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OOPS Interview Questions

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Object oriented concepts form the base of all modern programming languages. Understanding the
basic concepts of object-orientation helps a developer to use various modern day programming
languages, more effectively.



 

 
 

Object oriented programming is one of the most popular methodologies in software development. It
offers a powerful model for creating computer programs. It speeds the program development process,
improves maintenance and enhances reusability of programs.







 

An object is a combination of messages and data. Objects can receive and send messages and use
messages to interact with each other. The messages contain information that is to be passed to the
recipient object.





   








The design phase is followed by OOP, which is the implementation phase. OOP provides specifications
for writing programs in a programming language. During the implementation phase, programming is
done as per the requirements gathered during the analysis and design phases.



 






In the design phase, the developers of the system document their understanding of the system.
Design generates the blue print of the system that is to be implemented. The first step in creating an
object oriented design is the identification of classes and their relationships.



 



Class describes the nature of a particular thing. Structure and modularity is provided by a Class in
object oriented programming environment. Characteristics of the class should be understandable by
an ordinary non programmer and it should also convey the meaning of the problem statement to him.
Class acts like a blue print.


 
 


 
 

Every class and an object have an instance. Instance of a particular object is created at runtime.
Values defined for a particular object define its State. Instance of an object explains the relation ship
between different elements.

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Inheritance revolves around the concept of inheriting knowledge and class attributes from the parent
class. In general sense a sub class tries to acquire characteristics from a parent class and they can
also have their own characteristics. Inheritance forms an important concept in object oriented
programming.

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Inheritance involves inheriting characteristics from its parents also they can have their own
characteristics. In multiple inheritance a class can have characteristics from multiple parents or

    
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classes. A sub class can have characteristics from multiple parents and still can have its own
characteristics.

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Encapsulation passes the message without revealing the exact functional details of the class. It allows
only the relevant information to the user without revealing the functional mechanism through which a
particular class had functioned.

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Abstraction simplifies a complex problem to a simpler problem by specifying and modeling the class to
the relevant problem scenario. It simplifies the problem by giving the class its specific class of
inheritance. Composition also helps in solving the problem to an extent.

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Composition helps to simplify a complex problem into an easier problem. It makes different classes
and objects to interact with each other thus making the problem to be solved automatically. It
interacts with the problem by making different classes and objects to send a message to each other.

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Polymorphism helps a sub class to behave like a parent class. When an object belonging to different
data types respond to methods which have a same name, the only condition being that those methods
should perform different function.

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Overriding polymorphism is known to occur when a data type can perform different functions. For
example an addition operator can perform different functions such as addition, float addition etc.
Overriding polymorphism is generally used in complex projects where the use of a parameter is more.

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Object oriented databases are very popular such as relational database management systems. Object
oriented databases systems use specific structure through which they extract data and they combine
the data for a specific output. These DBMS use object oriented languages to make the process easier.

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Parametric polymorphism is supported by many object oriented languages and they are very
important for object oriented techniques. In parametric polymorphism code is written without any
specification for the type of data present. Hence it can be used any number of times.

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There are several programming languages which are implementing OOP because of its close proximity
to solve real life problems. Languages such as Python, Ruby, Ruby on rails, Perl, PHP, Coldfusion, etc
use OOP. Still many languages prefer to use DOM based languages due to the ease in coding.

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Object oriented programming language allows concepts such as modularity, encapsulation,
polymorphism and inheritance. Simula is credited to be the first object oriented language. Objects are

    
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said to be the most important part of object oriented language. Concept revolves around making
simulation programs around an object.


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Some of the languages which have object oriented languages present in them are ABAP, ECMA Script,
C++, Perl, LISP, C#, Tcl, VB, Ruby, Python, PHP, etc. Popularity of these languages has increased
considerably as they can solve complex problems with ease.



 
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UML or unified modeling language is regarded to implement complete specifications and features of
object oriented language. Abstract design can be implemented in object oriented programming
languages. It lacks implementation of polymorphism on message arguments which is a OOPs feature.






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Languages which are called as object oriented almost implement everything in them as objects such
as punctuations, characters, prototypes, classes, modules, blocks, etc. They were designed to
facilitate and implement object oriented methods.



 




 
 

Message passing is a method by which an object sends data to another object or requests other object
to invoke method. This is also known as interfacing. It acts like a messenger from one object to other
object to convey specific instructions.


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Java is widely used and its share is increasing considerably which is partly due to its close
resemblance to object oriented languages such as C and C++. Code written in Java can be
transported to many different platforms without changing it. It implements virtual machine.

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These are some of the problems faced by the developer using object oriented language they are: -
1) Object oriented uses design patterns which can be referred to as anything in general.
2) Repeatable solution to a problem can cause concern and disagreements and it is one of the major
problems in software design.

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Some of the advantages of object oriented programming are as follows: -
1) A clear modular structure can be obtained which can be used as a prototype and it will not reveal
the mechanism behind the design. It does have a clear interface.
2) Ease of maintenance and modification to the existing objects can be done with ease.
3) A good framework is provided which facilitates in creating rich GUI applications.

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Objects in one class can acquire properties of the objects in other classes by way of inheritance.
Reusability which is a major factor is provided in object oriented programming which adds features to
a class without modifying it. New class can be obtained from a class which is already present.

    
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Object oriented programming and relational database programming are almost similar in software
engineering. RDBMS will not store objects directly and that¶s where object oriented programming
comes into play. Object relational mapping is one such solution.

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In Object oriented programming usage of class often occurs. A class defines the characteristics of an
object and its behaviors. This defines the nature and functioning of a specified object to which it is
assigned. Code for a class should be encapsulated.

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Encapsulation specifies the different classes which can use the members of an object. The main goal
of encapsulation is to provide an interface to clients which decrease the dependency on those features
and parts which are likely to change in future. This facilitates easy changes to the code and features.

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Abstraction can also be achieved through composition. It solves a complex problem by defining only
those classes which are relevant to the problem and not involving the whole complex code into play.

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A method will affect only a particular object to which it is specified. Methods are verbs meaning they
define actions which a particular object will perform. It also defines various other characteristics of a
particular object.

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There are three patterns of design out of which Creational patterns play an important role the various
patterns described underneath this are: -
1) Factory pattern
2) Single ton pattern
3) Prototype pattern
4) Abstract factory pattern
5) Builder pattern

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As we live in a world of objects, it logically follows that the object oriented approach models the real
world accurately. The object oriented approach allows you to identify entities as objects having
attributes and behavior.

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The anlaysis or the object oriented analysis phase considers the system as a solution to a problem in
its environment or domain. Developer concentrates on obtaining as much information as possible
about the problem. Critical requirements needs to be identified.

    
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Visual C++ deals with graphical user interface and is the most advanced IDE for creating complex
applications. This is used to create real time applications.
ANSI C++ is the updated and advanced version than the earlier versions of C++. Libraries and
functions are updated in ANSI C++ compared to the earlier versions.


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The main difference between the structure of C and C++ is, C struct can contain only data and C++
has access limitations and contains functions such as public, private, etc.


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The C++ feature that supports the definition of an object of undetermined type is called a template.
Using a template allows the programmer to define the features of the class, while reserving the option
of binding the type of the class to the class itself until a class of a particular type is actually needed.
The creation of a class of a particular type is called instantiation.


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A C++ class builds on the concept of a structure. Whereas a C structure is a collection of named fields,
a C++ class is a collection of named fields and methods that apply to objects of that class type.
Additionally, the C++ language implements the concept of information hiding, restricting access to
certain members of the class to methods of the class itself.



 
  


Rational class contains two data members, numerator and denominator and seven method members,
reduce, add, multiply, divide, equal, print, and set rational. The methods in the class Rational explicitly
mention only one. This is because the class object for which they are invoked is an implicit parameter
for each routine.



 
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C++ templates are used to optimize code. They are very powerful as they help the program by
providing various classes, functions and methods. There is also a disadvantage when we are using
C++ templates, they tend to duplicate themselves and get installed which slows down the functioning
of the program. This is avoided in Java.


  

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Encapsulation is an entirely new concept which is present in C++ but not in C. In Encapsulation you
can restrict the access of the functions to Public, private and Protected which is not possible in C. It is
a general practice among programmers to allow only partial functions which can help in designing to
be public while the rest of the code is made into private or protected.

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Multiple inheritances in C++ are a controversial issue. In multiple inheritance a derived class or an
unrelated class can obtain function of the base class. In this process it can obtain multiple inheritance.
A derived class or unrelated class may obtain more than one base class. This can benefit as well as
destroy the structure of the program.

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Virtual member functions come into play when a function belonging to a derived class over rides a
base class. This is possible only when there are many similarities in the number of parameters,
function definition, object, etc. This increasingly becomes difficult to process during the run time. At
this point of time virtual member functions comes to rescue. This overwhelming task is made easy by

    
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virtual functions tables.

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The main difficulty to parse a C++ code lies in the complex definitions of C++ identifiers. They should
also satisfy complex scoping rules for C++. Also they should define what type it is and to what type it
belongs to. It should also satisfy the basic criteria of parsing source code.

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The main problem which C++ faces today is because of its large feature set. It is almost similar to C
language because of which much of the criticism faced by ³C´ is faced by C++. It doesn¶t have
language features to create multi threaded software. Also this language is unruly compared to modern
languages such as Java which has both object oriented and procedural programming.

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Namespaces help you to group classes, functions, etc under one name which helps you to access it at
later stage. To access these name spaces we can use scope operator. During name space naming
there arises difficulty when a function uses the same name which causes redefinition errors.

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This function is used for exceptional circumstances and this is made possible by handlers. This
exception handler is placed in the code which throws exception and error. This exception throws error
when the condition is not satisfied. This handler is placed in a try block in which throw function is
present. After the try block a catch function is placed through which exception handlers are declared.

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Static cast is very helpful for conversions from pointers to related class and also from derived class to
base class. This static_cast is also helpful to convert base class to derived class. Static_cast makes
sure that atleast classes and objects are completed. This has its disadvantages such as programmer
should ensure that the object specified is being moved to its destination.

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Reinterpret_cast is platform specific. The code generated for reinterpret_cast is generated for the
platform which makes it not useful for inter operability. This transfers pointers, irrespective of classes.
This forms a image of the specific class and also pointer pointed or the pointer itself is not checked.
This can lead doors to security lapses.

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This explicit conversion is required where there is different interpretation on value. There are two
different types of explicit conversion such as c like casting and functional. This explicit conversion can
be applied indiscriminately on the code which significantly increases errors during run time.

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Implicit conversion does not require any operator for performing its function. It automatically performs
when a value is copied to the code. The only exception being, it should be compatible. This allows
conversions between bool to numerical types, pointer conversions, and etc. significant runtime errors
get reduced with this implicit conversion because it accepts values which are compatible.

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This string stream class is defined by a standard header file . This class provides flexibility in
converting a string based object to stream. This is useful in extraction and insertion of numerical,
strings, characters, etc. This is useful to extract a specific numerical from a string. This also aids in
insertion.

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A data structure is a collection of data elements under one name. These data elements are collectively

    
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known as members and they can have variable lengths and types. Structure_name and object_name
are two important types defined in C++. Structure types are defined by structure_name and
object_name contains valid identifiers.

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In C++ it is very correct syntactically to declare over sized array. It also never shows you any error
during compilation but it shows error during run time. The answer lies in pointers. This problem can be
mitigated if we can manually specify the memory location by using a reference operator. Automatically
pointers assign the variable to a certain location and when it tries to extract during extraction it fails
thus creating error.

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The four basic data types in ³c´ language are as follows
(i) Char
(ii) Int
(iii) Float
(iv) Double





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%d: -An integer whole number
%f: -a floating point number
%c: -a single character
%p: -a machine memory address


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The Scanf () function can be used to get input into a program and it requires two arguments. First a
format specifier defines the type of data to be entered, then the name of the variable in which the
input will be stored. This scanf () function is responsible for giving input into the program.


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If the int variable is created by default as a µlong¶ type it typically will have a possible range of values
from a maximum of +214748347 and a minimum of -2147483648. For µshort¶ type these are the
maximum and minimum values +327676 and minimum -32768.
(While answering this question you can specify the approximate value raised to power).


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The extent to which a variable is accessible in a program is called the µvariable scope¶.
Variables declared internally inside a function are known as µlocal¶ variables.
Variables declared externally outside a function are known as µglobal¶ variables.


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When an int variable is declared it can by default contain either positive of negative integer values.
These are known as µsigned¶ values. The range of positive values is determined by your system.


 
 
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A register variable declaration informs the compiler that the specified variable will be heavily used by
the program. The intention is for the compiler to place register variables in the machine register of the
computer to speed access times. Local internal variables can only be declared as register variables.

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One of the most significant uses of arrays in c programming concerns with their ability to store strings

    
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of text. Each element in an array of the char data type can store a single character. Adding the special
null character escape sequence in the arrays final element promotes the array to string. It can be
referenced using the array name and can be displayed using the %s format specifier.

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The enum keyword provides a handy way to create a sequence of integer constants in a concise
manner. Optionally the declaration can include a name for the sequence after the enum keyword. The
constant names follow with a comma and placed within braces. The name assigned can be used to call
the function again at later stage. The constants can be assigned any individual value but the following
constant will always increment it by one.

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A #if directive test can be offered with #else and #else if directives. This allows conditional branching
of the program to run sections of the code according to the result. Constants defined with a #define
directive can be undefined with the #undef directive. The #ifdef directive has a companion directive
#ifndef. These commands can be useful when debugging problem code to hide and unhide sections of
the program.

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The logical operator! NOT is a unary operator that is used before a single operand. It returns the
inverse value of the given operand so if the variable ³c´ had a value of true then! C would return value
of false. The not operator is very much useful in C programs because it can change the value of
variables with successful iterations. This ensures that on each pass the value is changed.

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Operator precedence defines the order in which C evaluates expressions.
e.g. in the expression a=6+b*3, the order of precedence determines whether the addition or the
multiplication is completed first. Operators on the same row have equal precedence.

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This function concatenates the source string at the end of the target string. Strcmp() function
compares two strings to find out whether they are the same or different. The two strings are
compared character by character until there is a mismatch or end of one of the strings is reached,
whichever occurs first. If in case two strings are identical, a value of zero is returned. If there is no
matches between two strings then a difference of the two non matching values are returned according
to ASCII values.

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We use structures for different purposes which are
1) Construct individual arrays
E.g. 1) one array for storing names, another array for storing prices, and another for storing number
of pages.
2) Use a structure variable.
A structure contains a number of data types grouped together. These data types may or may not be of
the same type.

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The sprint() function works similar to the printf() function except for one small difference, instead of
sending the output to the screen as printf() does, this function writes the output to an array of
characters. Once str has been built, its contents can be displayed on the screen.

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In low level disk I/O, data cannot be written as individual characters, or as strings or as formatted
data. There is only one way data can be written to read in low level disk I/O functions as buffer full of
bytes. Writing a buffer full of data resembles the fwrite() function.

    
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Fopen(): - On opening a file, a pointer is set up which points to the first record in the file.
Fread(): - The pointer moves to the next record while reading a file. It always reads the file where the
pointer is pointed.
Fwrite(): -The pointer moves to the beginning of the next record on closing the file the pointer is
deactivated. This pointer writes the record where the pointer is currently places.
Fseek(): - Function lets us move the pointer from one record to another.

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Both structures and unions are used to group a number of different variables together. But while a
structure enables us treat a number of different variables stored at different places in memory, a
union enables us to treat the same space in memory as a number of different variables.

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The different styles present in windows are WS_OVERLAPPED, WS_CAPTION, WS_THICKFRAME,
WS_MINIMIZEBOX, and WS_MAXIMIZEBOX.
All these macros are #defined in the µwindows.h¶ header file.

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Real constants are often called Floating point constants. The real constants could be written in two
forms fractional form and exponential form.
These are the following rules while constructing real constants
1) A real constant must have at least one digit
2) It must have a decimal point
3) It could be wither positive or negative
4) Default sign is positive
5) No commas or blanks are allowed within a real constant.

    
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PHP Interview Questions

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PHP is also known as personal home page. PHP is used for producing dynamic WebPages. This
language can be used for varied types of scripting such as server side scripting, standalone and for
graphical applications. This is released under PHP license and is considered to be free software.



 


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According to the information obtained from the National vulnerability database, PHP has more than
quarter of the software vulnerabilities discovered in 2008. Out of 33.33% software and scripts
vulnerability PHP amounts to almost quarter of them. Register_globals a feature present in PHP is
responsible for most of these vulnerabilities and now it is deprecated by PHP. Most of these security
vulnerabilities occur due to poor programming techniques.



 


 
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PHP stores information numerical in a platform dependent range. Unsigned integers can be easily
converted to signed integers. Decimal, octal, and hexadecimal notations can be easily assigned to
integers. Floating point notation and two forms of scientific notation can be easily assigned to Real
numbers. Zero is considered as false and all non zero numbers are considered as true.



 
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PHP has a large pool of functions and a huge number of them can be created by extensions. These
functions can be defined at runtime by defining them inside the code. These functions have to be
defined inside the parenthesis except for a class constructor function where there is no argument.
Functions can be called or referenced by specifying their name.



 
 

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In previous versions of PHP, object was fully copied before assigning a variable to a method. This
problem was solved in new versions of PHP by the handle function. Many of the features present in
PHP 5 are adopted from C++. Some of the features which are incorporated are restricted classes such
as private and public, abstract and final classes, abstract and final methods, constructors and
destructors with exception handling borrowed from C++.


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PHP accelerator increases the speed of applications written in PHP. This boost of performance can be
around 2-10 times. PHP accelerator increases the speed of the applications by decreasing parsing each
and every time a PHP application runs. It depends upon factors such as time taken for execution of
the PHP script and the actual percentage of the source code requested.


 


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This GET variable is executed when a request is sent from the user for information. This GET gets
executed on the server and then information is sent back to the user. The information transmitted
through this GET variable is viewable by everyone and is displayed in the address bar of the browser.
A maximum of 100 characters is sent by the GET variable.

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A Cookie is placed on the user desktop which uniquely identifies the user and every time a user views
the webpage the same cookie is retrieved. With PHP a programmer can create and retrieve
information simultaneously. The setcookie() function is used to create a cookie and PHP $_COOKIE
variable helps the programmer to retrieve the cookie stored on the users computer. These both
functions can function simultaneously.

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Error handling function allows the user to detect the error and do necessary changes which paved the
way for the error.
Logging functions pave the way for users to use log applications and send messages to system logs,

    
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email or for other specific purpose.
PHP has efficient error and logging constants to its credit. Some of them are E_ERROR, E_NOTICE,
E_ALL, E_STRICT, etc.

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Some of the five PHP error constants are E_ERROR, E_WARNING, E_PARSE, E_USER_WARNING,
E_COMPILE_WARNING, etc
E_ERROR: -This error is displayed when there is fatal error which halts the execution of the script
immediately.
E_WARNING: -This warns the programmer about the error but the execution of the script is not
stopped.
E_PARSE: -These errors occur during compile time and these errors should only be generated by the
parser.
E_USER_WARNING: -This warning error is generated by the user and is non fatal. This is set by the
programmer using trigger_error().
E_COMPILE_WARNING: -this error is generated by the Zend scripting engine. This is a compile time
non fatal error.

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Looping is used to run the same script many number of times. Following statements are used in PHP
for looping while, do...while, for each, and for statement.

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Include function collects all the text in a defined specific file and copies the text information to the file
which has the include function in it
Require function is similar to the include function except that it handles the error system in a different
manner. Require function displays a fatal error and stops the execution of the script while the include
function still executes the script.

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Declare construct allows you to define execution directives for a block set of code. This actually
describes the way the code should perform. These declare construct can be set in such a manner that
all the code is affected. The way the code performs can be set by the directive part which directly
leads the code to follow.

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The basic control structures are if, for, while, do while, for each and switch. If you are planning to use
alternative structures then the closing braces should be changed to endif, endfor, endwhile,
endswitch, and endforeach. Similarly the opening brace of the alternative syntax should be changed to
(:) or colon. The alternative structure is applicable to else and elseif also.

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Switch statement is executed line by line. PHP executes the statement only when the case statement
matches the value of the switch expression. It does execute the statement until the end of the block
till it finds the break statement. When the expression and statement matches themselves the code is
executed.

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A PHP filter validates, filters according to the predefined statements from the programmer. It is very
important for every programmer to validate user defines information as it can potential harm; PHP
eliminated this risk by using PHP filter extension. This forms a good security practice for programmers.

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T filter a variable these are the following different functions used they are: -
1) Filter_var() 3) Filter_input
2) Filter_var_array() 4) Filter_input_array

    
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Validating and sanitizing are two different kinds of filters
Validating filters: - These filters are used to validate user sent information (input). Strict rules are
applied for formatting such as URL or Email validating. It also sends the success type for a particular
operation whether false or true.
Sanitizing filters: - These filters are used to allow or disallow specific characters present in a string.
There are no restrictions on data format rules. This filter always returns the string.

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Personal home page language is used to create dynamic and interactive websites which are very
efficient in delivering client needs from the server side. This language is widely used. It is used on
various operating systems with Apache modules. This can be directly embedded into HTML code.



 


   
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PHP can be installed on UNIX in many different ways there are pre defined packages available which
can ease the process. Initially it can be controlled by the command line options. Help can be obtained
from./configure help command. After installing PHP modules or executables can be configures and
make command should help you in the process.


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Parsing is an important concept if you want to run your code appropriately and timely. PHP parses all
the code present between the opening and closing tags, it ignores everything present out of the
closing and opening tags. This tags allow PHP to be embedded between many documents.


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There are four different types of tags available in PHP they are
* PHP short tags
* ASP style tags.
Generally the first two tags are widely used because they are portable.



 
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This function is very useful in PHP. This function compares array values in a user defined function and
it returns the array. If assoc() is added to the function it compares array keys. This function can also
be defined as array uintersect uassoc().



 
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When an object is converted into an object the stance of the object is not modified. A new instance of
the class is created if a value of different type if converted into an object. Incase the value is null at
the time of conversion the new instance will be empty.


 
 

Resource holds reference to an external resource and it is a special variable. These are created and
used by specially defined functions. Resource holds defined and special handlers for opening files.
Converting to a resource makes no sense at all.

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Null represents a variable with no value inside. There doesn¶t exist any value for type Null. Null is
defined to be null if and only if it is assigned a constant null, there is no value set, it is set to be
unset(). This is the case insensitive keyword. There are also two functions they are is_null and
unset().

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Mixed function indicates that the function may contain multiple types but it doesn¶t form a necessary
condition. Functions like call_user_func() or usort() accept user defined functions as parameter. These

    
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functions are not only simple but also object methods which includes static methods.

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Looping statements are used in PHP to execute the code for a developer defined number of times. PHP
has these following looping statements they are while, do while, for and for each. Foreach is used to
loop a block of code in each element in an array.

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A Boolean type states a truth value whether it is true or false. These statements are case insensitive.
An operator returns a Boolean value and this value is passed onto the control structure which
executes the statement. If an argument is required it is automatically converted.

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PHP uses Type juggling similar to the way Perl uses. Variable is defined in the context in which it is
used. It doesn¶t require any explicit definition for a function to perform its duties. For example if a
string value is assigned to a variable it is defined as string.

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Type casting acts and functions similarly as it performs in C. The casts allowed are Integer, Boolean,
float and double, string, binary, array and object. Casting and support was added in PHP 5.2.1. A
variable can be enclosed in double quotes instead of casting it to a string.

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Principal password can be changed by using kadm5_chpass_principal command. If you also want to
specify the new password for effecting a change to the principal password it should be as
Bool kadm5_chpass_principal (resource $handle, string $principal, string password). This changes the
password to password.

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There are many advantages of PHP they are
1) Easy and fast creation of dynamic web pages and a developer can also embed these dynamic
functions into HTML.
2) A huge community resource which has a ton of information before you.
3) Connectivity ability lets you to connect to different interfaces and predefined libraries.
4) Execution is very fast because it uses less system resources, etc.

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A huge advantage for PHP is its connective ability. It uses huge number of extensions to interface with
huge pool of libraries such as XML, graphics and encryption. Programmers can create their own
extensions and compiling them. They can load their own programs by using the dynamic loading
mechanism.

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MYSQL is not available as a default feature it must be created by the user. You can use --with-
mysql=DIR function to make available SQL on your system. Compiling PHP functions with MYSQL will
increase the support and functioning of the language. MYSQL should be installed where there are
extensions of PHP.

    
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ASP.NET Interview Questions
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Microsoft introduced the .Net framework with the intention of bridging the gap in interoperability
between applications. This framework aims at integrating various programming languages and
services. The .NET offers a complete suite for developing and deploying applications.


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It is designed to make significant improvements in code reuse, code specialization, resource
management, Multilanguage development, security, deployment and administration. There are lots
more features included in Microsoft .net which can be realized to a maximum potential with the
language support.



 
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Microsoft has already introduced visual studio.NET, which is a tool for developing .NET applications by
using programming languages such as Visual Basic, Visual C#, and Visual C++. These products aim at
allowing developers to create applications, which are capable of interacting seamlessly with each
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.Net products use eXtensible markup language (XML) for describing and exchanging data between
applications. It is a platform independent markup language. It allows computers to store data in a
format, which can be interpreted by any other computer system. XML can be used to transfer
structures data between heterogeneous systems.



 
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.NET helps you to create software as web services. A web services is an application or business logic
that is accessible through standard internet protocols such as HTTP and simple object access protocol.
Users can subscribe to such a service and use it as long as they need it, regardless of the hardware
and software platform.



 
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It is the foundation on which you design, develop and deploy applications. It is consistent and
simplified programming model that helps you to easily build robust applications. It forms the core of
the .NET infrastructure because it exists as a layer between the .NET applications and the underlying
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The CLR is one of the most essential components of the .NET framework. CLR is the environment
where all programs using .NET technologies are executed. It provides services such as code
compilation, memory allocation, and garbage collection. It translates the code into Intermediate
language which helps interoperability of code.

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CLS consists of a set of common rules followed by all the languages of the .NET framework. This set of
rules is known as Common language specifications. CLS enables an object or application to interact
with the objects or applications of other languages.

    
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One of the specifications defined in CLS is common type system (CTs), which provides a type system
that is common across all languages. CTS define how data types are declared, used and managed in
the code at run time. The size of integer and long variables is the same across all CLs compliant
programming languages.

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When you compile a program in .NET, the conversion of source code to machine language happens in
two stages. In the first stage, the compiler translates code into an IL instead of machine language or
assembly language. In the second stage the conversion of IL to machine language is done at run time
by the JIt compiler.

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A managed heap is a region of the memory that is available for program execution. If sufficient
memory is not available on the managed heap, the garbage collection process is invoked. Whenever
you create an object, the CLR allocates memory for the object from the managed heap.

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The .NET Framework provides a common OOPs model across languages. This object model can be
used in code to perform several tasks, such as reading from and writing to files, connecting to
databases, and retrieving data.

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.Net allows multiple languages to be integrated. It is possible to create a class in VC# that derives
from a class implemented in VB.NET. To enable objects with each other regardless of the language use
to develop them, a set of language features has been defined in CLS.

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While creating an application, a programmer may be required to write code for managing resources
such as files, memory, network connections, and database resources. If a programmer does not free
these resources, the application may not execute properly. This process is done by CLR automatically.

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Elements present in Visual studio IDE are toolbars, solution explorer, code editor, output window, task
list window, and class view window. In addition to these elements start page and project properties
windows is also present.

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The solution explorer window lists the solution name, the project name, and all the classes that are
used in the project. A particular file can be opened in a project by double clicking the file in the
solution explorer window.

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The class view window displays the classes, methods, and properties associated with a particular file.
They are displayed in a hierarchical tree-view depicting the containership of these items. When you
double-click any one of the items in the Class view window, it brings up the code editor window for
that item