K 240 25 [11.164]
0 2
Pr3+ / Yb3+ YLiF4 522 3 P →3 H 830 RT 143 7.5 [11.156–158]
1 5
639.5 3 P →3 F 830 276 15
0 2
720 3 P →3 F 830
0 3

Part C 11.2
Pr3+ /Yb3+ BaY2 F8 607.5 3 P →3 H 822, 841 RT 98 30 [11.121]
0 6
638.5 3 P →3 F 822, 841 60 15
0 2
720.5 3 P →3 F 822 45 16
0 3

Table 11.6 Other rare-earth-doped solid-state upconversion lasers; for details see the overview in [11.114, 116] (ETU: energy
transfer upconversion, STPA: sequential two-photon absorption, CT: cooperative transfer, PA: photon avalanche, CW: continuous
wave, p: pulsed, SP: self pulsed, QS: Q-switched, ML: mode-locked, IR-fl: infrared flashlamp, RT: room temperature). ∗ First
observation of laser oscillation based on an upconversion process [11.169]
Dopant ions Host λlaser (nm) λpump (nm) Pump T (K) Output η (%) Ref.
mechanism
Nd3+ LaF3 380 788 + 591 STPA ≤ 90 12 mW, CW 3 [11.165,
166]
Nd3+ LaF3 380 578 STPA ≤ 20 4 mW, CW 0.7 [11.165,
166]
Nd3+ LiYF4 730 603.6 PA ≤ 40 11 [11.165,
167]
Nd3+ LiYF4 413 603.6 PA ≤ 40 10 µW, CW 4.3 [11.165,
165, 167]
Ho3+ / Yb3+ KYF4 551 960 ETU 77 CW [11.168]
Ho3+ / Yb3+ BaY2 F8 551.5 IR-fl ETU 77 [11.169]∗
Tm3+ YLiF4 450.2, 453 781 + 647.9 STPA 77 - RT 0.2 mJ, p 1.3 [11.170]
(pulsed lasers)
Tm3+ YLiF4 450.2 784.5 + 648 STPA ≤ 70 9 mW, SP 2 [11.171,
172]
Tm3+ YLiF4 483 628 PA ≤ 160 30 mW 7.5 [11.171,
172]
Tm3+ YLiF4 483 647.9 PA ≤ 160 30 mW, SP 8 [11.171,
172]
Tm3+ Y3 Al5 O12 486 785 + 638 STPA ≤3 0.07 mW, SP 0.01 [11.173]
Tm3+ / Yb3+ BaY2 F8 455, 510, 649, 799 960 ETU RT [11.174]
Tm3+ / Yb3+ BaY2 F8 348 960 ETU 77 CW [11.175]
Tm3+ / Yb3+ BaY2 F8 348 960 ETU RT SP [11.175]
Tm3+ / Yb3+ BaY2 F8 649 1054 ETU RT 1 [11.176]
Tm3+ / Yb3+ YLiF4 810, 792 969 ETU RT 80 mW, CW [11.177]
Tm3+ / Yb3+ YLiF4 650 969 ETU RT 5 mW, CW 0.2 [11.177]

Table 11.7 Visible Er3+ lasers with direct pumping (p = pulsed operation)
Crystal Laser transition λlaser (µm) Pump T Output mode Ref.
3/2 → I15/2
Ba(Y, Er)2 F8 4S 4 0.5540 Xe lamp 77 p [11.178]
2H
9/2 → 4I
13/2 0.5617 Xe lamp 77 p [11.169, 178]
9/2 → I15/2
4F 4 0.6709 Xe lamp 77 p [11.178]
9/2 → I11/2
2H 4 0.7037 Xe lamp 77 p [11.178]
Ba(Y, Yb)2 F8 4F
9/2 →4I
15/2 0.6700 Xe lamp 77 p [11.169]
9/2 → I15/2
BaYb2 F8 4F 4 0.6700 Xe lamp 110 p [11.169, 179]
3/2 → I11/2
LiYF4 4S 4 0.551 Dye laser 300 p [11.180]
630 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

The energy-level schemes of Erbium-doped crystals

E (103 cm–1) such as LiYF4 and LiLuF4 [11.127, 128] offer the fea-
25 sibility of realizing an upconversion laser emitting in
3
P2 1 the green spectral region (4 S3/2 → 4 I15/2 transition). As
3 I 6 + 3P 1
P0 shown in Fig. 11.42 the upconversion excitation of the
1
upper laser level 4 S3/2 requires sequential two-photon
D2 absorption (STPA) either at 810 nm or 970 nm. With
Red emission
Part C 11.2

s ESA Green emission a pump wavelength of 810 nm, the ground-state absorp-
Blue emission tion (GSA) 4 I15/2 → 4 I9/2 is followed by nonradiative
2
F5/2
1
G4 decay to the 4 I11/2 level. From there, population is taken
3
3 F4 to the 4 F5/2 level by excited-state absorption (ESA).
F3
3
3
H6 F2 Finally, the 4 S3/2 level is populated by nonradiative
3 r r s GSA decay. With a pump wavelength around 970 nm, the up-
H5
0 3H 4 2
F7/2 conversion excitation scheme of the upper laser level
3+ 3+ is very similar, however, it involves the GSA process
Pr Yb
15/2 → I11/2 and the ESA process I11/2 → F7/2 .
4I 4 4 4
Fig. 11.39 Scheme of the avalanche mechanism in Yb–Pr-doped Using a Ti:sapphire laser for excitation, vari-
systems ous rare-earth-doped fluoride crystals have shown
room-temperature CW upconversion lasing in the vis-
ó ESA –ó GSA –óSE (10–19 cm2) Iexcite (arb. units)
ible spectral range, e.g., Er3+ :LiYF4 [11.181] and
2 Er3+ :LiLuF4 [11.182]. Diode pumping of a green er-
bium-doped upconversion laser in Er3+ :LiLuF4 [11.183]
3
and in the mixed fluoride crystal Er3+ :LiKYF5 [11.184]
1.5 Excitation has been demonstrated. In the latter case, however,
signal
2
laser operation could only be achieved under chopped
1 excitation with a duty cycle of 20%.
Table 11.8 presents an overview Er-based upcon-
1 version lasers in different crystals and at various
0.5 ESA
signal wavelengths.
Besides YAlO3 most of the interesting candidates
0 0 are fluorides, due to their relatively small phonon ener-
800 820 840 860 880
–1
E (cm ) gies and correlated long lifetimes of intermediate states.
Rare-earth-doped LiLuF4 exhibits a larger splitting of
Fig. 11.40 Upconverted emission excitation spectrum and the manifolds by the crystal field compared to LiYF4
excited-state absorption spectrum of Pr3+ , Yb3+ :BaY2 F8 . and LiGdF4 , which tends to produce more-favorable
(After [11.120]) thermal occupation factors of both the upper and lower
laser levels [11.185, 186]. A reasonable overlap be-
Therefore high pump intensities over a long distance tween GSA and ESA enables two-step excitation to the
are possible, increasing the overall efficiency of the 4S 3+ using just a single pump wave-
3/2 level of Er
avalanche pumping mechanism, see the section on visi- length. The emission cross section σem at 552 nm (π
ble fiber lasers in Sect. 11.2.2. polarization) is σem = 3.5 × 10−21 cm2 . This value as
well as the GSA cross sections around 970 nm are
Er3+ lasers. The problem for the realization of directly slightly larger than the corresponding cross sections in
pumped visible Er3+ lasers is the lack of efficient pump Er3+ (1%):LiYF
 4 4 . The lifetime
 τ of the upper laser level
3/2 τ( S3/2 ) = 400 µs is slightly longer in LiLuF4
sources that have a good spectral match to the ab- 4S

sorption lines of the Er3+ ion. Therefore most visible
Er3+ laser schemes have been realized by upconversion
pumping in the near-infrared spectral range, as shown
in Fig. 11.42. Table 11.7 summarizes a few results of di-
rect pumping of Er3+ obtained with Xe lamps and a dye
laser.
than in LiYF4 .
A multipass pumping setup has been used in order
to increase the absorbed pump power (Fig. 11.43). Both
end faces of the 1.6 mm-long Er3+ (1%):LiLuF4 crys-
tal have been prepared with directly coated dielectric
mirrors [11.183]. One of these mirrors is highly trans-
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 631

Output power (mW) Absorbed pump power (W) Pout (mW)

0 0.5 1 1.5 2
300 100
Pr (3 %), Yb (6 %): YLiF4 ë = 638.7 nm, T = 0.8 %
Pthr = 56 mW, ç = 15 %
250 ëlaser = 639.5 nm 80 ë = 607.5 nm, T = 6 %
ëlaser = 522 nm Pthr = 85 mW, ç = 31 %
200
ë = 720 nm, T = 2 %
60

Part C 11.2
Pthr = 161 mW, ç = 16 %
150
40
100

20
50

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 100 200 300 400 500
Incident pump power (W) Pabs (mW)

Fig. 11.41 Input–output curves of Pr,Yb:YLF [11.157, 158] (left) and Pr,Yb:BYF (right) under avalanche pumping with
a Ti:sapphire laser

mitting for the pump wavelength and highly reflecting
for the laser wavelength, while the other mirror is highly
transmitting for the laser wavelength and highly reflect-
ing for the pump wavelength (Fig. 11.43, coatings L
and P, respectively). An additional concave mirror with
a hole drilled slightly off axis is used to realize up to
four passes of the pump radiation through the active
volume of the laser crystal. The collimated pump beam
Energy (103 cm–1)
20
810 nm 970 nm
15
10
552 nm
5 lasers. Besides visible lasers based on 4f–4f transitions
810 nm 970 nm
0
Fig. 11.42 Energy-level scheme of Er3+ :LiLuF4 [11.127,
128] with two possible upconversion excitation routes of
sequential two-photon absorption (STPA) at 810 nm or
970 nm [11.182, 183] and emission at 552 nm
is focused through the mirror hole into the crystal. With
respect to single-pass pumping significant improvement
of the performance of the Er3+ :LiLuF4 upconversion
laser could be achieved under Ti:sapphire laser excita-
tion by using this setup. The maximum CW output power
was 213 mW at an incident pump power of 2.6 W. The
slope efficiencies with respect to incident and absorbed
pump power were 12% and 35%, respectively. When
replacing the Ti:sapphire laser by a 3 W diode, it was
possible to realize laser-diode-pumped CW operation of
this erbium-doped upconversion laser at room temper-
4
F5/2 ature for the first time [11.183]. The maximum output
4
F7/2 power was 8 mW at an incident pump power of 2.5 W.
2
H11/2 The absorbed power under four-pass pumping was small
4
S3/2 and estimated to be between 10% and 12%. The slope
efficiency with respect to the absorbed pump power was
4
F9/2 14%. Pumped with an optically pumped semiconductor
laser operating at 970 nm, continuous-wave laser oscil-
4
I9/2 lation at 550 nm with Er3+ :LiLuF4 has been achieved
4
I11/2 with an output power of 500 mW and a slope efficiency
of about 30% [11.127, 128, 182, 183].
4
I13/2 Other 4f–4f divalent and trivalent rare-earth ion
of Pr3+ and Er3+ several other lasers with 4f–4f tran-
sitions in the visible spectral region have been realized
4
I15/2 as shown in Table 11.6. When compared to Pr3+ and
Er3+ lasers, the laser performance of all listed systems
in Table 11.6 is worse. However, at least the upconver-
sion pumped Tm3+ and Ho3+ lasers seem to have some
potential for improvement of laser performance in the
visible spectral region.
 632 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

Table 11.8 Visible Er3+ lasers (ETU: energy transfer upconversion, STPA: sequential two-photon absorption, CT: cooperative
transfer, PA: photon avalanche, CW: continuous wave, p: pulsed, SP: self-pulsed, QS: Q-switched, ML: mode-locked, IR-fl:
infrared flashlamp, OPS: optically pumped semiconductor, RT: room temperature)
Host λlaser (nm) λpump (nm) Pump T (K) Output η (%) Ref.
mechanism
BaY2 F8 670 IR-fl ETU 77 [11.169]
Part C 11.2

YAlO3 550 792 + 840 STPA ≤ 77 0.8 mW, CW 0.2 [11.187]

YAlO3 550 785 + 840 STPA 34 8 mW, CW 1.8 [11.188, 189]
YAlO3 550 807 ETU 7 –63 166 mW, CW 13 [11.188]
YAlO3 550 791.3 STPA 7 –34 33 mW, CW 3.3 [11.188, 190]
+ looping
Y3 Al5 O12 561 647 + 810 STPA RT [11.191]
CaF2 855 1510 CT 77 64 mW, CW 18 [11.192]
LiYF4 551 797 or 791 (diode) STPA ≤ 90 0.2 [11.193–196]
LiYF4 551 791 (diode) ETU / STPA ≤ 90 0.1 mW, SP 0.03 [11.195]
LiYF4 551 802 (diode) ETU / STPA ≤ 77 2.3 mW, SP [11.197]
LiYF4 551 797 (diode) CT 48 100 mW, SP 5.5 [11.198]
LiYF4 702 1500 CT 10 360 µW, CW 0.06 [11.199]
LiYF4 551 810 STPA RT 40 mW, CW 1.4 [11.181]
LiYF4 551 974 STPA RT 45 mW, CW 2 [11.200, 201]
LiYF4 551 1500 ETU 80 10 mW, SP 2.9 [11.202]
LiYF4 561 1500 ETU 80 12 mW, SP 3.4 [11.202]
LiYF4 468 1500 ETU 80 0.7 mW, SP 0.2 [11.202]
LiYF4 561, 551, 544 797 ETU 49 467 mW, CW 11 [11.203]
LiYF4 551, 544 1550 CT 9 –95 34 mW, CW 8.5 [11.204, 205]
LiYF4 551, 544 1500 CT ≤ 95 0.6 µJ (50 ns), QS 2 mW, ML [11.206]
LiYF4 551 647 + 810 STPA RT 0.95 mJ, p 8.5 [11.191]
LiYF4 467 1550 CT 70 [11.116]
LiYF4 469.7 969.3 ETU ≤ 35 2 mW, CW 0.3 [11.207]
LiYF4 469.7 653.2 ETU ≤ 35 6 mW, CW 4.8 [11.207]
LiYF4 560.6 969.3 ETU ≤ 35 2 [11.207]
LiYF4 551 802 ETU ≤ 90 5 mW, SP 2 [11.165]
LiYF4 1230, 850 1530 ETU 110 [11.208]
LiLuF4 552 970 STPA RT 213 mW 35 [11.183]
968 (diode) 8 mW 14
LiLuF4 552 970 (OPS) STPA RT 500 mW (CW) 30 [11.209]
800 mW (DC: 50)
KYF4 562 647 + 810 STPA RT 0.95 mJ, p 0.5 [11.191]
LiKYF5 550 488 (Ar+ ) STPA RT 40 mW 18 [11.184]
651 (diode) 50 mW (DC: 20) 6
808 (diode) 150 mW (DC: 20) 12
BaYb2 F8 670 1540 + 1054 or 1054 ETU RT [11.210]
BaY2 F8 470, 554, 555 792.4 CT 10 [11.211]
BaY2 F8 552 792.4 CT 40 [11.211]
BaY2 F8 617, 669 792.4 CT 20 [11.211]
BaY2 F8 552, 470 ≈ 790 or ≈ 970 STPA 10 CW [11.212]
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 633

Blue upconversion laser emission in Tm-doped crys-

Crystal
tals can be achieved with STPA pumping. The energy
levels and upconversion pump mechanisms in Tm3+ are
illustrated in Fig. 11.44.
Figure 11.44a shows a pure STPA-pumped up- Ti:sapphire or
laser diode
conversion laser scheme, whereas in Fig. 11.44b, L P
Optical
upconversion pumping also requires an additional diode Lens Pump Output

Part C 11.2
cross-relaxation step between two Tm3+ ions. This mirror coupler
T = 4%
cross-relaxation process populates the intermediate 3 F4
state which is the starting level for the second step of the L: HR @ 552 nm, AR @ 970 nm
P: HR @ 970 nm, AR @ 552 nm
STPA process.
In sensitized upconversion lasers a donor ion D (the Fig. 11.43 Experimental setup for fourfold-pass pumping [11.183]
sensitizer) absorbs the pump light and transfers its exci- (HR: high reflection, AR: antireflection)
tation energy to an acceptor ion A. In many cases Yb3+
has been used as the donor D for trivalent rare-earth-ion tals, fluoride materials are preferred because of their
activators A. Through an upconversion energy transfer low phonon energies and generally larger bandgaps.
(ETU), two donor ions transfer their excitation energy The fiber material of choice is the fluorocirconate glass
successively to an acceptor. Finally the excitation en- ZBLAN (ZrF4 − BaF2 − LaF3 − AlF3 − NaF). Another
ergy of the donor is higher than the energy of an excited advantage of fibers compared to bulk crystals is that
Yb3+ ion. the transitions in glass are broadened and therefore the
Figure 11.45 shows a system with D = Yb3+ and possibility for resonant transitions or energy transfer is
A = Tm3+ . In this case a three-step STPA process is enhanced. An overview of visible fluoride fibers is given
also possible, yielding a variety of laser transitions in in [11.214].
the visible region. Nearly all rare-earth-ion-doped fluoride fiber lasers
Figure 11.46 illustrates the STPA and ETU upcon- can be pumped in the 0.63–1.2 µm region and
version mechanisms in Ho3+ and in the donor–acceptor thus take advantage of the mature semiconductor
system Yb3+ –Ho3+ . Laser emission can be gener- technology, e.g., AlGaInP (0.63–0.69 µm), GaAlAs
ated near 750 nm and 550 nm, originating from the (0.78–0.88 µm) and InGaAs (0.90–1.2 µm) and of
metastable 5 S2 , 3 F4 states. the highly developed solid-state laser technology, e.g.,
It can be seen in Table 11.6 that, besides STPA and
ETU pumping, photon avalanche (PA) pumping has also
a) Energy (103 cm–1) b) Energy (103 cm–1)
been used in a few cases (Nd3+ and Tm3+ ). 30 30
In Table 11.9 other rare-earth-ion lasers in the visible 1
D4 1
D2
spectral range based on 4f–4f transitions are listed. The
data are taken from [11.213]. 25 649 nm 25
1
G4 1
G4
Visible fiber lasers 20 20
A different and very promising approach to realize ef-
450 nm
ficient upconversion room-temperature laser oscillation 638 nm 486 nm
is the use of rare-earth-ion-doped fibers. The geome- 15 15
3 3
try of the fiber provides waveguiding of both the pump H4 H4
radiation and the stimulated emission, thus long inter- 10 10
action lengths can be realized, yielding high intensities 781 nm
3
over a long distance, a critical requirement for upcon- F4 3
F4
version lasers. This is one advantage of the fiber concept 5 5
785 nm
(for a detailed description of the fiber concept, see
the description of Yb fiber lasers in Sect. 11.2.2) com- 3 3
0 H6 0 H6
pared to bulk materials. Another requirement for visible
upconversion lasers is the existence of metastable inter- Fig. 11.44a,b Upconversion pump mechanisms for Tm3+ . (a) Se-
mediate levels to act as initial levels for an excited-state quential two-photon absorption, (b) sequential two-photon absorp-
absorption or an energy transfer process. Like in crys- tion with additional cross-relaxation (dashed line)
634 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

Table 11.9 Visible and UV lasers based on divalent and trivalent rare-earth ions
Dopant ions Host Transition λlaser (nm) T (K) Ref.
Sm3+ 5/2 → H7/2
TbF3 4G 6 593.2 116 [11.215]
Sm2+ SrF2 5 D →7 F 696.9 4.2 [11.216]
0 1
Eu3+ Y2 O3 5 D →7 F 611.3 220 [11.217]
0 2
Eu3+ YVO4 5 D →7 F 619.3 90 [11.218]
0 2
Gd3+ 7/2 → S7/2
6P 8
Part C 11.2

Y3 Al5 O12 314.5 300 [11.219]

Tb3+ LiYF4 5 D →7 F 544.5 300 [11.220]
4 5
Ho3+ CaF2 5 S →5 I 551.2 77 [11.221]
2 8
Tm2+ 5/2 → F7/2 < 27
CaF2 2F 2 1116 [11.97, 98]
Ag+ KI, RbBr, CsBr 335 5 [11.222]

Nd3+ and Yb3+ lasers in the near-infrared spectral levels, which are thermally coupled. In Pr3+ :ZBLAN,
region. the lifetime of these coupled multiplets is in the range
40–50 µs [11.224,225]. Recently, Richter et al. obtained
Visible Pr3+ fiber lasers. As in crystals, the
praseodymium ion is very attractive for visible fiber
lasers because of its energy-level scheme (see Fig. 11.33) a) Energy (103 cm–1)
25 5
and the possibility of upconversion pumping by two- G5
step absorption, photon avalanche or energy transfer
5
processes. Laser oscillation at room temperature has 20 F3
5
been achieved in the red, orange, green and blue spec- S 2, 5F 4
647 nm
tral ranges. Some of these transitions have even been 5
15 F5
operated simultaneously [11.223]. Laser oscillation at
550 nm
room temperature originates from the 3 P0 , 3 P1 and 1 I6 753 nm
10 647 nm
5
3 I6
P2
3
3
P0 P1 5 5
I7
1
I6
647 nm
457 – 458 nm 5
0 I8
1
D2
b) Energy (103 cm–1)
512 nm
20
456 nm 5
S 2, 5F 4
1
G4
799 nm 5
15 F5
649 nm
3 5
3 F2 I4
F4
3 5
F4 2 I5
1480 nm
10 F5/2
2
F5/2 5
I6
3
H5
3
H4 960 nm 5 960 nm
5
I7
482 nm
552 nm
3 2
H6 F7/2
3+ 3+
Tm Yb 0 2
F7/2 5
I6
3+ 3+
Yb Ho
Fig. 11.45 Sensitized upconversion in Yb3+ ,Tm3+ -doped
BaY2 F8 after Trash and Johnson [11.174] with two and Fig. 11.46a,b STPA (a) and ETU (b) pumping of Ho3+
three steps in the STPA process upconversion lasers
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 635

Table 11.10 Visible Pr3+ -doped ZBLAN fiber lasers (ESA: excited-state absorption (i. e., sequential two-step absorption), ETU:
energy transfer upconversion, PA: photon avalanche, RT: room temperature)
Dopant ions λlaser (nm) Transition λpump (nm) Pump T (K) Output η (%) Ref.
mechanism
Pr3+ 635 3P
0 →3 F2 1010 + 835 ESA RT 180 mW 10 [11.227]
605 3P
0 →3 H6 1010 + 835 ESA RT 30 mW 3.3
3P →3 H5

Part C 11.2
520 1 1010 + 835 ESA RT 1 mW
491 3P
0 →3 H4 1010 + 835 ESA RT 1 mW
Pr3+ 635 3P
0 →3 F2 1020 + 840 ESA RT 54 mW 14 [11.228]
520 3P
1 →3 H5 1020 + 840 ESA RT 20 mW 5
491 3P
0 →3 H4 1020 + 840 ESA RT 7 mW 1.5
Pr3+ , Yb3+ 635 3P
0 →3 F2 849 ETU RT 20 mW [11.229]
Pr3+ , Yb3+ 635 3P
0 →3 F2 1016 diode ETU RT 6.2 mW 3.2 [11.230]
+ 833 diode
532 3 P →3 H ETU RT 0.7 mW 0.3
1 5
Pr3+ , Yb3+ 635 3 P →3 F 860 diode ETU RT 4 mW 2.2 [11.231]
0 2
602 3 P →3 H 860 diode ETU 0.2 mW
0 6
Pr3+ , Yb3+ 520 + 490 3 P →3 H 856 diode RT 1.4 mW [11.223]
1 5
+3 P0 →3 H4
Pr3+ , Yb3+ 492 3 P →3 H 1017 diode RT 1.2 mW 8.5 [11.232]
0 4
+ 835 diode
Pr3+ , Yb3+ 635–637 3 P →3 F 780–880 PA RT 300 mW 16.8 [11.161]
0 2
605–622 3 P →3 H 780–880 PA RT 45 mW 4.6
0 6
517–540 3 P →3 H 780–880 PA RT 20 mW 5
1 5
491–493 3 P →3 H 780–880 PA RT 4 mW 1.2
0 4
Pr3+ , Yb3+ 635 3 P →3 F 850 PA RT 1020 mW 19 [11.162]
0 2
Pr3+ , Yb3+ 635 3 P →3 F 850 diode PA RT 440 mW 17 [11.233]
0 2
520 3 P →3 H 850 diode PA RT 100 mW ≈4
1 5
Pr3+ , Yb3+ 635 3 P →3 F 850 diode PA RT 2W 45 [11.234, 235]
0 2
520 3 P →3 H 850 diode PA RT 0.3 W 17
1 5
Pr3+ , Yb3+ 491 3 P →3 H 850 PA RT 165 mW 12.1 [11.236]
0 4
491 + 520 3 P →3 H 850 PA RT 230 mW 14.3
0 4
+3 P1 →3 H5
491 3 P →3 H 840 diode PA RT 8 mW ≈6
0 4
Pr3+ , Yb3+ 635 3 P →3 F 838 diode PA RT ML: 550 ps [11.237]
0 2
(239 MHz)
Pr3+ , Yb3+ 603 (tunable) 3P
0 →3 H6 840, Ti:Sapphire PA RT 55 mW 19 [11.238]
634 3P
0 →3 F2 100 mW
Pr3+ 635 3P
0 →3 F2 480, diode Direct RT 94 mW 41.5 [11.226]

laser oscillation of a Pr3+ -doped ZBLAN fiber under di-
rect pumping with a blue semiconductor laser [11.226].
Output powers of 94 mW and a slope efficiency of 41.5%
at 635 nm were obtained.
In Table 11.10 the results to date with Pr3+ -doped
ZBLAN fibers are summarized. The best results ob-
tained thus far, at the most efficient wavelength of
635 nm, are output powers up to 2 W and slope effi-
ciencies up to 45% [11.234]. The efficiencies in the
green and blue wavelength regions are about one order
of magnitude smaller.
Generally, a double-clad fiber can be used to couple
highly divergent pump radiation of near-infrared high-
power laser diodes into the large-numerical-aperture
inner cladding and propagate it along the fiber axis.
On its way down the fiber, the pump radiation is gradu-
ally absorbed in the embedded small-numerical-aperture
active core. Since the number of transverse radiation
636 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

be best provided by diffraction-limited pump radia-

tion focused onto the fiber end face and guided in the
rare-earth-ion-doped active core.
2
Ti3+: Al2O3 lasers For example, Fig. 11.47 shows a demonstration of
(1, 2) high-power upconversion laser operation under pump-
M2 ing with two dichroic coupled Ti3+ :Al2 O3 lasers
C2 tuned to pumping wavelengths near 850 nm [11.162].
Part C 11.2

1 The maximum upconversion-laser output power

Fiber
M1 C1
Fig. 11.47 Experimental setup of the Pr3+ ,Yb3+ -doped up-
conversion ZBLAN fiber laser [11.162]. M1 denotes the
dichroic mirror, C1 an aspheric lens, M2 the dielectric
resonator mirror, and C2 a collimator
modes supported in a cylindrical fiber core depends only
on the wavelength of the radiation, the core diameter,
and its numerical aperture, the geometry and mater-
ial of the active fiber core can be chosen to support
just one or a few transverse modes of the radiation
generated in the active core by near-infrared pumping.
Thus, an upconversion double-clad fiber with a suit-
ably chosen rare-earth-ion-doped active core can be
used to convert the highly multimode radiation of high-
power near-infrared laser-diode arrays into single-mode
or few-mode visible laser emission with excellent beam
quality. The best results in terms of upconversion laser
output power, however, have been achieved when the
pump radiation of a high-beam-quality laser source was
launched directly into the active core of the described
fiber. This is due to the high pump intensities required
locally for photon-avalanche upconversion, which can
was 1020 mW at an incident near-infrared total pump
power of 5.51 W (Fig. 11.48). The overall slope ef-
ficiency with respect to the incident pump power
was 19% [11.162].
Also, near-infrared high-power diode-laser bars
with beam-shaping optics have been used to pump
a Pr3+ ,Yb3+ -doped ZBLAN fiber with the common
single-clad structure and a large-area multimode active
core. In this case, 4.5 W of pump power were launched
into the fiber core, generating red output powers in ex-
cess of 2 W at 635 nm [11.234]. In the blue spectral
range, a Pr3+ ,Yb3+ -doped ZBLAN-based upconver-
sion fiber laser has been demonstrated at an emission
wavelength of 491 nm (3 P0 → 3 H4 transition of Pr3+ ).
The pump source was a single-mode diode laser emit-
ting at a wavelength of 840 nm. The maximum blue
output power was 8 mW at an incident pump power
of 200 mW [11.236].
Other visible fiber lasers. Laser oscillation in the visible
spectral range has also been obtained with other rare-
earth ions in ZBLAN. In Table 11.11 an overview of
these laser systems is given. A detailed description of
these systems and their prospects is given in [11.214].

11.2.3 Near-Infrared Rare Earth Lasers

Laser output power Pout (W)

1 Ti:sapphire 1 @ ë = 850 nm Nd lasers

Ti:sapphire 1 @ ë = 852 nm
most intensively investigated class of solid-state lasers
plus Ti:sapphire 2 @ ë = 826 nm is based on Nd3+ -ion-doped materials. The Nd3+ -ion
0.8
offers various groups of laser lines in the near-IR spectral
region.
0.6

Energy-level scheme. Figure 11.49 shows transitions

0.4 from the 4 F3/2 upper laser level into the 4 I13/2 , 4 I11/2 ,
Pout, max = 1020 mW and 4 I9/2 manifolds. The specific absorption and emis-
0.2 Pthr = 202 mW sion wavelengths depend on the crystal field, which
çinc = 19 % influences the splitting within a manifold and between
0 different manifolds. As shown in Fig. 11.49 the splitting
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
Incident pump power Pin (W)
between the 4 I (and also between 4 F) manifolds is dom-
inated by L S coupling of the 4f electrons and is only
Fig. 11.48 Input–output characteristics of the Pr3+ ,Yb3+ -doped up- affected to second order by covalency effects caused by
conversion ZBLAN fiber laser [11.162] the crystal field. The energetic splitting between the 4 F
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 637

Table 11.11 Overview of room temperature rare earth ion doped upconversion fiber lasers. (in): incident, (l) launched,
(abs) absorbed
Active ion λlaser (nm) Transition λpump (nm) Pout (mW) η (%) Ref.
3/2 → I11/2
Nd 381 4D 4 590 0.076 0.25 (l) [11.239]
Nd 412 2P
3/2 →4I
11/2 590 0.470 1.7 (l) [11.240]
Tm 455 1 D →3 F 645 + 1064 3 1.5 [11.241]
2 4
1 G →3 H

Part C 11.2
Tm 480 4 4 1130 33 34.6 (abs) [11.242]
1123 230 25 (in) [11.243]
680 + ≈ 1100 14.8 18.9 (abs) [11.244–249]
Tm / Yb 480 1G
4 →3 H4 1070 375 [11.250]
1065 106 6.6 (in) [11.251]
1120, 1140 116 15 [11.252]
Dy 478 4F
9/2 → H15/2
6 457 (Ar+ ) 2.3 0.9 [11.253]
9/2 → H13/2
575 4F 6 10 1.5
3/2 → I15/2
Er 540 4S 4 801 23 16 [11.254, 255]
3/2 → I15/2
Er 540 4S 4 970 50 51 [11.256–258]
Ho 544 / 549 5 F →5 I / 5 S →5 I8 ≈ 640 40 22.4 (l) [11.259–263]
4 8 2
Ho 753 647 0.54 3.3 [11.259]
Tm 810 1064 1200 37 [11.264]

and 4 I levels is dominated by Coulomb interaction of the Because of the good spectral match, the total pump effi-
4f electrons, which is also only effected to second or- ciency of diode pumping is much higher than for lamp
der by covalency effects of the crystal field. Therefore, pumping. In addition the transfer efficiency of pump
the transition wavelengths of Nd-doped crystals vary in light into the crystal is much better in the case of diode
a certain range near the values given for Nd:Y3 Al5 O12 pumping, so that a total efficiency of 10% to 30% for
(Nd:YAG) in Fig. 11.49. The strongest and most com- the conversion of electrical power into laser power is
monly used laser transition 4 F3/2 → 4 I11/2 emits near achievable.
1060 nm (Fig. 11.49).
Figures 11.50 and 11.51 show as an example the ab-
sorption and emission spectra of Nd:YAG, measured at Energy (103 cm–1)
300 K. The strongest absorption is located near 808 nm
15 4
F9/2
and the strongest laser transition at 1064 nm. 4
F7/2
4
F5/2
Longitudinal and transversal diode pumping. Nd 4
F3/2
lasers are usually pumped by lamps or diode lasers.
Splitting between 4F
The first generation of Nd-doped solid-state lasers were 10 1444 nm and 4I levels by
pumped with CW krypton or pulsed xenon lamps. 1320 nm Coulomb interaction
808 nm 1064 nm
These lamps have high electrical-to-optical efficiencies 946 nm
of about 70% and are available at reasonable costs. Un- 938.5 nm
fortunately, the overlap of their emission spectra with 4
I 15/2
the narrow 4f–4f absorption spectra of Nd-doped solid- 5 Splitting of 4I (4F)
4
state laser materials is usually poor; thus the electrical to I 13/2 multipletts by
LS coupling
optical pump efficiency is low – typically a few percent.
4
In modern Nd lasers, diode lasers at 808 nm are em- I11/2
ployed as pump sources. Laser diodes typically have Stark splitting by
4
I 9/2 symmetry and strength
efficiencies of about 50% and offer several advantages 0 of crystal field
over lamp pumping. Diodes emit spectrally narrow-band
radiation (≈ 1–5 nm). Therefore, a much better overlap Fig. 11.49 Level scheme, pump and laser transitions of Nd3+ in
with the 4f–4f absorption spectra of Nd can be achieved. YAG
638 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

area and their relatively large refractive index, laser

áabs (cm–1) óabs (10–20 cm2)
diode beams have a large divergence. Their beams also
14 10 possess large beam-quality differences in the transversal
and sagittal directions since the active area dimensions
12 Nd (1 %): YAG are usually ≈ 1 µm × 100 µm and confinement is given
çion = 1.39 × 1020 cm–3 8 only in one dimension. For power scaling, bars or ar-
10 rays of diodes must be used. This can lead to output
Part C 11.2

6
powers of up to several tens of watts. Unfortunately,
8 combination of many single diode stripes also broad-
ens the emission spectrum, while the beam quality of
6
4 the combined radiation is further decreased. So, sophis-
4
ticated pump optics such as beam shaping must often be
employed [11.265].
2
2 Several pump geometries can be used with diode
laser excitation. The common geometry to pump lasers,
0 0 which are capable of generating several watts of out-
780 800 820 840 860 880 900
Wavelength ë (nm) put power with excellent beam quality, is end pumping
(Fig. 11.52). In this geometry, pump radiation is fo-
Fig. 11.50 Absorption spectrum of Nd(1%):YAG and absorption cused into the laser crystal along the laser resonator
cross sections axis. A very good overlap of pump and laser modes can
be provided. Gain media of small volume and with short
The selective spectral pumping with diodes also absorption lengths can be used, and high population in-
leads to reduced heat deposition in the laser crystal with versions at low pump power levels can be achieved.
reduced thermal lensing effects, giving rise to improved Because most of the pump power is deposited within the
beam quality. Diffraction-limited beams can be realized volume of the TEM00 laser mode, higher-order modes
easier. usually cannot oscillate. Excellent beam quality is there-
However, there are also disadvantages of diode fore inherent. However, scaling of end-pumped lasers to
lasers. Because of their small active laser cross-sectional output powers above 20 W is difficult to achieve due to

óem (10–20 cm2)

30

Nd: YAG
25
4 4 4 4 4 4
F 3/2 I 9/2 F 3/2 I11/2 F3/2 I13/2

20

15

10

0
860 880 900 920 940 1050 1060 1070 1080 1350 1400 1450
Wavelength ë (nm)

Fig. 11.51 Emission cross section spectra of Nd:YAG

 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 639

possible thermally induced fracture of the laser crystal

Pump Laser resonator
within the small volume of pump absorption. diode laser
An alternative diode pumping method is side pump-
ing (Fig. 11.53, [11.266]). In this approach, the pumping
geometry is principally similar to the arrangement for
lamp pumping. One or several linear pump diode bars
are positioned around the side surface of the laser crystal.

Pump radiation is then usually imaged into the crystal
perpendicular to the laser resonator axis. The crystal is
relatively homogeneously pumped throughout its total
volume, and a smaller excitation density is usually real-
ized than in diode laser end pumped systems. Because of
the use of larger gain media, however, more energy can
be deposited into the laser crystal and therefore higher
output powers can be achieved. Since a larger laser mode
is present inside the crystal, higher-order modes also
usually oscillate in these lasers. Therefore beam quality
is often rather low.
Nd-doped fiber lasers can also be operated in specific
configurations, see for example [11.267–278], and are
used in many applications. For high-power laser gener-
ation, double-clad fibers are usually used. Basic aspects
are described below in this chapter (page 650/651).
The most important Nd lasers. The most important
Nd-doped laser materials feature relatively high emis-
sion cross sections, a relatively long upper-state lifetime
of Nd3+ , a high damage threshold, high mechanical
and chemical stability, good thermal conductivity and
very good optical quality, see Table 11.12. Many host
crystals have been investigated, including yttrium alu-
minium garnet (YAG), yttrium aluminium perovskite
(YAP or YALO), yttrium lithium fluoride (YLF) and
yttrium vanadate (YVO). Very efficient and compact
diode-pumped lasers with slope efficiencies of over
60% have been demonstrated in many Nd-doped laser
materials.
Nd:YAG is still regarded as the most important solid-
state laser. Due to their very good optical and mechanical
properties, diode-pumped Nd:YAG lasers are robust and
reliable. They are in use in many applications. Within
the last few years Nd:YAG have also become available
as ceramics with high optical quality.
The vanadates Nd:YVO and Nd:GVO emit polarized
radiation and exhibit large cross sections and gain.
Part C 11.2
Optics
Fig. 11.52 Diode end-pumping scheme
ics, which have been developed with very good optical
quality and low scattering losses. So, the efficiency of
ceramic lasers can be as high as for crystals.
If not specified otherwise, the references for the laser
materials can be found in [11.213].
Yb lasers
Coherent oscillation of Yb3+ was first observed in YAG
at 77 K [11.279]. In 1991 the first realization of a diode-
pumped Yb:YAG laser [11.280] at room temperature
initialized an intensive renaissance of research on Yb-
doped laser materials for laser diode pumping at 300 K.
Yb3+ -doped solid-state lasers feature several important
advantages compared with other rare-earth lasers:
1. Yb3+ ions have only two states, the ground state
2F 2
7/2 and the excited state F5/2 , which are separated
by an energy of about 10 000 cm−1 . Thus, there is
no excited-state absorption of the pump and laser
radiation (Fig. 11.54).
2. The quantum efficiency of Yb3+ is close to unity.
Fiber holder Reflector
HR 808 nm
Laser rod
Reflector d f–f
Flow tube

Nd laser wavelength and materials. A variety of Nd 16 fibers

lasers have been reported so far. Tables 11.13, 14, 15 list (CW 10W fiber-coupled
diode lasers, Æ 800 µm, NA 0.2) 32 mm
laser materials and their laser wavelengths which have
been observed at 300 K on the transitions 4 F3/2 → 4 I9/2 , Fig. 11.53 Diode side (transversal) pumping scheme
4I 4
11/2 and I13/2 . The tables also list Nd-doped ceram- [11.266]
640 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

Table 11.12 Important host materials for Nd3+ [11.285]

Host YAG YAlO (FAP) YVO GVO YLF
Chemical formula Y3 Al5 O12 YAlO3 YVO4 GdVO4 YLiF4
Lattice symmetry Cubic Orthorhombic Tetragonal Tetragonal Tetragonal
Space group 1a3d Pnma 141 /amd 141 /amd 141 /a
Lattice constant (Å) 12.00 a = 5.33 a = 7.120 a = 7.123 a = 5.18
b = 7.37 c = 6.289 b = 6.291 c = 10.74
Part C 11.2

c = 5.18
Density of Nd sites (1% doping) 1.39 1.96 1.255 1.25 1.39
Heat conductivity (Wm−1 K−1 ) 11–13 11 ∼ 5 –12 a ∼ 8 –12 a 6
dn i / dT (10−6 K−1 ) 9.9 14.5(a) 8.5(a) −0.9(a)
9.7(b) 3.0(c) −2.9(c)
dL/ dT (10−6 K−1 ) 8.2 4.4(a) 3.1(a) 1.6(a) 13(a)
10.8(b) 7.2(c) 7.3(c) 8(c)
9.5(c)
Max. phonon energy (cm−1 ) 700 550 850 490
Refractive indices n = 1.822 n a = 1.9260 n o = 1.958 n o = 1.972 n o = 1.454
n b = 1.9118 n e = 1.2168 n e = 1.2192 n e = 1.477
n c = 1.9346
τ(4 F3/2 ) (µs) 250 160 97 100 500
λabs (nm) 808 813 (E  a) 808 808 792
σabs (10−20 cm2 ) 7.9 7.2 (E  a) 60 (π) 54 (π) 14 (π)
12 (σ) 12(σ) 1.2(σ)
λlaser (4 I11/2 ) (nm) 1064 1080 (E  a) 1064 1063 1047 (π)
1054 (σ)
σem (4 I11/2 ) (10−20 cm2 ) 29 25 (E  a) 123 (π) 125 (π) 1.5 (π)
52 (σ) 61 (σ) 1.5 (σ)
∆λ(4 I11/2 ) (nm) 0.8 2.5 (E  a) 1.0 (π) 1.2 (π) 1.5 (π)
1.5 (σ) 1.3 (σ) 1.5( σ)
λlaser (4 I9/2 ) (nm) 946 930 914 (π) 912 (π) 904 (π)
915 (σ) 912 (σ) 909 (σ)
σem (4 I9/2 ) (10−20 cm2 ) 3.9 4.1 (E  a) 4.8 (π) 6.6 (π) 1.2 (π)
4.3(σ) 5.6 (σ) 1.3 (σ)
∆λ (nm) 1.0 2.5 (E  a) 2.8 (π) 2.5 (π) 3.0(π)
3.4 (σ) 3.3 (σ) 3.0 (σ)
a The published data of heat conductivities of the vanadates YVO and GVO differ considerably [11.281–284]

3. Due to the small Stokes shift and the related small
quantum defect (typically 500 cm−1 ) heat generation
in the lasing process of Yb3+ is small and makes it
a suitable ion for high-average-power lasers.
4. The small ionic radius of Yb3+ compared to that
of other rare-earth ions favors its incorporation into
Y-based host crystals such as YAG, allowing higher
dopant concentration and thus shorter gain elements
such as discs.
5. Yb3+ ions exhibit a relatively broad emission band
which leads to tunability and the generation of ultra-
short pulses.
6. The radiative lifetime of the laser level ranges in dif-
ferent crystals from a few hundred microseconds
to a few milliseconds, which implies greater en-
ergy storage efficiency, especially for Q-switched
operation with diode pumping.
One disadvantage of Yb3+ -doped lasers is that they
operate in a quasi-three-level scheme with temperature-
dependent reabsorption at the laser wavelength. This
leads to an increased threshold compared to a four-level
scheme, because the pump must bleach the reabsorption
losses (see the section on basic spectroscopic properties
in Sect. 11.2.1).
Figures 11.55 and 11.56 show as an example
the absorption and emission cross section spectra of
Yb:YAG [11.286]. When pumped near the absorption
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 641

Table 11.13 Laser wavelengths of the 4 F3/2 → 4 I9/2 transi- Table 11.14 Laser wavelengths of the 4 F3/2 → 4 I11/2 tran-
tion at 300 K [11.213] sition at 300 K [11.213]
Wavelength (nm) Material Wavelength Material
0.8910 Y3 Al5 O12 0.97 (transition RbPb2 Br5 [11.309]
5/2 , H9/2 → I11/2 )
4F 2 4
0.8999 Y3 Al3 O12
0.901 Sr1−x Lax Mgx Al12−x O19 [11.287] 1.0369 CaF2 − SrF2

Part C 11.2
0.9106 Ba3 LaNb3 O12 1.0370 CaF2
0.910 LiLuF4 [11.285] 1.0370–1.0395 SrF2
0.912 Y2 SiO5 1.04065–1.0410 LaF3
0.912 YVO4 [11.288] 1.0410 CeF3
0.912 GdVO4 [11.289–291] 1.0412 KYF4
0.914 YVO4 [11.292] 1.042– 1.075 Na0.4 Y0.6 F2.2
0.916 LuVO4 [11.293, 294] 1.0445 SrF2
0.930 YAlO3 [11.213, 295] 1.046– 1.064 LiNdP4 O12
0.9312 YAlO3 1.0461 CaF2 − YF3
0.936 Gd3 Sc2 Ga3 O12 1.0461–1.0468 CaF2
0.9385 Y3 Al5 O12 1.047 LiGdF4
≈ 0.94 Y3 Al5 O12 [11.296] 1.047 LiNdP4 O12
0.941 CaY2 Mg2 Ge3 O12 1.047 LiYF4
0.9458–0.9464 Y3 Al5 O12 [11.297] 1.047– 1.078 NdP5 O14
0.946 Y3 Al5 O12 [11.213, 298–306] 1.0471 LiYF4
0.946 Y3 Al5 O12 ceramic [11.307] 1.0472 LiLuF4
0.9660 YAlO3 1.0475 LaBGeO5
0.966 Sc2 O3 [11.308] 1.0477 Li(Nd, La)P4 O12
1.0477 Li(Nd, Gd)P4 O12
1.048 Li(Bi, Nd)P4 O12
peaks at 940 nm or 970 nm, the Stokes shift to the lasing
1.048 Li(Nd, La)P4 O12
wavelength at 1030 nm corresponds to less than 10%,
1.048 Li(Nd, Gd)P4 O12
which allows in principle a slope efficiency of more
than 90%. 1.048 K5 (Nd, Ce)Li2 F10
1.0481 LiKYF5
Yb3+ thin-disc lasers. In connection with the power 1.0482 LaBGeO5
scaling of diode-pumped Yb lasers Giesen et al. [11.310] 1.0482 NaLa(MoO4 )2
invented the thin-disc laser concept as a pump and 1.0486 LaF3 − SrF2
resonator design for high-power lasers (Fig. 11.57). 1.049– 1.077 NaNdP4 O12
The active medium is a thin circular disc, which is 1.0491 SrAl12 O19
coated for both the pump and laser wavelengths with 1.0493 Sr2 Y5 Fl9
a highly reflecting (HR) dielectric mirror on the rear 1.0495 BaY2 F8
side and with an antireflection coating on the front side. 1.0495 GdF3 − CaF2
The disc is then bonded with the rear HR side to a heat 1.0497 SrAl2 O4
sink. The resonator is formed by the coated crystal and 1.0498 Ca2 Y5 F19
an output coupler. The pump light is provided by fiber- 1.0498 SrAl12 O19
coupled laser diodes which are focused onto the crystal. 1.05 KNdP4 O12
Since the thin crystal disc only absorbs a small fraction 1.05 NdP5 O14
of the pump light during one pass through the crystal, the 1.05 LaP5 O14
pump light is reflected back into the disc several times 1.05 LiLuF4
by a parabolic mirror and the folding prism [11.311]. Up
1.0500 CaF2 − ScF3
to a total of 32 pump light passes may be used.
1.0505 (Nd, La)P5 O14
Due to the geometrical setup a nearly one-
1.0505 5NaF − 9YF3
dimensional thermal gradient along the laser axis can
 642 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

Table 11.14 (continued) Table 11.14 (continued)

Wavelength Material Wavelength Material
1.0506 5NaF − 9YF3 1.0543 BaF2 − CeF3
1.0507 CdF2 − ScF3 1.0543 SrF2 − ScF3
1.051 NaNdP4 O12 1.05436 Ba2 MgGe2 O7
1.051 YP5 Ol4 1.05437 Ba2 ZnGe2 O7
Part C 11.2

1.051 (La, Nd)P5 O14 1.0547 LaMgAl11 O19

1.051 CeP5 O14 1.05499 CsY2 F7
1.051 GdP5 O14 1.055 Na3 Nd(PO4 )2
1.051 NdP5 O14 1.055 K3 (La, Nd)(PO4 )2
1.0511 (Nd, La)P5 O14 1.055 Na3 (La, Nd)(PO4 )2
1.0512 NdP5 O14 1.0551 Pb5 (PO4 )3 F
1.0512 (Nd, La)P5 O14 1.0552 LaMgAl11 O19
1.0512 (Y, Nd)P5 O14 1.0554 LiNdP4 O12
1.0513 NdP5 O14 1.0554 KY3 F10
1.0515 YP5 O14 1.0555 CsGd2 F7
1.0515 NdP5 O14 1.0555 Ba5 (PO4 )3 F
1.052 (Nd, La)P5 O14 1.0556 SrF2 − LuF3
1.052 KNdP4 O12 1.0560 SrF2 − LuF3
1.052 K5 NdLi2 F10 1.0566 La2 Si2 O7
1.052 Y3 Al5 O12 1.0567 SrF2 YF3
1.0521 BaF2 − YF3 1.0569 NdGaGe2 O7
1.0521 NdP5 O14 1.0570 GdGaGe2 O7
1.0521 YF3 1.0572 LaSr2 Ga11 O20
1.0525 YP5 O14 1.0573 CaMoO4
1.0526 BaF2 − GdF3 1.0575 CsLa(WO4 )2
1.0528 SrF2 − GdF3 1.0576 SrAl4 O7
1.0529 NdP5 O14 1.0576 SrMoO4
1.053 LiYF4 1.0576 La2 Si2 O7
1.053 (La, Nd)P5 O14 1.058 Gd3 Sc2 Ga3 O12
1.053–1.062 Ca3 (Nb, Ga)2 Ga3 O12 1.0582 Ca3 Ga4 O9
1.0530 LiYF4 1.0582–1.0597 CaWO4
1.0530 BaY2 F8 1.0583 Y3 Sc2 Ga3 O12
1.0530 CaF2 − LuF3 1.0584 Y3 Sc2 Ga3 O12 : Cr
1.0530–1.059 LaMgAl11 O19 1.0584 Y3 Sc2 Ga3 O12
1.0531 LiLuF4 1.0584 CaY2 Mg2 Ge3 O12
1.0532 LiKYF5 1.0585 YAlO3
1.0534–1.0563 BaF2 − LaF3 1.0585 LiLa(MoO4 )2
1.0535 Lu3 Al5 O12 1.0585 Sr5 (PO4 )3 F
1.0535–1.0547 CaF2 − SrF2 − BaF2 − YF3 − LaF3 1.0585 CaF2 − SrF2 − BaF2 − YF3 − LaF3
1.0537 BaF2 − CeF3 1.0585 KLa(MoO4 )2
1.0539–1.0549 α − NaCaYF6 1.0586 Sr5 (PO4 )3 F
1.054 Gd3 Ga5 O12 1.0586 PbMoO4
1.054 LaAl11 MgO19 1.0587 KLa(MoO4 )2
1.054–1.086 LaAl11 MgO19 1.0587 CaWO4
1.0540 CaF2 − YF3 1.0588 Ca3 (Nb, Ga)2 Ga3 O12
1.0540 BaF2 1.0589 SrF2 − CeF3 − GdF3
1.0540 CaF2 − YF3 1.0589 Y3 Ga5 O12
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 643

Table 11.14 (continued) Table 11.14 (continued)

Wavelength Material Wavelength Material
1.05896 CaMg2 Y2 Ge3 O12 1.060 LaB3 O6 [11.326]
1.059 (La, Sr)(Al, Ta)O3 1.0600 Gd3 Ga5 O12
1.059 BaLaGa3 O7 1.0601 GdGaGe2 O7
1.059 NaY(WO4 )2 1.0603 Y3 Ga5 O12

Part C 11.2
1.059 Na1+x Mgx Al11−x O17 1.0603 Gd2 (WO4 )3
1.059 Na2 Nd2 Pb6 (PO4 )6 Cl2 1.0603–1.0632 CaF2 − YF3
1.059 Sr5 (PO4 )3 F [11.312] 1.0604 HfO2 − Y2 O3
1.0590 SrF2 − CeF3 1.0604 NaLuGeO4
1.0590 Gd3 Ga5 O12 waveguide [11.313] 1.0605 SrF2 − ScF3
1.0591 Gd3 Ga5 O12 1.0606 Gd2 (MoO4 )3
1.0591 Lu3 Sc2 Al3 O12 1.0606 Gd3 Ga5 O12
1.0591 LaGaGe2 O7 1.0606 Gd3 Ga5 O12 waveguide [11.313]
1.0593 Sr4 Ca(PO4 )3 F 1.0607 Sr3 Ca2 (PO4 )3
1.0594 Lu3 Ga5 O12 1.0607 CaF2 − ScF3
1.0595 5NaF − 9YF3 1.0608 ZrO2 − Y2 O3
1.0595 Y3 Sc2 Al3 O12 1.0608 Nd3 Ga5 O12
1.0595 NaLa(MoO4 )2 1.0608 NaGaGe2 O7
1.0595 BaLaGa3 O7 1.0609 Lu3 Ga5 O12
1.0596 CaAl4 O7 1.0609 NaYGeO4
1.0596 Ca3 Ga2 Ge3 O12 1.061 Ca2 Al2 SiO7
1.0596 SrF2 1.061 BaGd2 (MoO4 )4
1.0597 Ca3 Ga2 Ge3 O12 1.061 CaMoO4
1.0597–1.0583 SrF2 − LaF3 1.061 YVO4 [11.327]
1.0597–1.0629 α − NaCaYF6 1.061 CaLa4 (SiO4 )3 O
1.0599 Lu3 Sc2 Al3 O12 1.0610 Ca2 Ga2 SiO7
1.0599 LiGd(MoO4 )2 1.0610 7La2 O3 − 9SiO2
1.05995 Gd3 Sc2 Al3 O12 1.0610–1.0627 Y3 Al5 O12
≈ 1.06 (Gd, Ca)3 (Ga, Mg, Zr)5 O12 : Cr 1.0612 Gd3 Sc2 Ga3 O12
≈ 1.06 CaGd4 (SiO4 )3 O 1.0612 CaLa4 (SiO4 )3 O
≈ 1.06 Ca4 YO(BO3 )3 [11.314] 1.0612 Ca3 (Nb, Ga)2 Ga3 O12
≈ 1.06 Y3 Al5 O12 [11.296] 1.0613 Ca4 La(PO4 )3 O
≈ 1.06 Y3 Sc1.0 Al4.0 O12 ceramic [11.315] 1.0613 Ba2 NaNb5 O15
≈ 1.06 Gd3 Sc2 Al3 O12 1.0613 Gd3 Sc2 Ga3 O12
≈ 1.06 GdAl3 (BO3 )4 [11.316] 1.0615 Ca(NbO3 )2
≈ 1.06 NaLa(MoO4 )2 1.0615 Y3 Al5 O12
≈ 1.06 NaGd(WO4 )2 1.0615 Lu3 Al5 OI
2
≈ 1.06 NdAl3 (BO3 )4 1.0615 Y3 Sc2 Ga3 O12
≈ 1.06 YAl3 (BO3 )4 [11.213, 317] 1.0615 Ba0.25 Mg2.75 Y2 Ge3 O12
≈ 1.06 Gd3 Ga5 O12 1.0615 NaGdGeO4
≈ 1.06 GdVO4 [11.213, 318–320] 1.0615 Y3 Al5 O12
≈ 1.06 YVO4 [11.319, 320] 1.0615–1.0625 Ca(NbO3 )2
≈ 1.06 La0.2 Gd0.8 VO4 [11.319, 321] 1.0618 Sr2 Ca3 (PO4 )3 F
1.060 Gd3 Ga5 O12 : Cr 1.0618 SrAl12 O19
1.060 Ca4 GdO(BO3 )3 1.0618 CaF2 − ScF3
[11.213, 322–324] 1.0618 LaNbO4
1.060 Ca4 YO(BO3 )3 [11.325] 1.062 LaSc3 (BO3 )4 [11.213, 328]
644 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

Table 11.14 (continued) Table 11.14 (continued)

Wavelength Material Wavelength Material
1.0620 Gd3 Sc2 Al3 O12 1.064 Y3 Al5 O12 ceramic [11.315, 333–346]
1.0620 Lu3 Sc2 Al3 O12 1.064 Y3 Al5 O12 : Fe
1.0621 SrAl12 O19 1.064 Y3 Al5 O12 : Ti
1.0621 Gd3 Ga5 O12 1.064 Y3 Al5 O12 : Cr, Ce
Part C 11.2

1.0622 Y3 Sc2 Al3 O12 1.064 Y3 Al5 O12 : Ho

1.0623–1.10585 CaF2 − SrF2 − BaF2 − YF3 − LaF3 1.064 Y3 Al5 O12 : Er
1.0623 Lu3 Ga5 O12 1.064 YVO4 [11.213, 347–350]
1.0623 CaF2 − LuF3 1.064 YVO4 single crystal fiber [11.351]
1.0623–1.0628 CaF2 1.064 LaF3
1.0624 LaNbO4 1.064 KGd(WO4 )2 [11.352, 353]
1.0625 Y3 Ga5 O12 1.064 La3 Ga5.5 Ta0.5 O14 [11.354]
1.0625 YVO4 1.0640 La3 Ga5 SiO14
1.0628 SrWO4 1.0640–1.0657 CaF2 − CeF3
1.0629 Ca5 (PO4 )3 F 1.06405–1.0654 YAlO3
1.0629 α − NaCaYF6 1.0641 Y3 Al5 O12 : Cr
1.0629 Bi4 Si3 O12 1.0641 YVO4
1.0629–1.0656 CdF2 − YF3 1.0641 La3 Ga5.5 Ta0.5 O14
1.063 GdVO4 [11.329] 1.06415 Y3 Al5 O12
1.063 Gd3 Sc2 Ga3 O12 : Cr 1.06415 Y3 Al5 O12 [11.355]
1.063 SrWO4 1.0642 Ca3 Ga2 Ge3 O12
1.063 Na5 (Nd, La)(WO4 )4 1.0642 NaBi(WO4 )2
1.063 NdAl3 (BO3 )4 1.06425 Lu3 Al5 O12
1.063 (La, Nd)P5 O14 1.0643 SrMO4
1.063 NdAl3 (BO3 )4 1.0644 Bi4 Ge3 O12
1.0630 Ca5 (PO4 )3 F 1.0645 CaF2 − LaF3
1.0632 CaF2 − YF3 − NdF3 1.0645 La3 Ga5.5 Nb0.5 O14
1.0632 CaF2 − YF3 1.0645 La3 Ga5 SiO14
1.0633–1.0653 α − NaCaCeF6 1.0645 YAlO3
1.06335–1.0638 LaF3 1.0645 YAlO : Cr
1.0634 YVO4 1.0646 Y3 Al5 O12
1.0635 LaF3 − SrF2 1.0646 KLa(MoO4 )2
1.0635 NdAl3 (BO3 )4 1.0647 CeCl3
1.0635 NaLa(WO4 )2 1.0648 YVO4
1.0635 (Nd, Gd)Al3 (BO3 )4 1.0649 CaY2 Mg2 Ge3 O12
1.0635 Bi4 (Si, Ge)3 O12 1.065 GdVO4
1.0635 CaF2 − LuF3 1.065 (Nd, Gd)Al3 (BO3 )4
1.0637–1.0670 Y3 Al5 O12 1.065 Sr5 (VO4 )3 Cl
1.06375–1.0672 Lu3 Al5 O12 1.065 Sr5 (VO4 )3 F
1.0638 CeF3 1.0650 La3 Ga5 GeO14
1.0638 CaAl4 O7 1.0650 RbNd(WO4 )2
1.0638 NaBi(WO4 )2 1.0652 CaWO4
1.0638 NdP5 O14 1.0652 CdF2 − LuF3
1.0638 Ca3 Ga2 Ge3 O12 1.0653–1.0633 α − NaCaCeF6
1.0638–1.0644 (Y, Ce)3 Al5 O12 1.0653 NaLa(MoO4 )2
1.0639 Ca3 Ga2 Ge3 O12 1.0653–1.0665 NaLa(MoO4 )2
1.064 Y3 Al5 O12 [11.213, 301, 330–332] 1.0654 CaF2 − GdF3
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 645

Table 11.14 (continued) Table 11.14 (continued)

Wavelength Material Wavelength Material
1.0654 NdGaGe2 O7 1.070 La2 Be2 O5
1.0656 CdF2 − YF3 1.0701 Gd2 (MoO4 )3
1.0657–1.0640 CaF2 − CeF3 1.0701–1.0706 KLu(WO4 )2
1.0657 CaF2 1.0706 KY(WO4 )2

Part C 11.2
1.0658 LiLa(MoO4 )2 1.0706 LaSr2 Ga11 O20
1.0658 CsNd(MoO4 )2 1.0711 Y2 SiO5
1.0658 LuVO4 [11.356] 1.0714 KLu(WO4 )2
1.0659 GdGaGe2 O7 1.0714–1.0716 KLu(WO4 )2
1.066 Nd(Ga, Cr)3 (BO3 )4 1.0715 Y2 SiO5
1.066 K5 Nd(MoO4 )4 1.0716–1.0721 KLu(WO4 )2
1.066 K5 Bi(MoO4 )4 1.0720 CaSc2 O4
1.0661 CaF2 1.0721 KLu(WO4 )2
1.0664–1.0672 YVO4 1.07255–1.0730 YAlO3
≈ 1.0665 CdF2 − LaF3 1.0726 YAlO3
1.0666 CdF2 1.0729 YAlO3
1.0667 CdF2 − GeF3 1.073 KLu(WO4 )2 [11.357]
1.0667 NaGd(MoO4 )2 1.0737 Y3 Al5 O12
1.0668 CdF2 − LaF3 ≈ 1.074 Y2 O3 − ThO2 − Nd2 O3
1.0669 KY(MoO4 )2 1.074 SrAl12 O19
1.067 Ca3 (VO4 )2 1.0741 Gd2 O3
1.0670 La3 Ga5 SiO14 1.0741 Y2 SiO5
1.0672 CaY4 (SiO4 )3 O 1.0742 Y2 SiO5
1.0672 CdF2 − GdF3 1.0746 Y2 O3
1.0672 KGd(WO4 )2 1.0746 Y2 O3 ceramic [11.358]
1.0672 La3 Ga5 SiO14 1.075 La2 O2 S
1.0673 GaMoO4 1.0757 Sr3 Ga2 Ge4 O14
1.0673 La3 Ga5 SiO14 1.0759 LuAlO3
1.0674 NaY(MoO4 )2 1.0759 Lu2 O3 ceramic [11.359]
1.0675 LuAlO3 1.0760 GdAlO3
1.0675 Na2 Nd2 Pb6 (PO4 )6 Cl2 1.0775–1.0845 CaYAlO4
1.0675 Nd3 Ga5 SiO14 1.0780 Y3 Al5 O12
1.0675 Nd3 Ga5 GeO14 1.0780–1.086 LaMgAl11 O19
1.068 Na2 Nd2 Pb6 (PO4 )6 Cl2 1.0782 Y2 SiO5
1.0680 Nd3 Ga5 GeO14 1.0782–1.0815 YAlO3
1.0682 Y3 Al5 O12 1.0785 LuScO3
1.0687–1.0690 KY(WO4 )2 1.0786 CaAl4 O7
1.0688 Ga3 Ga2 SiO7 1.0786 Y2 O3 ceramic [11.360]
1.0688 Ca2 Ga2 Ge4 O14 1.0788 Ca2 Ga2 SiO7
1.0688 KY(WO4 )2 1.0789 Gd2 O3
1.0689 NdGaGe2 O7 1.079 La2 Be2 O5
1.0690 GdAlO3 1.0790 La2 Be2 O5
1.0690 Ca3 Ga2 Ge4 O14 1.0790 Lu2 SiO5
1.0694 Sr3 Ga2 Ge4 O14 1.07925 Lu2 SiO5
1.0698 La2 Be2 O5 1.0795 YAlO3
1.07 KPb2 Br5 [11.309] 1.0795–1.0802 YAlO3
1.07 RbPb2 Br5 [11.309] 1.0796 YAlO3
646 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

Table 11.14 (continued) Table 11.15 Laser wavelengths of the 4 F3/2 → 4 I13/2 tran-
Wavelength Material
sition at 300 K [11.213]
1.08 Y2 O3 Wavelength Material
1.08 YAlO3 [11.360] 1.18 (transition RbPb2 Br5 [11.309]
5/2 , H9/2 → I13/2 )
4F 2 4
1.080 Lu2 O3 ceramic [11.359]
1.0804 LaAlO3 1.3 KNdP4 O12
Part C 11.2

1.0806 CaYAlO4 1.3 NdAl3 (BO3 )4

1.0812 Sc2 SiO5 1.302 KYF4
1.08145 Sc2 SiO5 1.304– 1.372 (La, Nd)P5 O14
1.0817 LaMgAl11 O19 1.3065 SrAl12 O19
1.0824 LaMgAl11 O19 1.307 KYF4
1.082 Sc2 O3 [11.308] 1.3070 5NaF − 9YF3
1.082–1.084 LaMgAl11 O19 1.311– 1.334 NaNdP4 O12
1.0828 SrAl4 O7 1.313 LiYF4
1.0829–1.0859 LiNbO3 1.3133 LiLuF4
1.083 YAlO3 1.3150 Ca3 Ga2 Ge3 O12
1.0832 LuAlO3 1.316– 1.340 LiNdP4 O12
1.0832–1.0855 YAlO3 1.317 Li(La, Nd)P4 O12
1.0843 YScO3 1.317 LiNdP4 O12
1.0845 YAlO3 1.3170 CeF3
1.0846 LiNbO3 1.3175 BaF2
1.085 LiNbO3 : Mg 1.318 Y3 Al5 O12
1.08515 GdScO3 1.318 BaY2 F8
1.0868 CaSc2 O4 1.3185 CaF2 − GdF3
≈ 1.0885 CaF2 − CeO2 1.3185 BaF2 − LaF3
1.0885–1.0889 CaF2 1.3185 KY3 F10
1.0909 YAlO3 1.3187 Y3 Al5 O12
1.091 Ca4 GdO(BO3 )3 [11.322] 1.3188 Y3 Al5 O12
1.0921 YAlO3 1.319 Y3 Al5 O12 [11.330, 361]
1.0922–1.0933 LiNbO3 1.319 LiNdP4 O12
1.093 LiNbO3 1.319 Y3 Ga5 O12
1.0933 LiNbO3 1.319 Y3 Al5 O12 ceramic [11.362]
≈ 1.094 LiNbO3 : MgO 1.319– 1.325 (Y, Nd)P5 O14
1.0989 YAlO3 1.3190 Ca2 Y5 F19
1.1054 Y3 Al5 O12 1.3190 CaF2 − LaF3
1.1119 Y3 Al5 O12 1.3190 CaF2 − CeF3
1.1158 Y3 Al5 O12 1.3190 Sr2 Y5 F19
1.1225 Y3 Al5 O12 1.3190 α − NaCaCeF6
≈ 1.32 Y3 Al5 O12 ceramic [11.334]
1.32 Gd3 Sc2 Ga3 O12 : Cr
be reached within the crystal. This setup minimizes the 1.32 NdP5 O14
formation of thermal lenses, and therefore yields bet- 1.32 (La, Nd)P5 O14
ter beam quality at high powers compared to a rod laser. 1.32 K(Nd, Gd)P4 O12
Multiple passes of the pump radiation through the crystal 1.32 YLiF4 [11.363]
increase the absorption efficiency and also the effective 1.320 NaNdP4 O12
pump power density in the crystal. Therefore, the thin
1.3200 SrF2 − LuF3
disc design is suitable for quasi-three-level systems such
1.3200 BaF2 − YF3
as Yb3+ . Figure 11.58 shows the input versus output
1.3200 Y3 Al5 O12
power of a thin-disc Yb:YAG laser [11.311]. CW output
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 647

Table 11.15 (continued) Table 11.15 (continued)

Wavelength Material Wavelength Material
1.3200 YP5 O14 1.3340 PbMoO4
1.3208 LiLuF4 1.3342 KLa(MoO4 )2
1.3209 Lu3 Al5 O12 1.3342 Lu3 Al5 O12
1.3209 Ba5 (PO4 )3 F 1.3342 NaBi(WO4 )2

Part C 11.2
1.3212 LiYF4 1.3345 SrAl4 O7
1.3225 CaF2 1.3347 Ca5 (PO4 )3 F
1.323 NdP5 O14 1.3347 SrWO4
1.323 (La, Nd)P5 O14 1.3350 KLa(MoO4 )2
1.324 (La, Nd)P5 O14 1.3350 Y3 Al5 O12
1.3245 CdF2 − YF3 1.3354 CaLa4 (SiO4 )3 O
1.3250 SrF2 − LaF3 1.3355 NaLa(WO4 )2
1.3250 SrF2 1.3360 Y3 Sc2 Al3 O12
1.3255 SrF2 − CeF3 1.3360 Gd3 Sc2 Al3 O12
1.3260 SrF2 − GdF3 1.3360 Lu3 Sc2 Al3 O12
1.3270 CaF2 − YF3 13360 Y3 Sc2 Al3 O12
1.3270 BaF2 1.3360 CdF2 − CeF3
1.3270 Ca3 (Nb, Ga)2 Ga3 O12 1.3365 Ca2 Ga2 SiO7
1.328 Sr5 (PO4 )3 F [11.213, 364] 1.3365 CdF2 − GaF3
1.3280 BaF2 − LaF3 1.3365 CdF2 − LaF3
1.3285 α − NaCaYF6 1.3370 CaF2 − YF3
1.3285 SrF2 − ScF3 1.3370 CaWO4
1.3298 CsLa(WO4 )2 1.3370 Gd3 Ga5 O12
1.3298 GdGaGe2 O7 1.3370 LiLa(MoO4 )2
1.330 CaF2 − LuF3 1.3375 α − NaCaYF6
1.3300 Gd3 Ga5 O12 1.338 Y3 Al5 O12 [11.365]
1.3300 CdF2 − ScF3 1.338 Y3 Ga5 O12
1.3303 NdGaGe2 O7 1.338 Sr5 (PO4 )3 F [11.366]
1.3305 HfO2 − Y2 O3 1.3380 Ca(NbO3 )2
1.3305 Y3 Ga5 O12 1.3380 NaLa(MoO4 )2
1.3310 LaF3 1.3381 Y3 Al5 O12
1.3310 Y3 Sc2 Ga3 O12 1.3382 Y3 Al5 O12
1.3310 NaLuGeO4 1.3385 NaGd(MoO4 )2
1.3315 LaF3 − SrF2 1.3387 Lu3 Al5 O12
1.3315 Lu3 Ga5 O12 1.339 YF3
1.3315 Gd3 Ga5 O12 1.3390 CaWO4
1.3315 Ca3 Ga2 Ge3 O12 ≈ 1.34 Y3 Al5 O12 [11.296, 367]
1.3317 Ca3 Ga2 Ge3 O12 ≈ 1.34 YAlO3 [11.360]
1.3320 CeF3 ≈ 1.34 GdVO4
1.3320 ZrO2 − Y2 O3 [11.213, 319, 320, 368–372]
1.3320 Ca3 Ga4 O9 ≈ 1.34 YVO4 [11.213, 319, 320]
1.3325 SrMoO4 ≈ 1.34 La0.2 Gd0.8 VO4 [11.319, 321]
1.3325 NaYGeO4 ≈ 1.34 LuVO4 [11.373]
1.3326 Lu3 Al5 O12 ≈ 1.34 GdAl3 (BO3 )4 [11.316]
1.3334 NaGdGeO4 1.3400 LiGd(MoO4 )2
1.3338 Y3 Al5 O12 1.3400 YAlO3
1.3340 CaWO4 1.3407 Bi4 Si3 O12
648 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

Table 11.15 (continued) Table 11.15 (continued)

Wavelength Material Wavelength Material
1.341 NdAl3 (BO3 )4 1.3585 CaF2 − YF3
1.3410 Y3 Al5 O12 1.3585 Y2 SiO5
1.3410 Lu3 Al5 O12 1.3585 Lu2 SiO5
1.3410 YAlO3 1.3595 LaF3
Part C 11.2

1.3413 YAlO3 1.3600 α − NaCaYF6

1.3414 YAlO3 [11.213, 374, 375] 1.3628 LaSr2 Ga11 O20
1.3416 YAlO3 1.3630 KLa(MoO4 )2
1.3418 Bi4 Ge3 O12 1.3630–2 Sc2 SiO5
1.342 YVO4 [11.347, 376–383] 1.365 La2 Be2 O5
1.3420 CaAl4 O7 1.3657 KLa(MoO4 )2
1.3425 Ca(NbO3 )2 1.3665 SrAl4 O7
1.3425 YVO4 1.3675 LaF3
1.3425 PbMoO4 1.3680 SrAl4 O7
1.3425 CdF2 − YF3 1.3690 CeF3
1.3437 LuAlO3 1.3707 La3 Ga5.5 Nb0.5 O14
1.3440 NaLa(MoO4 )2 1.3710 CaAl4 O7
1.345 NdAl3 (BO3 )4 1.3730 La3 Ga5 GeO14
1.3475 CaWO4 1.3730 La3 Ga5 SiO14
1.3482 KLu(WO4 )2 1.3730 La3 Ga5.5 Ta0.5 O14
1.3485 KY(MoO4 )2 1.3745 LiNbO3
1.3493 Ca3 Ga2 Ge4 O14 1.3760 LaMgAll1 O19
1.35 KGd(WO4 )2 [11.384, 385] 1.386 YVO4 [11.377, 386]
1.3500 CdF2 − LuF3 1.3868 LaBGeO5
1.3505 CaF2 − ScF3 1.3870 LiNbO3
1.351 La2 Be2 O5 1.3885 CaWO4
1.351 KGd(WO4 )2 [11.353] 1.4150 Y3 Al5 O12
1.3510 KGd(WO4 )2 1.430 YAlO3 [11.387]
1.3510 La2 Be2 O5 1.44 SrGd4 (SiO4 )3 O
1.3510 Sr3 Ga2 Ge4 O14 1.4444 Y3 Al5 O12 [11.213, 387]
1.3512 YAlO3 1.486 Sc2 O3 [11.308]
1.3514 YAlO3
1.3520 CdF2 − GdF3 powers in the kilowatt range from one disc are possible.
1.3525 Ca2 Y5 F19 Further power scaling with several discs in the cavity is
1.3525 KY(WO4 )2 also possible [11.311].
1.3525 Lu3 Al5 O12
1.3532 Lu3 Al5 O12 Yb fiber laser. Fiber lasers present another approach for
1.3533 Y3 Al5 O12 the generation of high powers with diffraction-limited
1.3533 KLa(MoO4 )2 beam quality. Since the introduction of the double-clad
1.3533 KLu(WO4 )2 fiber more than two decades ago and with the recent
1.354 La2 Be2 O5 technological advances in the fields of fiber fabrication
1.3545 KY(WO4 )2
and beam-shaped high-power diode lasers, the perfor-
mance of diode-pumped fiber lasers has dramatically
1.3550 LiNbO3
improved. Today, fiber lasers can compete with their
1.3550 KLu(WO4 )2
corresponding bulk crystalline systems in certain appli-
1.3565 CaSc2 O4
cations, especially when fundamental-transverse-mode
1.3572 Y3 Al5 O12
continuous-wave (CW) laser operation at output powers
≈ 1.358 Y2 O3 in the milliwatt to kilowatt range is required.
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 649

Basic aspects of fiber lasers. The invention of the

double-clad fiber geometry and the holey fiber concept Yb3+ (4f 13) Hee HSB Hc
has accelerated the scaling of the output power and hence 2
F7/2 (8) 2
the success of high-power Er, Nd and Yb fiber lasers. F5/2
For more-detailed reading a comprehensive introduction 4f 1h 2
F (14)
to the field of rare-earth-doped fiber lasers can be found L=3
S = 1/2 2
in [11.388]. F5/2 (6) 2
F7/2

Part C 11.2
The choice of the fiber material involves a number
of considerations: The maximum phonon energy, envi- Fig. 11.54 Level scheme of Yb3+ : free-ion state (one 4f hole 4f1h ),
ronmental durability, the drawability and the rare-earth electron–electron interaction (Hee ), splitting by spin–orbit inter-
solubility. The maximum phonon energy of the glass action HSB , and crystal field Hc . Pump and laser transitions are
sets the overall infrared transparency range of the fiber indicated by arrows
and the multiphonon relaxation rates that influence the
quantum efficiency of radiative electronic transitions by 399]. When rare-earth ions are doped into these
nonradiative decay. The important physical properties glasses [11.400], the radiative transition probabili-
of the popular glasses used for optical fibers are shown ties, and therefore the absorption and emission cross
in Table 11.16. sections, are high as a result of the high (≈ 2.6) re-
fractive index and the high degree of covalency of
• Silicate glass. This glass is the most important ma- the glass. Small phonon energies of 300–450 cm−1
terial used for optical fiber production [11.388,389]. produce low rates of multiphonon relaxation for
However, the maximum phonon energy is high mid-infrared transitions. The low thermal conduc-
(≈ 1100 cm−1 ) and has so far limited the emission tivity (Table 11.16) is, however, an important factor
wavelength for infrared fiber lasers using this mater-
ial to approximately 2.2 µm [11.390]. Silica is robust
and fibers fabricated from this material involve the óabs (10–21 cm2)
very effective modified chemical vapor deposition 10
(MCVD) technique. Reducing the OH− content in Yb: YAG
Absorption at 300 K
the glass, which has two main absorption peaks
in the range 1.3–2.0 µm, reduces the background
5
absorption of fibers [11.391].
• Fluoride glass. These glasses, especially the
heavy-metal fluorides [11.392, 393], are used
as host materials for mid-infrared fiber lasers. 0
The most widespread fluoride fiber material is 850 900 950 1000 1050
Wavelength (nm)
ZBLAN [11.394] with a mixture of 53 mol % ZrF4 ,
20 mol % BaF2 , 4 mol % LaF3 , 3 mol % AlF3 , and Fig. 11.55 Absorption spectrum of Yb:YAG at 300 K
20 mol % NaF. Since it can be readily drawn into
single-mode optical fiber [11.395] it is particu-
larly important to mid-infrared fiber lasers [11.396] óem (10–21 cm2)
and allows for high infrared transparency up to 40
Yb: YAG
≈ 6 µm. Nonradiative decay by multiphonon relax- Emission at 300 K
ation, however, becomes significant for transitions at 30
wavelengths longer than ≈ 3 µm. In addition to mid-
infrared applications, ZBLAN is mostly also used 20
for upconversion fiber lasers which need metastable
intermediate pump levels with low multiphonon re- 10
laxation rates. An overview of the spectroscopic
properties of rare-earth ions doped into ZBLAN is 0
900 950 1000 1050 1100
given in [11.397]. Wavelength (nm)
• Chalcogenide glasses. Chalcogenides are composed
of the chalcogen elements S, Se and Te [11.398, Fig. 11.56 Emission spectrum of Yb:YAG at 300 K
650 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

a) Pl (W) çopt (%)

Thin disc of Pump radiation Laser radiation
laser active medium 700 60

600 50
500
40
400
Part C 11.2

Multiple reimaging Resonator 30

Heat sink
of pump radiation mirror 300
Pl 20
200
b) Section 1 Section 2 çopt
Folding mirror 100 roc = 0.5 m 10
Section 2
2 0 0
8 3 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Pp (W)
5 6

4
Fig. 11.58 Output power and optical efficiency for a thin-
7
1 disc Yb:YAG laser using a single disc. (Pp = pump power,
Section 1 Pl = laser output power, ηopt = optical-optica efficiency)
Parabolic Thin laser disc Collimated Crystal and Parabolic
mirror with heat sink pump radiation focal plane mirror
(cladding pumped). The former method is less scalable
Fig. 11.57 (a) Thin-disc laser setup, (b) multiple-pass pump optics since it relies on the use of expensive high-beam-
for 16 passes quality pump sources because core areas are usually
< 100 µm2 . On the other hand, the larger cladding
to be considered in the design of chalcogenide- area (> 104 µm2 ) allows for high-power diode-array
based lasers. So far, the most important glasses pumping [11.408–411]. We will here describe the
are the sulfide glasses GaLaS (GLS) [11.401] and cladding-pumping technique, which is one of the
GeGaS [11.402] because of the reasonably high most important developments in high-power fiber-laser
rare-earth solubility. technology.

Fiber, pump and resonator geometries. As bulk lasers,
fiber lasers can be operated continuous wave, pulsed
(including Q-switching) and mode-locked. These op-
eration modes have been investigated intensively for
the common laser transitions near 1 µm in Nd3+ and
Yb3+ , and near 1.5 µm in Er3+ . However, the small
fiber diameter limits the peak power by the dam-
age threshold intensity and, hence, crystalline lasers
in bulk geometries are mostly preferred when high-
energy short pulses are needed. In an analogous way
to the optical excitation of bulk gain media (see
the section on longitudinal and transversal pump-
ing in this Sect. 11.2.2), doped optical fibers can be
either end pumped (core pumped) or side pumped
• Fiber designs for cladding pumping. In the de-
sign of cladding pumping, the core of the fiber is
generally made to guide a single transverse LP01
mode. The shape of the multimode pump cladding
(Fig. 11.59), however, can be shaped with a num-
ber of geometries. The pump cladding, which in
turn is surrounded by a low-refractive-index trans-
parent polymer or glass, provides a high numerical
aperture (NA) of typically 0.3–0.55. Photonic crys-
tal structures can be also used to improve cladding
pumping [11.412] for the operation of fiber lasers
at the multi-hundred-watt level. There are three
main double-clad-fiber layouts: circular, circular
with offset core, and rectangular, as shown schemat-

Table 11.16 Properties of popular fiber materials

Fiber material Max. phonon energy Infrared transparency Propagation losses Thermal conductivity
(cm−1 ) (µm) (λ at minimum) (dB/km) (W/Km)
Silica 1100 [11.403] < 2.5 0.2 (1.55 µm) 1.38 [11.404]
ZBLAN 550 [11.397] < 6.0 0.05 (2.55 µm) 0.7–0.8 [11.405]
GaLaS 425 [11.406] < 8.0 0.5 (3.50 µm) 0.43– 0.5 [11.407]
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 651

ically in Fig. 11.59. In the case of circular pump

cladding [11.53] a portion of the launched pump a) b) c) d)
light is skew to the fiber axis and produces an in-
ner pump beam caustic that never crosses the core.
Asymmetric configurations significantly improve
the pump beam absorption in the core [11.413, 414].
Double-clad pump schemes have been demonstrated

Part C 11.2
with holey or photonic crystal fibers [11.415]. In Jacket Outer cladding Pump cladding Core
such fibers single-mode guiding and very large mode
areas are possible [11.416]. Fig. 11.59a–d Principal double-clad fiber geometries which in-
• Fiber-laser resonators. Typical free-running fiber- clude (a) circular-shaped pump cladding with axially positioned
laser resonators are shown schematically in core, (b) circular-shaped pump cladding with off-axially positioned
Fig. 11.60. In the simplest resonator (Fig. 11.60a), core, (c) rectangular-shaped pump cladding and (d) D-shaped pump
the pump light passes through a dichroic mirror that cladding
is highly reflective for the oscillating laser light.
Fresnel reflection at the cleaved output end facet drawbacks of significant thermal and thermo-optical
of the fiber can provide sufficient feedback for laser effects. Its large surface-area-to-volume ratio means
oscillation, although with an output-coupler mirror that the heat generated in the core is dissipated ef-
at the output end of the fiber the optical efficiency fectively by radiation and convection from the outer
can be maximized. In an alternative arrangement, the surface of the fiber.
pump light can be launched into the output end of the
fiber (Fig. 11.60b). In order to scale the output power, High-power Yb fiber lasers. Yb-doped fiber-lasers
each end of the fiber can be pumped (Fig. 11.60c). have been operated at CW and average output pow-
Due to its geometry, the fiber provides potentially ers in excess of 10 W [11.421–426], in excess of
high pump- and signal-beam intensities without the 100 W [11.427–433] and above 1 kW [11.434]. Also,
a 30 µm Yb-doped large-mode-area fiber has been used
Table 11.17 Material and laser parameters of Yb:YAG for the amplification of Q-switched Nd:YAG pulses at
repetition rates between 3 and 50 kHz with average out-
Growth method Czochralski [11.417] put powers up to 100 W. Pulse energies as high as
Temperature (◦ C) 1930 [11.417]
Crucible Ir (Re) [11.417]
Yb-distribution coefficient 1.0 [11.417] a)
Max. doping level (%) ≤ 100 [11.417]
Structure Cubic [11.417] Pump Output
Space group Ia3d-O10h [11.417] Fiber
Heat conductivity (Wm−1 K−1 ) M
b)
Undoped YAG 11.0 [11.417]
Yb-doped (5%) 6.8 [11.417] M
Pump
RE-density (1021 cm−3 ) 14 [11.417]
Fiber
λlaser (nm) 1030 [11.417] M
Output
1050 c)
σem (cm2 ) at 1030 nm 19 × 10−21 [11.286]
M
20 × 10−21 [11.418] Pump Pump
21 × 10−21 [11.419] Fiber
σem (cm2 ) at 1050 nm 3 × 10−21 [11.286] Output M
σabs (cm2 ) at 969 nm 8.3 × 10−21 [11.286]
7.7 × 10−21 [11.419]
Fig. 11.60a–c Schematic diagram of resonators used for
σabs (cm2 ) at 941 nm 8.2 × 10−21 [11.286]
free-running fiber lasers with (a) a single-end co-
τrad (µs) 1040 [11.417]
propagating pump, (b) a single-end counter-propagating
951 [11.420] pump and (c) dual-end pumps. M represents a mirror
 652 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

4 mJ with diffraction-limited beam quality have been
obtained in this case [11.435].
Yb3+ crystalline lasers. The properties and laser pa-
rameters of Yb:YAG are listed in Table 11.17. In the
meantime, besides Yb:YAG, a lot of Yb-doped laser
materials have been explored and tested in CW, Q-
Part C 11.2
the Er absorption at these wavelengths is rather small,
because the absorption cross sections are in the or-
der of 1 to 2 × 10−20 cm2 (Figs. 11.62, 63). Doping
levels higher than 1 to 2% are critical, because of
increased reabsorption losses and higher rates for en-
ergy transfer processes, which depopulates the upper
laser level (4 I13/2 , 4 I13/2 ) → (4 I15/2 , 4 I9/2 ). Therefore,

switched and mode-locked operation. Table 11.18 shows to keep the Er3+ concentration low but achieve higher
an overview of Yb-doped laser crystals. absorption, the usual approach is to codope the Er3+ -
doped laser material with Yb3+ , which can be very
Er lasers at 1.5 µm (4 I13/2 → 4 I15/2 ) efficiently pumped around 975–980 nm. Then, the en-
For many years Er3+ -doped materials have been ergy transfer process (2 F5/2 , 4 I15/2 ) → (2 F7/2 , 4 I11/2 )
widely investigated for laser applications in the spec- is exploited (Fig. 11.61). The main task for the
tral range around 1.6 µm [11.436]. This laser transition optimization of Er lasers around 1.55 µm is thus
(4 I13/2 → 4 I15/2 , see Er3+ energy-level scheme depicted to find the optimum concentration for both dopant
in Fig. 11.61) is used for eye-safe lasers for medicine, ions.
telecommunication, remote sensing and light detecting
and ranging (LIDAR). Suitable erbium-doped mater- Crystals. The absorption spectra of Er3+ :YVO4 for
ials for the 1.6 µm laser transition should be at first the 4 I15/2 → 4 I11/2 and 4 I15/2 → 4 I13/2 transitions
characterized by a high phonon energy, which en- are shown in Figures 11.62 and 11.63, respec-
ables fast depopulation of the pump level 4 I11/2 via tively [11.437]. The peak absorption cross section for
nonradiative decay in order to prevent excited-state the 4 I15/2 → 4 I11/2 transition around 970 nm is up to
absorption (ESA, I11/2 → H11/2 , S3/2 ) and upcon-
4 2 4 2 × 10−20 cm2 , for the 4 I15/2 → 4 I13/2 transition around
version UC1, (4 I11/2 , 4 I11/2 ) → (4 I15/2 , 4 F7/2 ) from 1500 nm cross sections are higher, approximately up
the 4 I11/2 level and to populate efficiently the 4 I13/2 to 4 × 10−20 cm2 . The emission spectrum is shown
upper laser level (Fig. 11.61). The second important in Fig. 11.63. The peak emission cross sections of
condition is that the ESA transition 4 I13/2 → 4 I9/2 the 4 I13/2 → 4 I15/2 emission in Er3+ :YVO4 are up
should not spectrally overlap with the range of to 2 × 10−20 cm2 , in the long-wavelength tail, where
stimulated emission
 around 1.6 µm and that the upcon- the laser oscillation occurs, the peak cross sections
version process UC2, (4 I13/2 , 4 I13/2 ) → (4 I9/2 , 4 I15/2 ) are around 0.5 × 10−20 cm2 . These values are typi-
is weak. Additionally, a significant splitting of the cal for Er3+ -doped crystals, e.g., the peak emission
ground-state multiplet is advantageous to achieve cross section around 1550 nm is 0.31 × 10−20 cm2 for
a quasi-four-level system. These conditions are best
fulfilled by Er3+ -doped glasses and fibers, which
are to date the most efficient lasers at this tran- E (103 cm–1)
sition. However, glasses suffer from poor thermal 4
F7/2 UC1
and mechanical stability, thus Er3+ -doped crys- 20 2
H11/2
4
talline matrices are still being intensively investigated S3/2
ESA
in order to find suitable crystals for this laser 15
4
F9/2
transition. ESA
4
For most applications of Er3+ -doped laser mater- I9/2 UC2 Energy transfer
4
ials, laser diodes operating in the wavelength range 10 I11/2
around 975 nm (the 4 I15/2 → 4 I11/2 transition) are used
4
as a pump source, thus enabling all-solid-state laser sys- I13/2 Wr Wnr ë pump =
tems. With Ti:sapphire pump lasers in general better 5 980 nm
ë pump = ëlaser =
laser results are obtained, however, the overall effi- 977 nm 1.6 µm

ciency is low. Another possible pump wavelength lies 0 4

I15/2
around 1.5 µm, i. e., directly into the upper laser mul-
Er 3+ Yb3+
tiplet. However, for this wavelength region high-power
laser diodes are not yet available, therefore usually Er– Fig. 11.61 Energy-level diagram of Er3+ and Yb3+ in
glass lasers as pump sources are used. In any case, a YVO4 crystal
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 653

Table 11.18 Yb3+ -doped laser crystals and laser transitions 2 F5/2 → 2 F7/2
Crystal λlaser (µm) Pump T (K) Output mode Ref.
BaCaBO3 F 1.034 TiS laser 300 p [11.440]
CaF2 : Na ≈ 1.046–1.048 Laser diode 300 ML [11.441]
1.051 Laser diode 300 Q-switch [11.441]
CaF2 : Nd 1.0336 Xe lamp 120 p [11.442]

Part C 11.2
1.030–1.055 TiS laser 300 CW [11.443]
Ca4 GdO(BO3 )3 - Laser diode 300 CW [11.444]
1.032 TiS laser 300 CW [11.445]
1.035–1.088 Laser diode 300 CW [11.446]
1.050 Laser diode 300 CW [11.446, 447]
1.050 TiS laser 300 CW [11.447]
1.082 TiS laser 300 CW [11.445]
1.082 Laser diode 300 CW [11.447]
Ca5 (PO4 )3 F 1.043 TiS laser 300 CW [11.448, 449]
Ca3 Sr2 (PO4 )3 F 1.046 TiS laser 300 CW [11.450]
Ca4 Sr(PO4 )3 F 0.985 TiS laser 300 CW [11.450]
1.046 TiS laser 300 CW [11.450]
1.110 TiS laser 300 CW [11.450]
Ca4 YO(BO3 )3 1.018–1.087 TiS laser 300 CW [11.451]
1.032 Laser diode 300 CW [11.452]
1.060 TiS laser 300 CW [11.453]
1.084–1.096 TiS laser 300 CW [11.454]
Gd3 Ga5 O12 1.039 Laser diode 300 Q-switch [11.455]
Gd3 Ga5 O12 : Nd 1.0232 Xe lamp 77 p [11.456]
Gd3 Sc2 Al3 O12 : Nd 1.0299 Xe lamp 77 p [11.457]
Gd2 SiO5 1.028–1.093 Laser diode 300 CW [11.458]
1.030–1.039 Laser diode 300 CW [11.459]
1.045–1.070 Laser diode 300 CW [11.459]
1.081–1.097 Laser diode 399 CW [11.459]
1.089 Laser diode 300 CW [11.460, 461]
1.090 Laser diode 300 CW [11.462, 463]
1.091–1.105 Laser diode 300 p [11.459]
1.094 Laser diode 300 CW [11.461]
GdVO4 1.015 Laser diode 300 CW [11.464]
1.015 TiS laser 300 CW [11.465]
1.015–1.019 Laser diode 300 CW [11.466]
1.026–1.031 Laser diode 300 CW [11.466]
1.029 Laser diode 300 CW [11.464]
1.029 TiS laser 300 CW [11.465]
1.040 Laser diode 300 CW [11.466]
1.045 Laser diode 300 CW [11.466]
(Gd, Y)2 SiO5 1.030–1.089 Laser diode 300 CW [11.458]
KGd(WO4 )2 1.026–1.044 Laser diode 300 CW [11.467]
1.030–1.051 Laser diode 300 CW [11.468]
1.031–1.0374 Laser diode 300 ML [11.469]
654 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

Table 11.18 (continued)

Crystal λlaser (µm) Pump T (K) Output mode Ref.
KLu(WO4 )2 1.030 Laser diode 300 CW [11.470]
1.030 TiS laser 300 CW [11.470]
1.044 TiS laser 300 CW [11.471]
1.0435 Laser diode 300 CW [11.471]
Part C 11.2

KY(WO4 )2 1.026 Laser diode 300 CW [11.417]

1.026–1.042 Laser diode 300 CW [11.467]
1.030 TiS laser 300 CW [11.472]
1.048 Laser diode 300 ML [11.473]
≈ 1.028 Laser diode 300 ML [11.474]
1.030 Laser diode 300 CW [11.475]
0.987–1.051 Laser diode 300 CW [11.476]
KYb(WO4 )2 1.068 TiS laser 300 CW [11.477]
1.074 TiS laser 300 qCW [11.478]
LaSc3 (BO3 )4 1.044 TiS laser 300 CW [11.417]
1.045 TiS laser 300 CW [11.479]
0.995–1.087 Laser diode 300 CW [11.480]
LiGd(MoO4 )2 1.027–1.0335 Laser diode 300 CW [11.481]
LiNbO3 -waveguide 1.008 TiS laser 300 CW [11.482]
1.030 TiS laser 300 CW [11.482]
1.060 TiS laser 300 CW [11.482]
LiNbO3 : MgO 1.063 Laser diode 300 CW [11.483]
Li6 Y(BO3 )3 1.040 Laser diode 300 CW [11.484]
Lu3 Al5 O12 1.0297 Xe lamp 77 p [11.456]
1.03 Laser diode 175 CW [11.485]
Lu3 Al5 O12 : Nd, Cr 1.0294 Xe lamp 77 p [11.456]
Lu3 Ga5 O12 : Nd 1.0230 Xe lamp 77 p [11.456]
Lu2 O3 ≈ 1.029–1.038 TiS laser 300 ML [11.486]
1.032 Laser diode 300 CW [11.417]
ceramics 1.035 Laser diode 300 CW [11.487]
ceramics 1.079 Laser diode 300 CW [11.487]
Laser diode 300 CW [11.475]
Lu3 Sc2 Al3 O12 : Nd 1.0299 Xe lamp 77 p [11.457]
LuVO4 1.0347 Laser diode 300 CW [11.488]
1.041 Ti laser 300 CW [11.488]
1.0444 Laser diode 300 CW [11.488]
1.0527 Laser diode 300 CW [11.488]
NaGd(WO4 )2 1.016–1.049 TiS laser 300 CW [11.489]
1.023 TiS laser 300 CW [11.490]
1.033 Laser diode 300 CW [11.490]
NaLa(MoO4 )2 1.016–1.064 TiS laser 300 CW [11.491]
1.017 Laser diode 300 CW [11.492]
≈ 1.020 Laser diode 300 Q-switch [11.492]
1.023 Laser diode 300 CW [11.492]
1.035 Laser diode 300 CW [11.491]
NaLa(WO4 )2 1.017–1.057 TiS laser 300 CW [11.493]
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 655

Table 11.18 (continued)

Crystal λlaser (µm) Pump T (K) Output mode Ref.
Sc2 O3 1.041 TiS laser 300 CW [11.494]
1.0416 TiS laser 300 CW [11.495]
1.0946 TiS laser 300 CW [11.495]
ceramic 1.041 Laser diode 300 CW [11.496]

Part C 11.2
ceramic 1.094 Laser diode 300 CW [11.496]
Sr5 (PO4 )3 F 0.985 Cr:LiSAF 300 p [11.497]
0.985 TiS laser 300 CW [11.498, 499]
1.047 TiS laser 300 CW, qCW [11.500, 501]
Laser diode 300 p [11.502]
Sr5−x Bax (PO4 )3 F ≈ 1.048 TiS laser 300 CW [11.500]
(Sr0.7 Ca0.3 )3 Y(BO3 )3 Laser diode 300 CW, qCW [11.503]
Sr5 (VO4 )3 F 1.044 TiS laser 300 p [11.450]
Sr3 Y(BO3 )3 Laser diode 300 CW, qCW [11.494]
SrY4 (SiO4 )3 1.020–1.095 Laser diode 300 CW [11.504]
≈ 1.068 Laser diode 300 ML [11.504]
Y3 Al5 O12 1.016–1.095 TiS laser 300 CW [11.505]
1.0293 Xe lamp 77 p [11.456]
1.0296 Xe lamp 77 p [11.279]
1.023–1.052 Laser diode 300 CW [11.506]
1.029 Laser diode 300 CW, qCW [11.507]
waveguide 1.03 TiS laser 300 CW [11.508]
1.030 TiS laser 300 CW [11.509]
1.03 Laser diode 300 CW [11.280, 417,
507, 510]
1.03 Laser diode 300 Q-switch [11.511, 512]
1.03 Laser diode 300 ML [11.513]
1.03 TiS laser 300 Q-switch [11.514, 515]
waveguide 1.03 Laser diode 300 CW [11.516]
waveguide 1.03 Laser diode 300 CW [11.517]
waveguide 1.03 Laser diode 300 Q-switch [11.517]
1.031 Laser diode 300 p [11.501]
1.031 Laser diode 300 CW [11.518, 519]
≈ 1.0312 Laser diode 300 ML [11.519]
1.0494–1.0504 Laser diode 300 CW [11.520]
1.070 Laser diode 300 CW [11.311]
Y3 Al5 O12 : Nd 1.0297 Xe lamp 200 p [11.456]
waveguide 1.03 TiS laser 300 CW [11.521]
Y3 Al5 O12 : Nd, Cr 1.0298 Xe lamp 210 P [11.456]
YAl3 (BO3 )4 ≈ 1.040 Laser diode 300 CW [11.522]
1.120–1.140 Laser diode 300 CW [11.523, 524]
Y3 Ga5 O12 : Nd 1.0233 Xe lamp 77 P [11.456]
YLiF4 ≈ 0.991–1.022 Laser diode 77 P [11.525]
YLuSiO5 1.014–1.091 Laser diode 300 CW [11.526]
Y2 O3 ceramic ≈ 1.076 Laser diode 300 CW [11.527]
ceramic ≈ 1.076 Laser diode 300 ML [11.527]
ceramic 1.0767–1.0784 Laser diode 300 CW [11.520]
ceramic 1.078 Laser diode 300 CW [11.528]
656 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

Table 11.18 (continued)

Crystal λlaser (µm) Pump T (K) Output mode Ref.
Y2 SiO5 1.000–1.010 Laser diode 300 CW [11.529]
1.082 Laser diode 300 CW [11.529]
Y3 Sc1.0 Al4.1 O12 ceramic ≈ 1.060 Laser diode 300 CW, ML [11.530]
YVO4 1.020–1.027 Laser diode 300 CW [11.531]
Part C 11.2

1.037 TiS laser 300 CW [11.532]

1.039 Laser diode 300 CW [11.532]

Er:YAlO3 [11.436], 0.33 × 10−20 cm2 for Er:Y2 SiO5
[11.438], 0.45 × 10−20 cm2 for Er:YAG [11.436],
0.42 × 10−20 cm2 for Er:YLF [11.436], and 0.59 ×
10−20 cm2 for Er:LaGaO3 [11.439].
From the absorption and emission spectra the gain
coefficient curves (Fig. 11.64) can be calculated by
g = N[Pσem − (1 − P)σabs ] ,
where N is the ion concentration and P is the inversion
coefficient, defined as the ratio between the populations
in the 4 I13/2 and the 4 I15/2 levels. It can be seen that for
Er3+ :YVO4 already for an inversion coefficient of P ≈
0.2 laser oscillation should be possible within a spectral
range from approximately 1530 nm to 1610 nm.
In Fig. 11.65a the input–output characteristics of
Ti:sapphire-pumped Er3+ :YVO4 crystals with 0.5% Er
and 1% Er doping, operating at 1604 nm, are shown.
The slope efficiency with respect to the incident power
is about 7–8%. It should be noted that with respect
to the absorbed power the 0.5% Er:YVO4 crystal ex-
hibits a higher slope efficiency. This indicates that for
the more highly doped sample (1% Er) the aforemen-
óabs (1020 cm–2)
1,5
4
I15/2 ® 4I11/2
ó spectrum
ð spectrum
1 0
tioned loss mechanism of reabsorption and upconversion
already take place. The laser threshold is below 200 mW
of incident power and below 100 mW of absorbed pump
power.
These values for the slope efficiency, the laser thresh-
old and the output power are typical for well-performing
Er3+ -doped crystals, such as for Y3 Al5 O12 [11.533] and
LaSc3 (BO3 )4 [11.534].
Recently, high-power and ultra-efficient laser op-
eration of an Er:YAG laser near 1645 nm with
approximately 60 W [11.535–538] of output power
was demonstrated using a high-power fibre laser at
1532 nm as a pump source (so-called in-band pump-
ing (Fig. 11.65b). This work demonstrates that the small
Stokes shift between the pump and laser radiation
(1532 nm/1645 nm) yields very efficient Er lasers with
slope efficiencies up to 80%.
In Table 11.19 an overview of crystalline room-
temperature Er3+ lasers is given. Note that lasers on
the 4 S3/2 → 4 I9/2 transition are also listed.
óabs , óem (1020 cm–2)
2
ó 4
I15/2 « 4I13/2
óabs
1 ðem
4
ð

0.5 2

0
1450 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700
0 Wavelength (nm)
970 980 990 1000 1010
Wavelength (nm)
Fig. 11.63 Spectra of absorption cross sections due to the
Fig. 11.62 Polarized absorption spectra at room tempera- 4I → 4 I13/2 transition of Er3+ in YVO4 crystal (dotted
15/2
ture of an Er3+ :YVO4 crystal in the spectral range of the lines) and emission cross sections (4 I13/2 → 4 I15/2 ) (solid
15/2 → I11/2 transition. (After [11.437]) lines) for σ and π polarization. (After [11.437])
4I 4
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 657

Glass. Laser oscillation in Er3+ -doped and Yb3+ ,Er3+ -

Gain coefficient g (cm–1)
codoped silicate and phosphate glasses was investigated
6
as early as the mid-1960s [11.539–541]. The three-level 4 ó
behavior of the Er3+ system and the weak absorp- 2
tion of pump radiation caused by the requirement 0
–2
of low dopant concentration (usually approximately P = 0.1; 0.2; 0.3; 0.4
–4
2 to 5 × 1019 cm−3 ) makes it difficult to obtain ef- –6
–8

Part C 11.2
ficient laser operation in singly Er3+ -doped glasses. –10
Therefore, Yb3+ codoping is necessary in order to 6 ð
absorb the pump light efficiently at wavelengths 4
2
around 1 µm. Continuous-wave laser oscillation, Q- 0
switched [11.542, 543] and quasi-CW operation with –2 P = 0.1; 0.2; 0.3; 0.4
pulse energies up to 35 J and average output pow- –4
–6
ers up to 20 W have been obtained [11.544–548]. –8
The pulse duration of the Xe flashlamps is sev- –10
1480 1500 1520 1540 1560 1580 1600 1620
eral milliseconds, thus matching the upper-laser-level Wavelength (nm)
lifetime of the Er3+ 4 I13/2 level. Also laser diodes
can be efficiently applied as pump sources. Wu Fig. 11.64 Gain coefficient curves derived for both polarizations for
et al. [11.549] used pulsed laser diodes in a transver- Er3+ :YVO4 in the spectral range of the 4 I15/2 → 4 I11/2 laser tran-
sal excitation scheme. Using a repetition rate of sition for four values of the inversion parameter P (larger gain
50 Hz, a pump pulse duration of 2.5 ms and a peak values for larger P). Arrows denote the wavelengths for which laser
pump power of ≈ 1.5 kW, an average output power oscillation was realized. (After [11.437])
of 8.5 W was obtained, corresponding to an out-
put energy of 170 mJ per pulse. A comparison and a) Pout (mW)
discussion of different pumping schemes is given 120
in [11.550]. In all experiments, the main problem 0.5 % Er: YVO4
of glass materials compared to crystals is the low 100 çabs = 19 %, çinc = 6.7 %

heat conductivity (for Kigre QE7 0.82 W/mK [11.547] 1 % Er: YVO4
80 çabs = 13 %, çinc = 8 %
versus 13 W/mK for YAG). Thus, the introduced
heating power and therefore also the extractable 60
output power and/or repetition rate is limited and
high-power continuous-wave excitation of Er3+ -doped 40
glasses is difficult. Despite this, the overall perfor-
mance of the Kigre QE7 and QX glasses is better than 20
that of Er3+ -doped crystals. Obaton et al. [11.551]
0
obtained a slope efficiency of 21% in a diode end- 0 500 1000 1500 2000
pumped setup for a QX glass. Diening [11.552] Pin (mW)
b) Output power (W)
compared Kigre QE7 glass with Er3+ :LaSc3 (BO3 )4
70
and Y3 Al5 O12 in the same setup (Fig. 11.66). The
achieved output power and slope efficiency for 60
the QE7 glass are about twice as high as for
50
Er3+ :LaSc3 (BO3 )4 .
40

Fig. 11.65 (a) Input–output curve of the CW laser oscil- 30

lation of Er3+ (0.5%):YVO4 crystal (λlaser = 1604 nm, 20
output mirror transmission = 1%). The slope efficiencies
are given with respect to the absorbed (ηabs ) and incident 10
(ηin ) power. (Results from [11.437]). (b) In-band pump- 0
ing of Er:YAG with a fiber laser at 1532 nm and lasing at 0 20 40 60 80
Incident pump power (W)
λlaser = 1645 nm [11.535]
658 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

Table 11.19 Overview of room-temperature Er3+ -doped laser operating around 1.6 µm on the 4I
13/2 → 4 I15/2 and on the
4S
3/2 → 4 I9/2 transition
Crystal λlaser (nm) Transition Slope Mode of Pump source/Remarks Ref.
efficiency (%) operation
13/2 → I15/2
Ca2 Al2 SiO7 1530 nm 4I 4 1.1 CW Ti:Sapphire 940 nm, 975 nm [11.553]
13/2 → I15/2
1550 nm 4I 4 1.5 CW Ti:Sapphire 940 nm, 975 nm [11.553]
13/2 → I15/2
4I 4
Part C 11.2

1555 nm 5 CW Ti:Sapphire 940 nm, 975 nm [11.553]

LiNbO3 : Ti 1532 nm 4I
13/2 → I15/2
4 6 CW Tl:KCl, 1477 nm [11.554]
13/2 → I15/2
1563 nm 4I 4 3 CW, pulsed Tl:KCl 1479 nm, 1484 nm [11.555]
13/2 → I15/2
1576 nm 4I 4 CW, pulsed Tl:KCl 1479 nm, 1484 nm [11.555]
13/2 → I15/2
SrY4 (SiO4 )3 O 1554 nm 4I 4 0.4 CW Laser diode 980 nm [11.556]
YAlO3 1662 nm 4S
3/2 →4I
9/2 10.1 CW Kr+ [11.557]
3/2 → I9/2
1663 nm 4S 4 0.07 Pulsed Xe-flash lamp [11.558]
3/2 → I9/2
1663 nm 4S 4 Pulsed Xe-flash lamp [11.559,
560]
1663.2 nm 4S
3/2 →4 I9/2 Pulsed Xe-flash lamp [11.561–
563]
1663.2 nm 4S
3/2 → I9/2
4 CW Ar+ , 488 nm [11.564]
3/2 → I9/2
1667 nm 4S 4 0.02 Pulsed Xe-flash lamp [11.565]
1677.6 nm 4S
3/2 → I9/2
4 2.2 CW Ar+ , 488 nm [11.564]
3/2 → I9/2
1706 nm 4S 4 0.02 Pulsed Xe-flash lamp [11.565]
1706.1 nm 4S
3/2 →4I
9/2 CW Ar+ , 488 nm [11.564]
1729 nm 4S
3/2 →4I
9/2 0.02 Pulsed Xe-flash lamp [11.565]
1729.6 nm 4S
3/2 → I9/2
4 CW Ar+ , 488 nm [11.564]
LiYF4 1620 nm 4I
13/2 → I15/2
4 CW Kr+ , 647 nm [11.566]
1640 nm 4I
13/2 → 4I
15/2 CW Kr+ , 647 nm [11.566]
3/2 → I9/2
1664.0 nm 4S 4 Pulsed Xe flashlamp [11.567]
3/2 → I9/2
1730 nm 4S 4 0.6 Pulsed Xe flashlamp [11.568]
3/2 → I9/2
1732.0 nm 4S 4 Pulsed Xe flashlamp [11.569]
13/2 → I15/2
Y3 Al5 O12 1617 nm 4I 4 10 Q-switched (4 kHz) Er-fiber laser, 1543 nm [11.570]
13/2 → I15/2
1632 nm 4I 4 Pulsed Xe flashlamp [11.571]
13/2 → I15/2
1634 nm 4I 4 Pulsed, intracavity Er:glass 1549 nm [11.572]
1640 nm 4I
13/2 → I15/2
4 12.7 CW Kr+ , 647 nm [11.533]
13/2 → I15/2
1640 nm 4I 4 0,5 Q-switched Er:glass 1534 nm [11.573]
13/2 → I15/2
1644 nm 4I 4 7 Pulsed Er:glass 1535 nm [11.574]
13/2 → I15/2
1644.9 nm 4I 4 Pulsed Xe flashlamp [11.575]
13/2 → I15/2
1645 nm 4I 4 40 Pulsed Er:glass 1532 nm [11.576]
13/2 → I15/2
1645 nm 4I 4 40 Q-switched Yb, Er-doped fiber 1530 nm [11.577]
1645 nm 4I
13/2 → 4I
15/2 46 Pulsed 1.5 µm laser diodes [11.578]
1645 nm 4I
13/2 → 4I
15/2 40 CW Er-fiber laser, 1543 nm [11.570]
13/2 → I15/2
1645.3 nm 4I 4 81 CW, Q-switched Yb, Er-doped fiber 1530 nm [11.535]
13/2 → I15/2
1645.9 nm 4I 4 Pulsed Xe flashlamp [11.579]
1646 nm 4I
13/2 → 4I
15/2 7 CW laser diode [11.580]
3/2 → I9/2
1775.7 nm 4S 4 Pulsed Xe flashlamp [11.563,
571, 581]
Y3 Ga5 O12 1640 nm 4I
13/2 → I15/2
4 0.9 CW Kr+ , 647 nm [11.533]
Y3 Sc2 Ga3 O12 1643 nm 4I
13/2 → 4I
15/2 10 Pulsed Er:glass, 1532 nm [11.582]
Lu3 Al5 O12 1776.2 nm 4S
3/2 →4I
9/2 Pulsed Xe flashlamp [11.563]
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 659

Table 11.19 (continued)

Crystal λlaser (nm) Transition Slope Mode of Pump source/Remarks Ref.
efficiency (%) operation
3/2 → I9/2
KGd(WO4 )2 1715.5 nm 4S 4 Pulsed Xe flashlamp [11.583]
1732.5 nm 4S
3/2 →4I
9/2 Pulsed Xe flashlamp [11.583]
3/2 → I9/2
1733.0 nm 4S 4 Pulsed Xe flashlamp [11.584]
13/2 → I15/2

Part C 11.2
KY(WO4 )2 1540 nm 4I 4 1 CW Ti:Sapphire [11.585]
3/2 → I9/2
1737.2 nm 4S 4 Pulsed Xe flashlamp [11.584]
3/2 → I9/2
KLa(MoO4 )2 1730 nm 4S 4 Pulsed Xe flashlamp [11.586]
3/2 → I9/2
LiLuF4 1734.5 nm 4S 4 Pulsed Xe flashlamp [11.587,
588]
3/2 → I9/2
KLu(WO4 )2 1739.0 nm 4S 4 Pulsed Xe flashlamp [11.584]
3/2 → I9/2
KEr(WO4 )2 1737.2 nm 4S 4 Pulsed Xe flashlamp [11.584]
13/2 → I15/2
YVO4 1604 nm 4I 4 19 CW Ti:Sapphire [11.437]
(1531 nm,
1553 nm,
1564 nm,
1580 nm)
Y2 SiO5 1617 nm 4I
13/2 →4 I15/2 5.6 CW laser diode [11.580]
(1545 nm,
1567 nm,
1576 nm)
Sc2 SiO5 1558 nm 4I
13/2 →4 I15/2 CW Ti:Sapphire 979 nm [11.589]
1551 nm 4I
13/2 →4 I15/2 1.8 CW Ti:Sapphire 920 nm [11.589]
1551 nm 4I
13/2 →4 I15/2 2.4 CW laser diode 968 nm [11.589]
Sc2 Si2 O7 1545 nm 4I
13/2 →4 I15/2 2.6 CW Ti:Sapphire 980 nm [11.589]
1556 nm 4I
13/2 →4 I15/2 2.3 CW Ti:Sapphire 978 nm [11.589]
LaSc3 (BO3 )4 1563 nm 4I
13/2 →4 I15/2 6 CW laser diode 975 nm [11.534]
Ca4 YO(BO3 )3 1.5–1.6 µm 4I
13/2 →4 I15/2 26.8 CW laser diode [11.590,
591]
Ca4 GdO(BO3 )3 1.54 µm 4I
13/2 →4 I15/2 15 CW laser diode 975 nm [11.592]
7 Ti:Sapphire 902 nm

Fibers. Erbium-doped fiber lasers have been exten-
sively studied for their potential use as sources in
communication systems operation in the third com-
munication window around 1.55 µm. All these lasers
oscillate on the 4 I13/2 → 4 I15/2 transition, either in
continuous-wave or pulsed mode. In singly Er3+ -doped
fibers, suitable pump wavelengths for using laser diodes
are 810 nm (4 I15/2 → 4 I9/2 ), 980 nm (4 I15/2 → 4 I11/2 )
and 1480 nm (4 I15/2 → 4 I13/2 ). Other possible pump
bands are around 660 nm (4 I15/2 → 4 F9/2 ), 532 nm and
514.5 nm (4 I15/2 → 4 H11/2 ). The pump wavelengths at
810 nm and 514.5 nm suffer from strong excited-state
absorption, yielding a loss of pump photons [11.593].
The gain coefficient of Er-doped fibers is rather high
(11 dB/mW [11.594]) due to the fairly high peak emis-
sion cross section of 4–7 × 10−21 and the long lifetime
of the 4 I13/2 level (8–10 ms) in silica fibers, despite
the three-level laser character causing ground-state ab-
sorption at this wavelength. Like in Er3+ -doped crystals
and glasses, concentration quenching occurs. In order
to enhance the absorption efficiency without increas-
ing the Er3+ concentration and/or fiber length, Yb3+
codoping is used, especially when diode pumping be-
tween 900 nm and 1000 nm is used. The requirement for
efficient operation is – as in the crystals and glasses – ef-
ficient energy transfer from the Yb3+ 2 F5/2 level to the
Er3+ 4 I13/2 level (Fig. 11.61). In Table 11.20, some of
the Er-fiber lasers around 1.55 µm are summarized. For
a very detailed discussion of Er3+ -doped fiber lasers
and amplifier see [11.595]. In summary, Er3+ -doped
fiber lasers operating around 1.55 mm are extremely ef-
ficient. Output powers in the watt range are possible.
660 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources
Pout (mW)
300
250
Kigre QE7
200 Yb, Er: La Sc3 (Bo3)4
Yb, Er: Y3 Al5 O12
Part C 11.2
150
100
50
0 lithotripsy.
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Pin (mW)
Fig. 11.66 Results of the laser experiments with Kigre QE7
glass, Yb3+ (10%), Er3+ (0.5%): LaSc3 (BO3 )4 and Yb3+ ,
Er3+ (0.5%): Y3 AL5 O12 . (After [11.552])
Nowadays up to 100 W of output power are commer-
cially available [11.596]. Most efficient pumping occurs
at 1480 nm, here slope efficiencies close to the quantum
limit of 95% are possible. Pumping at 980 nm is less
efficient due to the higher quantum defect, however, at
this wavelength highly efficient and reliable high-power
laser diodes are available.
Other near-infrared Er3+ lasers. Room-temperature
laser oscillation in Er3+ -doped crystals in the near-
infrared spectral range has also been observed at
other wavelengths. In Yb3+ -codoped Er3+ :YLiF4 an
upconversion pumping scheme was realized for the
3/2 → I11/2 transition at 1234 nm, which allowed
4S 4 Y3 Sc2 Ga3 O12 (YSGG) were shown to operate between
continuous-wave room-temperature Ti:sapphire- and
diode-pumped laser oscillation [11.597, 598]. Under
Ti:sapphire excitation around 966 nm output powers
of 160 mW and slope efficiencies of up to 22% were
obtained. Note, that without the Yb codoping, the out-
put powers were an order of magnitude lower. Under
diode laser pumping at 966 nm, Yb3+ ,Er3+ :YLiF4 ex-
hibited output powers of 80 mW and slope efficiencies
of 7%.
For this transition Xe flashlamp excitation is
also possible allowing room-temperature laser oscil-
lation in YLiF4 [11.599–601], LuLiF4 [11.602] and
YAlO3 [11.603]. In BaYb2 F8 , the 4 F9/2 → 4 I13/2 transi-
tion at 1260 nm exhibited laser oscillation under pulsed
Nd laser or Xe flashlamp excitation [11.604]. Laser os-
cillation on the 4 F9/2 → 4 I11/2 transition was obtained
around 1.96 µm in BaYb2 F8 [11.605–607] under pulsed
Nd laser and Xe flashlamp excitation.
11.2.4 Mid-Infrared Lasers
Basics
The mid-infrared wavelength range ≈ 1.9–5.0 µm is of
interest for a number of applications. Mid-infrared solid-
state lasers serve as light sources for spectroscopy, e.g.,
in remote sensing of the atmosphere, as the frequencies
of internal vibrational motion of many molecules can be
found in this spectral region. Other applications include
medicine, e.g., microsurgery and dentistry in the region
of high water absorption around 2.7–3 µm. Laser wave-
lengths near 2 µm are suitable for tissue welding and
The first mid-infrared laser was operated in 1960,
shortly after the invention of the laser itself. It was op-
erated at 2.6 µm in a calcium fluoride crystal doped
with trivalent uranium [11.608]. Pulsed excitation and
cooling to low temperatures were typically required for
novel laser transitions in the early years. Two years later,
a Dy2+ -doped CaF2 laser at 2.36 µm was also demon-
strated in continuous-wave operation [11.609, 610].
Among the lasers based on trivalent rare-earth ions, the
transitions near 2 µm in Tm3+ and Ho3+ were operated
in CaWO4 in 1962 [11.611,612]. The first observation of
coherent emission near 3 µm from erbium ions was re-
ported in 1967 [11.613]. Since those early years, a large
number of new host materials has been developed and
various new laser transitions in the mid-infrared spectral
region have been demonstrated (for a comprehen-
sive overview of ion–host combinations, see [11.614]).
Around 1990, Tm3+ - and Ho3+ -doped solid-state laser
systems in Y3 Al5 O12 (YAG), YLiF4 (YLF), YVO4 , and
1.86 and 2.46 µm [11.615–618], and Er3+ -doped lasers
in similar host systems cover the wavelength range of
2.66–2.94 µm. Short-pulse lasers at these wavelengths
have been demonstrated [11.619, 620].
Nowadays, mid-infrared laser transitions ranging
from 1.8 µm up to 7.2 µm [11.621] are known in di-
valent Dy, trivalent Tm, Ho, Er, Dy, Pr, Tb, and Nd, as
well as in trivalent U. The current state of the art in solid-
state lasers occurring in rare-earth ions such as Tm3+ ,
Ho3+ , Er3+ and others and their population mecha-
nisms are discussed in this section on the basis of the
spectroscopic properties of these ions. Continuous-wave
fundamental-mode power levels ranging from a few mW
near 4 µm up to ≈ 100 W near 2 µm have been demon-
strated in recent years. Power-scaling methods and their
limitations, the possibilities to optimize the population
mechanisms and increase the efficiencies of these lasers,
as well as the prospects of future mid-infrared lasers in
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 661

Table 11.20 Overview over Er3+ and Yb3+ :Er3+ -doped silica fiber lasers. λlaser : laser wavelength, λpump : pump wavelength, lfiber :
fiber length, Pthr : laser threshold, η: slope efficiency, Pout : output power, Ppump : pump power, Ref.: reference, (l): launched, (inc):
incident, (abs): absorbed, NA: not available. (After [11.595])
λlaser λ Pum p Er Yb lfiber Remarks Pthr η Pout max. Ppump Ref.
(nm) (nm) concen- concen- (m) (mW) (%) (mW) (mW)
tration tration
Ar+ pump

Part C 11.2
1566 514.5 35 ppm Er - 13 44 (l) 10 (l) 56 600 (l) [11.622]
1560 532 150 ppm - 1 Ring laser 10 (l) 5.1 (l) 1.8 45 (l) [11.623]
Er2 O3
1535 532 100 ppm Er - 15 Doubled NA 28 1000 3600 [11.624]
Nd:YAG
1560 806 500 ppm Er - 3.7 Laser diode 10 (l) 16 (l) 8 56 (l) [11.625]
1620 808 300 ppm Er - 1.5 Laser diode 3 (abs) 3.3 (abs) 0.13 7 (abs) [11.626]
1560 980 0.08 wt % - 0.9 Dye laser 2.5 (abs) 58 (abs) 4.7 11.3 (abs) [11.627]
1540 980 1100 ppm Er - 9.5 Ti:Sapphire > 10 (l) > 49 (l) 260 540 (l) [11.628]
1552 1460 1370 ppm Er - 5 2 laser diodes 37 (l) 14 (l) 8 93 (l) [11.629]
1552 1470 1370 ppm Er - 7 laser diode 44 (abs) 6.3 (abs) 1 60 (abs) [11.630]
1555 1480 45 ppm Er - 60 laser diode 6.5 (l) 38.8 (l) 3.3 15 (l) [11.631]
1560 1480 110 ppm - 42.6 laser diode 4.8 (abs) 58.6 (abs) 14.2 29 (abs) [11.632]
Er2 O3
1570 810 0.06 wt % 1.3 wt % 1.45 2 laser diodes 12.7 (l) 15.4 (l) 2.3 28 (l) [11.633]
1560 820 0.08% 1.7% 0.7 Dye laser 3.7 (abs) 7 (abs) NA NA [11.634]
1560 832 0.08% 1.7% 0.7 Dye laser 5 (abs) 8.5 (abs) NA NA [11.635]
1537 962 900 ppm 1.1% 1.6 laser diode 130 (l) 19 (l) 96 620 (l) [11.636]
1545 980 NA NA 0.07 laser diode 1 (abs) 25 (inc) 18.6 95 (inc) [11.637]
1535 1047 0.06% 1.8% 4 Nd:YLF 20 (l) 23 (l) 285 640 (l) [11.638]
1560 1064 0.08% 1.7% 0.91 Nd:YAG 8 (abs) 4.2 (abs) 1.3 (abs) 80 (abs) [11.634]
1535 1064 880 ppm 7500 NA Nd:YAG 37 (abs) 27 (abs) NA NA [11.639]
ppm
1545.6 980/1480 NA NA 0.07 Laser diode 10 (l) 50 (l) 166 340 (l) [11.640]

a number of rare-earth ions at transitions in the wave-
length range beyond 3 µm and extending to 5 µm are
described.
The aspects relevant to rare-earth-ion-doped mid-
infrared solid-state lasers, such as the competition
between radiative and multiphonon decay and the con-
sequent choice of host materials for these wavelengths
will be introduced next. The performance of the most
important mid-infrared laser transitions in the wave-
length range 2–3 µm will then be discussed in detail:
Tm3+ -doped lasers at 1.9 µm and 2.3 µm, Ho3+ -doped
lasers at 2.1 µm and 2.9 µm, Er3+ -doped lasers at
2.7–2.9 µm, and Dy3+ -doped lasers at 2.9–3.4 µm.
At wavelengths beyond 3 µm, it becomes increasingly
difficult to find suitable host materials for actively
doped laser systems. This statement holds true for glass
fibers in the same way as for crystalline materials. The
prospects for future mid-infrared solid-state lasers in
this wavelength range will be discussed at the end of the
section.
Introductions to the fields of mid-infrared solid-state
crystalline and fiber lasers can be found in [11.641]
and [11.642], respectively.
Decay mechanisms, host materials,
and thermal issues
Here a few fundamental aspects of lasers are discussed
with emphasis on their impact on mid-infrared solid-
state lasers.
Radiative versus multiphonon decay. The choice of
host material for mid-infrared solid-state lasers involves
a number of considerations. The maximum phonon
energy is the most important aspect. The optical trans-
parency range relates to both the size of the bandgap
and also the infrared absorption cut-off, hence to the vi-
662 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

brational frequency ν of the anion–cation bonds of the

Multiphonon relaxation rate (s–1)
material. For an ordered structure,
1012


1 k 1011 Borate (1400 cm–1)
ν= , (11.89) 10 Posphate (1200 cm–1)
2π M 10
Silicate (1100 cm–1)
109
where M = m 1 m 2 /(m 1 + m 2 ) is the reduced mass for 8
Germanate (900 cm–1)
two bodies m 1 and m 2 vibrating with an elastic restoring 10 GLS (350 cm–1)
107
Part C 11.2

force k. The relative cation–anion bond strength is inti- Tellurite (700 cm–1)
10 6 ZBLA (500 cm–1)
mated by the field strength Z/r 2 , where Z is the valence
5
state of the cation or anion and r is the ionic radius. Gen- 10
erally, materials composed of large anions and cations 104
with low field strengths display high transparency in the 103
mid-infrared spectral region. 102
Radiative decay of excited states is in competition 101
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
with nonradiative multiphonon decay. The maximum Energy gap (cm–1)
phonon energy of the material sets the multiphonon re-
laxation rates, which influence the quantum efficiency. Fig. 11.67 Calculated and measured multiphonon relax-
The rate constant of a multiphonon relaxation process ation rates as a function of the energy gap between energy
decreases exponentially with the energy gap to the next levels for glasses with different maximum phonon energies.
lower-lying state and with the order of the process, i. e., (After [11.643, 644])
the number of phonons required to bridge the energy
gap [11.643, 646]. As an example, the multiphonon re- terials such as chlorides are required to ensure a long
9/2 lifetime in order to operate the 4.5 µm laser.
laxation rates for the common fiber glasses as a function 4I
of the energy gap between energy levels are shown in
Fig. 11.67. Host materials for mid-infrared lasers. Crystalline
The influence of multiphonon decay is stronger in oxide materials have been the laser host materials of
oxides than in fluorides because of the smaller atomic choice for several decades, as many oxide crystals are
mass m 2 of the anion and the larger elastic restoring comparatively easy to grow, environmentally stable,
force k (11.89), due to the stronger covalent bonds in ox- and possess high heat conductivities [11.647], frac-
ides [11.644], both resulting in larger maximum phonon ture limits, and refractive indices, the latter resulting
energies in oxides. Typically, nonradiative decay be- in large absorption and emission cross sections. Most
comes dominant if five or fewer phonons are required to prominent is Y3 Al5 O12 (YAG), together with other
bridge the energy gap [11.645]. Since an energy gap of
≈ 3300 cm−1 corresponds to a transition wavelength of
3 µm, radiative decay prevails for phonon energies below O2–, F –, Cl – O2–, F –, Cl –
4
≈ 600 cm−1 , which is roughly the maximum phonon I9/2 ô3 = 0.1 µs, 10 µs, 5 ms
Laser
energy of fluorides. Fluorides are, therefore, preferred 4.5 µm
4
over oxides as host materials for most mid-infrared laser I11/2 ô2 = 100 µs, 5 ms, 10 ms
transitions. Laser
In the example of Fig. 11.68, dominant laser (solid 2.8 µm
4
lines) and multiphonon (dotted lines) transitions from I13/2 ô1 = 5 ms, 10 ms, 15 ms
the three lowest-energy levels of Er3+ are indicated,
together with the corresponding lifetimes of the levels Laser
Pump 1.5 µm
in different classes of host materials. In high-phonon-
energy oxide host materials, only the 1.5 µm laser
transition possesses sufficiently high frequency and 4
I15/2
large energy gap, resulting in a long 4 I13/2 lifetime. Er 3+
On the other hand, the 4 I11/2 lifetime is significantly
quenched by multiphonon relaxation and the 2.8 µm Fig. 11.68 Radiative and laser (solid lines) versus nonradia-
laser originating in this level is more easily operated tive (dotted lines) decay of the lowest three excited states of
in fluoride host materials. Finally, low-phonon host ma- Er3+ in oxide, fluoride, and chloride host materials [11.645]

garnets, but in recent years materials such as mixed
garnets, the vanadates YVO4 and GdVO4 , the double
tungstates KY(WO4 )2 and KGd(WO4 )2 , the sesquiox-
ides Y2 O3 , Sc2 O3 , and Lu2 O3 and others have shown
great promise for efficient lasing when doped with
various rare-earth ions. Their performance decreases
significantly when lasers are operated at wavelengths
above ≈ 2.5–3 µm because of their high maximum
phonon energies (≈ 700–900 cm−1 ). Silicate glass is
perhaps the most important material used for optical
fiber production [11.644, 648], however, in this material
the maximum phonon energy of ≈ 1100 cm−1 [11.649]
is even higher and has so far limited the emission wave-
length of mid-infrared fiber lasers using this material to
≈ 2.2 µm [11.650]. Silica is robust and involves the very
effective modified chemical vapor deposition (MCVD)
technique for fiber fabrication. Reducing the OH− con-
tent in the glass, which has two main absorption peaks
in the range 1.3–2.0 µm [11.651], improves the near-to-
mid-infrared utility. Rare-earth ions such as Nd3+ and
Er3+ which have high field strengths have low solubil-
ity in silicate glass, which can lead to clustering and
microscale phase separation.
The use of fluoride crystals and glasses as host ma-
terials for mid-infrared solid-state lasers has found wide
acceptance. The heavy-metal fluorides [11.652,653] are
preferred as fiber materials, especially ZBLAN [11.654,
655], a mixture of 53 mol % ZrF4 , 20 mol % BaF2 ,
4 mol % LaF3 , 3 mol % AlF3 , and 20 mol % NaF.
Since it can be readily drawn into single-mode optical
fiber [11.656] it is particularly important to mid-infrared
fiber lasers [11.657]. The large atomic weight of the
zirconium atom combined with relatively weak bond-
ing provides a maximum phonon energy for ZBLAN
of ≈ 550 cm−1 [11.658] and allows for high infrared
transparency up to ≈ 6 µm. Multiphonon relaxation,
however, becomes significant for transitions at wave-
lengths longer than ≈ 3–3.5 µm. Compared to silica,
ZBLAN has a lower damage threshold. The crystal field
strength is also weaker [11.659]. An overview of the
spectroscopic properties of rare-earth ions doped into
ZBLAN is given in [11.658]. On the crystalline side,
the host materials LiYF4 , BaY2 F8 , and their respective
isostructural relatives have become the workhorses for
many mid-infrared laser transitions [11.660, 661]. Be-
cause of their fluoride content, these materials have to
be grown under an atmosphere which excludes oxygen.
Among the low-phonon host materials, many com-
pounds naturally possess low heat conductivity and are
hygroscopic. This accounts for most of the halides,
with increasing hygroscopicity from chloride to iodide.
Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 663
On the other hand, these materials provide phonon
energies in the range of 350–150 cm−1 [11.662]. Re-
cently, KPb2 Cl5 and related compounds have emerged
as non-hygroscopic, hence promising candidates for
mid-infrared lasers [11.663–665]. Chalcogenide glasses
are composed of the chalcogen elements S, Se and
Te [11.666–668]. They are environmentally durable and
Part C 11.2
have reasonably large glass-forming regions. When the
rare-earth ions are doped into these glasses [11.669],
the radiative transition probabilities and, therefore, the
absorption and emission cross sections are high as a re-
sult of the high refractive index (≈ 2.6) of the glass
and the high degree of covalency of the rare-earth ion
with the surrounding medium. Maximum phonon en-
ergies of 300–450 cm−1 [11.670] produce low rates
of multiphonon relaxation (Fig. 11.67), and therefore
high quantum efficiencies. The most important glasses
are the sulfide glasses GaLaS (GLS) [11.671] and
GeGaS [11.672] because of the reasonably high rare-
earth solubility.
Studies into the use of ceramics as host mater-
ials for the rare-earths have recently made a lot of
progress [11.673]. These ceramics are composed of
nanocrystallites of materials such as YAG and can
be produced in a simple cost-efficient process at rel-
atively low temperatures. This allows the fabrication
of materials with very high melting points [11.674]
that are difficult to grow by other techniques such as
the Czochralski method. This class of materials is also
available in a fiber geometry [11.675]. Ceramic fibers
combine the characteristics of crystalline materials such
as high absorption and emission cross sections, large
thermal conductivity, and even the possibility of doping
with transition-metal ions [11.675] with the convenience
of guiding the pump and signal light in a fiber. While
bulk ceramics have already matured as laser host mater-
ials, the losses of ceramic fibers are still comparatively
high.
Specific aspects of operating mid-infrared lasers.
As higher pump powers become available from laser-
diode systems, it is generally recognized that thermal
and thermo-optical issues set limitations to the power
scalability of end-pumped bulk laser systems. Owing to
the unfavorable temperature dependence of thermal and
thermo-optical parameters [11.647], the large heat load
in the crystal leads, firstly, to a significant temperature
increase in the rod, secondly, to strong thermal lensing
with pronounced spherical aberrations, and ultimately,
to rod fracture in a high-average-power end-pumped
system. Thermal management will be required when
664 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources
very high output powers are desired. In particular, for
high-power mid-infrared operation, thermal manage-
ment may be very important because of the decreased
quantum efficiency and the consequently higher amount
of heat dissipation [11.676].
Due to its geometry, the fiber provides potentially
high pump and signal beam intensities without the draw-
Part C 11.2
backs of significant thermal and thermo-optical effects.
Its large surface-area-to-volume ratio means that the heat
generated from multiphonon relaxation in the core is
dissipated effectively by radiation and convection from
the outer surface of the fiber. This is especially true
for single-clad, core-pumped single-mode fibers where
this ratio is highest [11.678]. The larger cladding area
(> 104 µm2 ) of double-clad fiber lasers allows for high-
power diode-array pumping [11.408, 679–682]. On the
other hand, double-clad fibers have a smaller surface-
area-to-volume ratio and thermal issues need to be taken
into account [11.683–685].
While bulk crystalline mid-infrared lasers matured
already during the 1990s, the high costs of fabricating
fibers with sufficiently low losses in the mid-infrared
region of the spectrum has impeded the necessary re-
search efforts in the field of mid-infrared fiber lasers.
However, with the introduction of the double-clad fiber
and recent technological advances in the fields of
fiber fabrication and beam-shaped high-power diode
lasers, the performance of diode-pumped fiber lasers
has dramatically improved. Today, mid-infrared fiber
lasers can compete with the corresponding bulk crys-
talline systems in certain applications, especially when
fundamental-transverse-mode, CW laser operation at
output powers in the milliwatt to the hundred watt range
is required.
A large number of techniques for pulsed operation
including Q-switching and mode locking of fiber lasers
have been explored. These techniques have been inves-
tigated intensively for the common laser transitions at
1 µm in Nd3+ and Yb3+ , and at 1.5 µm in Er3+ , and
are usually described in combination with these lasers.
The small fiber size limits the peak power through the
damage-threshold intensity (propagating power per core
area) and, hence, crystalline lasers in bulk geometries or
optical parametric processes are often preferred when
high-energy short pulses are needed. This argument ac-
counts especially for mid-infrared ZBLAN-based fiber
lasers, because these fibers possess a lower damage
threshold compared to silica fibers. The description of
mid-infrared fiber lasers is, therefore, confined to CW
operation and specific techniques for pulsed operation
of fiber lasers are not discussed in this chapter.
Thulium-doped solid-state lasers
at 1.9–2.0 µm and 2.3–2.5 µm
The use of the Tm3+ ion for mid-infrared solid-state
laser applications has been widespread, partly as a re-
sult of the convenient absorption band near 0.79 µm,
which allows for direct AlGaAs diode-laser pumping.
The primary luminescent transitions of Tm3+ relevant
to mid-infrared laser emission are the 3 F4 → 3 H5 tran-
sition at ≈ 2.3 µm and the 3 H4 → 3 H6 ground-state
transition at ≈ 1.9 µm; see the energy-level scheme in
Fig. 11.69. The 3 F4 level is excited by the 0.79 µm pump
wavelength.
Three-level lasers at 1.9–2.0 µm. The first laser
emission from Tm3+ ions was reported on the
phonon-terminated 2 µm transition 3 H4 → 3 H6 in
CaWO4 :Tm3+ in 1962 [11.611]. In 1975, pulsed
operation at room temperature was demonstrated
in Cr3+ -codoped YAG and YAlO3 [11.686]. Cr3+
codoping allowed the experimentalist to improve the
absorption of flashlamp or ion-laser pump light in
the visible spectral range by the active medium
and subsequent energy transfer from Cr3+ to the
Tm3+ lasing ions [11.687, 688]. The cross-relaxation
process (3 F4 , 3 H6 ) → (3 H4 , 3 H4 ) can transform one
pump photon absorbed in the 3 F4 or a higher-lying
energy level into two excitations in the 3 H4 up-
per laser level of the 2 µm transition [11.616, 689]
(Fig. 11.69), thereby enhancing the quantum efficiency
of this laser by a factor of 2. Laser emission under
diode pumping of the 3 F4 level at 780–790 nm was
achieved in YAG in the late 1980s [11.690]. A single-
3
F4 ô3 = 1.5 ms
Laser
2.3 µm nr
CR
3
H5
nr
3
H4 ô1 = 6.8 ms
GSA Laser
2 µm
3
H6
Tm3+
Fig. 11.69 Partial energy-level scheme of Tm3+ display-
ing the measured lifetimes when doped into fluoride
glass [11.677], NR and CR represent nonradiative decay
and cross-relaxation, respectively

frequency monolithic laser has also been reported in
YAG:Tm3+ [11.691].
Recently, 14 W, 18 W, and 36 W of output power
with high beam quality has been achieved with diode
pumping at room temperature in YAG:Tm3+ [11.692]
and in LiYF4 :Tm3+ in slab [11.693] and bulk [11.694]
geometries, respectively. The latter approach could
be scaled to 70 W, however currently with low
beam quality [11.695]. Two research groups reported
about 115 W and 120 W, respectively, of multi-
mode output power from diode-pumped YAG:Tm3+
lasers [11.696, 697]. A microchip laser was demon-
strated in GdVO4 :Tm3+ [11.698]. A thin-disc laser has
also been demonstrated in YAG [11.699].
The large degree of Stark splitting of the 3 H6
ground state, combined with vibronic broadening of
the spectrum [11.700], provides the 3 H4 → 3 H6 tran-
sition with a very broad emission, spanning ≈ 400 nm
in many hosts, which represents one of the broadest
luminescent transitions available from any rare-earth
ion. Accordingly, its tunability is rather large, ranging
from 1.87–2.16 µm in YAG [11.701], 1.84–2.14 µm
in YSGG [11.701], 1.93–2.00 µm in YAlO3 [11.702],
1.93–2.09 µm in Y2 O3 [11.703], 1.93–2.16 µm in
Sc2 O3 [11.703], 1.83–1.97 µm in CaF2 [11.704],
1.91–2.07 µm in LiYF4 [11.693], 1.85–2.06 µm in
BaY2 F8 [11.705], 1.86–1.99 µm in GdVO4 [11.706],
1.84–1.95 µm in LuVO4 [11.707], 1.79–2.04 µm
in KGd(WO4 )2 [11.708], and 1.81–2.03 µm in
NaGd(WO4 )2 [11.709]. As for many other transitions,
shifts in the center emission wavelength can be achieved
by substitution of host ions, e.g., from Y3 Al5 O12 to
Lu3 Al5 O12 [11.710]. The vanadate crystals GdVO4 and
YVO4 as well as double tungstates possess compara-
tively high absorption coefficients [11.698, 711, 712],
allowing pumping also at 805–810 nm, where cheaper
and more-reliable pump diodes than at 780–790 nm
are available. Exploiting the large gain bandwidth,
mode-locked operation of Tm3+ 2 µm lasers with pulse
durations of 35 ps and 41 ps has been reported in
YAG:Tm3+ [11.713] and YAG:Cr3+ ,Tm3+ [11.714], re-
spectively. Actively [11.715, 716] or passively [11.717]
Q-switched laser operation is useful in micro-
surgery [11.718].
Recent progress in the fields of crystalline epitax-
ial growth and in-bulk refractive-index modification
processes in glasses and crystals has enabled novel
solid-state lasers in the waveguide geometry [11.719].
As one of the results, Tm3+ waveguide lasers at
2 µm have also been demonstrated in lead germanate
glass [11.720], YAG [11.721] with up to 15 W of output
Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 665
power under high-power diode side pumping [11.722],
and KY(WO4 )2 [11.723]. The latter laser has, as yet, not
shown a performance as good as for the same material
in bulk geometry [11.724] or in a waveguide geometry
but doped with Yb3+ and lasing at 1 µm [11.725]. Epi-
taxial layers of Tm:KLu(WO4 )2 /KLu(WO4 )2 have also
been operated with the laser cavity perpendicular to the
Part C 11.2
layer in the 2 µm spectral range [11.726].
The first explorations into fiber lasers utilizing
the 1.9 µm ground-state transition related to the dye-
laser pumping at 797 nm of a Tm3+ -doped silica
fiber laser [11.727]. Overlap of the main absorp-
tion band with the emission wavelength of AlGaAs
diode lasers quickly resulted in diode-laser pumping
of these fiber lasers based on either silica [11.728]
or fluoride [11.729] glass hosts. The cross-relaxation
process (3 F4 , 3 H6 ) → (3 H4 , 3 H4 ) and enhancement of
excited ions in the 3 H4 upper laser level of the
2 µm transition (Fig. 11.69), is highly dependent on
the overall concentration of Tm3+ ions and competi-
tion from multiphonon relaxation from the 3 F4 level.
Although generally high concentrations of Tm3+ in
low-phonon-energy glasses enable full exploitation of
this beneficial process, it has been shown recently that
this cross-relaxation process is resonant in a silica host
and hence only moderate (2–3 wt %) Tm3+ ion con-
centrations are required to maximize the benefits of
cross-relaxation [11.730].
Also in fibers, the broad emission spectrum
allows a large degree of wavelength tunabil-
ity [11.731]. Recently, tuning ranges of 230 nm
from 1.86–2.09 µm [11.732] and 250 nm from
1.72–1.97 µm [11.733] have been demonstrated. Since
the Tm3+ 1.9 µm transition can be favorably oper-
ated in silica fiber (with its higher peak-power damage
threshold compared to ZBLAN fiber), pulses in the
range of 190–500 fs have been obtained in additive-
pulse [11.734] or passive [11.735] mode-locking
arrangements using this broad emission spectrum. The
smaller emission cross section and the three-level nature
of the laser transition resulted in higher pump thresholds
compared to standard Nd3+ -doped silica fiber lasers. Re-
absorption from the ground state of the Tm3+ ion has
to be overcome because the ground-state multiplet is
the lower laser level. Reducing the population of the
higher Stark levels of the ground state by cooling the
fiber causes emission at shorter wavelengths. Tunabil-
ity to longer wavelengths can be obtained by variation
of the fiber length because of the increased level of re-
absorption by the ground state with longer lengths of
fiber [11.736].
666 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources
Early power-scaling experiments involved the use
of the convenient 1.064 µm YAG:Nd3+ laser which
core-pumped the short-wavelength side of the 3 H5
level [11.737]. Pumping the long-wavelength side of the
3 H level with a high-power 1.319 µm YAG:Nd3+ laser
5
also yielded efficient output [11.738]. In-band pump-
ing of the transition at 1.57 µm in silica [11.739] and
Part C 11.2
at 1.58–1.60 µm in fluoride glass [11.740, 741] has
also been demonstrated. Whilst theoretical modeling of
Tm3+ -doped silica fiber lasers [11.742] indicates that
in-band pumping is the most efficient pump method
for silica-based fiber lasers because of the high Stokes
efficiency, nevertheless, the wide availability of high-
power AlGaAs diode lasers at 790–800 nm and the
strong level of cross-relaxation in Tm3+ -doped silica
means that such diode-cladding-pumped systems in both
standing-wave [11.736,743] and ring-resonator [11.744]
arrangements are perhaps the most practical ways of
producing high output power from this ion (Fig. 11.70).
With Yb3+ sensitization and pumping at 975 nm, 75 W
of output power has been demonstrated [11.745]. Cur-
rently, the Tm3+ -doped silica fiber laser is the most
mature of the mid-infrared fiber-laser systems pri-
marily because of the robustness and convenience
offered by the silica glass host. The maximum out-
put power from high-power Tm3+ -doped fiber lasers
is now ≈ 85 W [11.743], which is comparable to the
equivalent diode-pumped Tm3+ -doped crystalline laser
systems [11.697].
Output power (W)
14 1.8 wt % Tm3+
12 3.6 mol % Tm3+, 0.4 mol % Ho3+
2.2 wt % Tm3+
10
8 3
6
4 Laser
2 H4
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Incident pump power (W)
Fig. 11.70 Measured output powers from diode-cladding-
pumped fiber lasers using 1.8 wt % Tm3+ -doped sil-
ica [11.735], 2.2 wt % Tm3+ -doped silica [11.746],
and 3.6 mol % Tm3+ , 0.4 mol % Ho3+ -doped fluoride
glass [11.747]
Four-level lasers at 2.3–2.5 µm. The mid-infrared
four-level CW laser at ≈ 2.3 µm on the transition
3 F → 3 H has been operated in GSGG:Tm3+ and
4 5
LiYF4 :Tm3+ , with wavelength tunability ranging from
2.2–2.37 µm [11.748] and 2.2–2.46 µm [11.749], re-
spectively. This laser operates best at low Tm3+
concentrations of < 2 at % in order to avoid the afore-
mentioned cross-relaxation, which in this case would
depopulate the upper laser level (Fig. 11.69). The life-
time of the lower laser level of the 3 F4 → 3 H5 transition
is quite short and leads to a low pump threshold.
Doping Tm3+ ions into a ZBLAN fiber offers an
increased quantum efficiency of the 3 F4 level [11.750–
752]. Deliberately designing the fiber to have a relatively
low Tm3+ -ion concentration reduces cross-relaxation
and hence severe lifetime quenching of the 3 F4 level.
The tunability extends from 2.25 µm to 2.5 µm [11.677].
Simultaneous lasing on the 3 H4 → 3 H6 transition at
1.9 µm produces a two-color fiber laser [11.753].
Applications requiring highly efficient output or multi-
mid-infrared-wavelength output will benefit from the
use of Tm3+ -doped ZBLAN fibers.
Holmium-doped solid-state lasers at 2.1 µm
and 2.9 µm
The use of the Ho3+ ion as the active dopant for
solid-state lasers opens up a number of very useful
mid-infrared transitions. In this section, we will con-
centrate on the 5 I7 → 5 I8 ground-state transition at
≈ 2.1 µm and the 5 I6 → 5 I7 transition at ≈ 2.9 µm; see
the energy-level scheme in Fig. 11.71. One of the sig-
nificant shortcomings of Ho3+ , however, is the lack of
5
S2
Laser
3.2 µm 5
F5
5
I4
F4
5
Laser I5
CR 3.9 µm 5
3
H5 I6
ET
3 2.9 µm
5
I7
GSA Laser
2.1 µm
3 5
H6 I8
Tm3+ Ho3+
Fig. 11.71 Partial energy-level scheme of Ho3+ with a Tm3+
sensitizer. ET represents energy transfer
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 667

ground-state-absorption (GSA) transitions [11.754] that which provide an inhomogeneously broadened, and
overlap with convenient high-power pump sources. As therefore smoother, gain shape, a pulse duration as
a result, many of the early demonstrations of Ho3+ - short as 25 ps could be achieved [11.776]. Q-switched
doped room-temperature crystalline CW lasers [11.616] laser operation [11.781–783] has been investigated and
involved sensitizing with Tm3+ in order to access the applied for microsurgery [11.784].
convenient absorption bands and the practical cross- Besides the cross-relaxation and energy-transfer
relaxation process Tm3+ provides, as we have discussed processes shown in Fig. 11.71, several other energy-

Part C 11.2
in Sect. 11.3.1. Energy migration amongst the Tm3+ transfer processes can occur in Tm3+ ,Ho3+ -codoped
ions and a suitable Tm3+ :Ho3+ concentration ratio materials [11.785–789], thereby making the system
ensures that efficient energy transfer to Ho3+ takes rather complex and introducing parasitic processes
place [11.755, 756] (Fig. 11.71). which can deplete the Ho3+ 5 I7 upper laser level,
increase the laser threshold, and diminish the laser ef-
Three-level lasers at 2.1 µm. The 2 µm transition ficiency. Rather than codoping the host with Tm3+
5 I → 5 I in Ho3+ ions was first demonstrated as a laser ions and exciting the Ho3+ ions via nonradiative en-
7 8
in CaWO4 :Ho3+ in 1962 [11.612] and in Tm3+-codoped ergy transfer from the Tm3+ ions, one can directly
CaWO4 :Ho3+ in 1963 [11.757]. In 1971, pulsed op- pump the Ho3+ 5 I7 upper laser level at 1.9 µm using
eration at room temperature on this three-level laser laser diodes [11.790], the output from a 1.9 µm Tm3+
transition was demonstrated in LiYF4 [11.758]. CW laser [11.791], which provided up to 15 W [11.792] and
laser emission was achieved under Kr+ -laser pumping in 19 W [11.694] output power from Ho3+ , or a MgF2 :Co
Cr3+ ,Tm3+ -codoped YSAG:Ho3+ and YSGG:Ho3+ in laser [11.793]. This approach ensures a low quantum
1986 [11.759]. Like in 2 µm Tm3+ lasers (Sect. 11.3.1), defect and, hence, low heat generation in the laser crys-
the Cr3+ codopant served as a sensitizer for the ab- tal. This scheme was proven very successful by the use
sorption of pump light in the visible spectral range and of a high-power Tm3+ fiber laser as the pump source,
excitation of Tm3+ ions by energy transfer. The subse- providing 6.4 W of output power and a slope efficiency
quent excitation of Ho3+ ions by energy transfer from of 80% versus incident pump power at 1.9 µm [11.794].
Tm3+ [11.760, 761] profits from the same Tm3+ -Tm3+ Also an efficient 2 µm Ho3+ single-frequency ring laser
cross-relaxation as described for 2 µm Tm3+ lasers in has been demonstrated in this way [11.795].
Sect. 11.3.1 (Fig. 11.71). In the 1980s, laser emission The first fiber laser configuration making use of
at 2.1 µm in Ho3+ under diode pumping of the Tm3+ this transition employed ZBLANP glass (a variant of
3 F level at 780–790 nm with pump thresholds as low ZBLAN) and argon-ion pumping [11.796]. A year later,
4
as 5 mW was achieved in YAG [11.762–764]. Com- this was followed by the demonstration of an argon-ion-
pact, monolithic, low-threshold laser devices can be pumped Ho3+ -doped silica fiber laser [11.797]. In both
achieved in this way [11.765]. Besides many differ- cases, the fiber was singly doped with Ho3+ , the out-
ent garnet crystal systems, LiYF4 also regained interest put power < 1 mW, and each needed a relatively high
as a host material for CW diode-pumped 2 µm Ho3+ pump power to reach laser threshold. Improvements in
lasers around 1990 [11.766, 767]. An Yb3+ -codoped, the output power and efficiency have been made recently
diode-pumped Ho3+ laser at 2.1 µm has also been with Yb3+ -doped silica fiber laser pumping of the 5 I6
demonstrated [11.768]. Noise suppression [11.769,770], level [11.798]; however, the output power had only in-
amplitude and frequency stabilization [11.771–773] of creased to 280 mW because the pump fiber laser was
2 µm Ho3+ lasers have been investigated. operated at the low-efficiency 1150 nm wavelength. Us-
Attempts to exploit the rather large gain band- ing the pump wavelength of 1100 nm, which is more
width of Ho3+ near 2.0–2.1 µm by tuning the emission optimal with respect to the operation of an Yb3+ -doped
wavelength were reported in the early 1990s [11.774, silica fiber laser, the output power has been increased by
775]. Nowadays, tuning ranges of > 80 nm are approximately an order of magnitude [11.799].
achieved in host materials such as mixed YSGG:GSAG As mentioned above, a practical method of ef-
[11.776], BaY2 F8 :Ho3+ [11.777], and KYF4 [11.778]. ficiently generating laser emission on the 5 I7 → 5 I8
Mode-locking experiments have resulted in 800 ps, transition is to codope Ho3+ laser ions with Tm3+ sen-
370 ps, and 70 ps pulse durations, obtained in sitizer ions. The first demonstration of a fiber laser
YAG:Cr3+ ,Tm3+ ,Ho3+ [11.714], LiYF4 :Tm3+ ,Ho3+ operating with the Tm3+ ,Ho3+ system occurred in
[11.779], and BaY2 F8 :Tm3+ ,Ho3+ [11.780], respective- 1991 [11.800] when 250 mW was generated at a slope
ly. In mixed crystals of YSGG:GSAG:Cr3+ ,Tm3+ ,Ho3+ , efficiency of 52% from a Ti:sapphire-pumped fluoride
668 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources
fiber laser. A year later [11.801], this work was followed
by an increase in the Tm3+ concentration to improve
cross-relaxation and resulted in a higher slope efficiency
being obtained. Demonstration of a Tm3+ ,Ho3+ -doped
silica fiber laser soon followed [11.802, 803]; how-
ever, owing to lower Tm3+ concentrations which forces
weaker cross-relaxation, significantly lower slope ef-
Part C 11.2
ficiencies were measured, especially when pumped at
1.064 µm [11.804]. When the concentrations are in-
creased and the double-clad pump arrangement used,
a significant augmentation of the output power to
5.4 W has been demonstrated [11.805]. To date, the
highest output power of 8.8 W from a fiber laser operat-
ing on the 5 I7 → 5 I8 transition has been produced by
a diode-cladding-pumped Tm3+ ,Ho3+ -doped fluoride
fiber laser [11.747] (Fig. 11.70). In an analogous way
to recent demonstrations in bulk laser systems, tandem-
pumping Ho3+ with a separate Tm3+ laser operating
at 1.9 µm may also prove effective in fibers, because it
similarly exploits the cross-relaxation process between
Tm3+ ions but avoids any ETU between Ho3+ ions in
the 5 I7 upper laser level and excited Tm3+ ions [11.789].
When sensitizing with Yb3+ ions, a Ho3+ -doped silica
fiber laser at 2.1 µm has been shown [11.806] to operate
at moderate efficiency levels despite the fact that the en-
ergy transfer from Yb3+ to Ho3+ is quite nonresonant
(Fig. 11.72).
Four-level lasers at 2.9 µm. Laser emission at the
transition 5 I6 → 5 I7 near 3 µm in an Ho3+ -doped crys-
tal was demonstrated in 1976 [11.808]. Sensitizing
Ho3+ with Yb3+ ions (see the energy-level scheme
in Fig. 11.72) in order to exploit the more-favorable
absorption features of Yb3+ has been used in diode-
ET
5
I5
2
F5/2
5
I6
ô2 = 3.5 ms Laser
2.9 µm
GSA 5 Initial spectroscopic results look encouraging [11.819],
I7
ô1 = 12 ms
Laser
2.1 µm
2 5
F7/2 I8
Yb3+ Ho3+
Fig. 11.72 Partial energy-level scheme of Ho3+ with Yb3+
sensitizer displaying the measured lifetimes of Ho3+ when
doped into fluoride glass host [11.807]
pumped crystalline lasers for the generation of 2.9 µm
output [11.809]. Recent reports on this transition include
laser investigations of YAlO3 :Ho3+ [11.810], diode-
pumped Yb3+ -codoped YGSS:Ho3+ with 10 mJ output
energy [11.811], and Cr3+ ,Yb3+ -codoped YGSS:Ho3+
tunable in the range 2.84–3.05 µm [11.812] and in Q-
switched operation [11.813]. Since the 5 I7 lower laser
level is a metastable excited state with a longer lifetime
than the 5 I6 upper laser level, it is difficult to achieve
CW inversion on this transition. Cascade lasing on the
5 I → 5 I and 5 I → 5 I transitions at 3 and 2 µm, re-
6 7 7 8
spectively [11.814, 815], may help to deplete the 5 I7
level radiatively, i. e., without significant heat genera-
tion. Passive Q-switching of this transition has also been
demonstrated [11.813].
The combined effect of the infrared absorption
cut-off wavelength of ≈ 2.5 µm for pure silica glass
and the strong multiphonon relaxation quenching of
mid-infrared transitions of rare-earth ions in this host
means that four-level fiber lasers operating on the
5 I → 5 I transition at ≈ 2.9 µm have only involved
6 7
fluoride glass as the host material. The first demon-
stration of a fiber laser using this transition [11.816]
produced only ≈ 13 mW when pumped at a wavelength
of 640 nm. High-power cascade lasing at 2.9 µm and
2.1 µm has been employed to extend the output power
to 1.3 W [11.817] by removing bottlenecking at the 5 I7
level [11.807] via the second laser transition at 2.1 µm.
In an analogous manner to the Er3+ -doped fluoride
glass system discussed below, the most successful ar-
rangement to date for extracting high power from this
transition has involved the use of Pr3+ as a desensi-
tizer for the 5 I7 energy level: a maximum output power
of 2.5 W was produced when the pump wavelength
of 1100 nm from a Yb3+ -doped silica fiber laser was
used [11.818].
An Yb3+ -sensitized Ho3+ -doped ZBLAN fiber
could be directly pumped with diode lasers and may
efficiently provide high-power 2.9 µm output without
the costly requirement of an intermediate laser system.
however, the many excited ion interactions that a fluoride
host provides may be problematic. A recent demonstra-
tion has shown that ion–ion interactions (specifically
ETU) in Ho3+ -doped fluoride glass are critical to the
production of 2.9 µm output from singly Ho3+ -doped
fluoride glass fiber lasers [11.820].
Erbium-doped solid-state lasers at 2.7–2.9 µm
For a long time, the development of erbium lasers op-
erating on the 4 I11/2 → 4 I13/2 transition near 3 µm was
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 669

dominated by crystalline systems. The early success of

the erbium 3 µm crystal laser has given rise to a signifi- a) b)
4 –17 3 –1
F7/2 W (10 cm s ), Ratio
cant amount of spectroscopic investigations. This has led 2 10
H11/2
to a deep understanding of the rather complex population 4
S3/2 9
mechanisms of this laser system and to the development ETU2 CR 8 W11
of a large number of suitable host materials. 4 7 W22
F9/2
6 Ratio
5

Part C 11.2
Crystalline lasers. The first observation of coherent 4
ETU1
I9/2 4
emission near 3 µm from erbium ions was reported 3
4 Laser
in 1967 [11.613]. Yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG) I11/2 2
was demonstrated as a host for the erbium 3 µm ETU2
1
laser [11.822] in 1975. In 1983, the first CW lasing near 0
4
I13/2 0 5 10 15
3 µm was obtained in this material [11.823]. At about 20 –3
Erbium concentration (10 cm )
the same time, it was established [11.824–827] that en-
ergy transfer processes [11.828] between neighboring Pump ETU1 CR
erbium ions in the host lattice play an important role
in this laser system. Energy transfer processes can be- 4
I15/2
come very efficient at high excitation density [11.829] 3+
Er
and govern the population mechanisms of the 3 µm
laser at high erbium concentration. In the energy-level Fig. 11.73 (a) Partial energy-level scheme of erbium indicating the
scheme of Fig. 11.73a, the important ETU and cross- pump and laser transitions, ETU1 from 4 I13/2 , ETU2 from 4 I11/2 , and
relaxation processes are introduced. The ETU process cross-relaxation (CR) from the thermally coupled 4 S3/2 and 2 H11/2
(4 I13/2 , 4 I13/2 ) → (4 I15/2 , 4 I9/2 ) leads to a fast deple- levels. (b) Macroscopic parameters of ETU1 from 4 I13/2 (W11 ) and
tion of the lower laser level and enables CW operation ETU2 from 4 I11/2 (W22 ) and the ratio W11 /W22 in ZBLAN:Er3+
of a laser transition which, otherwise, could be self- bulk glasses. (After [11.821])
terminating owing to the unfavorable lifetime ratio of
the upper compared to the lower laser level. The ETU given by [11.831]
process from 4 I13/2 can be so dominant that even under  
direct pumping of the 4 I13/2 lower laser level and subse- ln(1 − T ) b21 W22
ηsl = ηSt 2− 2 ,
quent excitation of the 4 I11/2 upper laser level by ETU, ln[(1 − T )(1 − L)] b2 W11
3 µm laser operation was demonstrated in several host (11.91)
materials [11.830].
This ETU process offers another great advantage. with T the transmission of the out-coupling mirror, L
Half of the ions that undergo this process are upcon- the internal resonator losses, and bi and Wii , the Boltz-
verted to the 4 I9/2 level and, by subsequent multiphonon mann factors and ETU parameters of the upper (i = 2)
relaxation, are recycled to the 4 I11/2 upper laser level and lower (i = 1) laser levels, respectively. If ETU oc-
from where they can each emit a second laser photon, curs only from the lower laser level, i. e., W22 = 0, we
for a single pump-photon absorption. For a large number obtain the predicted factor of two increase in slope ef-
of ions participating in this process, a slope efficiency ficiency from (11.91). The slope efficiency is reduced,
ηsl of twice the Stokes efficiency ηSt = λpump /λlaser however, by the resonator losses, the imperfect mode
is obtained [11.831], because the quantum efficiency overlap, and the ETU process from the upper laser level
ηQE = n laser /n pump of pump photons converted to laser in the case of W22 > 0. In the investigated host mater-
photons increases from 1 to 2 (λ and n are the ials, the parameters Wii of both ETU processes increase
wavelengths and photon numbers of laser and pump with increasing erbium concentration because of the in-
transitions, respectively): fluence of energy migration within the erbium 4 I11/2 and
4I
13/2 levels on ETU. The slope efficiency of (11.91) is
ηsl = ηQE ηSt = 2ηSt . (11.90) optimum for a maximum ratio W1 /W2 . Spectroscopy of
these processes in crystal hosts and laser experiments
This is illustrated in Fig. 11.74. revealed that the maximum ratio is obtained at dopant
In a simple rate-equation system which includes the concentrations of ≈ 12–15% in BaY2 F8 [11.832, 833],
processes shown in Fig. 11.73a the slope efficiency is ≈ 15% in LiYF4 [11.661], ≈ 30% in YSGG [11.834],
670 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources
4
F9/2
100 % 50 % 25 % 13 % = çpump
4
I 9/2
4
I11/2
Part C 11.2
Laser
4
I13/2
1.0 1.5 1.75 1.83 ... 2 = çQE
GSA ETU1 ETU1 ETU1
4
I15/2
Er3+
Fig. 11.74 Partial energy-level scheme of erbium illustrat-
ing the process of energy recycling from the lower to
the upper laser level by ETU. Indicated are the relative
pump rate ηp of the upper laser level and the quantum effi-
ciency ηQE which increases from 1 to 2 if a large number
of ions participate in the process. (After [11.836])
and ≈ 50% in Y3 Al5 O12 [11.835]. A trend in this se-
ries is the increase of the optimum erbium concentration
with phonon energy of the host material.
Energy recycling by ETU is the most efficient
way to operate a CW erbium laser near 3 µm. The
highest slope efficiency obtained experimentally is cur-
rently 50% in LiYF4 :15% Er3+ [11.837]. The pump
wavelength that provides the highest Stokes efficiency
of ηSt = λpump /λlaser = 35% is 980 nm, which cor-
responds to pumping directly into the upper laser
level [11.838] (Fig. 11.73a). The highest slope efficiency
obtained experimentally [11.837] is currently ηsl = 50%
in LiYF4 :15% Er3+ . This result shows that energy re-
cycling is indeed efficient and that slope efficiencies
far above the Stokes efficiency can be obtained under
CW pumping. Under quasi-CW excitation, the slope ef-
ficiency is strongly reduced [11.839], because the lower
laser level is much less populated than in the steady-
state regime and ETU is less efficient [11.840, 841].
Other operational regimes which deplete the lower laser
level without recycling the energy to the upper laser
level are less efficient. Consequently, neither co-lasing
at the 1.6 µm transition from the lower laser level to the
ground state [11.842] nor energy transfer from the er-
bium lower laser level to a rare-earth codopant [11.660]
have reached the efficiency of the recycling regime.
Lifetime quenching of the 4 I11/2 upper laser level
by multiphonon relaxation is stronger in oxide com-
pared to fluoride host materials because of the larger
maximum phonon energies in oxides. With an energy
gap between the 4 I11/2 upper and 4 I13/2 lower laser lev-
els of ≈ 3400–3500 cm−1 , the radiative decay becomes
dominant for phonon energies below ≈ 550 cm−1 . Since
a long lifetime of the 4 I11/2 upper laser level provides
a small pump threshold, fluorides are preferable host
materials [11.843] for this laser transition if the pump
power is not many times above threshold.
In the 1980s and 1990s, numerous host materials
were investigated for CW and pulsed laser operation of
Er3+ in the 2.7–2.9 µm region. A major role was played
by the family of garnet crystals YAG, YSGG, YSAG,
YGG, and GGG [11.615, 844, 845]. In the early years,
Cr3+ codoping was used in order to improve the absorp-
tion of broadband flashlamp pump light in the visible
spectral range and transfer the absorbed energy from
Cr3+ to Er3+ . Typical output characteristics obtained
were 2.7 W average power at a pump energy of 5 J with
a repetition rate of 10 Hz [11.845]. Doping levels up to
100% substitution of Y3+ by Er3+ were tested [11.846].
A new class of host materials, fluoride crystals such as
LiYF4 , BaY2 F8 , and others, became of importance in
the late 1980s [11.847–850]. Laser thresholds as low
as 5 mW were obtained under CW excitation by diode
lasers [11.849].
In recent years, researchers have obtained CW and
quasi-CW diode-pumped output power levels exceeding
1 W at 3 µm from fluoride [11.661] and oxide [11.851–
853] crystalline host materials. A significant problem in
the energy-recycling regime is increased heat genera-
tion due to the multiphonon relaxation 4 I9/2 → 4 I11/2
that follows each ETU process from the lower laser
level [11.676]. Glass bulk materials [11.854] suffer from
the same thermal and thermo-optical drawbacks as the
crystalline bulk materials, with even decreased thermal
conductivity in the glass. A possible solution is diode
side pumping, which leads to lower excitation den-
sities and correspondingly weaker ETU processes, as
well as better heat removal in the slab geometry. The
highest output powers of 1.8 W and later 4 W from an
erbium 3 µm crystal laser [11.855, 856] have been ob-
tained in this way. A reduced erbium concentration with
correspondingly smaller parameters of the ETU pro-
cesses may aid this approach. However, the efficiency
of the energy-recycling regime cannot be reached in this
approach.
Other special configurations include the operation
of Er3+ -doped YAG, GGG, and YSGG lasers in mono-
lithic cavities with output powers up to 0.5 W and
tunable single-frequency output [11.857] as well as mi-
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 671

crolasers in YSGG [11.858]. Pulsed output at 3 µm has
been generated from erbium-doped crystalline mater-
ials in many configurations and regimes, e.g., under
quasi-CW pumping [11.839, 841], active [11.859–868]
and passive [11.869–872] Q-switching, and mode-
locking [11.619, 869, 873].
see the measured GSA and ESA cross sections in
Fig. 11.75a. Depletion of the lower laser level by ESA
favorably results in a redistribution of its population den-
sity and overcomes the bottleneck that results from the
long lower-level lifetime. However, slope efficiencies
obtained in this way were < 15%. Moreover, satura-
tion of the output power at 2.7 µm was observed and

Part C 11.2
Fiber lasers. The erbium-doped fluoride fiber represents the highest reported output powers were in the 20 mW
a promising alternative for the construction of a com- region [11.887, 888]. The excitation of the metastable
3/2 level (lifetime ≈ 580 µs [11.821]) led to inversion
pact and efficient all-solid-state laser emitting at the 4S
transition at 3 µm. Due to its geometry, the fiber pro- with respect to the 4 I13/2 level. A second laser transi-
vides large flexibility and potentially high pump and tion at 850 nm repopulated the 4 I13/2 lower laser level of
signal beam intensities without the drawbacks of ther- the 2.7 µm transition (Fig. 11.75b), causing the 2.7 µm
mal and thermo-optical effects. The first erbium 3 µm laser to saturate at low output powers [11.885]. Sig-
fiber laser was demonstrated in 1988 [11.875]. Single- nificant improvement in the performance of this laser
mode [11.876] and diode-pumped [11.877] operation system was obtained by deliberately operating a third
were demonstrated shortly afterwards. Although the life- laser transition 4 S3/2 → 4 I9/2 at 1.7 µm, thereby sup-
time of the 4 I13/2 lower laser level exceeds that of the pressing the competitive laser at 850 nm and recycling
4I
11/2 upper laser level, CW lasing can be obtained the excitation energy accumulated in the 4 S3/2 level into
on this four-level-laser transition in ZBLAN (but also the upper laser level; see the energy-level scheme in
in fluoride crystals, see the paragraph on crystalline Fig. 11.75b. The slope efficiency of the 2.7 µm transi-
lasers) without employing special techniques to depop- tion increased significantly to 23% [11.889], close to the
ulate the 4 I13/2 lower laser level, because the lower Stokes efficiency limit of 29% under 800 nm pumping.
laser level is not fed significantly by luminescent de- An output power of 150 mW was demonstrated ex-
cay or multiphonon relaxation from the upper laser perimentally [11.889]. Also a three-transition-cascade
level [11.878]. In addition, the Stark splitting of the laser
levels contributes to population inversion, because the
laser transition occurs between a low-lying Stark com- a) b)
–22 2
óESA (10 cm ) 4
F7/2
ponent of the upper and a high-lying Stark component 24 4
H11/2
of the lower laser level [11.836]. During the relaxation 4 4 ô5 = 580 µs
20 I15/2 S3/2 Laser Laser
oscillations at the onset of lasing, a red-shift of the las- 4
I13/2 1.7 µm 850 nm
16 4 4
ing wavelength is often observed in erbium 3 µm laser I11/2 F9/2
12 ESA
systems [11.879–882], because the excitation energy is 4
I9/2
accumulated in the long-lived 4 I13/2 lower laser level and 8
4
the character of the lasing process changes from four- I11/2 ô2 = 6.9 ms
4 Laser
level to three-level lasing [11.836]. For the same reason, 0 2.7 µm
the tunability range of a 3 µm CW laser [11.883] is 780 790 800 810 820 830 840 4
I13/2 ô1 = 9 ms
Wavelength (nm)
narrowed and red-shifted with increasing pump power.
GSA
Pump excited-state absorption (ESA), which is
present in Er3+ at almost all available GSA wave- 4
I15/2
lengths [11.884], has a major influence on the 3+
Er
performance of low-doped, core-pumped erbium 2.7 µm
ZBLAN fiber lasers because of the significant amount Fig. 11.75 (a) Absorption cross sections in ZBLAN:Er3+ near
of ground-state bleaching and excitation of the laser lev- 800 nm: GSA 4 I15/2 → 4 I9/2 and ESA 4 I13/2 → 2 H11/2 , 4 I11/2 →
3/2 , and I11/2 → F5/2 (After [11.874]). (b) Partial energy-
els under these conditions [11.885]. Pumping at 980 nm 4F 4 4

directly into the upper laser level provides the highest
Stokes efficiency of ηSt = λpump /λlaser = 35% [11.838].
However, ESA at 980 nm from the 4 I11/2 upper laser
level [11.886] is detrimental to lasing. Experimentally,
the best pump wavelength [11.885] is near 792 nm, at the
peak of ESA from the 4 I13/2 lower laser level [11.874];
level scheme of erbium indicating the processes relevant to the
ZBLAN:Er3+ cascade laser: lower loop with GSA to 4 I9/2 , mul-
tiphonon relaxation, laser transition at 2.7 µm, luminescent decay,
and upper loop with ESA to 2 H11/2 , thermal relaxation, laser tran-
sition at 1.7 µm, multiphonon relaxation, laser transition at 2.7 µm.
Competitive lasing at 850 nm is suppressed in the cascade regime
 672 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

lasing regime with additional lasing at the transition similarly preventing energy recycling by ETU [11.896].
13/2 → I15/2 near 1.6 µm was demonstrated [11.890].
4I 4 Each pump photon can at best produce one laser pho-
In ZBLAN fibers with higher dopant concentra- ton in the Er3+ ,Pr3+ -codoped system. The theoretical
tions of typically 1–5 mol % (≈ 1.6–8 × 1020 cm−3 ) and limit of the slope efficiency is given by the Stokes
with the double-clad geometry, ESA is much less efficiency, which is 29% under 800 nm pumping. Ex-
important, because the reduced pump intensity with perimentally, a slope efficiency of 17% and an output
low-brightness diode lasers leads to smaller excita- power of 1.7 W were obtained [11.891] (Fig. 11.76b).
Part C 11.2

tion densities. Currently, the most successful approach Other researchers [11.897] reported output powers of
towards a high-power erbium 2.7 µm fiber laser is 660 mW. Since ESA from both laser levels is negligible,
codoping of the fiber with Pr3+ [11.891, 892]. This idea the system can alternatively be pumped near 980 nm,
was reported already in [11.887, 893, 894] and was pro- which provides a Stokes efficiency of 35%. In this way,
posed for the double-clad fiber laser in [11.895]. In the experimental slope efficiency could be increased to
this approach, the Er3+ 2.7 µm transition is operated 25% [11.898]. With improvements in diode-laser tech-
as a simple four-level laser; see the energy-level scheme nology and an optimized fiber design, an output power
in Fig. 11.76a. The 4 I13/2 lower laser level is depopu- of 5.4 W at 2.7 µm with a slope efficiency of 21% could
lated by the energy transfer process ET1 to the Pr3+ recently be demonstrated from an Er3+ ,Pr3+ -codoped
codopant and fast decay to the ground state by mul- ZBLAN fiber laser [11.892, 899].
tiphonon relaxation within Pr3+ . The energy-transfer The first steps toward pulsed output from erbium
process ET2 from the 4 I11/2 upper laser level to the Pr3+ 3 µm ZBLAN lasers [11.882, 900, 901] were unsatisfac-
codopant is weak [11.821]. The strong lifetime quench- tory in terms of output energies and average powers.
ing of the 4 I13/2 lower laser level significantly reduces There have also been attempts to operate the ZBLAN
ground-state bleaching and excitation of the laser lev- fiber laser in the energy-recycling regime. The pa-
els, thus making the influence of ESA negligible, but rameters Wii of both ETU processes in ZBLAN bulk
glasses [11.821] versus Er3+ concentration are shown in
Fig. 11.73b. The criterion for optimization of the slope
a) b)
4 efficiency in (11.90) is maximizing the ratio W11 /W22 .
F7/2 Outputp power (W)
2
H11/2 2
For Er3+ concentrations of > 2–3 mol % at which ETU
4
S3/2 processes become important, this ratio is ≈ 3, see the
1
D2 dashed line in Fig. 11.73b, a more favorable value than
4
F9/2 reported for LiYF4 :Er3+ [11.851]. Energy recycling by
1 ETU at high Er3+ concentrations [11.902] might lead
4
I9/2 ET2 to output powers at 3 µm on the order of 10 W. In early
4 1 attempts, two research groups tried to exploit energy
I11/2 G4
recycling [11.903, 904], however the slope efficiencies
ET1 0 in these experiments did not exceed the slope efficien-
3 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
4 F4 cies obtained in Er3+ ,Pr3+ -codoped fibers pumped at
I13/2 3 Launched pump power (W)
F3
Laser 3 corresponding pump wavelengths [11.891, 892, 898]. In
F2
3
H6 fibers with relatively large core diameters and there-
GSA
3
H5 fore transverse multimode operation, singly Er-doped
4
with concentrations smaller than those required for
3
I15/2 H4 efficient energy recycling, 3 W of output power was
3+ 3+
Er Pr
obtained [11.905]. With further increase of the core
Fig. 11.76 (a) Partial energy-level scheme of erbium indicating the diameter to 90 µm, the highest pulsed output of > 0.5 mJ
processes relevant to the ZBLAN:Er3+ lifetime-quenching laser: could be demonstrated by the same researchers. Re-
GSA at 980 nm to the 4 I11/2 upper laser level (or at 790 nm to the cently, 8 W of output power with a slope efficiency
4I 4 of 24.4% were demonstrated from a highly Er-doped
9/2 pump level and subsequent multiphonon relaxation to I11/2 ),
4
laser transition to the I13/2 lower laser level, and relaxation to (60 000 ppm) ZBLAN fiber when dual-end-pumping the
the ground state via energy transfer ET1 to the Pr3+ codopant. fiber with 25 W of launched pump power at 975 nm.
The energy transfer ET2 from the 4 I11/2 upper laser level to the This result represents the highest output obtained by the
Pr3+ codopant is weak. (b) Output power at 2.7 µm under 792 nm end of 2005 from a fiber laser near 3 µm. Again, the
pumping. (After [11.891]) achieved slope efficiency of 24.4% is very similar to

that of 25% obtained with the same pump wavelength in
a Er3+ ,Pr3+ -codoped fiber [11.898]. Therefore, it must
be concluded that efficient energy recycling with cor-
respondingly improved slope efficiency similar to the
result of 50% in a crystalline host material [11.837] is
still lacking.
Dysprosium-doped solid-state lasers at
2.3–2.4 µm and 2.9–3.4 µm
The search for new mid-infrared laser transitions de-
pends entirely on the structure of the energy-level
diagram of the rare-earth ions. The Dy3+ ion offers
a rather dense energy-level scheme in the infrared spec-
tral region, resulting in a range of absorption peaks, as
well as a four-level laser transition at 2.3–2.4 µm and
a phonon-terminated 3 µm laser transition. The transi-
tion at 2.3–2.4 µm was among the first laser transitions
reported and the first to be demonstrated in continuous-
wave operation [11.609, 610]. Because of the dense
energy-level scheme of Dy3+ , multiphonon relaxation
is an issue of concern in this ion, hence low-phonon host
materials may improve its laser performance. Recently,
room-temperature laser emission at 2.43 µm was re-
ported in the low-phonon host materials CaGa2 S4 :Dy3+
and KPb2 Cl5 :Dy3+ . At the 3.4 µm transition, room-
temperature laser oscillation from Dy3+ in BaYb2 F8
has been reported [11.906]. The 1100 nm output from
a Yb3+ -doped silica fiber laser has been successfully
used to pump a Dy3+ -doped fluoride fiber laser [11.907].
In this case, a maximum output power of 275 mW was
generated with a slope efficiency of only ≈ 5%, however,
when the pump wavelength was increased to ≈ 1.3 µm
using a YAG:Nd3+ laser, the slope efficiency is approx-
imately quadrupled to ≈ 20% [11.908]. Reduced levels
of pump ESA are believed to cause this augmentation in
the slope efficiency. Future Dy3+ -doped fluoride fiber
lasers may benefit from further increases in the pump
wavelength to 1.7 µm or 2.8 µm.
Before turning our attention to rare-earth-ion-doped
solid-state lasers in the wavelength range beyond 3 µm,
it should be noted that solid-state lasers based on the
actinide ion U3+ have also attracted attention in the
recent past [11.909, 910].
Solid-state lasers at wavelengths beyond 3 µm
Laser wavelengths longer than typically 3 µm are gen-
erally difficult to achieve in solid-state host materials
by direct generation from rare-earth or transition-metal
ions, because the energy gap between the upper and
lower laser level is necessarily small and all the com-
mon oxide and fluoride host materials possess maximum
Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 673
phonon energies, which lead to fast multiphonon relax-
ation of the excitation of the upper laser level. Therefore,
many of the laser transitions reported in the literature re-
quire cooling of the active device. On the other hand, the
attractiveness of this wavelength range for a number of
applications has inspired the search for host materials
with maximum phonon energies below ≈ 300 cm−1 .
Part C 11.2
In crystalline hosts, a flashlamp-pumped, cooled
Er3+ laser at 4.75 µm [11.614], a CW diode-
pumped, cooled Er3+ laser at 3.41 µm [11.911], and
a pulsed diode-pumped room-temperature Er3+ laser
at 4.6 µm [11.912] have been operated. A room-
temperature BaY2 F8 :Ho3+ laser was operated at
3.9 µm [11.913]. Due to its dense energy-level scheme,
Dy3+ offers a large range of possible mid-infrared
transitions. Recently, room-temperature lasing of Dy3+
transitions in the low-phonon host materials CaGaS2
and KPb2 Cl5 was demonstrated [11.914], in the for-
mer material even at 4.31 µm. The longest-wavelength
lasers shown to operate in a solid-state mater-
ial are room-temperature 5 µm and 7 µm lasers in
LaCl3 :Pr3+ [11.915, 916].
The operation of lasers at wavelengths of
3.22 µm [11.917] and 3.95 µm [11.918] has been
obtained from Ho3+ -doped ZBLAN fiber and at
3.45 µm [11.919] from Er3+ -doped ZBLAN fiber. It
was, however, necessary to cool the ZBLAN fiber for
the 3.45 µm and 3.95 µm transitions. These two laser
transitions span five or six maximum phonon ener-
gies in ZBLAN, therefore the lifetime of the upper
laser level for each of these transitions is short and en-
genders an increase in the pump threshold compared
to other ZBLAN fiber lasers operating at the shorter
mid-infrared wavelengths. In addition, the lower laser
levels of these transitions possess quite long lifetimes
and some saturation of the output power has been ob-
served [11.920]. This problem (while it can be mitigated
with cascaded lasing), combined with the use of incon-
venient pump sources has impeded the full utilization
of these laser transitions. The 3.95 µm wavelength emit-
ted from the cooled ZBLAN fiber laser is currently the
longest laser wavelength that has been generated from
a fiber laser.
Generating wavelengths longer than 3 µm from fiber
lasers is a task that tests the limits of current glass
technology. The need for lower phonon energies has to
be balanced with acceptable mechanical, chemical, and
thermal properties. Since the highly developed ZBLAN
glass is only useful for laser transitions up to 3–3.5 µm,
glasses such as the chalcogenides [11.921] will need
to fill the gap. It is because these glasses have to
 674 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources
be drawn into low-loss fiber that has prevented long-
wavelength emission to the extent that is possible in
crystalline-based solid-state lasers. Creating efficient,
high-power mid-infrared fiber lasers with output wave-
lengths > 3 µm is at the forefront of current fiber-laser
research efforts.
As mentioned above, fiber lasers operating on laser
Part C 11.2
transitions that have wavelengths > 3 µm will need to
use glasses, which have very low phonon energies. While
rare-earth-ion-doped heavy-metal oxides [11.925] have
been studied for 2–3 µm mid-infrared emission; to date,
there has been no report of laser action for a fiber laser
comprised of such a glass. Heavy-metal oxides do not
seem to be suitable for lasers at wavelengths beyond
3 µm, because their maximum phonon energies are com-
parable to fluoride glasses and are too high for laser
transitions beyond 3 µm.
The chalcogenide glasses have been doped with
a number of rare-earth ions including Ho3+ [11.924],
Tm3+ [11.923], Tb3+ [11.923], Dy3+ [11.922],
Pr3+ [11.926], and Er3+ [11.927, 928] for studies into
> 3 µm mid-infrared luminescence (Table 11.21). Fiber-
laser action has been reported, however, only for an
Nd3+ -doped GLS glass operating at a wavelength of
≈ 1 µm [11.929]. Recent demonstrations of fabricating
Bragg gratings [11.930], single-mode fibers [11.931]
and holey fibers [11.932] with chalcogenide glass high-
light the utility of this glass for fiber-based applications;
however, the purity and toxicity of the starting materials
and the difficulty of making ultralow-loss fiber currently
impede the widespread use of chalcogenide glass for
mid-infrared fiber-laser applications. Once these obsta-
cles have been overcome, future > 3 µm fiber lasers
will most likely involve the rare-earth ions Pr3+ , Nd3+ ,
Dy3+ , and Ho3+ doped into chalcogenide glass, because
most of the important mid-infrared transitions relevant to
these ions can be accessed with pump-photon wavenum-
bers < 10 000 cm−1 . Judicious choice of the overall
dopant-ion concentration and the use of particular sen-
Table 11.21 Examples of luminescent transitions investi-
gated as candidates for mid-infrared lasers in sulfide glasses
Ion λlaser (µm) Transition Ref.
Dy3+ 13/2 → H15/2
3.2 6H 6 [11.922]
Tm3+ 3.8 3 H →3 H
5 4 [11.923]
Ho3+ 3.9 5 I →5 H
5 6 [11.924]
Dy3+ 11/2 → H13/2
4.3 6H 6 [11.922]
7 F →7 F
Tb3+ 4.8 5 6 [11.923]
5 I →5 I
Ho3+ 4.9 4 5 [11.924]
sitizer and quenching ions will enable the production of
efficient > 3 µm output some time in the future.
Conclusions
In the roughly four decades since the demonstration
of the first mid-infrared solid-state lasers, thousands of
scientific papers have been published which have re-
ported on lasing in novel host materials, replacement
of flashlamps by ion-laser and later diode-laser pump
sources, ever-growing output powers, higher efficien-
cies, larger tunability ranges, shorter pulse durations
and the like. A general tendency is that, the shorter
the wavelength, the better the laser performance. When
we approach longer wavelengths in the mid-infrared
spectrum, we find that the quality and durability of
the required low-phonon-energy host materials decline,
Stokes and slope efficiencies decrease, whereas the ther-
mal problems increase. While many crystalline host
materials and the corresponding laser techniques have
matured during the 1990s, the fast development of high-
power, fundamental-mode fiber lasers, which could be
witnessed in the 1 µm spectral range, has now also
reached the mid-infrared spectral region. However, the
assumption that, due to its large surface-to-volume ra-
tio, the fiber geometry might avoid all thermal problems
has been questioned by several recent high-power fiber-
laser experiments in the near- and mid-infrared spectral
region. These phenomena are, in principle, not much
different from the situation found in crystalline lasers.
Nevertheless, there remain distinct differences between
these two host categories. When flexibility of the res-
onator design, short pulses, and high peak powers are
required, crystalline lasers have advantages. On the other
hand, fiber lasers are preferred when high beam quality
or low pump threshold combined with medium CW out-
put power are desired. The low pump threshold of fiber
lasers is an invaluable advantage when cascade-laser
operation is required to depopulate the long-lived ter-
minating level of one laser transition by a second laser
transition. The comparatively low dopant concentrations
that are useful in fiber lasers due to the long interaction
lengths can minimize energy dissipation by interionic
processes but, equally, limit the exploitation of these pro-
cesses as a tool to optimize the population mechanisms
of a certain laser system, as has been done successfully
in several of the mid-infrared crystalline laser systems
discussed above. Although still a great challenge with re-
spect to fabrication process and durability, low-phonon
crystalline and fiber host materials have the potential to
revolutionize CW mid-infrared lasers in the wavelength
range between 3–5 µm.
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 675

11.2.5 Transition-Metal-Ion Lasers 3+

Ti :Al2O3
3+ 3+
Ti :BeAl2O4 Cr :Al2O3
Basics 3+ 3+
Ti :YAlO3 Cr :BeAl2O4
In this chapter an overview of transition-metal-ion lasers 3+
Cr :LiCaAlF6
will be given. The main focus lies on the laser charac- 3+
Cr :Be3Al2(SiO3)6 (emerald)
teristics and results, a more spectroscopically oriented 3+
Cr :LiSrAlF6
overview is given in [11.933]. Transition metals are el- 3+
Cr :La3Ga5SiO14

Part C 11.2
2+
ements of the third, fourth and fifth row of elements V :MgF2
2+
in the periodic table. Laser oscillation has so far only V :CsCaF3

been obtained with ions of the transition metals of the 5+ 5+ 5+

Mn :Sr5(VO4)3F, Mn :Sr3(VO4)2, Mn :Ba5(VO4)2
third row (the Fe row; Ti to Cu). Due to the strong
4+
coupling between the electronic levels of the transition- Cr :Mg2SiO4
4+
metal ion with the surrounding field established by the Cr :Ca2GeO4
4+
Cr :Y3Al5O12
crystalline environment, transition-metal-ion lasers are 4+
Cr :Y3ScxAl5-xO12
usually tunable over a wide spectral range up to sev- 2+
Ni :MgO
eral hundred nanometers. These lasers are of interest for 2+
Ni :Gd3Ga5O13
a wide field of applications, e.g., in scientific research, 2+
Ni :MgF2
in medicine, for measurement and testing techniques, 2+
Co :MgF2
ultrashort-pulse generation, and communication. They
2+
can also be used as coherent light sources for second- Cr :ZnSe
2+
harmonic generation, for optical parametric oscillators, Cr :ZnS
2+
and for sum- and difference-frequency generation. Cr :CdMnTe
2+
The energy-level scheme and thus also the spectro- Cr :CdSe
2+
scopic and laser characteristics of a transition-metal ion Fe :ZnSe

in a crystalline field is strongly dependent on the valence

state of the ion, the number of ligands (i. e., the coor-
dination number) and the strength and symmetry of the
surrounding crystalline field. Therefore it is not possible
to draw some kind of Dieke diagram for the transition-
metal ions, as it is possible for the trivalent rare-earth
ions (see the section on 4f–4f transitions in Sect. 11.2.1).
The energy-level schemes of the transition-metal ions in
crystalline hosts are in principle described by the so-
called Tanabe–Sugano diagrams [11.934–936]. These
diagrams are distinguished by the number of electron
within the 3d electron shell. In these diagrams the en-
ergy of a specific level of the transition-metal ion is
depicted as a function of the crystal field strength. We
will not describe the quantum-mechanical background
to obtain these diagrams, which would be beyond the
frame of this handbook. The reader is referred to the
appropriate literature [11.937–942].
In comparison to laser systems based on the 4f↔4f
transitions of trivalent rare-earth ions, lasers based on
3d↔3d transitions are in general more affected by
a higher probability of excited-state absorption, a higher
probability of nonradiative decay, and a higher saturation
intensity, leading to higher laser thresholds. Often laser
oscillation cannot be obtained at all. In the following sec-
tion, the focus is on specific transition-metal-ion lasers,
ordered according to their laser wavelength from visible
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Wavelength (nm)
Fig. 11.77 Overview of tunable solid-state lasers based on transition-
metal-ion-doped crystals
over the near-infrared to the mid-infrared. This overview
includes Ti3+ lasers, especially Ti3+ :Al2 O3 , Cr3+
lasers, Cr4+ lasers and finally Cr2+ lasers. At the end
of this section, other transition-metal-ion lasers are pre-
sented, including Co2+ and Ni2+ lasers. Finally, some
general comments about transition-metal-ion lasers will
be given in the last section. In Fig. 11.77 an overview
of lasers based on 3d↔3d transitions of transition-metal
ions is given. It can be seen that almost the whole spectral
range between 650 nm and 4500 nm is covered.
Overview of Transition-Metal-Ion Lasers
Ti3+ lasers. Ti3+ -doped Al2 O3 (Ti:sapphire) has been
intensively investigated as a tunable laser material since
the first laser operation was reported [11.943, 944].
Efficient laser oscillation was obtained in Al2 O3 in
pulsed [11.943,945,946] and continuous-wave [11.945,
947, 948] operation, for further references see [11.213].
The tuning range covers more than 400 nm and spans
approximately 670–1100 nm [11.949]. It has a rela-
tively high emission cross section of approximately
 676 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

the tuning range and efficiency of other transition-

Energy
metal-ion-doped lasers. The orbital degeneracy of the
Coordination d levels is removed due to the Jahn–Teller effect, which
octahedral tetrahedral
2 2
yields the large absorption and emission bandwidths.
E T2 The room-temperature absorption and emission spec-
tra are shown in Fig. 11.80. Excited-state absorption
transitions occurs to energy levels correlated to charge
Part C 11.2

transfer and conduction-band levels and between the

two Jahn–Teller-split components of the upper (2 E) d
level. In Ti:sapphire, excited-state absorption was not
2 2 observed in the spectral range of emission [11.952]. In
T2 E
Dq
Table 11.22 the laser-relevant parameters of Ti:sapphire
are listed. Besides the favorable spectroscopic and laser
Fig. 11.78 Basic energy-level schemes of 3d1 ions in octa- characteristic, the Al2 O3 host material offers a variety
hedral and tetrahedral coordination of advantageous properties: a high thermal conductivity,
as well as mechanical and chemical hardness.
4.1 × 10−19 cm2 [11.950] at the maximum of the emis- To date, Ti3+ :Al2 O3 is the most common and com-
sion spectrum. A slope efficiency of 62% has been mercially available tunable solid-state laser. Nowadays,
reported [11.951], which is close to the quantum limit it can be pumped with frequency-doubled Nd lasers
in that experiment of 78% (pump wavelength 589 nm, at wavelengths around 532 nm, thus efficient all-solid-
emission wavelength 750 nm). This indicates the low state laser operation is possible. Formerly, Ar+ -ion laser
intrinsic losses of the system. pumping was applied. In commercial systems, overall
The Ti3+ ion belongs to the 3d1 configuration, efficiencies as high as 30% are obtained.
which is very favorable with respect to laser appli- Besides the broad tuning capability of the
cation because of its simple energy-level scheme (see Ti:sapphire laser, its ability for ultrashort-pulse gen-
Figs. 11.78, 11.79). There are only two 3d1 energy lev- eration and amplification is especially exploited. In
els, which diminishes the possibility of excited-state mode-locked operation, pulses as short as 5 fs [11.953–
absorption of the laser radiation, a process that limits 957] and octave-spanning spectra (e.g., 600 nm to
1200 nm [11.957]) have been obtained.
Energy Laser oscillation with reasonable efficiency has
also been reported for Ti3+ :BeAl2 O4 [11.958–961]
Table 11.22 Overview of Ti3+ :Al2 O3 laser-relevant param-
eters [11.948, 950]
Index of refraction 1.76
Absorption cross section 6.5 × 10−20 cm2 (E  c)
ESA Fluorescence lifetime 3.2 µs
2
nr Fluorescence bandwidth ≈ 200 nm
ÄEJT( E)
GSA 2
(FWHM)
em T2
2 Peak emission wavelength 790 nm
E
Peak stimulated emission 4.1 × 10−19 cm2 (E  c)
2 CT
ÄEJT( T2) cross section
Configurational coordinate Q 2.0 × 10−19 cm2 (E⊥c)
Quantum efficiency ≈ 0.9–1
Fig. 11.79 Schematic diagram of the Jahn–Teller effect
Saturation fluence 0.9 J/cm2
for octahedrally coordinated d1 -systems. 2 E, 2 T2 and CT
Dopant concentration 0.1% (weight)
(charge transfer) are the energy levels, GSA, ESA, and em
Growth Czochralski, heat exchange
are ground-state absorption, excited-state absorption, and
Tm 2050 ◦ C
emission, respectively. nr represents the nonradiative de-
Thermal conductivity 28 W/mK
cay via tunneling between the excited state and the ground
state. ∆E JT is the Jahn–Teller stabilization energy Thermal lens ( dn/ dT ) 12 × 10−19 K−1
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 677

(Table 11.23). However, the efficiency as well as the tun-

ing range is smaller than Ti3+ :Al2 O3 , thus this laser has a) Absorption coefficient (cm–1)
no commercial application. In Y3 Al5 O12 [11.962] and Absorption (arb. units)
YAlO3 [11.963, 964] crystals doped with Ti3+ the ob- T = 4K
served efficiencies are very low (Table 11.23). The main E II c
T = 300 K 1Å
reason for this is excited-state absorption in the spec- E II c
10
tral region of emission and absorption [11.952, 965]. In 1 nm

Part C 11.2
Ti3+ -doped systems nonradiative decay processes due to 595 600 605 610 615
phonon-assisted tunneling between the Jahn–Teller-split ë (nm)
excited and ground states also occur, which prevent effi-
5
cient laser oscillation, e.g., in Ti3+ :Y3 Al5 O12 [11.966,
× 10
967].

Cr3+ lasers.
Basics. The Cr3+ ion is almost always found in oc- 0
200 300 400 500 600
tahedral coordination and its energy-level scheme is ë (nm)
described by the Tanabe–Sugano diagram shown in
b) Fluorescence intensity (arb. units)
Fig. 11.81. In low crystal fields, the first excited state
is the 4 T2 level, whereas in strong crystal fields the Fluorescence intensity
2 E level is the first excited state. This means, that ei- (arb. units)
T = 300 K T = 4K
ther broadband emission (4 T2 → 4 A2 ) or narrow-line 1 nm 1Å
emission (2 E → 4 A2 ) occurs. The absorption spectra
are dominated by quartet–quartet transitions, whereas
the excited-state absorption spectra are dominated ei- 620 625 630 635
ë (nm)
ther by quartet–quartet or doublet–doublet transitions
depending on the total spin of the lowest excited state.

Laser characteristics. The first laser was realized in

1960 with ruby, i. e., Cr3+ -doped Al2 O3 [11.968]. In
ruby – due to the strong crystal field experienced by the
Cr3+ ion – the laser oscillation occurs on the 2 E → 4 A2
transition. Thus, ruby is a three-level laser and not
tunable over a wide range. Ruby is still a commer-
cially available pulsed laser system with peak output
powers in the MW range used for applications in
measurement and pulsed holography. Ruby has remark-
able thermo-mechanical properties which allows high
peak power operation, especially in the Q-switched
regime. In 1976, Morris et al. [11.969] realized with
Cr3+ -doped BeAl2 O4 (alexandrite) the first tunable
laser based on the Cr3+ ion. The laser transition is
4 T → 4 A and terminates in the higher vibronics of
2 2
600 700 800 900 1000
ë (nm)
Fig. 11.80a,b Absorption (a) and emission (b) spectra at room
temperature and at 4 K of Ti:sapphire. (After [11.948])
the ground state. Therefore, a four-level laser system is
realized. To date, the alexandrite laser has found signifi-
cant commercial applications in industry (e.g., marking,
writing and printing), scientific research (e.g., fluores-
cence dynamics, fluorescence imaging, LIDAR), and

Table 11.23 Overview of other Ti3+ -laser materials

Crystal λlaser Tuning range Slope Mode of Pump source Ref.
(nm) (nm) efficiency (%) operation
BeAl2 O4 810 730–950 15 Pulsed SHG Q-switched Nd:YAG (532 nm) [11.959]
- 753–949 0.013 Pulsed flashlamp (10 µs) [11.961]
Y3 Al5 O12 No details given in the reference [11.962]
YAlO3 615 - 0.3 Pulsed SHG Q-switched Nd:YAlO3 (540 nm) [11.963, 964]
678 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

4
more than 30 materials. In Table 11.25 an overview of
E/B T1b (t2 e2) reported laser systems is given [11.103, 977]. In general
80
the tuning ranges for Cr3+ lasers are not as broad as for
Ti3+ :Al2 O3 lasers, however, they exhibit the advantage
2
D
of direct diode-laser pumping around 670 nm, i. e., in
2
the spectral region of the 4 A2 → 4 T2 absorption.
60 A1 (t22e)
For Cr3+ laser systems excited-state absorption
Part C 11.2

4 (ESA) plays a very important role and is the main

T1a (t22e)
2 4
F
40 T2 (t22e)
2
T2 (t23)
2 between the doublet states (in strong-field hosts). These
D 2
2
H, 2P T1 (t23)
2 2
G
20 E (t23)
4
P transitions overlap with the absorption and emission
4
F 0 4
A2 (t23)
0 1 2 3 4
Dq/B
Fig. 11.81 Tanabe–Sugano diagram for octahedrally coor-
dinated 3d3 ions, e.g., Cr3+ with C/B = 5.5. The dashed
vertical line marks the border between low and high crystal
field strength
medicine (e.g., hair and tattoo removal,). Its advan-
tages are its tunability between 700 nm and 820 nm, the
high heat conductivity of 23 W/mK, which allows high-
power pulsed operation, and its high slope efficiency
of up to 51% [11.970, 971]. Even broader laser tun-
ing ranges with similar efficiencies were achieved with
the Cr3+ -doped colquirite crystals LiCaAlF6 , LiSrAlF6 ,
and LiSrGaF6 [11.972] (Table 11.25). However, these
crystals suffer from poor thermo-mechanical properties
(Table 11.24), which allow only relatively low pump and
laser powers. The broad tuning range is exploited for
mode-locked operation with pulse lengths down to 9 fs
for Cr3+ :LiCAF [11.973]. The crystals also offer the
possibility of efficient laser-diode pumping with laser
diodes at wavelengths around 670–690 nm. Thus com-
pact, mode-locked laser systems in the low-power range
are possible [11.974–976]. It is interesting to note that
the highest slope efficiency ever obtained with a Cr3+ -
based laser was achieved with Cr3+ :Be3 Al2 (SiO3 )6
(emerald). Also here, however, the thermo-mechanical
properties are poor and, furthermore, the emerald crys-
tal is very difficult to grow in laser quality. For the
most efficient Cr3+ laser materials the relevant laser and
materials parameters are listed in Table 11.24. Laser os-
cillation with Cr3+ -doped systems has been realized in
reason for the observed large differences in the laser ef-
ficiencies. Due to its energy-level scheme (Fig. 11.81),
spin-allowed ESA transitions are expected either be-
tween the quartet states (for low-crystal-field hosts) or
transitions cover a wide spectral range, due to the strong
electron–phonon coupling. Thus, in general, these ESA
bands. The influence of the ESA is strongly dependent
on the host lattice, i. e., on the crystal field experienced
by the Cr3+ ion. In general, it is observed that crystals
with a medium crystal field for the Cr3+ ion are favor-
able. Furthermore, in some crystals (e.g., the colquirites,
alexandrite, emerald etc.) the polarization-dependent se-
lection rules can be exploited. Cubic hosts are generally
more strongly affected.
Summary and perspectives for Cr3+ lasers. Cr3+
lasers are generally interesting for laser applications.
High-efficiency diode-pumped and broadly tunable
continuous-wave and mode-locked laser oscillation have
been obtained in a variety of crystals. Some laser sys-
tems are commercially available. However, all of these
crystals have specific drawbacks: they have poor thermal
mechanical properties, the growing process is difficult
or the tuning range is small. Therefore Cr3+ lasers are at
this time in general not competitive with the Ti3+ :Al2 O3
laser, which offers a broader tuning range, allows shorter
pulses in the mode-locked regime and has better thermo-
mechanical properties. Ti3+ :Al2 O3 cannot be pumped
directly with diode lasers; however, advances in the
frequency-doubling technique of neodymium lasers has
led to efficient all-solid-state pump lasers which re-
placed the argon-ion laser as pump. Additionally, pump
laser diodes in the spectral region between 630 nm and
700 nm with high beam quality and output power are
currently not available in a satisfactory manner. Con-
cerning the research for new Cr3+ laser systems one has
to take into account that the Cr3+ ion has already been
investigated in a large number of systems. In princi-
ple, new host materials with the perspective of efficient
laser operation should have a medium crystal field for
the Cr3+ ion and polarization-dependent optical prop-
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 679

Table 11.24 Materials, spectroscopic and laser parameters of the most important Cr3+ lasers
LiCaAlF6 LiSrAlF6 Alexandrite Ruby
Structure Trigonal Trigonal Orthorhombic Hexagonal
P3̄1c P3̄1c Pnma R3̄c
Lattice parameters (Å) 5.007 (a) 5.084 (a) 9.404 (a) 4.759 (a)
9.641 (c) 10.21 (c) 5.476 (b) 12.989 (c)

Part C 11.2
4.425 (c)
Typical Cr3+ concentration (cm−3 ) ≈ 1019 – 1020 ≈ 1019 –1020 ≈ 1019 – 1020 ≈ 1.6 × 1019
Growth Czochralski Czochralski Czochralski Czochralski
Tm (◦ C) 810±10 766±10 1870 2050
Density (g/cm3 ) 2.99 3.45 3.69 3.98
Thermal conductivity (W/mK) 4.58 (|| a) 3.0 (|| a) 20 33 (|| a)
5.14 (|| c) 3.3 (|| c) 35 (|| c)
Thermal expansion (10−6 C−1 ) 22 (|| a) 25 (|| a) 6 (|| a) 6.65 (|| a)
3.6 (|| c) -10 (|| c) 6 (|| b) 7.15 (|| c)
7 (|| c)
n 1.390 (a) 1.405 (a) n a = 1.7381 ( 800 nm) 1.763 (o)
1.389 (c) 1.407 (c) n b = 1.7436 ( 800 nm) 1.755 (e)
n c = 1.7361 ( 800 nm)
dn/ dT (10−6 /K) -4.2 (|| a) -2.5 (|| a) 13.6 (o)
-4.6 (|| c) -4 (|| c) 14.7 (e)
σem (10−20 cm2 ) 1.3 (π) 4.8 (π) 0.7 2.5
τem (300 K) (µs) 170 67 260 3000
σem τ(10−24 cm−2 s−1 ) 2.2 3.2 1.8 75
λpeak,em (nm) 763 846 697 694.3
∆λ (nm) ≈ 120 ≈ 200 ≈ 75 -
∆λ/λpeak,em ≈ 0.16 ≈ 0.24 ≈ 0.11 -

erties that could help to avoid or at least significantly
reduce excited-state absorption in the spectral region
of the emission. Furthermore, good thermo-mechanical
properties are required.
Cr4+ lasers.
Basics. Cr4+ -doped crystals have been of interest as
tunable, room-temperature laser materials since the late
1980s. In a variety of materials laser oscillation in
different operation schemes has been achieved, see
Table 11.26 and Table 11.28, where an overview of
the obtained laser results is given. The energy-level
scheme of the Cr4+ ion in crystals can be described
with the Tanabe–Sugano diagram shown in Fig. 11.82.
The absorption spectra are dominated by the three spin-
allowed transitions between the 3 A2 ground state and
the 3 T2 (3 F), 3 T1 (3 F), and 3 T1 (3 P) excited states. Usu-
ally, the energy levels are strongly crystal field dependent
and split, thus the absorption spectra of different mater-
ials differ significantly. In all materials investigated thus
far, broadband emission due to the transition between the
3 T excited state and the 3 A ground state is observed.
2 2
Referring to the Tanabe–Sugano diagram and the indi-
cated area of crystal field values for the Cr4+ ion, one
would expect – at least in some materials – narrow-line
emission. However, due to lattice relaxation and crys-
tal field splitting of the excited state, the 3 T2 or one of
its crystal field components becomes lower than the 1 E
level.
The most efficient laser oscillation of Cr4+ -doped
materials was realized in Mg2 SiO4 and Y3 Al5 O12
(YAG). The laser data and main spectroscopic data of
these materials are listed in Table 11.26 and Table 11.27.
A variety of further host materials for the Cr4+ ion
were also investigated, but with either low efficiency
(Table 11.28) or without realization of laser oscillation.
A detailed overview of Cr4+ -doped systems is given
in [11.933].
In all Cr4+ -doped materials investigated thus far,
there are two main drawbacks for efficient laser oscil-
lation or laser oscillation at all: excited-state absorption
and nonradiative decay. Investigation of excited-state
680 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

Table 11.25 Free-running laser wavelengths, tuning ranges, laser temperatures, slope efficiencies, operation modes and output
power/output energy of Cr3+ -laser materials. (CW: continuous wave, p: pulsed, SHG: second harmonic, fl: flash lamp, dc: duty
cycle, QS: Q-switched, g-sw: gain-switched, ML: mode locked, * discontinuously)
Host material Wavelength Tuning T (K) η (%) Mode Pout /Eout Ref.
(nm) range (nm)
Be3 Al2 (SiO3 )6 684.8 300 p (SHG QS Nd:YAG) [11.988]
757.4 751–759.2 300 p (fl) 6.8 mJ [11.989]
Part C 11.2

765 728.8–809.0 300 34 CW (Kr+ ) ≈ 330 mW [11.990]

768 720–840 300 64 q-CW (3% DC) 1.6 W [11.991,
992]
LiCaAlF6 780 720–840 52.4 CW (5% DC) Kr+ 850 mW [11.972]
780 720–840 300 52 CW (5% DC) Kr+ [11.993]
780 1.55 p – fl 1.8 J [11.993]
LiSrGaF6 820 - 300 51 CW, Kr+ 1W [11.994]
800–900 300 QS (10 kHz), 12 µJ [11.995]
laser diode [11.996]
BeAl2 O4 679.9 77 [11.997]
680.3 77 p (fl) [11.998,
999]
680.3 700–800 300 p (fl) [11.1000]
750 701–794 300 p (fl) 500 mJ [11.1000,
1001]
765 744–788 300 ≈ 0.7 q-CW (ac Hg-lamp) 6.5 W [11.1002]
745–785 300 2.3 CW 20 W [11.1003]
(DC Hg-,Xe-lamp)
750 700–820 300 p (fl 125 Hz) 150 W [11.1004]
755 300 1.2 CW 60 W [11.1004]
750 300 ML (38 ps) [11.1004]
752–790 300–583 p (fl), temp. tuning [11.1005]
700–820 300–583 [11.970,
971, 997,
1006–
1011]
701–818 300 [11.1000]
744–788 300 [11.1002]
701–818 300 2.5 fl 35 W / 5 J [11.970]
680.4 300 0.15 fl-QS (20 ns) 500 mJ [11.970,
1012]
680.4 300 0.15 fl 400 mJ [11.970]
752 726–802 300 51 CW, Kr+ 600 mW [11.971]
752 700–820 [11.969]
753 300 63.8 dye, 645 nm 150 mW [11.1013]
753 300 laser diode, ≈ 640 nm 25 mW [11.1013]
765 300 28 QS SHG Nd: GVO, 150 mW [11.1014]
671 nm (80 kHz)
LiSrAlF6 825 780–920 300 36 CW, Kr+ 650 mW [11.993,
1015]
865 815–915 300 a-ML (30 ps, 160 fs) 3.5 mW [11.1016]
845 780–1010 300 5 p (fl) 2.7 J [11.1017]
834 300 CW (laser diode) 20 mW [11.1018]
870 858–920 300 laser diode, 4.3 mW [11.1019]
electronically tuned
849 810–860 300 laser diode 43 mW [11.1020]
300 p (fl, 5 Hz) 44 W/ 8.8 J [11.1021]
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 681

Table 11.25 (continued)

Host material Wavelength Tuning T (K) η (%) Mode Pout /Eout Ref.
(nm) range (nm)
ScBO3 843 787–892 300 25 CW (3%), Kr+ 250 mW [11.1022]
300 26 CW (10%), Kr+ 275 mW [11.972]
Gd3 Sc2 Ga3 O12 777 745–805 300 11 CW (1:50 DC) 60 mW [11.1023]
785 742–842 300 28 quasi-CW 200 mW [11.1024–

Part C 11.2
1026]
790 300 1 p (10 µs, dye) 10 µJ [11.1027]
766–820 300 0.06 p – fl 20 mJ [11.1028]
300 0.02 p – fl 10 mJ [11.1029]
0.57 p – fl ≈ 70 mJ [11.1030]
Na3 Ga2 Li3 F12 791 741–841 300 18.4 CW [11.54]
Y3 Sc2 Al3 O12 769 9 q-CW, Kr+ 50 mW [11.1031]
Gd3 Sc2 Al3 O12 780 750–800 300 0.24 p – fl 200 mJ [11.1029]
784 765–801 300 0.12 p – fl 110 mJ [11.1032]
784 300 18.5 CW Kr+ 90 mW [11.1025,
1026,
1033]
780 750–810 300 0.38 p – fl 260 mJ [11.1034]
300 QS (p – fl) 30 mJ [11.1034]
784 735–820 300 19 CW, Kr+ 200 mW [11.1031]
780 750–803 300 0.24 p – fl 206 mJ [11.1031]
SrAlF5 921, 935 852–947 300 3.6 q-CW (DC 3%), Kr+ 35 mW [11.1035]
910 15 q-CW (DC 2%), Kr+ [11.1036]
932 825–1011 [11.1037]
930 825–1010 300 10 Kr+ [11.1038]
KZnF3 810, 826 300 1 p – dye (0.5 µs) [11.1039,
1040]
790–826 775–825 20– 260 0.1 CW, Kr+ [11.1039,
1040]
785–865 300 14 CW, Kr+ 85 mW [11.1041]
785–865 p – ruby [11.1042]
780–845 300 3 CW, Kr+ 55 mW [11.1043]
820 766–865 300 14 [11.1044]
ZnWO4 980–1090 77 13 CW 110 mW [11.1026,
1045]
300 p – dye [11.1045]
La3 Ga5 SiO14 960 862–1107 300 7.6 CW (3% DC) 80 mW [11.1046]
815–1110 300 10 p 10 mJ [11.1047]
968 [11.1048]
Gd3 Ga5 O12 769 - 300 10 quasi-CW [11.1023,
1024,
1026]
La3 Ga5.5 Nb0.5 O14 1040 900–1250 300 5 p 10 mJ [11.1047,
1049]
Y3 Ga5 O12 740 - 5 quasi-CW [11.1023,
1026]
Y3 Sc2 Ga3 O12 750 - 5 quasi-CW [11.1023,
1026]
La3 Lu2 Ga3 O12 830 790–850 3 quasi-CW [11.1024,
1026,
1048]
682 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

Table 11.25 (continued)

Host material Wavelength Tuning T (K) η (%) Mode Pout /Eout Ref.
(nm) range (nm)
MgO 830 824–878* 2.3 CW, Ar+ 48 mW [11.1050–
1052]
Al2 (WO4 )3 800 q-CW, Kr+ [11.1053]
BeAl6 O10 820 780–920 300 ≈ 0.03 p – fl 6 mJ [11.1054]
Part C 11.2

834 795–874 300 - p – SHG Nd:YAG [11.1055]

Al2 O3 692.9 (R2) 300 p – fl [11.1056]
693.4 300 p – fl [11.1057]
693.4 77 CW, Hg-lamp 4 mW [11.1058]
77 12 CW, Ar+ 42 mW [11.1059]
694.3 (R1) 300 [11.968,
1060–
1065]
700.9 (N2) 77 [11.1066]
704.1 (N1) 77 [11.1066]
767 300 [11.1067]
Y3 Al5 O12 687.4 not tunable ≈ 77 [11.1068]
LiSr0.8 Ca0.2 AlF6 835 750–950 300 1.25 p – fl 1.2 J [11.1069]
847 783–945 300 CW, Kr+ 300 mW [11.1070]
LiSrCrF6 890 300 33 q-CW, TiSa (DC: 2%) 200 mW [11.1071]
ScBeAlO4 792 740–828 300 31 CW, Kr+ [11.1072]
La3 Ga5 GeO14 880–1220 300 5 p 8 mJ [11.1047,
1073]
Sr3 Ga2 Ge4 O14 895–1150 300 3 p 4 mJ [11.1047,
1073]
Ca3 Ga2 Ge4 O14 870–1210 300 6 p 16 mJ [11.1047,
1049]
La3 Ga5.5 Ta0.5 O14 925–1240 300 5 p 6 mJ [11.1047,
1049]
(Ca, Gd)3 (Ga, Mn, Zr)5 O12 774–814 300 12 p – ruby 170 mJ [11.1074]
≈ 777 300 0.08 p – fl 40 mJ [11.1074]
LaSc3 (BO3 )4 934 300 0.65 q-CW, Kr+ 3 mW [11.1075]
(DC: 10%)
LiInGeO4 1150–1480 300 p (g-sw. Ti:Al2 O3 ) [11.1076]
LiScGeO4 1220–1380 300 p (g-sw. Ti:Al2 O3 ) [11.1076]
Li:Mg2 SiO4 1121 1030–1180 300 p (QS Cr3+ :BeAl2 O4 ) [11.1077]
1120, 1130, 285 1.27 CW (Ar+ ) 5.5 mW [11.1077]
1140

absorption has been performed on garnets [11.978–
980], forsterite [11.981–984], cunyite [11.985], sili-
cates [11.982] and Wurtzite-type crystals [11.984, 986,
987]. The nonradiative decay via multiphonon relaxation
leads to quantum efficiencies far below 100% at room
temperature; see the overview given in [11.933]. The
preparation of Cr4+ -doped crystals requires for most
materials special conditions before, during or after the
growth process. The Cr4+ ion is not as stable in its va-
lence state as Cr3+ . Therefore, there is the tendency
for incorporation of chromium ions in different valen-
cies in the crystals, especially for materials that do not
exhibit an appropriate tetravalent tetrahedrally coordi-
nated lattice site. This is, e.g., the case for Y3 Al5 O12 ,
therefore here additional codoping with divalent cations
(Mg, Ca) is necessary. But also in Mg2 SiO4 , Cr3+ is in-
corporated into the Mg lattice. No traces of Cr3+ were
observed in these materials, which do not exhibit an ap-
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 683

Table 11.26 Overview of laser results obtained with Cr4+ :YAG and Cr4+ :Mg2 SiO4 . (CW: continuous wave, lp: long
pulse pumped, g-sw: gain switched, DP: diode pumped, ML: mode locked, CF: crystalline fiber)
Crystal λlaser (nm) Output ηsl (%) Tuning range Mode of operation Ref.
Y3 Al5 O12 1430 7.5 mJ 22 1350–1530 g-sw (55 ns) [11.1078–1083]
1450 1900 mW 42 1340–1570 CW (T = 3 ◦ C) [11.1081, 1083–1085]
1420 58 mJ 28 1309–1596 lp (200 µs) [11.1082, 1083,

Part C 11.2
1086, 1087]
ML [11.1088, 1089]
1440 20 mW 5 1396–1482 CW-ML (26 ps) [11.1090]
1520 360 mW 8 1510–1530 CW-ML (120 fs) [11.1091]
1510 50 mW <1 1490–1580 CW-ML (70 fs) [11.1092]
1540 - - - CW-ML (53 fs) [11.1093]
1569 30 mW DP-ML (65 fs) [11.1094, 1095]
1450 400 mW Nd − YVO4 , ML (20 fs) [11.1096]
1470 80 mW 5.5 1420–1530 DP [11.1097]
1420 150 mW 1.9 - DP-CF [11.1098]
1440 Intracavity Nd:YAG [11.1099]
Mg2 SiO4 CW [11.1100]
1242 38 - CW (duty cycle 1:15) [11.1101, 1102]
1.1 W 26 - CW [11.1103]
DP [11.1104, 1105]
lp [11.1106]
flashlamp pumped [11.1107]
4.95 mJ - 1206–1250 flashlamp pumped [11.1108]
g-sw [11.1106, 1109–1113]
1235 1170–1370 g-sw [11.1114]
370 mW 13 1173–1338 g-sw (1.5 kHz/10kHz) [11.1115]
ML [11.1116–1122]
300 mW - - ML (25 fs) [11.1122]
1300 Nd:YAG, ML (14 fs) [11.1123]
1260 10 pJ - - DP-ML (1.5 ps) [11.1124]
1260 10 mW 5 1236–1300 CW-DP (T = −10 ◦ C) [11.1104]

propriate lattice site for the Cr3+ ion, e.g., Ca2 GeO4
and Y2 SiO5 . However, the laser results obtained with
Y3 Al5 O12 and Mg2 SiO4 indicate that the laser efficiency
is not necessarily affected by the presence of Cr3+ .
Laser characteristics. In Table 11.26 an overview
of the laser results obtained with Cr4+ :YAG and
Cr4+ :Mg2 SiO4 , the materials in which the most effi-
cient laser operation has been obtained, is given. In
YAG, the highest slope efficiency obtained thus far in
the continuous-wave regime is 42% [11.1085]. The cor-
responding input–output curve is shown in Fig. 11.83a.
Attempts to improve the laser efficiency by changing the
crystals composition, i. e., by substituting Lu for Y on
the dodecahedral site or Sc for Al on the octahedral site
were not successful [11.1086, 1087]. The efficiency de-
creased significantly. The reason is mainly excited-state
absorption, but the lower crystal quality and increased
nonradiative rate also contribute [11.1125]. A remark-
able characteristic – on first sight – is that the Cr4+ :YAG
laser oscillates polarized parallel to one of its main
crystallographic axes. The laser output was highest
when the pump beam of a Nd:YAG laser operating
at 1064 nm and propagating along the [001]-axis of
the Cr4+ :YAG crystal is polarized parallel to one of
the crystallographic < 100 >-axes of the Cr4+ :YAG
crystal, and was lowest when its polarization was par-
allel to one of the < 110 >-axes (Fig. 11.83b). The
Cr4+ :YAG laser output is polarized and maintains its
polarization while rotating the pump beam polarization.
When the pump beam polarization is parallel to one
of the < 110 >-axes, the Cr4+ :YAG laser polarization
684 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

Table 11.27 Parameters of Cr4+ -doped Y3 Al5 O12 and Mg2 SiO4
Y3 Al5 O12 (YAG) Mg2 SiO4 (Forsterite)
Structure Ia3d(O10
h ) Pbnm (D16 2h )
Hardness 8.25–8.5 7
Site symmetry S4 m
Growth Czochralski, divalent codopant required Czochralski
(1930±20) ◦ C (1890±20) ◦ C
Part C 11.2

Tm
Cr4+ concentration ≈ 1017 –1018 cm−3 ≈ 1018 – 1019 cm−3
Thermal conductivity 0.13 W/cmK 0.08 W/cmK
Refractive index (λpeak ) 1.81 1.669 (a)
1.651 (b)
1.636 (c)
dn/ dT (undoped) 7.7–8.2 × 10−6 /K 9.5 × 10−6 /K
Density 4.56 g/cm3 3.22 g/cm3
σabs (1064 nm) ≈ 6.5 × 10−18 cm2 ≈ 5.0 × 10−19 cm2
σem (λpeak ) ≈ 3.3 × 10−19 cm2 ≈ 2.0 × 10−19 cm2
σESA (λpeak ) < 0.3 × 10−19 cm2 < 0.2 × 10−19 cm2
τem (300 K) 4.1 µs 3.0 µs
σem τ 1.35 × 10−24 cm−2 s−1 0.6 × 10−24 cm−2 s−1
Quantum efficiency ≈ 0.2 ≈ 0.16
λpeak,em 1380 nm 1140 nm
∆λ ≈ 300 nm ≈ 250 nm
∆λ/λpeak,em ≈ 0.22 ≈ 0.22

switches [11.1084]. This characteristic can be explained With the Cr4+ :Mg2 SiO4 laser, slope efficiencies
by the crystal structure, the location of the Cr4+ ions of up to 38% [11.1102] and output powers around
and the local symmetry they experience. For details, 1.1 W [11.1103] in continuous-wave operation at room
see [11.1126, 1127]. temperature have been realized (Fig. 11.83c. For crys-

Table 11.28 Overview of other Cr4+ -doped laser materials. (CW: continuous wave, lp: long pulse pumped, g-sw: gain
switched, DP: diode pumped. * laser-active center assigned to Cr3+ in [11.1076], Table 11.24)
Crystal λlaser (nm) Output ηsl (%) Tuning range Mode of operation Ref.
Y3 Scx Al5−x O12 1498 (x = 0.5) 23 mJ 10 1394–1628 lp (100 µs) [11.1087]
(YSAG)
1548 (x = 1.0) 4.5 mJ 3 1464–1604 lp (100 µs) [11.1087]
1584 (x = 1.5) 0.9 mJ 0.5 lp (100 µs) [11.1087]
Lu3 Al5 O12 Not given 50 mW 1.5 - quasi-CW [11.1128, 1129]
Ca2 GeO4 [11.1104, 1130–
1132]
1400 0.4 mJ 6.1 1348–1482 g-sw (T = 0 ◦ C) [11.1130, 1133]
1410 20 mW 8.5 1390–1475 CW-DP (T = −10 ◦ C) [11.1104]
LiScGeO∗4 1300 0.1 mJ 3 1220–1380 g-sw [11.1134]
Y2 SiO5 [11.1135, 1136]
1304 20 mW 0.4 - quasi-CW (1:8) [11.1084, 1137]
1348 0.55 mJ 0.4 - lp (200 µs) [11.1084, 1137]
LiNbGeO5 - - - 1320–1430 g-sw (110 K) [11.1138–1140]
CaGd4 (SiO4 )3 O 1370 37 µJ ≈1 g-sw [11.1141]
SrGd4 (SiO4 )3 O 1440 g-sw [11.1141]
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 685

1
E/B T 2, 1E 3
T1b 1T1 1
T2 3
T1a a) Output power (mW)
50 2500
Output coupler
2000 1%
3 2%
T2
40 3.1 %
1 1500 6.1 %
A2

Part C 11.2
3 °C
1000 ë = 1.45 µm
30

1
G
500
1
20 E 0
1
D 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3
P Absorbed pump power (W)
b) Laser output (arb. units)
10
Cr4+ Mn5+
3
A2
3
F 0
0 2 4
Dq/B

Fig. 11.82 Tanabe–Sugano diagram for tetrahedrally coor-

dinated 3d2 ions. The marked area correspond roughly to
the regions of Dq/B values of Cr4+ and Mn5+ . For sim-
plicity, C/B was set to 5.6, although it differs for different
systems
0
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
tals from the forsterite group the attempts to obtain better Angle <[010]-axis, pump polarization>
laser results by substituting the constituent ions of the c) Output power (W)
host lattice were also not successful. A variety of crys-
tals were investigated [11.1142–1144] (see the overview 1.2
given in [11.933]) but only for Ca2 GeO4 was laser oscil- T = 6.95 %
1 T = 4.9 %
lation obtained. For Ca2 GeO4 excited-state absorption T = 2.3 %
on the laser wavelength is detrimental [11.985]. 0.8 T = 1.25 %
Laser oscillation was also obtained for Cr4+ - 0.6
doped Y2 SiO5 , LiGeNbO5 , CaGd4 (SiO4 )3 O, and
SrGd4 (SiO4 )3 O. The low efficiencies are probably due 0.4
to excited-state absorption and the high nonradiative
0.2
decay rate.
0
Summary and outlook for Cr4+ lasers. Cr4+ :YAG 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Absorbed pump power (W)
and Cr4+ :Mg2 SiO4 are efficient and broadly tun-
able laser systems for the infrared spectral range Fig. 11.83 (a) Input–output characteristic of a Cr4+ :YAG-
including the very interesting region for telecom- laser (after [11.1085]), (b) Polarization dependence of
munication applications around 1.3 µm and 1.55 µm. a Cr4+ :YAG laser (after [11.933, 1084]), (c) Input–output
Mode-locked operation with pulse lengths as short characteristic of a Cr4+ :Mg2 SiO4 laser (after [11.1103])
as 20 fs for Cr4+ :YAG [11.1096] and 14 fs for
Cr4+ :Mg2 SiO4 [11.1123] were obtained. Also direct concentration in both materials is rather low, yielding
diode-pumped laser operation was realized, however, a low absorption efficiency of the pump light.
with lower efficiencies [11.1094, 1097]. For both sys- The main obstacle for Cr4+ laser materials is excited-
tems, power handling is a problem and the ion state absorption at the emission wavelength, which
686 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

important point concerning Cr4+ laser materials is the

E/B nonradiative decay rate. To decrease this rate, crystals
3 with low-energy phonons and/or small electron–phonon
F Quintet states 1
T1 coupling should be used as host materials, e.g., those
Triplet states
3
H Singlet states in which silicon is substituted by germanium or alu-
20 3
T2
minum is substituted by gallium. However, attempts in
this direction have not been successful thus far.
Part C 11.2

5
T2
3
Cr2+ lasers.
T1 Basics. The energy-level scheme of tetrahedrally co-
ordinated Cr2+ is shown in Fig. 11.84. The Cr2+ ion
10 experiences a low crystal field, e.g., in ZnSe the value of
Dq/B is about 0.9. Thus, the 5 T2 level is the ground state
5
E and the 5 E level is the first excited state, whilst all higher-
1
lying levels are triplet and singlet states. In consequence,
A1
the 5 E → 5 T2 emission is a spin-allowed transition,
while all interionic excited-state transitions are spin-
5 forbidden. Such systems are in general very promising
T2 1
5
D 0 A1 for the realization of efficient tunable laser oscillation,
0 1 2 because even in the case of a spectral overlap between
Dq/B
stimulated emission and excited-state absorption, the
Fig. 11.84 Tanabe–Sugano diagram for tetrahedrally coor- transition probabilities for the latter are expected to be
dinated ions with 3d4 configuration, C/B = 4 about a factor of 10 smaller.
Cr2+ -doped chalcogenide crystals have been shown
is present in practically all crystals. Its influence is to be efficient and broadband tunable solid-state lasers
small in systems with an advantageous energy-level for the infrared spectral range between 2 µm and 3 µm.
scheme and/or a crystal structure that supports strong Pulsed, continuous-wave, mode-locked and diode-
polarization-dependent selection rules. A second but less pumped laser operation have been demonstrated in
recent years. Possible applications of these mid-infrared
lasers include scientific research, remote sensing, trace-
ó (10–19 cm2) gas analysis, medicine, biology, materials processing,
and ultrashort-pulse generation.
8
Materials. The choice of host materials for the Cr2+
laser ion is limited due to special conditions. First, the
materials have to exhibit a tetrahedrally coordinated
4
lattice site. A divalent lattice site is also preferably,
because otherwise a charge-compensation mechanism
would have to be established in the lattice. Furthermore,
0 host crystals with low phonon frequencies have to be
óGSA + óSE– óESA
óSE– óESA chosen in order to decrease the possibility of nonra-
óGSA diative decay via multiphonon relaxation. Chalcogenide
–4 óSE crystals, with their tetrahedrally coordinated divalent
cation lattice sites and with phonon energies lower than
1500 2000 2500 3000 400 cm−1 , are thus very suitable with respect to the
Wavelength (nm)
realization of efficient broadband emission in this mid-
Fig. 11.85 σGSA (dashed line), σSE (dotted line), (σGSA + σSE − infrared spectral range. In Table 11.29 some material
σESA ) (thin solid line), and (σSE − σESA ) spectrum (thick solid line) parameters of the investigated chalcogenide crystals are
of Cr2+ :ZnSe at room temperature. The sharp structure beyond given in comparison to the data for Al2 O3 . The ther-
2500 nm is attributed to the water absorption in air and the following mal conductivities of the chalcogenides are rather high
normalization process. (After [11.1145]) and comparable to the values for Al2 O3 . However, the
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 687

Table 11.29 Materials parameter of some chalcogenide crystals suitable for Cr2+ . The data for Y3 Al5 O12 are given for comparison.
(*: for CdTe). (After [11.1146–1148]) w: Wurtzite, z: Zincblende
ZnS ZnSe Cd1−x Mnx Te CdSe Y3 Al5 O12
Structure Wurtzite: hexagonal Zincblende: cubic Zincblende: cubic Wurtzite: hexagonal Garnet: cubic
Zincblende: cubic
Site symmetry C3v (hex.) Td Td C3v D2 , C3i , S4

Part C 11.2
Td (cubic)
Growth Vertical Brigdeman Vertical Bridgeman Vertical Brigdeman Vapor transport Czochralski
Tm (◦ C) w: 1700 1525 1070–1092 1250– 1350 1930
z: 1020
Hardness (Knoop) w: 210– 240 130 45∗ 70 1250
z: 150– 160
Refractive index 2.29 2.48 2.75 2.57 1.8
Thermal conductivity w: 17 18 ≈2 6.2 10
(W/mK) z: 27 (6.2∗ )
dn/ dT (10−6 /K) w: 46 70 107∗ 9
Transmission range w: 0.4–17 0.5–18 1–28∗ 0.8–18 0.2–10
(µm) z: 0.4–14

main disadvantages of the chalcogenide crystals are the
growth techniques, which are Bridgman or vapor trans-
port, which usually lead to a lower crystal quality than
in the case of growth by the Czochralski method, and
the high values for dn/ dt, which lead to strong thermal
lensing during laser operation, especially in the case of
high-power operation.
Spectroscopy. The spectroscopy of Cr2+ ions in chalco-
genide crystals has been thoroughly investigated in the
past [11.1154–1162]. Tetrahedrally coordinated Cr2+
ions exhibit a broad band in the absorption spectrum due
to the 5 T2 → 5 E transition in the infrared spectral range
with a maximum around 1.7–1.9 µm. The emission
spectrum due to the 5 E → 5 T2 transition is also broad
and occurs between 2 µm and 3 µm. The absorption
and emission cross sections for the Cr2+ -doped chalco-
genides are on the order of ≈ 10−18 cm2 ; these are values
expected for tetrahedrally coordinated transition-metal
ions and are larger than those for Ti3+ :Al2 O3 [11.948].
The room-temperature absorption and emission spec-
tra are shown in Fig. 11.85. The emission lifetimes at
room temperature are on the order of several µs and the
emission quantum efficiencies are close to unity. The
σem τ product gives an indication of the expected laser
threshold, because Pthr ∝ (σem τ)−1 . The values for the
Cr2+ -doped chalcogenides are higher than in the case
of Ti3+ :Al2 O3 , so that generally lower laser thresholds

Table 11.30 Overview about the spectroscopic characteristics of Cr2+ doped chalcogenide crystals. Data for Ti3+ :Al2 O3
are given for comparison
ZnS ZnSe ZnTe Cd0.85 Mn0.15 Te Cd0.55 Mn0.45 Te CdSe Ti3+ : Al2 O3
[11.1149– [11.1149– [11.1149– [11.1152] [11.1153] [11.1154] [11.948]
1151] 1151] 1151]
σabs (10−20 cm2 ) 52 87 123 ≈ 270 ≈ 170 300 6.5
σem (10−20 cm2 ) 75 90 188 270 170 200 45
τem (300 K) (µs) 8 9 3 1.4 4.8 6 3
σem τ 6.0 8.1 5.6 3.8 8.2 12.0 1.4
(10−22 cm−2 s−1 )
η ≈ 0.73 ≈1 ≈1 ≈ 0.38 ≈1 ≈1 ≈ 0.9
λpeak,em (nm) 2300 2300 2400 2250 2480 2200 800
∆λ (nm) ≈ 780 1000 ≈ 900 ≈ 500 770 ≈ 550 300
∆λ/λpeak,em ≈ 0.34 ≈ 0.43 ≈ 0.38 ≈ 0.22 0.31 ≈ 0.25 0.38
688 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources
for the Cr2+ -doped materials are expected. The ratio be-
tween the emission bandwidth and the central emission
wavelength, ∆λ/λpeak,em , is a measure for the principle
ability to generate ultrashort pulses in the mode-locked
regime; the higher this value, the shorter the pulses. The
values for Cr2+ -doped crystals are comparable to those
of Ti3+ :Al2 O3 , for which laser pulses shorter than 5 fs
Part C 11.2
have been realized. However, one has to keep in mind
that bandwidth is not the only important parameter for
ultrashort-pulse generation. Other important parameters
are the nonlinearities of the material and the thermal
lensing introduced by the high peak power, which oc-
curs in the mode-locked regime. Only recently Sorokina
et al. [11.1163] obtained mode-locking in the fs regime,
after a lot of work was spent in order to understand
the mechanisms behind the pulse-forming processes and
how they can be controlled. In Table 11.30 the main
spectroscopic data for the Cr2+ -doped chalcogenides are
summarized in comparison to the data for Ti3+ :Al2 O3 .
For the tetrahedrally coordinated Cr2+ ion strong
ESA transitions due to inner-shell 3d transitions are
not expected, because all possible transitions are sup-
posed to be spin-forbidden. This assumption was proven
by ESA measurements [11.1145, 1164] (Fig. 11.85).
Neither in the spectral region of the ground-state ab-
sorption nor in the emission region is ESA observed.
Tunability up to and beyond 3 µm was predicted for
Cr2+ :ZnSe [11.1145]. This prediction was later proven
with laser experiments, where laser oscillation was ob-
served up to 3100 nm [11.1165].
Laser results. Laser materials based on the Cr2+ ion
as the active ion have been investigated since the mid
1990s. Nowadays, Cr2+ lasers are operating in a vari-
ety of different operation schemes and under different
excitation sources. In Table 11.31 an overview of the
obtained laser results is given.
The best laser results were thus far obtained for
Cr2+ :ZnSe. In different setups using different pump
sources (Tm3+ lasers, Co2+ :MgF2 lasers, diode lasers
between 1.54 µm and 2.0 µm, erbium-doped fiber am-
plifiers) slope efficiencies up to 73%, output powers up
to 7 W, thresholds lower than 100 mW, a tuning range of
2000–3100 nm and mode locking with pulse durations
as short as ≈ 100 fs were obtained (Table 11.31). McKay
and coworkers [11.1166] reported results of a thin-disc
laser setup for a Cr2+ :ZnSe laser, a setup that was suc-
cessfully applied to Yb-doped laser materials [11.1167].
This setup appears to be favorable also for Cr2+ :ZnSe,
because Wagner et al. [11.1168] reported on thermal
rollover in the case of high-power pumping. In McKay’s
experiment, a Q-switched Tm,Ho:YLF laser operating
at 2.05 µm with a repetition rate of 10 kHz was used
as the pump source. An output power of 4.27 W with
a slope efficiency of 47% with respect to the absorbed
pump power was obtained. The other possibility is to
use a rather large pump beam radius of 260 µm (1/ e2
radius), as was done by Alford et al. [11.1169]. Using
a 35 W Tm3+ :YAlO3 as the pump laser, a continuous-
wave output power of 7 W at 2.51 µm was achieved.
Besides ZnSe, other chalcogenide and mixed chalco-
genide host materials for the Cr2+ ion are also suitable
for efficient laser oscillation. For Cr2+ -doped ZnS, the
spectroscopic characteristics are very similar to those
of Cr2+ :ZnSe. From the material point of view, ZnS
even seems to have some advantages over ZnSe as ZnS
has a higher bandgap energy (3.84 eV for ZnS, 2.83 eV
for ZnSe), a higher hardness, a higher thermal con-
ductivity [27 W/mK for ZnS (cubic phase), 19 W/mK
for ZnSe] and a lower dn/ dT (46 × 10−6 1/K for ZnS,
70 × 10−6 1/K for ZnSe) (Table 11.29). However, ZnS
is much more difficult to grow and many different
structure types exist. Thus far, the obtained laser re-
sults for Cr2+ :ZnS are not as good as the results for
Cr2+ :ZnSe (Table 11.31). The highest output power ob-
tained was about 700 mW at an absorbed pump power
of 2.65 W from an Er-doped fiber laser [11.1170, 1171].
The thresholds are around 100 mW and are thus com-
parable to those observed for Cr2+ :ZnSe. The widest
tuning range obtained so far is 2110–2840 nm. The
highest slope efficiency in CW regime is about 40%.
Direct diode pumping has also been realized, with an
output power of 25 mW at an absorbed pump power
of 570 mW [11.1170]. However, in the same setup
a Cr2+ :ZnSe laser showed better results. Investigations
revealed that the passive losses of the Cr2+ :ZnS crys-
tal (14%/cm) were much higher than the losses from the
Cr2+ :ZnSe crystal (4%/cm), indicating the larger prob-
lems with crystal growth and crystal quality in the case
of Cr2+ :ZnS compared to Cr2+ :ZnSe.
Compared to ZnSe and ZnS, the thermal properties
and material parameters of Cd0.55 Mn0.45 Te are much
worse, i. e., the dn/ dT is higher and the thermal con-
ductivity is lower (Table 11.29). Therefore, efficient
laser operation was only achieved under pulsed pump-
ing [11.1153]. An output power of 170 mW with a slope
efficiency of 64% was realized for a repetition rate of
2 Hz; the tuning range was 2.17–3.01 µm [11.1153].
Mond et al. [11.1172] reported diode-pumped CW op-
eration with an output power of 6 mW and a slope
efficiency of 4%. A thermal rollover at higher pump
powers was observed, indicating the strong thermal lens-
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 689

Table 11.31 Overview of the laser results obtained for Cr2+ -doped materials
ZnS ZnSe Cd0.85 Mn0.15 Te Cd0.55 Mn0.45 Te CdSe CdTe
λlaser (nm) 2350 [11.1149, 1173] 2350 [11.1149] 2515 nm [11.1152] 2550 [11.1153] 2600 [11.1174] 2535
2500 [11.1145] 2660 nm [11.1175] [11.1176]
2600 [11.1164]
3000 [11.1164]

Part C 11.2
ηsl (%) 40 [11.1170] 73 [11.1145] 44 [11.1175] 64 [11.1153] 50 [11.1177] 1 [11.1176]
Tuning (nm) 2050–2400 2000–3100 2300– 2600 2170–3010 2400–3400
[11.1178] [11.1165] [11.1175] [11.1153] [11.1179]
2110–2840
[11.1170]
Pout or E out 0.1 mJ 7W 0.6 mJ 170 mW (2 Hz) 0.5 mJ pulsed
[11.1149, 1173] [11.1169] [11.1175] [11.1153] mode
Pulse length (ML) 4.4 ps [11.1180,
1181]
≈ 4 ps [11.1182]
≈ 100 fs
[11.1163]
Other references
Pulsed [11.1149–1151, [11.1149–1151, [11.1152, 1175, 1183] [11.1153, 1183] [11.1174, 1177,
1170, 1171, 1173, 1173] 1179, 1184]
1178]
CW [11.1145, 1164,
1168, 1185–
1189]
Gain-switched [11.1190]
Diode pumped [11.1145, 1165,
1172, 1191–
1198]
Mode-locked [11.1180, 1182]
Thin disc [11.1166]
Multi-wavelength [11.1199]

ing problems. The threshold pump power was only
120 mW. This low value is expected from the spec-
troscopic parameters. Under diode pumping at a duty
cycle of 1:4, the thermal rollover is not observed at the
pump powers available. Then the highest output power
is 15 mW with a slope efficiency of 5% and a threshold
of ≈ 100 mW.
Cr2+ :CdSe exhibits a similar behavior to
2+
Cr :Cd0.55 Mn0.45 Te, as expected from the material
parameters and spectroscopic characteristics. Thus also
strong thermal lensing and power-handling problems are
encountered in the laser experiments. CW laser opera-
tion has not yet been reported, however, the laser results
under pulsed pumping are very promising. Using a Q-
switched Tm,Ho:YAG laser operating at 2.05 µm with
a repetition rate of 1 kHz, a maximum output energy
of 0.5 mJ per pulse and a slope efficiency of 50% was
obtained [11.1177]. The highest average output power
was 815 mW [11.1184] while the largest tuning range
achieved thus far is 2.4–3.4 µm [11.1179].
Outlook for Cr2+ systems. Cr2+ -doped materials are
highly efficient lasers in a very interesting wavelength
range for application; see the overview in Table 11.31.
In all materials investigated, the material parameters are
still a large problem, i. e., the quality of the crystals, the
strong thermal lensing, the high nonlinearity, yielding
a strong tendency for self-focusing, and the relatively
low damage threshold. All these problems are most se-
vere for CdMnTe and CdSe. Therefore, the thin-disc
setup may be a way to overcome some of these prob-
lems. Another alternative is the use of larger pump and
laser modes. As far as ultrashort-pulse generation is con-
cerned, Sorokina et al. recently realized mode locking in
the fs regime [11.1163]. Thus far, only a few materials
have been investigated for laser applications. Therefore,
690 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

there is the possibility to look for different host materials 1

for the tetrahedral Cr2+ ion, e.g., ZnGa2 S4 , ZnGa2 Se4 , E/B T 2, 1E 3
T1b 1T1 1
T2 3
T1a
50
CaGa2 S4 , and CaGa2 Se4 .

Other transition-metal-ion lasers. 3

T2
V2+ lasers. The V2+ ion is isoelectronic to the Cr3+ 40
1
ion. Therefore, its energy-level scheme can also be A2
Part C 11.2

described with the Tanabe–Sugano diagram shown in

Fig. 11.81. The absorption spectra of octahedrally coor-
dinated V2+ is similar to that of Cr3+ , but red-shifted
due to the lower valence of the V2+ ion. The spectra
are dominated by the three broad spin-allowed bands
due to transitions between the 4 A2 (4 F) ground state
and the 4 T2 (4 F), 4 T1 (4 F), and 4 T1 (4 P) excited states.
The emission spectra consist of a broad band due to
the 4 T2 (4 F) → 4 A2 (4 F) transition, also shifted to longer
wavelengths compared to the emission spectra of Cr3+ .
Laser oscillation with V2+ on the 4 T2 (4 F) → 4 A2 (4 F)
transition was realized only in MgF2 [11.1200–1202]
and CsCaF3 [11.1203, 1204]. An overview of the ob-
tained laser results is given in Table 11.31. The laser
efficiencies are very low. Payne et al. [11.44, 1205] and
Moncorgé et al. [11.1206] found that ESA is the domi-
nant loss mechanism for laser oscillation. In some mater-
ials nonradiative decay also competes with the emission,
leading to small emission quantum efficiencies.
Ni2+ lasers. The energy-level scheme of octahedrally
coordinated Ni2+ in crystals can be described with the
Tanabe–Sugano diagram shown in Fig. 11.86. In the
absorption spectra, three bands according to the spin-
allowed transitions from the 3 A2 (3 F) ground state to the
3 T (3 F), 3 T (3 F), and 3 T (3 P) excited states are ob-
2 1a 1b
served. The laser transition of Ni2+ lies in the infrared
spectral range due to the 3 T2 (3 F) → 3 A2 (3 F) transition.
Its spectral position is strongly wavelength dependent
(Table 11.33). The emission lifetime is typically on the
order of ms and the emission quantum efficiency is near
unity at room temperature in most materials.
Despite these advantageous spectroscopic data, laser
oscillation with Ni2+ was obtained only at temperatures
below 240 K and only in a few materials (Table 11.33).
The absence of laser oscillation at room temperature can
be explained by excited-state absorption (ESA), which
overlaps with the spectral range of emission. Detailed
30
1
G
1
20 E
1
D
3
P
10
Ni2+ 3
A2
3
F 0
0 2 4
Dq/B
Fig. 11.86 Tanabe–Sugano diagram for the d8 electron con-
figuration. The dashed area corresponds to the Dq/B values
of Ni2+
measurements of the ESA for several Ni2+ -doped crys-
tals were performed by Koetke et al. [11.1207, 1208].
With increasing temperature the excited-state absorp-
tion and ground-state absorption bands become broader
and thus overlap to a larger extent with the stimu-
lated emission. As a result, the spectral region where
σeff = σse − σESA > 0 becomes narrower. Furthermore,
the losses due to ground-state absorption increase. How-
ever, at low temperatures output powers up to 10 W and
slope efficiencies up to 57% were obtained [11.1202].
Mn5+ lasers. The Mn5+ ion incorporates into crys-
tals mainly at tetrahedrally coordinated lattice sites. Its
energy-level scheme can be described with the Tanabe–
Sugano diagram shown in Fig. 11.82. Compared to Cr4+ ,
the crystal field is higher due to the higher valence
state, thus the Mn5+ ion exhibits narrow-line emis-
sion due to the 1 E(1 D) → 3 A2 (3 F) transition. Optical
properties of Mn5+ ions in solids have been under
investigation for more than 30 years [11.1209–1217].

Table 11.32 Overview of V2+ -laser materials

Host material λlaser (nm) Tuning range (nm) T (K) Mode of operation Pout /Eout η (%) Ref.
MgF2 1121 1070–1150 77 pulsed [11.1200–1202]
CsCaF3 1280 1240–1330 80 CW ≈ 15 µW 0.06 [11.1203, 1204]
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 691

Table 11.33 Overview of the results of Ni2+ lasers

Host material λlaser (nm) Tuning range T (K) Mode of operation Pout /Eout η (%) Ref.
(nm)
MgO 1314.4 77 Pulsed [11.1200]
1318 80 CW 10 W 57 [11.1202,
1223]
≈ 1320 [11.1202]

Part C 11.2
≈ 1410 [11.1202]
MgF2 1610–1740 89 CW, CW-Q-qw 1.85 W 28 [11.1202]
1608–1730 80 CW 185 mW 10 [11.1224]
1610–1740 80 CW ≈ 100 mW [11.1225,
1226]
1670 80 QS (480 ns) 25 mW (1 kHz) [11.1225]
1610–1730 ML (23 ps) ≈ 100 mW [11.1227]
1623 77 Pulsed [11.1200,
1228, 1229]
1630 20–90 CW 1.74 W 37 [11.1230]
1730–1750 100–200 CW ≈ 0.5 W [11.1230]
1636 77–82 Pulsed [11.1200]
1674–1676 82–100 Pulsed, CW [11.1200]
1731–1756 100–192 Pulsed, CW [11.1200]
1785–1797 198–240 Pulsed [11.1200]
MnF2 1865 20 Pulsed [11.1200]
1915 77 Pulsed [11.1200]
1922 77 Pulsed [11.1200]
1929 85 CW (exc.) [11.1200]
1939 85 CW (exc.) [11.1200]
KMgF3 1591 77 Pulsed [11.1231]
CaY2 Mg2 Ge3 O12 1460 80 Pulsed ≈ 3.8 mJ 0.7 [11.1202,
1229]
Gd3 Ga5 O12 1434–1520 100 Pulsed 6 [11.1207,
1232]

Mn5+ laser operation at room temperature was demon-
strated by Merkle et al. in Ba3 (VO4 )2 , Sr3 (VO4 )2 ,
and in Sr5 (VO4 )3 F [11.1218–1220]. The laser tran-
sition is realized between the 1 E(1 D) excited state
and the 3 A2 (3 F) ground state, thus these lasers are
three-level systems. The efficiency is rather low (laser
output energy ∼ µJ, ηsl ≤ 1.6%) and laser oscillation
from other Mn5+ systems has not been reported. The
major drawback for these lasers is the excited-state
absorption at the stimulated-emission wavelength. In-
vestigations of the excited-state absorption and gain
were performed in detail by Verdún [11.1217], Merkle
et al. [11.1218], Manaa et al. [11.1221] and Kück
et al. [11.933, 1222].
To obtain a four-level system, one should search
for crystals with low crystal field strengths or with
large energy-level splittings. Then the 3 T2 (3 F) or one
of its crystal field components would be the lowest-
energy level. However, thus far Mn5+ systems exhibiting
broadband emission are not known.
Co2+ lasers. The Co2+ ion in octahedral coordination ex-
hibits laser oscillation in the mid-infrared spectral region
between 1.5 µm and 2.5 µm. Its energy-level scheme
can be described with the Tanabe–Sugano diagram for
the 3d7 electron configuration shown in Fig. 11.87.
Three broad and spin-allowed transitions between the
4T 4 4 4
1a ground state and the T2 , A2 and T1b ex-
cited states exist. In MgF2 , these transitions are located
around 7000 cm−1 , 15 000 cm−1 , and 20 000 cm−1 , re-
spectively [11.1233]. The emission occurs between
1.5 µm and 2.5 µm, according to the 4 T2 → 4 T1a transi-
tion. At low temperatures, the lifetimes are on the order
of several ms, while at room temperature the emis-
sion is strongly quenched due to nonradiative decay
via multiphonon relaxation, yielding very low quantum
692 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

Co2+ :MgF2 , which is also a commercial laser system.

E/B 2
A2 4A2 2
A1
4
T1
With Co2+ :MgF2 an overall tuning range of 1.5–2.5 µm
70
was realized with output powers up to 4.2 W, output
energies up to 1.6 J and slope efficiencies as high as
4 65%. As the pump source, Nd:YAG or Nd:glass lasers
T2
around 1.3 µm are usually used, however, laser oscilla-
50 tion has also been realized under flashlamp pumping,
Part C 11.2

argon-ion laser excitation and oxygen–iodine laser exci-

2
tation. Operation regimes are CW, pulsed, Q-switched
2 T2
F 2
T1
and mode-locked.

30 Fe2+ lasers. The Fe2+ ion has a 3d6 electron configu-

ration that is complementary to that of Cr2+ . The 5 D
4
T1
free-ion state also splits into a 5 T2 and a 5 E state,
2
G however, for the Fe2+ ion 5 E is the ground state and
4
P 5 T is the first excited state. Consequently, there is just
4
T2 2
10
2 one spin-allowed absorption (5 E → 5 T2 ) and emission
E
4
T1
(5 T2 → 5 E) transition. As for the Cr2+ ion, all excited-
4 2
F 0 E state transitions are spin-forbidden. Thus, one might
0 1 2 3 4
Dq/B
expect similar laser characteristics for Fe2+ -doped lasers
as for Cr2+ lasers. However, the energy gap between the
5 T excited state and the 5 E ground state is smaller, thus
Fig. 11.87 Tanabe–Sugano diagram for the d7 configuration 2
(after [11.36]) the emission is at longer wavelengths and the nonradia-
tive decay rate is higher, leading to lifetime shortening
efficiencies [11.1234]. Excited-state absorption over- and low quantum efficiencies at elevated temperatures.
laps with the 4 T1a → 4 T2 absorption band, which is For Fe2+ :ZnSe, the emission lifetime first increases from
the main pump band for laser operation. In the region 12 to 120 K from 33 µs to 105 µs and then decreases to
of stimulated emission, the excited-state absorption is about 5 µs at 250 K due to thermally activated multi-
negligible [11.1233]. phonon decay [11.1235, 1236]. At 14 K, the 5 E → 5 T2
Laser oscillation was obtained in the continuous- absorption band is between 2.5 µm and 3.75 µm, and the
wave regime only at cryogenic temperatures, while 5 T → 5 E emission band is between 3.7 µm and 4.8 µm.
2
pulsed laser operation was also realized at room temper- Laser oscillation of Fe2+ was obtained in
ature for Co2+ -doped MgF2 and KZnF3 . An overview ZnSe [11.1235–1239] and in n-InP [11.1240]. For
of the laser results for Co2+ laser systems is given in Fe2+ :ZnSe, room-temperature tunable laser oscil-
Table 11.35. The best laser results were obtained for lation was recently reported in a gain-switched
Table 11.34 Overview of Mn5+ -laser materials. The data are from the literature stated in the text [11.1209, 1222]
Ba3 (VO4 )2 Sr3 (VO4 )2 Sr5 (VO4 )3 F
Structure Hexagonal, R-3m Hexagonal, R-3m Hexagonal, P63 /m
Site symmetry C3v (V-site) C3v (V-site) Cs (V-site)
Growth Czochralski/LHPG Czochralski/LHPG Czochralski
Tm (◦ C) 1560 1923
σabs (10−20 cm2 ) ≈ 300 ( 800 nm) ≈ 300 ( 800 nm)
σem (10−20 cm2 ) 10–20 27 (E  c), 13 (E⊥c)
σESA (10−20 cm2 ) 14 (E  c), 24 (E⊥c)
τem (300 K) (µs) 430–480 525 475–500
σem τ (10−22 cm−2 s−1 ) ≈ 0.7 ≈ 1.3 (E  c), ≈ 0.6 (E⊥c)
λlaser (nm) 1181.0 1168.0 1163.7
ηsl (%) 0.21 0.08 1.6
Pout or E out ≈ 2 µJ ≈ 1 µJ
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.2 Solid-State Lasers 693

Table 11.35 Overview of Co2+ -laser materials. (*: versus input power, QS: Q-switched operation, ML: mode-locked
operation)
Host material λlaser (nm) λlaser (nm) T (K) Mode of operation Pout /Eout η (%) Ref.
MgF2 1860 1500–2000 80 CW 1W 31 [11.1241]
1920 1600–2300 80 Pulsed 150 mJ 65 [11.1202, 1242,
1243]
1920 80 Pulsed 7.3 W (50 Hz) ≈ 23∗ [11.1242,1243]

Part C 11.2
1920 QS (220 ns) 25 mJ [11.1242,1243]
1940 225 Pulsed ≈ 11 mJ 14∗ [11.1243]
1920 80 4.2 W 28∗ [11.1202,1243]
2100 1750–2500 RT Pulsed 70 mJ 46 [11.1244]
1650–2010 80 ML (34 ps) [11.1227]
1500–2000 QS-ML (200 ps) 400 mW (ave) [11.1245]
1600–1900 77 QS (600 ns) 15 mJ [11.1246]
1890 1600–2150 77 CW 2W 32 [11.1247]
2050 RT Pulsed 0.2 mJ 29 [11.1248]
2050 77 Pulsed 1.6 J 44 [11.1249]
2040 1960–2180 RT Pulsed 20 mJ 25 [11.1233]
1630–2080 80 CW ≈ 100 mW 5 [11.1226,1250]
1750 77 Pulsed [11.1200,1251]
2060 1800–2450 282 Pulsed 900 mJ 33∗ [11.1252]
1803.5 77 Pulsed [11.1200,1251]
1990 77 Pulsed [11.1200,1251]
2050 77 Pulsed [11.1200,1251]

KMgF3 1620–1900 80 CW 20 [11.1253]

1821 77 Pulsed [11.1200]
KZnF3 1650–2110 80 30 [11.1253]
1770 1650–2070 80 120 mW [11.1254]
1950 1850–2050 85 CW ≈ 20 mW ≈2 [11.1255]
1700–2150 98 CW ≈ 55 mW 8 [11.1256]
2024 300 Pulsed 3 mJ 8 [11.1233]
ZnF2 2165 77 Pulsed [11.1200,1251]

mode [11.1237]. The pump source was the second
Stokes output of a Nd:YAG laser at 2.92 µm. The out-
put pulse energy was about 1 µJ. The highest output
power and slope efficiency of 12 µJ and 8.2%, respec-
tively, were obtained at lower temperatures. In this case,
the Fe2+ :ZnSe laser was pumped by a pulsed Er3+ :YAG
laser operating at 2.698 µm [11.1235, 1236]. The laser
wavelength is tunable with temperature from 3.98 µm at
15 K to 4.54 µm at 180 K. In n-InP, Fe2+ laser oscillation
was obtained at 2 K at 3.53 µm, i. e., at the zero-phonon
transition [11.1240].
Summary
In this chapter an overview of transition-metal-ion-
doped crystals as solid-state laser materials is given.
It was shown that they are efficient (usually tunable)
laser sources covering a wide spectral range (Fig. 11.77).
However, compared to lasers based on 4fn →4fn transi-
tions of trivalent rare-earth ions, they play only a small
role as far as commercialization is concerned. In prin-
ciple only the Ti3+ :Al2 O3 and – with limitations – the
Cr3+ :BeAl2 O4 laser can be mentioned. These lasers are
mainly used in the field of scientific research. The main
reason for this is that their advantages, i. e., their tunabil-
ity and their capability to generate ultrashort pulses, are
not relevant for most industrial applications. They ex-
hibit lower output power than lasers based on 4fn →4fn
transitions of trivalent rare-earth ions (e.g., Nd3+ :YAG,
Yb3+ :YAG) and are more expensive and less efficient
than diode lasers. Direct diode-laser pumping is either
694 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources
Table 11.36 Overview about transition-metal ions sorted according to the corresponding Tanabe–Sugano diagram dn
(TSD-dn ). Normal: octahedral coordination; italic: tetrahedral coordination. Light brown: laser oscillation in octahedral
coordination; Dark brown: laser oscillation in tetrahedral coordination. (After [11.933])
Ion TSD-d1 TSD-d2 TSD-d3 TSD-d4
Ti Ti3+ Ti2+
V V4+ V3+ V2+
Part C 11.2
Cr Cr4+ Cr3+ Cr2+
Mn Mn5+ Mn4+ Mn3+
Fe Fe2+
Co Co3+ Co2+
Ni Ni2+ Ni3+
Cu Cu2+
inefficient or – in the case of Cr3+ and Cr2+ lasers
– requires laser diodes that are not yet available at
a satisfactory price and quality on the market.
Transition-metal-ion and especially tunable laser
systems exhibit a stronger coupling of the electronic
levels to the vibrating lattice of the crystal. This leads to
higher possibilities for ESA and nonradiative decay pro-
cesses compared to the 4fn →4fn transitions of trivalent
rare-earth ions in crystals.
The main problem in realizing efficient laser oscilla-
tion is the excited-state absorption from the metastable
upper laser level. From (11.87) and (11.88) its ef-
fect on laser threshold and slope efficiency becomes
clear. It occurs in principle for every electron configura-
tion, either as intra- or interconfigurational transitions
or as a transition to charge transfer or conduction-
band-related levels. The electron configurations are in
general favorable, when intraconfigurational excited-
state absorption transitions are not possible, e.g., in
the d1 and d9 configuration, or are less strong due to
selection rules, e.g., in the d4 and d6 configurations.
Other configurations exhibit more-complex energy-level
schemes, therefore intraconfigurational ESA transitions
occur with high probability in the spectral regions of
emission and excitation. The influence of ESA, how-
ever, can even in this case be reduced, e.g., by taking
advantage of polarization-dependent transition rules,
which result in higher stimulated-emission cross sec-
tions than ESA cross sections, as it is the case, e.g., for
Cr3+ :LiSrAlF6 and Cr4+ :Y3 Al5 O12 .
The role of nonradiative decay for the realization
of efficient laser operation is less important, although
not negligible. It affects to a first approximation only
the laser threshold, which is increased (11.84). How-
ever, a nonradiative rate leads to a temperature increase
TSD-d5 TSD-d6 TSD-d7 TSD-d8 TSD-d9
V3+ V4+
Cr2+ Cr4+ Cr5+
Mn2+ , Mn2+ Mn3+ Mn5+ Mn6+
Fe3+ , Fe3+ Fe2+ Fe6+
Co3+ Co2+
Ni3+ Ni2+
Cu3+ Cu2+
in the pump channel, which also affects the overall
laser characteristics. Thus, its general influence depends
strongly on the material parameters of the laser sys-
tem, i. e., mainly of the host material. Materials with
a high thermal conductivity and mechanical strength are
favored. As an example, Cr4+ :Y3 Al5 O12 can be given.
Here, the quantum efficiency is less than 20%, whereas
laser operation with a slope efficiency close to 40% was
realized.
Table 11.36 gives an overview of the transition-
metal ions in octahedral and tetrahedral coordination
investigated to date. They are listed according to
their corresponding energy-level diagram (i. e., Tanabe–
Sugano diagram). The laser-active transition-metal ions
are indicated. Almost all transition-metal ions with dif-
ferent valence states and ligand coordinations have been
investigated thus far. Efficient room-temperature laser
oscillation was only obtained for Ti3+ and Cr3+ in
octahedral and for Cr2+ and Cr4+ in tetrahedral co-
ordination. Whether efficient laser operation will also
be obtained for other ions depends very much on the
host material chosen. For example, the Ti3+ ion ex-
hibits efficient laser operation only in Al2 O3 . Therefore,
other ions cannot a priori be excluded as efficient laser
ions.
11.2.6 Overview of the most Important
Laser Ions in Solid-State Lasers
Research on laser materials has created a number of
compact, efficient solid-state laser sources for a large
variety of applications. Laser materials have been de-
veloped for various wavelengths (near-infrared, visible,
UV) and power regimes (mW to multi-kW). Spe-
cial geometries of the active material (microchip, rod,
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.3 Semiconductor Lasers 695

disc, fiber) strongly correlate with the active ion con- Near-IR rare-earth lasers.
centrations and cross sections of absorption and gain Nd3+ 0.9, 1.06, 1.3 µm
transitions. Yb3+ 1–1.1 µm
The values of the cross sections depend on the quan- Tm3+ 2 µm, 1.5 µm (upconversion)
tum numbers of the final and initial states as well as on Ho3+ 2 µm
the local environment of the active-ion site in the mater- Er3+ 1.6, 3 µm, 0.85 µm (upconversion)
ial. The lifetimes of the states are influenced by radiative

Part C 11.3
and nonradiative transitions. So, the microscopic crystal Visible rare-earth lasers.
properties play an important role for static and dynamic
processes in the laser crystal. Pr3+ 0.64 µm (diode-pumped)
In the near-infrared spectral region high efficien- Pr3+ ,Yb3+ 0.52, 0.63 µm (upconversion)
cies have been achieved with diode-pumped oxide- Er3+ 0.55 µm (upconversion)
and fluoride-based laser materials doped with the rare- Tm3+ 0.45, 0.48, 0.51, 0.65, 0.79 µm (up-
earth ions Nd3+ , Tm3+ , Ho3+ , Er3+ , and Yb3+ . For conversion)
high-average-power operation Nd3+ - and Yb3+ -doped
crystals are of greatest interest. Especially the Yb3+ Frequency doubling of near IR rare-earth lasers (Nd, Yb)
ion exhibits very small Stokes losses and minimum heat
generation, which reduces thermal lensing and improves UV rare-earth lasers.
beam quality. Transition-metal-doped crystals based on Ce3+ 0.3 µm
the ions Ti3+ , Cr2+ , Cr3+ , and Cr4+ offer broadly tun-
able radiation within the spectral region 680–3000 nm. Frequency doubling of visible rare-earth lasers
In the visible region Er3+ -, Tm3+ -, and Pr3+ -doped Frequency tripling/quadrupling of near-IR lasers
laser materials operate at several red, green, and blue
transitions with laser diode upconversion and/or direct Transition-metal lasers.
pumping. So far Ce3+ is the only ion with reasonable Ti3+ 0.68–1.1 µm
direct laser performance in the UV. Cr3+ 0.7–1.1 µm
The following wavelength data provide a rough Cr4+ 1.2–1.6 µm
guide to the spectral range of the various laser ions. Cr2+ 2–3 µm

11.3 Semiconductor Lasers

11.3.1 Overview
In crystalline solids the interaction between atomic
energy levels generates energy bands. A quantum-
mechanical treatment provides, in the single-electron
approximation, energy bands which overlap which each
other or are separated by bandgaps from each other.
In semiconductors, we find between the energetically
highest band, which is fully occupied by electrons at
T = 0 K, the valence band (VB), and the energetically
lowest band, which is completely empty at T = 0 K the
conduction band (CB) an energy range, in which we
find no allowed energy states, disregarding energy states
originating from dopants. This bandgap, E g , is the en-
ergy difference between the lower conduction-band edge
E C and the upper valence-band edge E V . For laser op-
eration an extreme deviation from thermal equilibrium
(nonthermal carrier distribution) is required: carrier in-
version. In the CB close to E C carrier inversion means
a much higher density of electrons than holes and in the
VB close to E V a much higher density of holes than elec-
trons. This extremely nonthermal condition is generated
by strong electrical or optical pumping of the laser-active
material. The electrical carrier injection in most cases is
obtained by a p–i–n heterojunction made of III/V semi-
conductor materials. Choosing InP as a typical example,
Fig. 11.88 displays a planarization (projection into 2-
D space for simplification) of the real 3-D zinkblende
crystal structure with the corresponding band structures
below. From the left to the right p-InP, intrinsic i-InP
and p-InP are shown.
In the highly p-doped InP bulk regions, at room tem-
perature nearly all acceptors have released their holes
into the valence band. Well away from the pn junc-
tion the hole field current (drift current) dominates the
carrier transport. At the left edge of the device, holes
are generated under the p contact. At the right edge of
the device, electrons are injected through the n contact.
696 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

p-doped i = intrinsic, undoped n-doped

a) c) e)

In P In P In P In P In P In P

P Be P In P In P In P In S In
Part C 11.3

In P In P In P In P In P In P

b) E d) E f) E

Extrinsic

EC EC EC

hí

EV EV EV

Extrinsic

y Space y y

Fig. 11.88a–f Schematic of a planarized lattice structure of p-doped, undoped and n-doped InP (a,c,e). Below are the
corresponding band structures in space (b,d,f). The dopants are indicated by squares, the full lines indicate the movement
of electrons, the broken line the movement of defect electrons (=holes) in space and the dotted line the movement of holes
on the VB

Well away from the pn junction the electron field cur-
rent dominates the carrier transport there. The bandgap
E g nearly equals the energy of the photons generated in
the central intrinsic region. However, such a homojunc-
tion p–i–n structure (Fig. 11.88) suffers from enormous
carrier leakage and the lack of a medium guiding the
generated light. To enable operation at room temperature
and considerably reduce the threshold currents at least
a double heterostructure (heterojunction p–i–n structure)
is required (Fig. 11.89). This Nobel-prize-winning idea
by Koemer and Alferov [11.1257, 1258] enables carrier
confinement and optical confinement by a single impor-
tant modification: using higher-bandgap E g materials
for the p and n regions compared to the central intrin-
sic active layer. Thus, for semiconductor lasers at least
two different materials are required, as shown in space
z(x, y) (Fig. 11.89a) and in the band structure E(y, z) in
space (Fig. 11.89b) for an undoped and unbiased struc-
ture. The central layer (material 1) has a lower E g than
the embedding bulk layers (materials 2) and therefore
electrically confines electrons in the CB and holes in
the VB, which is visualized by the band edge. Since
for semiconductors decreasing E g in nearly all cases
increases the refractive index n we fortunately obtain
an optical waveguide: a central higher-n material em-
bedded in a lower-index material (Fig. 11.89c). Thus,
the laser-active layer is the core layer of the waveguide
at the same time. By a proper design, essentially of
the refractive index differences and dimensions, we can
efficiently guide the generated light in a fundamental
mode (see the profile in Fig. 11.89c) similar to a single-
mode optical fibre. Considering an edge-emitting laser,
the structure is now p–i–n doped and forward-biased
(Fig. 11.89d), enabling the carrier transport described
above: hole injection from the left and electron injec-
tion from right. The band structure (Fig. 11.89e) of the
doped and biased laser structure visualizes the operation
of the p–i heterointerface acting as a border (electrical
confinement) for the electrons. The small potential bar-
rier at the i–n heterointerface is no real obstacle. The
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.3 Semiconductor Lasers 697

electrons can tunnel through or thermally jump across. semiconductor lasers, however, include quantum wells
In analogy, the p–i heterointerface is no real obstacle (QWs, a 2-D carrier system) [11.1259] or quantum dots
for the holes, whereas the n–i heterointerface provides (QDs, a 0-D carrier system) [11.1260] as the laser-active
the required border (electrical confinement). Modern medium, instead of a 3-D laser-active region in bulk

a) d)

Part C 11.3
i i i p i n

Material Material Material

2 1 2

y
z

b) Undoped, unbiased e) Doped, biased

EC

EF

EV

Energy E

y
z

c) f)

n
Intensity

y
Guided
light field

Fig. 11.89a–f Undoped and unbiased (a,b) and doped and biased (d,e,f) separate confinement heterostructures, (a,d)
schematic layer structure in space, (b,e,f) the corresponding band structures in space. The laser active layer is either 3-D
(e) or 2-D (f). (c) refractive-index profile and the fundamental guided mode for the cases (a-d)
698 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

Fig. 11.90 Schematic of a semiconductor laser with 3-D

laser-active layer and buried waveguide. Insets: refractive
index profiles and mode profiles in the x- and y-directions
intersecting the active layer at A and B, respectively
Cross si
section B lasers (Fig. 11.89e). In Fig. 11.89f two QWs are depicted
p as an example, providing the emission energy as the dif-
Part C 11.3

A si ference between the energetically lowest bound states in

i
y the wells (note that the ordinate indicates the electron
n energy).
x
z Finally, electrical and optical confinement in the y-
direction (Fig. 11.89c) has to be completed by electrical
B
and optical confinement in the x-direction (Fig. 11.90).
Mode profile Note that this figure is rotated by 90◦ with respect to
Refractive Fig. 11.89. In Fig. 11.90 the active material is embed-
index Cross section A
ded in the x-direction by semi-insulating (si) material
to force the current to move mainly in the active layers
(lateral electrical confinement). The si material is cho-
Energy (eV) sen to have a higher bandgap, and thus a lower refractive
0
a) hh1
Well band edge b) 4 nm GaAs/Al0.15Ga0.85As index, than the active material (lateral optical confine-
–0.02 hh1 ment). Also in this case, wave guiding is applied in the x-
Bulk effective
lh1 masses m *hh, m*lh and z-directions. This is shown in the two insets by the
–0.04 lh1 two cross sections A and B, showing the refractive-index
hh2
profiles and light-intensity profiles. Here, waveguiding
–0.06 in fundamental mode is shown for the case of bulk 3-D
hh3
hh2 active layers.
–0.08
lh2 Barrier band edge 4 nm Well band edge
–0.1 hh1 11.3.2 Resonator Types
and Modern Active Layer Materials:
–0.12 lh1 Quantum Effects and Strain
AlGaAs GaAs AlGaAs
–0.14 hh2 Barrier band edge
8 nm GaAs/Al0.15Ga0.85As Modern optoelectronic semiconductor devices are based
on a sequence of materials of different composition. Em-
0
c) 8 nm GaAs/Al0.3Ga0.7As d) Well band edge hh bedding a film of lower E g between a material of larger
–0.02 hh1
E g , we obtain quantization effects if the film thickness
hh1 L y is on the order of the electron wavelength or below
lh1 Well band edge lh
–0.04 (QW) [11.1259]. Using the Schrödinger equation, we
lh1
obtain at least one bound state in the CB and VB poten-
–0.06 tial wells, respectively. The electrons and holes are still
hh2 hh2
fully mobile in the x- and z-directions. This means that
–0.08
hh3 a wavevector k|| parallel to the heterointerfaces exists.
hh3
The motion in the y-direction is considerably restricted
–0.1
and statistically described by quantum mechanics. Fig-
–0.12 lh2
QW compression = 0.36%
ure 11.91 displays the VB structure in k-space [E(k )]
obtained by a theoretical model calculation [11.1261]
–0.14 8 nm In0.05Ga0.95As/Al0.15Ga0.85As
based on the Schrödinger equation for four different
Ga(In)As/(Al)GaAs QWs (k is oriented parallel to the
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
In-plane wave vector K|| (2ð/a0)
heterointerfaces).
In most cases in addition the QWs and the barriers in
Fig. 11.91 Valence-band structure E(k ) of various Ga(In)As/AlGaAs the active layer are additionally strained [11.1262]. Usu-
QWs [11.1261] ally, the wells are compressively strained, which means
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.3 Semiconductor Lasers 699

a) D (E) a) Quantum dot

3D WL WL

2 Substrate
(kx2 + ky2 + kz2)

Part C 11.3
E= 500 nm
2m* b)
c)
E
b) D (E)
2D
50 nm

d)
2
E= (kx2 + kz2) + Ey
2m*
E1 E2 Ey 50 nm
c) D (E)
e)

1D

2 10 nm
kx2
E= + Eyz
2m*
Fig. 11.93 (a) From the bottom to the top we see in sequence: the
E11 E12 Eyz three top monolayers of the GaAs substrate, above two compres-
sively strained monolayers InAs (wetting layer, WL), and above the
d) D (E)
main part of the QD. (b) AFM surface profile of InAs QDs (bright
dots). (c,d) TEM micrograph of a double stack of QDs: (c) stack
0D
distance 40 nm with uncorrelated dots and (d) stack distance 20 nm
E = Exyz with vertically aligned dots ((a-d) [11.1261]). (e) TEM micrograph
of a CdSe QD (dark) in a ZnSe matrix (bright) [11.1263]

Strain and quantization effects in the active layers

E111
Fig. 11.92a–d Density of states D(E) and corresponding
formula of the band structure in parabolic approximation
for a (a) semiconductor extending in all three spatial direc-
tions (3-D), (b) quantum well (QW), (c) quantum wire, and
(d) quantum dot (QD)
that the lattice constant of that layer is compressively
reduced in the x- and z-directions to match that of the
substrate ao . In many cases, the barriers are in tension,
which indicates that the lattice constant of the barriers
is increased in the x- and z-directions by tensile strain
to be identical to the substrate lattice constant ao .
Exyz of semiconductor lasers are used to improve the device
properties. For the laser it is beneficial to make the effec-
tive masses of electrons and holes as similar as possible,
to increase material gain, to reduce threshold, to tailor
the density of states and to increase differential gain.
This can be obtained by applying strain and/or quantiza-
tion. In Fig. 11.92, the energy dependence of the density
of states is shown for 3-D material to be root-like, and
to be constant for 2-D material.
Figure 11.93 depicts examples of InAs [11.1263]
and CdSe [11.1264] QDs. Schematically, Fig. 11.93a
shows the QD formation in a cross section of the crys-
tal structure. We see the three upper monolayers of the
GaAs substrate. During the self-organized QD formation
700 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources
the intentionally integrated strain (detailed explanation
below) of the InAs versus GaAs plays an important
role. For thermodynamical and elastomechanical rea-
sons, two monolayers of strained InAs are first formed.
Continuing the growth, for total-energy reasons, it is of
considerable advantage for the semiconductor surface to
continue by a localized island-like growth. In this case
Part C 11.3
a possible geometric shape is a pyramid with a base
plane directly joined to the top of the InAs monolay-
ers. Experimentally, this phase can be directly studied
using an atomic force microscope (AFM) [11.1260].
Figure 11.93b displays in a top view a typical AFM
surface profile. In the next process step the QDs are
overgrown by GaAs and thereby embedded. Experi-
mentally the final layer sequence can be studied by
transmission electron microscopy (TEM) after cleaving.
In order to increase the number of QDs in the direc-
tion perpendicular to the substrate interface, the whole
InAs process is repeated as often as desired after a de-
fined GaAs spacer layer thickness. This provides layered
QD arrangements. Figures 11.93c, d show TEM micro-
graphs for two different spacer-layer widths: 40 nm ad
20 nm. We observe a vertical correlation of the dots
for the smaller separation. At very high magnification
Fig. 11.93e shows QD formations in the II/VI semicon-
ductor system CdSe/ZnSe; note the different scales in
the subfigures. This high TEM magnification resolves
the individual crystal layers. The CdSe QD is contrasted
dark against the surrounding brighter ZnSe.
However, quantization is not limited to a single di-
rection. If we limit the carrier movement in another
direction (e.g., in the z- and y-direction as in Fig. 11.92),
Band gap (eV)
6 AlN Direct semiconductor
Indirect semiconductor
ZnS
SiC GaN
ZnSe
3 0.4
AlP AlAs CdS ZnTe
GaP
2 0.6
AlSb
GaAs InP
Si
1 InN
GaSb
Ge
GaInAsN
GaInAsN InAs
0
0.3 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.54 0.56 0.58 0.6 0.62 0.64
Lattice constant a (nm)
we obtain a 1-D carrier system and, thus, a quantum
wire [11.1265] with hyperbolically shaped density of
states branches. Limitation of carrier movement in all
three space directions results in quantum dots [11.1260,
1261, 1263–1272], i. e., a zero-dimensional (0-D) car-
rier system with a δ-like density of states (Fig. 11.92d).
For many physical properties of the semiconductor (e.g.,
carrier mobilities, carrier capture in quantized states and
spontaneous or stimulated emission of light), the density
of states plays an important role. Using dimensionality
and strain efficiently during the design of lasers en-
ables one to enhance desired and suppress undesired
properties. Here, modern epitaxy [e.g., metal organic
chemical vapour deposition (MOCVD) and molecular
beam epitaxy (MBE)] are powerful tools. To date 2-D
and 0-D structures have been used successfully for laser
devices. 1-D structures have not yet had a breakthrough
due to their disadvantageous dynamic properties. QDs
are grown today using self-organization in the Stranski–
Krastanow growth mode [11.1263,1265,1267,1271]. By
growing a large number of QDs with identical quantized
energy levels in the laser-active layer, we would bene-
fit from a strongly reduced temperature sensitivity and
a very high differential gain and, thus, extremely high
bit rates in optical communication. Although many QD
lasers have been implemented, the pyramid-like QDs
suffer from strong fluctuations in size and thus in their
energy levels.
On the basis of these QDs, however, the aforemen-
tioned improvements in device properties have not yet
be demonstrated. On the other hand, the strong fluctua-
tion causes a strongly spectrally broadened gain profile,
0.2
0.35
0.5
CdTe 0.7
0.8
1
1.3
1.55
InSb
2 Wavelength
5 (µm) Fig. 11.94 Bandgap energy E g (left)
and bandgap wavelength (right) as
a function of the lattice constant a

which is beneficial for other applications, e.g., short-
pulse generation by mode locking or wide spectral
tuning of the laser device. However, we should also
remember that 10 years were necessary after implement-
ing the first QW lasers to demonstrate that QW lasers
were superior to bulk lasers. Similarly, QD lasers will
require time before their final breakthrough. However,
we believe that QW and QD lasers will share the ap-
plication area in the future, depending on the specific
requirements.
Figure 11.94 shows the dependence of the bandgap
on the lattice constant for various III/V and II/VI
semiconductors. The brown area corresponds to the qua-
ternary Alz Ga1−x−z Inx N. The grey area describes the
quaternary Ga1−x Inx As1−y Py . For high laser efficien-
cies in interband lasers, active materials with a direct
bandgap are required, disregarding for the moment some
intraband lasers. Note that simple bulk Si has an indirect
band structure and does not provide efficient radiative re-
combination. Modified Si structures have demonstrated
strong luminescence, LED operation or laser oscillation,
e.g., from Si/Ge superlattices, QDs in Si and Si-
based Raman laser structures [11.1273]. All compound
semiconductors, located on one of the grey vertical
lines (Fig. 11.94) that indicate the lattice constant of
important semiconductor substrate materials, can be
lattice-matched to the respective substrate. Accord-
ing to Fig. 11.94 the ternary compounds Al0.48 In0.52 As
fc – fv
Dred, 3D
Optical-gain g (E)
Spontaneous
emission
a) Eg ÄEf
Absorption
c)
Fig. 11.95a–d Profile of optical material gain, spontaneous emission, Fermi factors and the density of states as a function
of energy for (a) 3-D und (b) 2-D materials. Corresponding net gain profiles in (c) and (d)
Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.3 Semiconductor Lasers 701
(E g = 1.43 eV) and Ga0.47 In0.53 As (E g = 0.75 eV) have
the same lattice constant as InP (E g = 1.34 eV), which
is available in wafers today up to a diameter of 150 mm.
QW widths (or QD dimensions), effective masses
[more precisely the E(k) functions], and bandgaps of
well and barrier materials energetically determine the
quantized states and, thus, the spectral gain profile of
Part C 11.3
the laser, i. e., the possible range of laser emission. Fig-
ure 11.94 shows that a very large wavelength range can
be covered for different applications. Some examples
are red and blue lasers which are used for data stor-
age in digital versatile and blue-ray discs, respectively.
Emission at about 850 nm is used for short-range opti-
cal fibre communication and CD devices, 980 nm lasers
for pumping Er-doped fibre amplifiers, while between
1.25 and 1.65 µm the lasers are applied in ultrahigh-bit-
rate long-haul optical fibre communication. Visible and
infrared wavelengths are very attractive for optical sens-
ing. The range between 0.8 and 1 µm is used for direct
laser applications (welding, drilling, cutting and solder-
ing) since it includes lasers with extremely high output
power, highest wall-plug efficiencies and lowest price
per watt of optical power.
Stimulated emission and optical gain (Fig. 11.95)
are essentially determined by the product of the re-
duced electronic density of states and the Fermi factor
( f c − f v ). This Fermi factor originates from f c (1 − f v ) –
f v (1 − f c ), namely the probability of processes photon-
fc – fv Dred, 2D
E b) Eg Eg' ÄEf E
E d) E
 702 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

generating photons (emission), i. e., the probability that
the CB states are occupied by electrons and VB states are
not occupied by electrons f c (1 − f v ) minus the probabil-
ity of processes destroying photons (reabsorption), i. e.,
the probability of VB states occupied by electrons and
CB states not occupied by electrons f v (1 − f c ). The full
lines in Fig. 11.95a, b schematically show the spectral
Part C 11.3
the net gain can support the modes (vertical lines) as indi-
cated. In Fig. 11.95 the spontaneous emission is shown
by the thin broken lines, revealing a different spectral
profile, which is important, e.g., for LEDs.
Figure 11.96 depicts a classification summary of the
most important semiconductor laser geometries. Most
of them will be treated in detail below. Generally, the

material gain profile of 3-D and 2-D semiconductors, heterointerfaces are located horizontally. We distinguish
respectively. Gain ranges spectrally from the bandgap between horizontal (left) and vertical (right) resonator
E g to the difference between the two quasi-Fermi lev- structures, which is indicated by the orientation of the
els ∆E F . In reality there are additional effects such as broad brown double arrow. Thus, we have horizontal
Fermi-level filling, profile broadening [11.1261] (bold cavity lasers (in-plane lasers) and vertical cavity (VC)
broken line) or many-body effects. Material gain minus lasers.
loss provides net gain (Fig. 11.95c, d). If these laser-
active materials are placed in a Fabry–Pérot (FP) laser First case: Fabry–Pérot (FP) structures. Here the opti-
cal reflection (feedback) is provided by the borders of
a) Horizontal cavity b) Vertcal cavity (VC)
the resonator (facets). In many cases, the high refractive
index difference between the semiconductor and the air
is already sufficient, providing an optical reflection co-
efficient of about 30%. By additional facet coatings this
coefficient can be tailored continuously between 0% (an-
tireflection) and 100% (perfect reflection). The resonator
modes are given by
FP DFB

λB
m FP =L. (11.92)
2n eff
Intuitively, the resonator length L has to be a positive
High facet Low facet integer multiple of half of the wavelength of light in
reflectivity reflectivity the medium, where n eff is the effective refractive index
desired desired DBR 2 (eigenvalue of the Helmholtz equation, see below) of the
waveguide. In the second case, in so-called structures
Cavity
with distributed feedback (DFB), the optical reflection
Edge Surface is extended over the whole resonator. A very efficient
emitter DBR 1
emitter feedback occurs at the Bragg wavelength λB , which is
correlated with the DFB grating period Λ via the Bragg
VCSEL condition:

m DFB (λB /n eff ) = 2Λ . (11.93)

m DFB is a positive integer and describes the grating

DBR laser order. An example: for a DFB laser emitting at λB =
(2nd order) 1.55 µm having a first-order grating (m DFB = 1) and an
effective refractive index n eff = 3.27, a grating period of
Λ = 237 nm is required. Intuitively, an integer multiple
of the wavelength in the medium has to correspond,
according to (11.93), to the double grating period. Note
External that the mathematical structure of (11.92) and (11.93) is
resonator
identical. In lasers with a typical length of 200 µm we
obatin for FP laser modes within the gain profile a very
Fig. 11.96 Different geometries of lasers with horizontal (left) and large m FP (on the order of 1000) while for DFB lasers
vertical resonators (right) in most cases m DFB is 1 (for a first-order grating).

As expected, light is emitted in horizontal directions
for edge-emitting lasers (Fig. 11.96). Surface emitters
can be implemented by etching an out-coupling mirror
inclined at 45◦ or by a second-order DFB grating (note
the doubled grating period in the figure). In a second-
order grating the light field is reflected back horizontally
(180◦ ) and coupled out vertically. If the Bragg con-
dition is exactly fulfilled, the emission occurs exactly
perpendicular to the surface (90◦ ). However, the larger
the deviation in (11.93) in the (>)-direction or (<)-
direction, the larger or smaller the angle, respectively. If
the grating is interrupted we have a distributed Bragg re-
flector (DBR) structure. Typically, a central grating-free
section is embedded between two DBR sections. In the
DFB and DBR structures the horizontally propagating
light field alternatively passes two virtual quasi-layers of
slightly different refractive index. For DBR resonators
with real layers (see Sect. 11.3.4 or the next section)
these operation principles become more evident.
Second case: VCSELs. They are also based on DBR
structures, which in contrast to the first case consist of
real multiple layers having a very high refractive-index
difference. The central cavity has no grating and is em-
bedded between two DBR mirrors, thus also forming an
FP-like structure. However, feedback is distributed over
the two DBR structures. In most cases the thickness
of a single period (equivalent to a pair of neighbor-
ing layers) is chosen to equal half the wavelength of
light in the medium for the design wavelength. This cor-
responds to a first-order grating according to (11.93).
Since the resonator is oriented perpendicularly and the
emission occurs perpendicular to the main chip surface
(oriented parallel to the substrate area), this laser is called
a vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL). The
two mirrors must have a very high reflectivity to reach
the laser threshold, since the laser-active layer is rela-
tively thin and has a weak overlap with the light field in
the resonator.
Edge-emitting lasers as well as VCSELs will be
treated in detail in the following sections. On the ba-
sis of both cases (A and B), it is possible to implement
lasers with external resonators, as indicated in the last
row of Fig. 11.96.
11.3.3 Edge-Emitting Laser Diodes
with Horizontal Resonators
As already mentioned, the population inversion between
the valence and conduction bands, which is necessary
for the coherent amplification of radiation [11.1274],
Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.3 Semiconductor Lasers 703
can be obtained by an injection of electrons and holes
via a forward-biased pn junction (see Figs. 11.89, 90).
The electrons injected into the n semiconductor as well
as the holes injected into the p semiconductor diffuse to
the pn junction and can recombine there radiatively and
generate a photon with energy ω (Fig. 11.88). If the
external voltage is increased and the carrier density ex-
Part C 11.3
ceeds a critical value in the range of 1018 cm−3 , the rate
of photon emission becomes higher than the absorption
rate, so that an incident wave can be amplified coher-
ently due to stimulated emission. The condition for this
population inversion is that the separation between the
quasi-Fermi levels E f c and E f v , which describe the fill-
ing of the conduction and valence bands, is larger than
the bandgap E g (Bernard–Durafourg condition):
E fc − E fv ≥ ω ≥ Eg . (11.94)
In this case the semiconductor material is transpar-
ent for the generated wave with the wavelength defined
by the bandgap. The resulting gain values are very high
(in the range of 103 cm−1 ) due to the high carrier den-
sity. Lasing occurs if the additional losses of the optical
resonator providing the feedback are compensated.
Double-Heterostructure Lasers
The active region, where population inversion is
achieved, is very thin in homojunction lasers and the
threshold current is very high, since only a small portion
of the injected carriers is utilized for the lasing pro-
cess. Lower threshold currents and continuous operation
at room temperature can be achieved with double-
heterostructure lasers, where the low-bandgap active
layer is sandwiched between n- and p-doped cladding
layers with a higher bandgap epitaxially grown on a sub-
strate (Fig. 11.89). The technical realization of these
structures is possible if the lattice mismatch between the
different layers of the material system does not exceed
a critical value. Double heterostructures [11.1257] have
three main advantages with respect to laser operation:
• The bandgap difference between the layers is dis-
tributed between the valence and conduction bands
and creates potential barriers for the injected elec-
trons and holes. For an appropriate choice of doping
and applied voltage, a nearly rectangular-shaped
potential well can be achieved (Fig. 11.89), which
efficiently confines the carriers in the low-bandgap
active layer if the potential difference is higher than
the thermal activation energy kB T . The width of the
active layer dact is defined by the heterostructure ge-
ometry. The carriers injected via the pn junction are
 704 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources
captured in the potential well and confined to a small
volume, thus decreasing the injection current, which
is necessary to achieve inversion.
• There is no reabsorption of the radiation emitted
from the active layer in the surrounding layers due
to the difference in bandgap energies.
• In the material systems used for semiconductor
Part C 11.3
lasers, the low-bandgap active layer has a higher
refractive index than the surrounding cladding lay-
ers. Therefore, the double heterostructure acts as
a dielectric planar slab waveguide, confining the
generated optical field to the active region due to
the refractive-index difference between the layers.
The number of modes supported by this optical
waveguide for a given wavelength depends on the
thicknesses and the refractive indices of the lay-
ers. By a proper choice of the design parameters,
a single transverse (perpendicular to the pn junc-
tion) mode can be selected, which concentrates the
photon density for stimulated emission in the gain
region.
Thus, a double heterostructure enables the confinement
of carriers and generated photons in the active layer. For
bulk active layers, the de Broglie wavelength of the car-
riers is small compared to the thickness of the active
layer, leading to a high degree of carrier confinement.
The wavelength of the photons, however, is comparable
to the dimension of the structure, so that only a portion of
the optical intensity is confined to the active region. The
transversal distribution of the light intensity in the dou-
ble heterostructure is given by the solution of the wave
equation of a planar slab waveguide supporting TE and
TM modes with an effective index n eff as the respective
eigenvalue. Figure 11.89c shows the optical intensity of
the fundamental TE mode in a double heterostructure as
a function of the transversal coordinate y, revealing the
incomplete confinement of the optical field in the active
region. The fraction of the mode intensity within the ac-
tive layer is called the optical confinement or the filling
factor Γact , which is an important design parameter for
a semiconductor laser:
 dact
|E(y)|2 dy
Γact =  0+∞ , (11.95)
−∞ |E(y)| dy
2
where E(y) is the electric field. If the light is also con-
fined in the lateral direction of the laser, the definition
has to be modified accordingly.
The dependence of the optical confinement factor of
the guided modes on the thickness d for a layer struc-
ture is shown in Fig. 11.97. For increasing thickness of
Confinement factor Ã
1
3.5
0.8 n = 3.5
d
3.2
0.6
0.4
0.2
ë = 1550 nm
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Thickness d (nm)
Fig. 11.97 Dependence of the optical confinement factor Γ
on the thickness d of an InP/InGaAsP/InP layer structure
the waveguide, the confinement factor approaches 1 and
additional modes are supported.
An optical mode with an effective refractive index
n eff experiences an effective gain geff in a waveguide
with an active layer, which provides the material gain
gact and has a refractive index n act
n act
geff = Γact gact . (11.96)
n eff
The correction factor n act /n eff takes into account the
waveguiding effect on the modal gain [11.1275].
Laser Structures
Using modern epitaxial growth methods it is possible
to realize semiconductor multilayer structures very pre-
cisely so that stable, transverse single-mode operation
can be obtained using dielectric waveguiding [11.1276].
For most applications, however, lateral (parallel to the
pn junction) patterning of the laser structure is also re-
quired to obtain lateral carrier and photon confinement,
which is important to obtain stable and efficient laser
operation with high spectral purity and good coupling
efficiency into a fibre. In addition, lateral confinement of
the injection current is necessary to avoid leakage cur-
rents bypassing the active region. The confinement of
photons, carriers and current has been implemented in
many ways, reflecting the specific purpose of the de-
vice. Semiconductor lasers can be classified according
to the mechanism of lateral waveguiding as gain-guided
or index-guided, depending on whether it is the lateral
variation of the optical gain or the refractive index that
confines the mode. Index-guided lasers can further be
subclassified as weakly or strongly index-guided, de-
pending on the magnitude of the lateral refractive-index
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.3 Semiconductor Lasers 705

Gainguiding Indexguiding
Laserstructure Oxide stripe laser Buried active layer
w w

p-contact Isolator p-contact Isolator

p d p

Part C 11.3
Active layer n < nact
y n n

n-contact n-contact
x

P– I curve
P (mW) P (mW)

– “Kinks” due to unstable

10 lateral waveguiding 10
Stable, lateral monomode
– Threshold high and not operation with low threshold
5 clearly defined due to strong 5
spontaneous emission
0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
I (mA) I (mA)

Spectrum
Intensity (arb, units)) Intensity (arb, units))
1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 Multimode due to 0.6 Few modes due to
strong spontaneous weak spontaneous
0.4 emission 0.4 emission
0.2 0.2
0 0
1.52 1.525 1.53 1.535 1.54 1.52 1.525 1.53 1.535 1.54
Wavelength (µm) Wavelength (µm)

Farfield
Intensity (arb, units)) Intensity (arb, units))
1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
–40 –20 0 20 40 –40 –20 0 20 40
Angle è|| (deg) Angle è|| (deg)

Phase fronts
Curved Planar

w w

x x

z z

Fig. 11.98 Comparison of gain-guided and index-guided laser structures

706 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

step. In a gain-guided laser structure (oxide stripe laser,
Fig. 11.98, left) the current is injected via a stripe con-
tact (width w ≈ 5 µm) in a laterally unpatterned active
layer. The optical field is mainly guided by the result-
ing variation of the gain. The lateral waveguiding is
weak, so that even small variations of the refractive
index, e.g., due to temperature changes or carrier in-
Part C 11.3
two categories: ridge waveguide lasers and channeled
substrate lasers.
In ridge-waveguide lasers, a rib waveguide is de-
fined by etching a narrow stripe (≈ 3–5 µm) down near
to the active layer (at a typical distance of 200 nm). In the
case of a metal-clad-ridge waveguide (MCRW) laser in

jection lead to unstable operation. In an index-guided

laser structure (buried laser structure, Fig. 11.98, right) a) Metal-clad-ridge waveguide (MCRW) laser
4 µm
the active layer (w ≈ 2 µm) is laterally embedded into
a material with a lower refractive index (n < n act ), higher Cr-Au electrode
bandgap and higher electrical resistivity to facilitate sta-
p+- GaAs
ble lateral waveguiding, carrier confinement and current
confinement. The typical features of index- and gain-
guided laser structures are summarized in Fig. 11.98. p-AlGaAs
GaAs (active)
The power–current characteristic (P–I curve) of gain-
guided lasers is characterized by a high threshold current n-AlGaAs
(typical 50–100 mA) and kinks originating from the
unstable lateral waveguiding. The optical spectrum is
multimodal due to the enhanced spontaneous emission. n-GaAs substrate
The phase-fronts are curved in the resonator and the far
field shows the characteristic twin lobes caused by the AuGeNi elektrode
laterally inhomogeneous gain distribution. The main ad-
vantage of gain-guided lasers is the simplicity of their b) Ridge waveguide laser
4 µm
fabrication. For very large stripe widths (50–100 µm)
a so-called broad-area laser results, in which the cur- p contact
rent is injected laterally and homogeneously via a large
p-InGaAsP
contact. Since there is no lateral waveguiding in broad-
SiO2
area lasers, the threshold current is very high (typical
a few A) and the multimode emission cannot be coupled p-InP
InGaAsP (active)
efficiently into a fibre. Due to the high output power,
broad-area lasers are used, e.g., for optical pumping of n-InP
solid-state lasers.
Index-guided lasers show stable, lateral single-mode
emission with a low threshold current (typical 10 mA) n-InP substrate
and a P–I curve without kinks. The spontaneous emis-
sion in each mode is significantly smaller, resulting in n contact
a spectrum with a few dominating modes. The phase-
c) Channeled-substrate planar (CSP) laser
fronts are planar and the far field has a smooth shape,
2 µm
enabling a high coupling efficiency into a single-mode
AuZn electrode p+-Zn diffusion
fibre.
nGaAs
p-Al0.6Ga0.4As 0.05 µm
Weakly index-guided laser structures. In weakly
p-Al0.15Ga0.85As (aktiv)
index-guided lasers the thickness of the waveguiding n-Al0.6Ga0.4As
layer is varied, thus resulting in a lateral waveguiding 1.5 µm
0.3 µm
structure. Lateral single-mode emission can be ob-
tained by a proper choice of the thickness and width
of this variation. The lateral index step has to exceed n-GaAs substrate
the carrier-induced reduction of the refractive index
AuGe electrode
(∆n ≈ 5 × 10−3 ) so that index-guiding is dominating.
Weakly index-guided laser structures can be divided into Fig. 11.99 Weakly index-guided laser structures
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.3 Semiconductor Lasers 707

the material system GaAlAs (Fig. 11.99a) a CrAu elec-
trode is deposited, which gives an electrically conductive
contact on the p+ top layer of the rib and an insulat-
ing contact on the p-GaAlAs layer with lower doping
along the rib. Thus, the current injection is focused in
the region of the active layer below the rib. This current
confinement can also be realized by additional isolating
nearly planarized, thus generating a lateral waveguiding
structure, since the active layer has a higher refractive
index. Current bypass can be reduced by guiding the
injection current using, e.g., localized Zn diffusion.
Weakly index-guided lasers are suitable to obtain
low threshold currents of typically 20–40 mA and high
output powers with lateral single-mode emission. The

layers, e.g., SiO2 (Fig. 11.99b). The lateral waveguid-
ing is accomplished by the higher refractive index of
the semiconductor material compared to the surround-
ing SiO2 and air. The etch depth has to be carefully
controlled (e.g., by using etch-stop layers) in order to
select one lateral mode and minimize current bypass.
The first step in the processing of channeled sub-
strate lasers is the etch of a 2–3 µm-wide and 1 µm-deep
channel into the substrate (Fig. 11.99c). In the subse-
quent epitaxy (e.g., liquid-phase epitaxy) this channel is
Part C 11.3
weak waveguiding allows for broader active layers com-
pared to buried laser structures, which has a positive
effect, e.g., on the series resistance. The low current
leakage in ridge waveguide lasers usually results in good
linearity of the P–I curve. The emission is more com-
plex than in buried lasers, since index- and gain-guiding
are important and even small changes of the refractive in-
dex by temperature or current injection can influence the
performance. The active layer in weakly index-guided
lasers is not affected during processing, so that lateral

a) Buried heterostructure (BH) laser b) Etched-mesa buried heterostructure (EMBH)

4 µm 2 µm

AuZn SiO2 p contact

+ p-InGaAsP
p - GaAs
n-AlGaAs
p-AlGaAs
n-InP p-InP
p-AlGaAs GaAs (active)

n-AlGaAs
p-InP
InGaAsP (active)
n-InP

n-GaAs-substrate n-InP substrate

AuGe n contact

c) Double-channel planar buried heterostructure d) Mushroom laser

(DCPBH) laser
3 µm 6 µm

AuZn SiO2 SiO2 AuGe/Au

p+-InGaAsP n-InP
s.i.-InP 3µm
p-InP n-InP
p-InP
p-InP
p-InP
p-InP p-InP
p-InP InGaAsP (active) InGaAsP (active)

n-InP substrate
p-InP substrate

AuGe AuZn contact

Fig. 11.100 Buried heterostructure lasers

708 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources
carrier diffusion in the active layer cannot be avoided, but
on the other hand, the unpatterned active layer is advan-
tageous for the reliability of the device. Since only one
epitaxial growth step is needed, the fabrication of these
lasers is significantly easier than buried semiconductor
lasers.
Part C 11.3
Strongly index-guided laser structures. Strong index-
guiding can be accomplished by buried laser structures,
where a small stripe of the active layer material with
a high refractive index is embedded into semiconductor
material with lower refractive index and larger bandgap.
For this purpose, the active layer has to be patterned
and epitaxially regrown afterwards. Lateral single-mode
operation is possible, if the resulting stripe width of the
active layer does not exceed a critical value defined by
the cut-off for the higher lateral modes [11.1277].
Figure 11.100 shows some examples for strongly
index-guided laser structures. In the case of a buried-
heterostructure (BH) laser structure in the material
system GaAs/GaAlAs (Fig. 11.100a) the GaAs active
layer is surrounded by AlGaAs, which has a larger
bandgap and a lower refractive index. The active layer
is grown in the first epitaxial step and structured into
1–2 µm-wide stripes. Using liquid-phase epitaxy (LPE),
which planarizes the structure, the regions alongside
the stripe are refilled with alternating n- and p-doped
AlGaAs layers. This reverse-biased diode structure pre-
vents the current from bypassing the active region. In
a similar way, a BH structure can be realized in the
long-wavelength material system InGaAsP/InP (Etched-
mesa buried heterostructure laser, Fig. 11.100b). The
reduction of leakage current using alternating n- and
p-doped layers, however, leads to a significant increase
of the parasitic electrical capacity of the laser, which
degrades the high-frequency response of the device. Al-
ternatively, electrically isolating regions for the current
confinement can be fabricated using semi-insulating ma-
terial (e.g., Fe-doped InP) or by proton implantation. In
Double-channel substrate planar buried heterostructure
(DCPBH) lasers (Fig. 11.100c) the first epitaxial growth
step produces the active InGaAsP-layer and a p-InP cap
layer on the n-InP substrate. Then, a double-stripe struc-
ture embedding the active region is created by etching.
In the subsequent LPE step the generated channels are
refilled with p-InP/n-InP and the epitaxial growth of the
laser structure is finished up to the InGaAsP top layer.
The processing of the mushroom laser (Fig. 11.100d)
begins with the etching of 6 µm-wide mesa in the layer
structure, which cuts through the active layer grown in
the first epitaxy [11.1278]. Using a selective wet chem-
ical etching process the width of the active region is
reduced up to 1–2 µm to obtain lateral single-mode op-
eration. The resulting undercut area is epitaxially refilled
afterwards, e.g., using vapor phase epitaxy (VPE) with
semi-insulating InP [11.1279].
In addition to this strongly index-guided laser struc-
tures with a planar active layer, which are useful for
integration with a DFB grating, there also exist buried
laser structures utilizing nonplanar active layers based
on the regrowth of, e.g., V-grooves or mesas.
Using strongly index-guided structures, a very sta-
ble and lateral single-mode laser operation with very low
threshold currents (< 10 mA) and excellent high-speed
characteristics can be obtained, since stable optical
waveguiding, carrier confinement and current confine-
ment are combined. The fabrication of these devices,
however, is complicated due to the additional epitaxy
step.
Edge-emitting Fabry–Pérot laser diodes
In Fabry–Pérot (FP) lasers, the cleaved facets of the
semiconductor crystal form the optical resonator, which
enables laser operation by providing the optical feedback
of the stimulated amplified radiation. This resonator se-
lects the photons generated by stimulated emission with
respect to direction and wavelength. The light wave trav-
eling perpendicularly to the facets is amplified if the
wavelength matches a longitudinal mode of the res-
onator [(11.92), Figs. 11.90, 95, 96, 103a]. The lasing
process starts if the gain experienced during one round-
trip in the cavity equals the losses caused by absorption,
scattering and the light output through the facets.
Lasing condition. The length L of the resonator is
typically a few hundred micrometers. The intensity re-
flection and transmission coefficients of the end facets
can be estimated using the Fresnel equations, neglect-
ing the transversal and lateral structure of the waveguide
with the air (n = 1) assumed to be outside the cavity:
(n eff − 1)2 4n eff
R= , T= , (11.97)
(n eff + 1)2 (n eff + 1)2
where n eff is the effective refractive index of the wave-
guide mode considered.
In this one-dimensional model plane waves with
electric field amplitude E(z) travel in the longitudi-
nal direction (z) of the FP resonator, experiencing the
modal intensity gain g due to stimulated emission. The
threshold for laser operation is defined by a round-trip
condition requiring that in a stationary state the optical
wave remains unchanged after one complete round-trip
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.3 Semiconductor Lasers 709

P, N
I (y)
P
n2 n1 Ë w

dact Ãact

Nthr N

Part C 11.3
y
z
Stimulated 0 L
Fig. 11.102 Scheme of a DFB laser structure with an integrated rect-
angular Bragg grating (duty cycle w/Λ) including the corresponding
Spontaneous transversal intensity distribution I (x)
Ithr I
separation ∆ν of adjacent modes is influenced by the dis-
Fig. 11.101 Dependence of the output power (P) and carrier persion of the waveguide, which is taken into account
density (N) on the injected current by the group refractive index n g
c
in the cavity. This round-trip condition gives the mirror ∆ν = (11.100)
losses of the FP resonator 2Ln g

1 with
g = αm = ln(R1 R2 ) , (11.98)
2L dn eff
n g = n eff + ν . (11.101)
where R1 and R2 denote the intensity reflection coeffi- dν
cients of the end facets. Since the net gain g in the cavity For a typical FP laser diode the group index
is composed of the material gain of the semiconductor of n g ≈ 3.5–5 is higher than the effective index
geff and the waveguide losses αs , the lasing condition n eff ≈ 3–3.5. The separation of the equidistant mode
can be written as frequencies is about 150 GHz for a 300 µm-long cavity,
n act which is small compared to the width of the gain curve of
gthr = Γact gact (Nthr ) = αs + αm (11.99)
n eff
if the contribution of spontaneous emission is neglected a)
FP
and Nthr denotes the carrier density at threshold. The 2
Eel
optical losses of the waveguide are caused by optical y
scattering from imperfections in the bulk media or at
z z
interfaces and free-carrier absorption in the active and
cladding layers. b) DFB
The longitudinal distribution of the photon density
s(z) in the active FP resonator is given by the sum of the Stop band
forward and backward traveling photon densities, which
grow exponentially due to the gain g. For a symmetric c) DFB
resonator (R = R1 = R2 ) the total photon density s(z) is
given by a cosh function (Fig. 11.103a) with a minimum Stop band
in the middle of the resonator. For a laser diode with
as-cleaved facets (R = 0.28), the intensity distribution d) VCSEL
is relatively flat, whereas for antireflection-coated facets log intensity
a strongly inhomogeneous photon distribution results.
The round-trip condition also gives the optical fre-
ë
quencies of the longitudinal modes of the FP resonator
according to νq = qc/(2Ln eff ), where q = 1, 2, 3 · · · Fig. 11.103 Schematic structural cross sections (left) and the corre-
and c denotes the vacuum speed of light. The frequency sponding emission spectra (right) for various diode lasers
 710 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

the semiconductor (≈ 5 THz). Thus, longitudinal multi- number S = sV/Γact via

mode operation can be expected above threshold for an
FP laser diode.
For many applications the degree of single-mode
emission is important; it can be quantified by the side-
mode suppression ratio (SMSR):
Part C 11.3

E(t) = S(t) exp[iΦ(t)] , (11.106)
Rsp is the time-averaged rate of spontaneous emission
into the lasing mode; Fs (t), FN (t) and FΦ (t) represent
Langevin noise sources taking into account the statistic
nature of the spontaneous emission and the shot-noise

SMSR = 10 log10 (P1 /P2 ) , (11.102) character of the carrier recombination and generation.
The Langevin forces leading to fluctuations of carrier
where P1 and P2 ≤ P1 denote the output power of the
density and photon density are correlated and have zero
two strongest modes in the optical spectrum. Typical
mean [11.1280].
FP laser diodes achieve a maximum SMSR of approxi-
The longitudinal excess factor K z accounts for the
mately 20 dB.
enhancement of the spontaneous-emission noise due to
the axial dependence of the complex electric field E(z, t)
Rate equations. The fundamental static and dynamic L
properties of semiconductor laser diodes can be mod- | 0 |E(z, t)|2 dz|2
eled using a set of rate equations [11.1280] describing K z (t) =  L . (11.107)
| 0 E 2 (z, t) dz|2
the interaction of electron–hole pairs and photons in
the active layer. We consider a strongly index-guiding In the case of a transversely single-mode index-guided
double heterostructure supporting a single optical mode FP laser the factor K z is given by [11.1281]
traveling as a plane wave axially in the cavity. The
√ √ √ 2
( R1 + R2 )(1 − R1 R2 )
current I is assumed to be uniformly injected into the K zFP = √ .
active layer with volume V and recombines there, com- R1 R2 ln(1/R1 R2 )
pletely neglecting leakage currents. The carrier density (11.108)
within the active layer is treated as homogeneous in the The first rate equation (11.103) can be formally
transversal and lateral direction, since the correspond- derived from the quantum-mechanical density-matrix
ing inhomogeneities of photon density are small and the formalism. It can be interpreted as a balance of carri-
resulting gradients in carrier density are smoothed out ers that are injected as a current I and contribute to
by diffusion. In FP lasers with a sufficiently high mirror stimulated emission or are lost for the lasing process via
reflectivity, the axial variations of the photon density s the different recombination processes. The second and
and the carrier density N can be neglected and the rate third equations (11.104, 105) can be derived from the
equations can be written as: Maxwell equations with the rotating-wave and slowly
dN I N varying amplitude approximations.
= − − BN 2 − CN 3 For semiconductor lasers with a bulk active layer, the
dt eV τnr
dependence of the gain on the carrier density gact (N) can
n act FN (t)
− vg gact (N, s)s + , (11.103) be approximated as linear [11.1282]
n eff V
  dg
ds n act gact (N) = (N − Ntr ) , (11.109)
=vg Γact gact (N, s) − gthr s dN
dt n
 eff  where dg/ dN is the differential gain and Ntr is the
Γact Rsp + Fs (t)
+ , (11.104) transparency carrier density. In quantum well structures
V (Figs. 11.91, 92) this dependence is usually described by
dΦ 1 n act a logarithmic function [11.1283, 1284]
= αH vg Γact gact (N, s) + FΦ (t) , (11.105)
dt 2 n eff
dg N
gact (N) = N ln for gact ≥ 0 . (11.110)
where vg = c/n g is the group velocity of the waveguide, dN Ntr
e the electron charge, gact is the material gain of the The influence of the photon density on the gain is taken
active layer, Γact is the optical confinement factor of into account by introducing a nonlinear gain coefficient
the active layer and 1/τnr , B and C are the parameters ε according to:
describing nonradiative, bimolecular and Auger recom-
bination, respectively. Φ is the phase of the complex gact (N)
gact (N, s) = . (11.111)
electric field E, which is connected with the photon 1 + εs

This nonlinear gain compression is caused by spectral
hole burning and carrier heating, which is significant
if the time constant of stimulated emission becomes
comparable to the intraband relaxation time.
Refractive index change. In semiconductors the real
part of the refractive index depends on the carrier density
because of various physical mechanisms. With increas-
ing injection the band-to-band absorption is reduced due
to band-filling effects. In addition, the absorption in-
creases due to the reduction of the bandgap (bandgap
renormalization resulting from many-body effects) and
absorption also increases due to the increasing absorp-
tion of free carriers. The resulting total change of the real
part of the refractive index, which is related to the gain
spectrum via the Kramers–Kronig relation, depends on
the wavelength relative to the gain maximum. In the case
of 1.5 µm InGaAsP the refractive index decreases with
injection. The dependence of the refractive index on the
carrier density is theoretically described by the effective
line width enhancement or Henry factor α
∂n eff
α= , (11.112)
∂γeff
where the complex effective refractive index is defined
by n eff − iγeff . The change of the effective index with
carrier density can be written as
n act n act αλ ∂gact (N)
δn eff ∼
= Γact δn act = −Γact δN .
n eff n eff 4π ∂N
(11.113)
The line width enhancement factor is important for
the treatment of line width and frequency chirp un-
der modulation [11.1281]. Typically it ranges from 3
to 5, decreasing from the long-wavelength to the short-
wavelength side of the gain curve [11.1282].
Steady-state characteristics. The single-mode rate
equations can be used to analyze the steady-state behav-
ior of a semiconductor laser. Setting the time derivative
to zero in (11.104), we obtain an implicit expression for
the photon number S in the case of continuous-wave
(CW) operation:
Rsp
S= . (11.114)
vg [gthr − Γact gact (N, s)]
The number of photons increases as the gain value
asymptotically approaches the losses gthr. The small gain
difference is compensated by spontaneous emission,
which provides the noise input amplified by stimu-
lated emission. Below threshold the photon density is
Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.3 Semiconductor Lasers 711
small and (11.103) gives a linear increase of the car-
rier density according to N ∝ I/eV . Above threshold
the gain is approximately clamped at g(Nthr ) = gthr and
the corresponding threshold current, which is defined
in the limiting case of vanishing spontaneous emission
(Rsp = 0), becomes


Nthr
Part C 11.3
Ithr = eV + BNthr
2
+ CNthr
3
. (11.115)
τnr
Using (11.103) the photon number above thresh-
old can then be written as S = (I − Ithr )/evg gthr . Since
the carrier density is clamped at threshold, all injected
carriers in excess of the threshold current contribute
to stimulated emission and the number of photons in-
creases proportionally to (I − Ithr ). The total output
power P = vg ωαm S emitted from both facets becomes
ω αm
P= ηi (I − Ithr ) , (11.116)
e gthr
where we assume that only a fraction ηi of the ex-
ternal drive current reaches the active region and the
remaining fraction (1 − ηi ) is lost via leakage cur-
rent or nonradiative recombination. Thus, the P–I
curve of a semiconductor laser diode is a straight line
(Fig. 11.101) above threshold with a slope defined by
the external quantum efficiency ηext :
dP e αm
ηext = = ηi , (11.117)
dI ω gthr
which can be interpreted as the ratio of the number
of emitted photons to the number of injected elec-
trons per time. The sharpness of the transition from
the spontaneous emission below threshold to the stimu-
lated emission above threshold depends on the amount
of spontaneous emission into the lasing mode. Leak-
age currents, thermal effects and spectral hole-burning
neglected so far lead to bending of the P–I curve.
Characteristic temperature. The threshold current of
a semiconductor laser depends on the temperature T ,
which can be described phenomenologically by
T
Ithr (T ) = I0 exp , (11.118)
T0
where T0 is the characteristic temperature, which typi-
cally ranges between 40 K and 90 K for semiconductor
lasers emitting around 1550 nm.
Single-Mode Laser Structures
Transmitters used, e.g., in optical-fibre communication
systems should emit light predominantly in a single
 712 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources
longitudinal mode since the presence of side modes lim-
its the transmission capacity due to pulse broadening
caused by the chromatic dispersion of the fibre. Semi-
conductor lasers with an FP resonator usually exhibit
multimode operation since the gain spectrum is wider
than the longitudinal mode spacing and the broadening
of the gain profile, which due to spectral hole burning is
Part C 11.3
not perfectly homogeneous, offers several modes with
sufficient gain to oscillate. The techniques to achieve
reliable longitudinal mode control even under high-
bit-rate modulation can be categorized into two main
groups:
Short lasers. The discrimination against side modes in
FP resonators can be enhanced by reducing the cavity
length L. If the mode spacing ∆ν ∝ L −1 becomes com-
parable to the width of the gain curve, only one mode
will oscillate near the gain peak. To obtain stable single-
mode operation, however, the lasers must be extremely
short. This requires a very good reflectivity of the end
facets to overcome the high mirror losses αm ∝ L −1 ,
leading to high threshold current densities. The prob-
lems of fabricating very short semiconductor devices
can be solved using a vertical-cavity surface-emitting
laser (VCSEL) structure (Fig. 11.96).
Frequency-selective feedback. The second method
to obtain single-mode operation is to incorporate
a frequency-selective element in the resonator struc-
ture. This can be realized by using coupled cavities,
an external grating or a Bragg grating:
Coupled cavities. If one or more additional mirrors are
introduced in the FP resonator, the boundary conditions
added due to the reflections at each interface severely
limit the number of longitudinal modes. To achieve
single-mode operation, however, it is often necessary to
tune the resonator by changing the drive current or the
temperature. Usually the single-mode regime is small so
that such structures can only be modulated over a limited
current range without mode jumps. In addition, the re-
producible fabrication of nearly identical devices turns
out to be difficult since the spectral properties strongly
depend on the exact lengths of the sections.
External grating. Frequency selection can also be real-
ized by an external grating outside the resonator. The
mechanical stability of such lasers, however, is a crit-
ical point since the grating is not integrated on the
wafer. Consequently, lasers with external gratings are
expensive devices (Fig. 11.110a).
Bragg grating. The method most frequently used to
achieve single-mode emission is to incorporate a Bragg
grating, which creates a periodic variation of the
complex refractive index and distributes the feedback
throughout the cavity. Dynamic single-mode operation
is achieved if the threshold gain for the oscillating
mode is significantly smaller than the threshold gain
for the other modes. Devices employing Bragg grat-
ings can be classified roughly into three categories:
distributed Bragg reflector (DBR), distributed feedback
(DFB) (Figs. 11.96, 102, 103, section on Fabry–Pérot
structures in Sect. 11.3.2, and Sect. 11.3.6) and gain-
coupled (GC) lasers.
In DBR lasers the Bragg grating is etched into pas-
sive regions near the cavity ends. The index grating (the
variation of the real part of the refractive index) acts as
an effective mirror with wavelength-dependent reflec-
tivity and surrounds the central part of the cavity which
is active and remains uncorrugated. The longitudinal
mode with a wavelength located near the reflectivity
maximum of the grating is selected. Since a DBR laser
is formed by replacing the mirrors by passive gratings,
the properties can be described by an effective mirror
model. The transition between the active section and
the passive gratings usually complicates the technolog-
ical realization of in-plane DBR lasers. An important
advantage of DBR lasers is that the wavelength can be
changed if the grating regions are equipped with sep-
arate electrodes that can tune the Bragg frequency via
the carrier-induced refractive index change. Thus, DBR
gratings are often used in tunable lasers.
In DFB lasers the index grating covers the entire
resonator length. At the wavelength corresponding to
the corrugation period of the grating, the forward- and
backward-traveling waves created by the Bragg scat-
tering are confined in the central part of the cavity so
that the mirror losses become a function of the wave-
length. The longitudinal mode with the lowest mirror
losses corresponding to the most effective concentration
of photons in the resonator is selected.
In gain-coupled devices a periodic variation of gain
or loss is used to favor a longitudinal mode of the
FP resonator. In the ideal case, there is no Bragg
scattering at the gain grating, and the longitudinal
photon distribution as well as the mirror losses are un-
changed compared to the FP cavity. The overlap with
the loss or gain grating, however, varies between the
different longitudinal modes of the FP resonator. The
mode experiencing the largest overlap with the gain
grating (or minimum overlap with a loss grating) is
selected.

DFB lasers. The spectral properties of DFB
lasers [11.1285] are essentially determined by the inte-
grated Bragg grating. The waveguding in such periodic
structures can be analyzed by the coupled mode the-
ory [11.1286], which yields approximate analytical
solutions describing the light propagation in waveguides
with a periodic variation of the complex refractive index
by counter-propagating modes exchanging energy by
scattering. The strength of the interaction and the amount
of feedback in the grating structure are determined by
the complex coupling coefficient
κ = π∆n/λ0 + i∆g/4 , (11.119)
which is proportional to the variation of the refractive
index step ∆n, the gain variation ∆g and the number of
corrugations per length in the grating. The Bragg wave-
length λB is given by the effective index, the corrugation
period Λ and the order m DFB of the grating according to
(11.93). For an axially homogeneous first-order grating
(m DFB = 1) with length L and a perfect antireflection
coating on the facets (R1 = R2 = 0) the theory reveals
the following solutions
• In the case of pure index coupling (∆n eff =
0, ∆g = 0) the transmission spectrum turns out
to be symmetric with respect to the Bragg wave-
length λB = 2n eff Λ where oscillation is forbidden.
For a small coupling coefficient, the mode spacing
approximately takes the value of an FP resonator
∆λ = λ2 /2n eff L but, in contrast to an FP cavity, the
threshold gain of the modes is wavelength dependent
and increases with growing distance from the Bragg
wavelength. A strong coupling produces a trans-
mission stop-band with width ∆λ ∼ = κλ2B /(πn eff )
centered at the Bragg wavelength, in which trans-
mission is strongly damped. The two modes with
the lowest threshold gain g ∼ = 2π 2 /(κ 2 L 3 ) are lo-
cated at the edges of the stop-band symmetrical to
the Bragg wavelength.
• In the case of pure gain coupling (∆g = 0, ∆n eff =
0) the mode degeneracy is removed, which means
that the mode with the lowest threshold gain os-
cillates at the Bragg wavelength symmetrically
surrounded by the other modes with higher threshold
gain values. The mode spacing is ∆λ = λ2 /2n eff L
and no stop-band occurs since there is no backscat-
tering at index steps in the grating. The mode
selection is due to the different overlap of the stand-
ing waves in the FP resonator with the gain grating.
In second-order gratings (m DFB = 2) additional scatter-
ing occurs in the transversal direction, leading to higher
Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.3 Semiconductor Lasers 713
losses. In addition, the coupling coefficient of second-
order gratings depends more sensitively on the exact
shape of the grating so that it becomes more difficult to
control. That is why first-order gratings predominate al-
though the corrugation periods are smaller (Λ ∼= 240 nm
for λ = 1.55 µm). Due to the scattering perpendicular
to the optical axis (Fig. 11.96), second-order gratings
Part C 11.3
can be utilized for the vertical emission of light from
edge-emitting laser diodes [11.1287, 1288].
Basic properties of index-coupled DFB lasers. The
spectrum of an index-coupled DFB laser mainly con-
sists of two degenerate lasing modes at the edges of
the stop-band (Fig. 11.103b). This mode degeneracy in
index-coupled DFB laser structures is usually removed
by incorporating a λ/4 phase shift in the grating. This
can technologically be implemented by inserting an ad-
ditional section of length λ0 /(4n eff ) = Λ/2 in the middle
of the grating. The introduction of the λ/4 phase shift
selects the Bragg mode in the middle of the stop-band,
revealing the lowest mirror losses so that single-mode
operation with an SMSR of > 40 dB can be obtained
(Fig. 11.103c).
The axial distribution of the light intensity in the cav-
ity is connected to the mirror losses αm via the round-trip
condition. Thus, a decrease of the mirror losses for the
longitudinal modes in a DFB grating is equivalent to in-
creasing longitudinal optical confinement, which means
that the photons are concentrated inside the cavity and
only a small fraction of the light intensity leaves the res-
onator through the end facets. The typical longitudinal
photon distribution for a DFB laser with and without
a λ/4 phase shift is shown in Fig. 11.103, revealing the
pronounced maximum in the middle of the resonator
even for moderate coupling coefficients. This strong in-
homogeneity of the photon density distribution in DFB
lasers leads to an inhomogeneous carrier density dis-
tribution above threshold due to the recombination by
stimulated emission. With increasing injection the car-
rier density is depleted in places with a high photon
density. This phenomenon is called longitudinal spatial
hole burning (LSHB) and has several important conse-
quences for the static and dynamic behavior of DFB
lasers above threshold. First, the mode discrimination is
influenced since a variation of the carrier density distri-
bution changes the round-trip gain of the various modes
having different photon density distributions. Thus, the
side-mode suppression can degrade with increasing out-
put power due to LSHB. Second, the mode wavelengths
change, even above threshold, since the inhomogeneity
of the carrier density caused by LSHB leads to an inho-
 714 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources
mogeneous axial distribution of the effective refractive
index. This effect is utilized in several types of tunable
DFB lasers.
Various DFB lasers with a more complex grating
structure have been developed in order to obtain a high
yield of single-mode devices and a flat axial photon
distribution with reduced LSHB. Some examples are:
Part C 11.3
• 2 × λ/8 phase shifts. The distance between the phase
shifts, however, must be optimized to achieve a high
yield [11.1289].
• Corrugation pitch modulation (CPM). The DFB
grating is divided into three sections. The cor-
rugation period in the central section is slightly
higher than in the outer sections so that the phase
shift is quasi-continuously distributed along the cav-
ity [11.1290].
• Axial variation of duty cycle by using, e.g., a holo-
graphic double-exposure technique [11.1291].
• Axial variation of coupling coefficient by vari-
ation of the etch depth [11.1292] or sampled
gratings [11.1293].
• Bent waveguides superimposed on homogeneous
grating fields can be used to obtain quasi-
continuously and arbitrarily chirped gratings with
high spatial resolution [11.1294].
• Axially inhomogeneous injection using a three-
electrode structure. Spatial hole burning can be
a) Grating layer: Eg > Eg, act
Än ¹ 0 Ë overlap of the longitudinal modes with the gain grating.
dact
Active layer: Eg, act
b) Ë active layer and regrown afterwards with a semi-
dact
Grating in active layer
c) Grating layer: Eg < Eg, act
Ë
dact
Active layer: Eg, act
Fig. 11.104a–c Various types of Bragg gratings. (a) Index
coupling; (b) gain coupling; (c) loss coupling
compensated for if the injected current density is
higher in the central section near the peak of the
photon density, thus reducing the gain of the side-
modes suffering from the lower current in the outer
section [11.1295].
The phase relation between the grating and the end
facets is difficult to control during the cleaving pro-
cess of DFB lasers, since the corrugation period for
a first-order grating (λ = 1.55 µm) is typically 240 nm.
Experimental and theoretical investigations show that
all static and dynamic optical properties of as-cleaved
DFB lasers are strongly influenced by this phase rela-
tion between the grating and facet. The mirror losses
of the various longitudinal modes, the mode discrimi-
nation, the intensity distribution, the optical spectra and
the dynamic and noise characteristics vary considerably
as a function of the end facet phases [11.1296]. Since
these end facet phases are distributed randomly after the
cleaving process, the yield of good DFB devices is lim-
ited. The problem of the uncertain end facet phases can
be reduced by appropriate antireflection coatings.
Gain-coupled lasers. In gain-coupled laser structures,
a longitudinal mode of the FP resonator is selected by
implementing an axial gain or loss grating. In contrast
to index-coupled DFB lasers, there is almost no reflec-
tion of the light wave in a gain grating. Therefore, the
longitudinal intensity distribution and the spectral posi-
tions of the various modes are equal to those of an FP
resonator. The mode selection is caused by the different
The mode, whose longitudinal field distribution exhibits
the largest overlap with the gain grating or the smallest
overlap with the loss grating, is selected.
Gain coupling can be realized in different ways:
• The grating structure can be etched directly into the
conductor material [11.1297] that is transparent to
the laser emission (Fig. 11.104b). The resulting gain
coupling in this grating structure is accompanied by
a strong index coupling due to the high refractive-
index difference between the active layer and the re-
grown material. With respect to the phase difference
between the index and gain grating one distinguishes
between in-phase and anti-phase gratings.
• A current blocking pnp layer structure above the
active layer is corrugated and regrown, so that a pe-
riodic variation of the current density injected into
the active layer is achieved [11.1298]. The parasitic
index coupling can be kept very small in this type of
 Lasers and Coherent Light Sources 11.3 Semiconductor Lasers 715

gain grating. Due to the Kramers–Kronig relations,
however, the gain grating is inevitably accompanied
by an index grating.
Loss coupling is obtained if the grating is etched into
an additional layer that is separated from the active
layer and is absorbing for the emission (Fig. 11.104c).
the receiver. The photodetector retranslates the light
pulses back to the electronic bit sequence. Seen in terms
of a two-language dictionary, the laser translates ultra-
fast from electronics into optics and the photodetector
ultrafast from optics into electronics.
For this purpose, the electrons injected through
the n contact in the semiconductor laser must arrive

Part C 11.3
This grating acts as a saturable periodic absorber for the as fast as possible at the most deeply bound energy
laser emission from the active layer [11.1299]. In con- states of the conduction-band QWs and the holes in-
trast to index coupling (Fig. 11.104a) the bandgap E g jected through the p contact as fast as possible into the
of the grating is smaller than the bandgap of the ac- ground states of the valence-band QWs (Fig. 11.105).
tive layer E g,act . Usually, the absorbing grating layer Several retarding physical transport and relaxation pro-
has a different refractive index than the material used cesses are involved, whose combined time delay effect
for the regrowth, so that considerable index coupling can however be minimized [11.1301, 1302]. Owing to
occurs. Alternatively, the loss grating can be integrated the very high doping in the long conduction paths,
into a metallization at the surface of the device, so that which start at the contacts, very short dielectric re-
no epitaxial regrowth is required [11.1300].
There are significant differences between the charac-
teristics of gain- and loss-coupled semiconductor lasers Laser emission
compared to index-coupled DFB lasers:
• In contrast to index-coupled devices, there is almost Blow-up
no reflection of the light wave in an ideal gain grat- p -doped
Injection bulk layer
ing. Thus, the interference of the reflected wave
current
inside the grating and at the facets is avoided, so
that the influence of the end facet phases is strongly
reduced compared with index-coupled DFB lasers. Contact
Therefore, a high single-mode yield can be obtained
without the necessity to use an antireflection coating
of the end facets. 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 ...
• The longitudinal photon distribution is, in the case Time t
of a small parasitic index coupling, similar to that of
an FP resonator. Thus, the strongly inhomogeneous Contact
photon distribution in DFB lasers and the result-
ing problem of longitudinal spatial hole burning is n-doped
bulk layer
reduced in gain-coupled devices.
y
Basics of Lasers
with High Modulation Bandwidth Bit pattern
For the highest-bit-rate fibre-optic data communication Light
(1.26–1.68 µm), the ultrafast conversion of the data 1 intensity
0
from the electronic bit sequence into the appropriate op- 0
1
tical bit pattern takes place by means of semiconductor 0
1
lasers. This is done either with a CW laser combined with 1
0.
a subsequent ultrafast optical modulator or via direct t ..
modulation of the laser (intensity or frequency modula-
tion). As the simplest example the intensity modulation Fig. 11.105 Schematic representation of the direct modula-
of the laser is described. The bit pattern available as a se- tion of a semiconductor laser, translation of an electronic
quence of ultrashort current pulses is translated by the bit pattern (left) via a corresponding temporal carrier dis-
laser into the appropriate sequence of ultrashort light tribution in the QWs (center) into an optical bit pattern
pulses, which then propagate e.g. via a fibre towards (bottom)
 716 Part C Coherent and Incoherent Light Sources

In order to reduce optical losses through reabsorp-

tion, the confinement layers should be undoped or
Electrons (1) (2) (1) only slightly doped. Retarding effects arise as a con-
in the CB (5) (2) sequence of the charge-carrier transport (number 1 in
EC Fig. 11.106). Using the analogy of the balls and pipe
n-sided p-sided above, a ball in an empty pipe (undoped) must go
confinement (3) (4) confinement through the entire length of pipe (the length of a con-
layer (4) (3) layer
Part C 11.3

finement layer) before finally exiting from the other

(5)
E (2) (1)
EV
y
Fig. 11.106 Schematic representation of the charge carrier dynamics
close of the active region (here seven QWs) in the band structure in
space for an asymmetric laser structure [11.1302] (enlargement of
Fig. 11.105 in the area indicated by the ellipse)
laxation times arise there. This can be visualized by
means of a pipe completely filled with ping pong balls
(high doping throughout the length of the conduction
path). A ball injected at one end of the pipe, causes an-
other to be ejected from the other end of the pipe. In
this manner, a current pulse is transferred to the other
end of the pipe almost without delay in heavily doped
semiconductors.
end. Further retarding effects arise from the charge car-
Holes rier capture (2), relaxation (3) in the respective QW
in the VB
ground states, by the reconciliation of charge carrier
inhomogeneities between the individual pots, through
tunneling (4) and thermal reemission (5). Since the mo-
bility of the electrons is substantially higher than that
of the holes, in asymmetrical laser structures [11.1302]
the p-side confinement layers are reduced in thickness
in favor of the n side. This favors the transfer of the
less-mobile holes. In addition, this asymmetric laser
structure design takes into account the different cap-
ture probabilities: the capture of holes into the QWs
is much more efficient than that of electrons. Thus,
a smaller p-sided confinement layer (reservoir of uncap-
tured electrons giving rise to bit interfering) is beneficial.
In today’s fastest laser diodes (largest modulation band-
width) −3 dB modulation frequencies of up to 40 GHz
can be obtained.

a) d)
GAC
WG 1
WG 2
DFB

b) e)

DBR