Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
Supervised By Prepared By
The work presented here was carried out under the supervision of Prof. Dr. Shaikh
Md. Nizamud-Doulah, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Rajshahi University of
Engineering & Technology. The author wishes to express his deep gratitude to him for his
patient guidance and affectionate encouragement from the starting till the end of the thesis.
Without his inspiration, constant guidance and invaluable suggestions at all phases, the
work could hardly be materialized.
The author wishes to convey his thanks to the teachers, friends and well wishers,
who have helped me, suggested me with a view to accomplishing the project work.
i
ABSTRACT
An analytical study has been performed for the effect of wind loading on tall
buildings. This paper mainly deals with the drift and dynamic analysis on tall buildings by
the action of wind loads.
In this study a differential equation is formed and solved to determine the drift of
the building. A program is also developed with the help Visual Basic language to analysis
the drift. In this theoretical study dynamic action of tall building due to along-wind and
cross-wind phenomena is discussed.
The analytical results are presented in tabular form and as well as in graphical
form. The variation of drift and along-wind acceleration and cross-wind acceleration with
respect to building height and building width is analyzed and compared.
ii
CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i
ABSTRACT ii
LIST OF FIGURES iii
LIST OF TABLES iii
LIST OF SYMBOLS iv
CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Objectives. 2
iii
CHAPTER -4 DYNAMIC RESPONSES DUE TO WIND LOADS
4.1 Introduction 33
4.2 Sensitivity of Structures to Wind Forces 33
4.3 Dynamic Structural Responses Due to Wind Forces 34
4.4 Along-wind Response 36
4.4.1 Peak Along-Wind Accelerations 38
4.5 Cross-wind Response 38
CHAPTER -6 CONCLUSION
5.1 Conclusion 55
5.2 Recommendations 55
56
References
iv
LIST OF FIGURES:
Page
Name of Figure
No
1. Variation of wind velocity with height. 05
2. Variation of wind velocity with time. 07
3. Schematic representation of mean wind and gust velocity 08
4. Simplified two-dimensional flow of wind. 09
5. Vortex formation in the wake of a bluff object. 11
6. Vortex shedding phenomenon 11
7. Forced and deformations caused by external shear. 15
8. Forced and deformation caused by external moment. 15
9. Deflection of portal frame. a) Frame subjected to lateral loads b) typical
16
story segment
10. Lateral deflection of typical story due to bending of columns 17
11. Lateral deflection of typical story due to bending of girders 17
12. Representing of coupled shear walls by continuous model 20
13. Internal forces in coupled shear walls 21
14. Relative displacement at line of contra-flexure. 23
15. Planar wall- frame structure; (b) Continuous analogy for wall- frame
30
structure; (c) Free body diagrams for wall and frame
16. Model Structure 33
17. Interfacing of the Software 34
18. Variation of roughness factor with building height 42
19. Variation of background turbulence factor with height and aspect ratio of
42
building
20. Variation of size reduction factor with reduced frequency and aspect ratio of
43
building
21. Variation of gust energy ratio with inverse wavelength. 44
22. Variation of peak factor with average fluctuation rate 44
23. Variation of Drift of Different Buildings 48
24. Variation of Drift with Respect to Building Widths 50
25. Variation of Cross-wind Acceleration with Respect to the Width at Along-
53
wind Direction
26. Variation of Cross-wind Acceleration with Respect to the width at Cross-
54
wind Direction
v
LIST OF TABLES:
vi
LIST OF SYMBOLS:
Vz= the mean wind speed at the height Z above the ground surface
Vg= gradient wind speed assumed constant above the boundary layer
Z= height above the ground
Zg= depth of boundary layer
a=power law coefficient
Gv =the gust factor
Vg =the gust speed
V=the mean wind speed
V = Shear force
h = Height of the storey
Ig = Moment if inertia of girder
Ic = Moment of inertia of Column
L = Clear distance between two column
? g = Deflection of girder
? c = Deflection of column
? s = Storey Drift
E = Modulus of Elasticity
g = Acceleration of gravity
y= Drift
M= Moment
w= Uniformly Distributed Load
vii
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Wind loads are of important, particularly in the design of large structures. The
wind velocity that should be considered in the design of structure depends upon the
geological location and the exposure of the structure.
Some structures, particularly those that are tall or slender, respond dynamically to
the effects of wind. There are several different phenomena giving rise to dynamic
response of structures in wind. These include buffeting, vortex shedding, galloping and
flutter. Slender structures are likely to be sensitive to dynamic response in line with the
wind direction as a consequence of turbulence buffeting. Transverse or cross-wind
response is more likely to arise from vortex shedding or galloping but may also result
from excitation by turbulence buffeting. Flutter is a coupled motion, often being a
combination of bending and torsion, and can result in instability. For building structures
flutter and galloping are generally not an issue.
1
and strain. Therefore, for most tall buildings serviceability considerations govern the
design and not strength issues.
2
CHAPTER-2
NATURE OF WIND
2.1 Introduction
Of the several types of wind that encompass the earth’s surface, winds which are
of interest in the design of tall buildings can be classified into three major types: the
prevailing winds, seasonal wind s, and local winds.
1. The prevailing winds: Surface air moving from the horse latitudes toward the
low pressure equatorial belt constitutes the prevailing winds on trade winds.
2. The seasonal winds: The air over the land is warmer in summer and cooler in
winter than the air adjacent to oceans during the same seasons.
3
3. The local winds: Corresponding with the seasonal variation in temperature and
pressure over land and water, daily changes occur which have a similar but local
effect. Similar daily changes in temp erature occur over irregular terrain and cause
mountain and valley breezes.
4
1. Variation of wind velocity with height
2. Turbulent nature of wind
3. Vortex shedding phenomenon
4. Dynamic nature of wind structure interaction
5
The variation of velocity with height can be considered as a gradual retardation of
the wind nearer the ground as a result of surface friction. At heights of approximately
1200 ft (366 m) from the ground, the wind speed is virtually unaffected by surface
friction and its movement is solely dependent prevailing seasonal and local wind effects.
The height through which the wind speed is affected by the topography at ground level is
called the atmospheric boundary layer. The wind speed profile within this layer is in the
domain of turbulent flow. The variation of wind speed in this layer can be
mathematically predicted from a logarithmic equation. However, in engineering practice
wind profile in the atmospheric boundary layer is well represented by the so called
power law expression of the form:
Vz = Vg (Z/Zg )a …………………(2.1)
Where Vz= the mean wind speed at the height Z above the ground surface
Vg= gradient wind speed assumed constant above the boundary layer
Z= height above the ground
Zg= depth of boundary layer
a=power law coefficient
Therefore the mean wind speed at gradient height and the value of exponent a,
the wind speeds are easily calculated by using Eq. (2.1). The exponent a and the depth of
boundary layer Z g varies with terrain roughness. The value of a ranges from a law of
0.14 for open country to about 0.5 for built- up urban areas, signifying that wind speed
reaches its maximum value over a longer height in an urban terrain than in open country.
The pressure and suction on a tall building generated by wind are a function of the wind
speed, and therefore they increase with the building height.
The variation of wind velocity with height describes only one aspect of wind in
the boundary layer. Superimposed on the mean wind speed is the turbulence or gustiness
6
of wind, which produces deviations in the wind speed above or below the mean,
depending upon whether there is a gust or lull in the wind action. Turbulence is created
as a result of shearing velocity gradient in viscous fluid. The layers of wind slide
relatively to one another because wind near a solid boundary has a near- zero velocity,
whereas the adjacent layers have a definite velocity giving rise to gradient distribution.
Flow of air near the earth’s surface changes in speed and direction because of the
obstacles which introduce random vertical and horizontal components at right angles to
the main direction of flow. Turbulence thus generated generally influences the wind flow
not only in the immediate vicinity, but it may persist downward from projections as
much as a hundred their height. These gusts have a random distribution over a wide
range of frequencies and amplitudes, both in time and space. Shown in Fig. 2.2 is a
schematic representation of wind speed as measured by a typical anemometer, which
clearly shows the unsteady nature of wind.
The scale and intensity of turbulence can be linked to the size and rotating speed
of the eddies or vortices that make up the turbulence. It is generally found that the size of
the flow affects the size of the turbulence within it. Thus, the flow of a large mass of air
has a larger overall turbulence than a corresponding flow of air mass of air. Because of
the randomness of its variation, the properties of wind are studied statistically. A
statistical property is the mean or the average.
For structural engineering purposes, the characteristics of the natural wind
in the atmosphere near the earth’s surface can be considered as being made up of a mean
velocity whose value increases with height in some way and on which are superimposed
7
turbulent fluctuations as velocity components along the wind direction. Figure 2.3
schematically represents the fluctuation of mean and gust velocity along the height of the
building.
Rapid bursts in the velocity of wind are called gusts. Tall buildings are sensitive
to gusts that last about one second. Therefore, the fastest mile wind is inadequate for
design of tall buildings. One must use the gust speed rather than the mean wind speed
can be obtained by multiplying the mean wind speed by a gust factor Gv.
Thus
Vg = Gv V
Where
Gv =the gust factor
Vg =the gust speed
V=the mean wind speed
Not all buildings are equally sensitive to gusts. In general, the more flexible a
structure is the more sensitive it is to gusts. The only accurate way to determine the gust
factor is to conduct a wind tunnel test.
8
2.7 Vortex Shedding Phenomenon
The flow of wind can be considered to be two-dimensional, as shown in Fig. 3.4
9
vibration. This in turn induces a magnified dynamic load effect in the structure which
can be significant.
The separation of wind loading into mean and fluctuating components is the basis
of the so-called "gust- factor" approach, which is treated in many de-sign codes. The
mean load component is evaluated from the mean wind speed using pressure and load
coefficients. The fluctuating loads are determined separately by a method which makes
an allowance for the intensity of turbulence at the site, size reduction effects, and
dynamic amplification (Davenport, 1967).
The dynamic response of buildings in the along-wind direction can be predicted
with reasonable accuracy by the gust factor approach, provided the wind flow is not
significantly affected by the presence of neighboring tall buildings or surrounding
terrain.
10
frequency coincides with the natural frequency of the structure. This situation can
give rise to very large oscillations and possibly failure.
11
(b) The incident turbulence mechanism. The ‘incident turbulence’
mechanism refers to the situation where the turbulence properties of the natural
wind give rise to changing wind speeds and directions that directly induce
varying lift and drag forces and pitching moments on a structure over a wide
band of frequencies. The ability of incident turbulence to produce significant
contributions to crosswind response depends very much on the ability to generate
a crosswind (lift) force on the structure as a function of longitudinal wind speed
and angle of attack. In general, this means sections with a high lift curve slope or
pitching moment curve slope, such as a streamline bridge deck section or flat
deck roof, are possib le candidates for this effect.
12
Under the wind pressure, the building bend slightly and its top moves. It
first moves in the direction of wind, and then starts oscillating back and forth. Its
top goes through its neutral position, then moves in the opposite direction, and
continues oscillating back and forth until it eventually stops. The action of a wind
gust depends not only on how long it takes to reach its maximum value and
decrease again, but on the period of the building on which it acts. If the wind gust
reaches its maximum value and vanishes in a much shorter than the period of the
building, its affects are dynamic. The gusts can be considered as static loads if the
wind loads increases and vanishes in a time much longer than the period for the
building.
13
CHAPTER-3
3.1 Introduction
As building heights increase, the forces of nature begin to dominate the structural
system and take on importance in the overall building system. The analyses and design
of tall building are affected by lateral loads, particularly drift or sway caused by such
loads. Drift or sway is the magnitude of the lateral displacement at the top of the building
relative to its base.
14
Fig 3.1 Forced and deformations Fig 3.2 Forced and deformation
caused by external shear. caused by external moment.
15
Fig 3.3 Deflection of portal frame. a) Frame subjected to lateral loads b) typical
story segment
16
Fig 3.4 Lateral deflection of typical story due to bending of columns.
3.3.1 Story Drift due to Girder Flexure. Consider a story-height segment of a frame at
floor level ‘i’ consisting of a line of girders and half story-height columns above and
below each joint (Fig.-3.3). To isolate the effect of girder bending, assume the columns
are flexurally rigid.
17
The total moment = Vi hi /2 + V(i+1) h (i+1)/2 ………………. (3.1)
And the total rotational stiffness =
[
6E I g1 /L1 + (I g1 /L1 +Ig2 /L2 ) + (Ig2 /L2 +Ig3 /L3 ) + Ig3 /L3 ] ……… (3.2)
A similar expression may be obtained for the average joint rotation in the floor i-
1 below, but with subscripts (i+1) replaced by i, and I by (i-1).
Referring to Fig.-3.5, the drift in story i due to the joint rotations is
that is
Assuming that the girders in floors i-1 and i are the same, the story heights are the
Vi hi2
? i-g = ………………………………………. (3.6)
12E S (Ig /L)
18
3.3.2 Story Drift due to Column Flexure. Referring to Fig. – 3.4, in which the drift due
to bending of the columns is isolated by assuming the girders are rigid, the drift of the
structure in story I is
Vi hi3
? i-c = ……………………………………. (3.7)
12E S Ici
Vi hi2
? i-c= ………………………………. (3.8)
12E S (Ici /h)
19
3.4 Derivation of the Governing Differential Equations (Coupled- Shear Wall
Structure)
1. The properties of the walls and connecting beams do not change over the height,
and the storey heights are constant.
2. Plane sections before bending remain plain after bending for all structural
members.
3. The discreet set of connecting beams, each of flexural rigidity EIb , may be
replaced by an equivalent continuous connecting medium of flexural rigidity
20
EIb /h per unit height, where h is the story height (Fig.-3.6b). Strictly speaking, for
this analogy to be correct, the inertia of the top beam should be half of the other
beams.
4. The walls deflected equally horizontally, as a result of the high in-plane rigidity
of surrounding floor slabs and the axial stiffness of connecting beams. It follows
that the slopes of the wall are every where equal along the height, and thus, using
a straightforward application of the slope-deflection equations, it may be shown
that the connecting beams, and hence the equivalent connecting medium, deform
with a point of contra- flexure at mid span. It also follows from this assumption
that the curvatures of the walls are equal throughout the height, and so the
bending moment in each wall will be proportional to its flexural rigidity.
5. The discreet set of axial forces, shear forces, and bending moments in the
connecting beams may then be replaced by equivalent continuous distributions of
intensity n, q, and m, respectively, per unit height.
21
In particular, if the connecting medium is assumed cut along the vertical line of contra-
flexure, the only forces acting there are a shear flow of intensity q (z) per unit height and
an axial force of intensity n (z) per unit height, as in Fig- The axial force N in each wall
at any level z will then be equal to the integral of the shear flow in the connecting
medium above that level, that is,
H
N=? q dz
z
or, on differentiating
q= - dN/dz
Consider now the condition of vertical compatibility along the cut line of contra-
flexure of Fig.-3.7 Relative vertical displacement will occur at the cut ends of the
cantilevered laminas due to the following four basic actions. [In the derivation, positive
relative displacements are taken to mean that the end of the left-hand lamina (1) moves
downward relative to the end of the right hand lamina (2).]
1. Rotations of the wall cross-sections due to bending (Fig.-3.8a). Under the action
of a bending moment, the wall will deflect, and cross-sections will rotate as
shown if Fig.-3.8a Two forms of bending action occur; first, the free bending of
the wall due to the applied external moments and second, the reverse bending.
where dy/dz is the slope of the centroidal axes of the walls at level z due to the
combined bending actions.
2. Bending and shearing deformatio ns of the connecting beams under the action of
the shear flow (Fig.-3.8b). Consider a small element of the connecting medium of
depth dz, which may be assumed cantilevered from the inner edge of the wall.
22
Fig 3.8 Relative Displacement at Line of Contra- flexure.
The flexural rigidity of this small lamina is (EIb /h) dz, and the cantilever is subjected to a
tip shear force of q dz.
23
Due to bending only, the relative displacement d2 is given by
q dz qb3 h
d2 = -2 (b/2) = - ……………………….. (3.10)
3 (EI b/h)dz 12 EIb
And r=12EIb?/b 2 GA
In which GA is the shearing rigidity and ? is the cross-sectional shape factor for
shear equal to 1.2 in the case of rectangular sections. The correction is necessary only in
the case of connecting beams with a span-to-depth ratio less than about 5.
The evaluation of d2 has assumed that the connecting beam is rigidity connected
to the wall, and just ignores the effects of local elastic deformations at the beam wall
junction that will increase the flexibility of the lamina. Both elasticity and finite element
studies have shown that the additional flexibility that arises may be included by the
simple expedient of extending the beam length by a further quarter beam depth into the
wall at each end. The length b in Eq (3.8) should thus be taken as the true length b+1/2
beam depth.
qb3 h dN
?2= + ………………………………..……… (3.11)
12 EIb dz
24
3. Axial deformations of the walls under the actions of the axial forces N (Fig-3.8c).
The action of the shear forces in the connecting beams will be to induce tensile
forces in the windward wall 1 and compressive forces in the leeward wall2.
consequently, the relative displacement, d3 at level z will be
Assuming relative displacements (dv ) and rotations ( d? ) occur in the same senses as
the axial forces and moments, the relative vertical displacement d4 is
? 1 + d2 + d3 + d4 =0
25
Or, using the appropriate expressions for each.
qb3 h dN z
l dy/dz + - 1/E (1/A1 + 1/A2 ) ? N dz + db ………..(3.14)
12 EIb dz 0
The last term will be zero in the common case of a rigid base.
On considering both the free bending due to the externally applied moment M
and the reverse bending due to the shears and axial forces in the connecting medium
(Fig-3.7), the moment-curvature relationships for the two walls are, at any level.
where Ma is the moment caused by the axial forces in the connecting beams.
The addition of Eqs (3.15) and (3.16) yields the overall moment-curvature
relationship for the coupled walls,
z
Differentiating Eq (3.14) with respect to z and combining with Eq (3.17) to
eliminate the curvature d2 y/dz2 gives
26
This is the governing equation for coupled wall expressed in terms of the axial
force N.
and I = I1 + I2 , A= A1 + A2
/ / /
d4 y/dz4 – (ka)2 d2 y/dz2 = I EI (d2 M dz2 – (ka)2 (k2 -1) k2 M) ………………………(3.19)
This is the governing equation for coupled walls expressed in terms of the lateral
deflection y.
/ / /
y = C1 + C2 z +C3 cosh kaz +C4 sinh kaz – (1 EI (ka) 2 ) [1 D2 + 1 (ka)2 +
/ / / /
D2 (ka)4 + D4 (ka)6 + ….] [d2 M dz2 – (ka)2 (k2 -1) k2 M] ……..…………………(3.20)
3.4.1Boundary Conditions
By considering conditions of compatibility and equilibrium at the top and bottom
of the structure, appropriate boundary conditions may be derived for a range of base
conditions.
27
For example, for a structure that is free at the top and rigidly built in at the base,
the four boundary conditions for Eq (3.20) will be
At z = 0, y = 0 …………….. (3.21)
dy/dz = 0 ………….. (3.22)
At z = H, d2 y/dz2 = 0 ……………………………………………………(3.23)
H
0
From these boundary conditions the constants are
C2 = wh3 /6EI
C4 = wH/ EI k2 (ka)3
sinh ka (H-z)]}]
28
3.5 Derivation of the Governing Differential Equation (Wall-Frame
Structure)
The planer wall- frame in Fig-3.9a may be taken to represent either a structure
with walls and frames interacting in the same plane, or one with walls and frames in
parallel planes. Since, in a no-twisting structure, parallel walls and frames translate
identically, they may be simulated by a planar linked model.
29
30
Fig 3.9 (a) Planar wall-frame structure; (b) Continuous analogy for wall-frame structure; (c) Free body diagrams for wall and
frame.
In which the parameter (GA) represents the story height average shear rigidity of the
frame, as though it were a shear member with an effective shear area A and a shear
modulus G. note that G is not the shear modulus of the frame material nor is A the
area of its members.
Differentiating and summing Eqs (3.25) and (3.26) gives
/
y (z) = C1 + C2 z + C3 cosh az + C 4 sinh az – wz2 2EIa 2 ………………..(3.30)
And
31
3. zero resultant shear at the top of the structure
Equations (3.31), (3.32) and (3.33) are used to determine C1 to C4 to give the
deflection equation:
/
C1 = - w/EIa 4 [(aH sinh aH + 1) cosh aH]
C2 = wH/EIa 2
/
C3 = w/EIa 4 [(aH sinh aH + 1) cosh aH]
/
C4 = - awH EIa 4
/ / [ /
y (z) = wH4 EI {1 (aH )4 (aH sinh aH + 1) (cosh az - 1 ) cosh aH –
32
A typical system of plane coupled shear walls is shown in Fig-3.10. In the Fig
the total height of the structure is H, AB and CD is the wall-1 and wall-2 respectively,
BC is the connecting beam between two walls
33
The interfacing of the program to analysis the drift of the structure is shown in
Fig-3.11. This program is applicable for the model structure of coupled shear walls
shown in Fig-3.10. In the program it is assumed that, the beam dimension is constant
(2.5m) and also the level height is constant (3m). Others parameters are considered as
changeable. The result shows the drift of five storeys because in the program assumed
that the width of the wall is constant upto five storey. This program is applicable for any
height of coupled shear wall.
34
CHAPTER NO-4
DYNAMIC RESPONSE DUE TO WIND LOADING
4.1 Introduction
Dynamic motions refers to those caused by time dependent dynamic forces,
notably seismic accelerations, short period wind loads, blasts, and machinery vibrations,
the first two usually being of the greatest concern. If the building is exceptionally slender
or tall, or if it is located in extremely sever exposure conditions, the effective wind
loading on the building may be increased by dynamic interaction between the motion of
the building and the gusting of the wind.
If the structure is stiff, the first few natural frequencies will be relatively high, and
there will be little energy in the spectrum of atmospheric turbulence available to excite
resonance. The structure will thus tend to follow any fluctuating wind forces without
35
appreciable amplification or attenuation. The dynamic deflections will not be significant,
and the main design parameter to be considered is the maximum loading to which the
structure will be subjected during its lifetime. Such a structure is termed as ‘static’, and it
may be analyzed under the action of equivalent wind forces.
If the structure is flexible, the first few natural frequencies will be relatively low,
and the response will depend on the frequency of the fluctuating wind forces. At
frequencies below the first natural frequency, the structure will tend to follow closely the
fluctuating force actions. The dynamic response attenuates at frequencies above the
natural frequency, but will be amplified at frequencies at or near the natural frequency;
consequently the dynamic deflections may be appreciably greater than the static values.
The lateral deflection of the structure then an important design parameter, and the
structure is classified as ‘dynamic’. In such structure, the dynamic stresses must also be
determined by design process. Furthermore, the accelerations induced in dynamic
structures may be important with regard to the comfort of occupants of building and
must be considered.
When a structure is very flexible, its oscillations may interact with the
aerodynamic forces to produce various kinds of instability, such as vortex-capture
resonance, galloping oscillations, divergence, and flutter. In this exceptional case, the
potential for disaster is so great that the designed must be changed or the aerodynamic
effects modified to ensure that this form of unstable behavior cannot occur.
36
be determined. The properties of the mean wind can be conveniently expressed only in
statistical terms.
x (max) = x + gp s ………………(4.1)
where x(max), x, and s are the peak, mean, and standard deviations, respectively, of the
variable x concerned, referred to a record period of one hour, and gp is the ‘peak’ factor.
37
When considering the response of a tall building of wind actions, both along-
wind and cross-wind motions must be considered. These arise from different forcing
mechanism, the former being due primarily to buffeting effects caused by turbulence,
while the latter is due to primarily to alternate-side vortex shedding. The cross-wind
response may be of particular importance with regard to the comfort of the occupants.
The gust factor method is based on the assumption that the fundamental mode of
vibration of a structure has an approximately linear mode shape. In essence, the aim of
the method is to determine a gust factor G that relates the peak to mean response in terms
of an equivalent static design, or load effect Q, such that
For example, if the mean pressures acting on the face of a tall building are
summed to give the mean base overturning moment M, the design dynamic base
overturning moment M (max) will be obtained by multiplying M by gust factor G.
The gust factor can be regarded as a rela tion ship between the wind gusts and the
magnification due to the structural properties. As such, it will depend on properties on
38
the structure (height H, and breadth height ratio W/H), fundamental natural frequency
n0, and critical damping ratio ß, the mean design wind speed V, and the particular
location of the building (i.e., whether it is sited in the centre of the city, in suburbs or
wooded areas, or in flat open country).
The size reduction factor S depends on the aspect ratio W/H, the natural
frequency n0 , and the mean wind velocity at the top of the structure, Vw, as shown in
Fig…… The gust energy ratio F is the function of the inverse wavelength, n0 , / VH, as
shown in Fig….
If resonant effects are small, then R will be small compared to the background
turbulence B, and vise-versa.
The peak factor gp in Eq. (4.4) gives the no of standard deviations by which the
peak load effect is expected to exceed the mean load effect, and shown in Fig. as a
function of average fluctuation rate ? given by
?= n0 / (1+B/R) ½ ……………………(4.6)
39
In the above formulas, the variables VH, n0 , and ß must relate to the along-wind
direction.
Substitution of the known values of gp , r, B, and R into Eq. (4.4) then produces
the desired value of gust factor.
Once the gust factor G has been determined, the peak dynamic forces and
displacements may be determined by multiplying the values due to the mean wind
loading by G.
where, ? = the maximum wind- induced deflection at the top of the building in the along-
wind direction (m).
The natural frequency n0 and ß damping ratio must be again in the along-wind
direction. The other symbols have been defined previously in connection with Eq. (4.4).
40
The work of Saunders, Melbourne, and Kwok using the results of empirical wind
tunnel data, has led to an approximate analysis that can take into account the most
important variables concerned. The technique employed to calculate he response due to
wake excitation is to solve the equation of motion for a lightly damped structure in
modal from with the forcing function mode generalized in spectral format.
Although it is generally found that the maximum lateral wind loading and
deflection are in the along-wind direction, the maximum acceleration of the building,
which is particularly important for human comfort, mat often occur in the cross-wind
direction. Across –wind acceleration are likely to exceed along-wind accelerations if the
building is slender about both axis, such that the geometric ratio (WD) ½ / H is less than
one-third, where D is the along-wind plan dimension.
2
aW = n0 gp [WD ½ (ar / ?g ½ ) ……………….. (4.8)
Because of relative sensitivities of the expressions in Eq. (4.7) and (4.8) to the
natural frequenc ies, it is recommended that the latter be determined using fairly rigorous
analytical method s, and that approximate formulas be used with caution.
41
Roughness Factor, r
City Centre
Suburbs,
wooded area
Flat open
country
Height (m)
Fig 4.2 Variation of background turbulence factor with height and aspect ratio of
building
42
Size reduction factor S
Fig 4.3 Variation of size reduction factor with reduced frequency and
aspect ratio of building
43
Gust energy ratio F
44
CHAPTER-5
Drift,y = wH4 /EI [1/24 {(1- z/H)4 + 4z/H - 1} + 1/k2 {1/2(kaH)2 [2z/H –
(z/H)2 ]– 1/24 [(1- z/H)4 + 4z/H -1] – 1/ (kaH)4 cosh kaH [1 + kaH sinh kaH – cosh kaH
By using this equation and with the help of the software the drift of 10-storey, 15-storey
and 20-storey buildings analyzed in Table-5.1, Table-5.2 and Table-5.3 respectively. The
uniformly distributed load is considered as 1.5 ksf.
45
TABLE 5.2 For result of drift analysis on 15-storey building
46
TABLE 5.3 For result of drift analysis on 20-storey building
47
The variation of drift of different buildings is shown in Fig-5.1. In this graph X-
axis represents the storey level and Y-axis represents the drift in ft. The drift at different
storey level of 10-storey, 15-storey and 20-storey is plotted and from these three curves,
the drift is increased with increase in the height of the structure. Again the drift at the
same level increases with increase in the total he ight of the structure. The drift of 8th
(say) level is 0.0168 ft, 0.0325 ft and 0.0499 ft on the structure height of 10-storey, 15-
storey and 20-storey respectively.
0.12
0.1
0.08
Drift (ft)
20-storey
0.06 15-storey
10-storey
0.04
0.02
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Storey Level
48
The drift of different width of the building is analyzed in Table-5.4. Here the drift
of a 20-storey building at different width of 30ft, 35ft, 40ft, 45ft and 50ft is analyzed.
The uniformly distributed load and width of wall is considered as 1.5ksf and 1ft
respectively.
Storey Length of Wall Length of Wall Length of Wall Length of Wall Length of Wall
Level (w1=12,w2=18) (w1=14,w2=21) (w1=16,w2=23) (w1=18,w2=27) (w1=20,w2=30)
1 .015 .00893 .006322 .0037 .0025
2 .0297 .0178 .01269 .0075 .0052
3 .044 .02664 .0191 .011 .00793
4 .0582 .03534 .0254 .0154 .0108
5 .072 .044 .0317 .0194 .014
6 .085 .0522 .0379 0234 .0166
7 .098 .0604 .044 .0274 .01962
8 .11 .068 .0499 .0313 .0226
9 .1215 .076 .0557 .0352 .026
10 .1325 .0831 .0612 .039 .0285
11 .1430 .0900 .0666 .0427 .0313
12 .1530 .0970 .0720 .0462 .0340
13 .1620 .1030 .0765 .0497 .0370
14 .1700 .1086 .0810 .0530 .0395
15 .1780 .1140 .0854 .0560 .0420
16 .1840 .1190 .0894 .0590 .0444
17 .1910 .1230 .0930 .0620 .0470
18 .1960 .1270 .0960 .0650 .0490
19 .2010 .1300 .0995 .0670 .0510
20 .2004 .1343 .1022 .0693 .0530
49
The variation of drift with respect to different building widths is shown in Fig-
5.2. This Fig indicates when the building width is decreased gradually the drift is
increased dramatically.
0.25
0.2
0.15 w1=12,w2=18
Drift (ft)
w1=14,w2=21
w1=16,w2=23
w1=18,w2=27
w1=20,w2=30
0.1
0.05
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Storey Level
50
5.2 PROBLEMS ON DYNAMIC ACTION
To illustrate the calculations involved in the estimation of the peak wind load effects,
Considered of tall building in the centre of the city.
Height H= 70m
Breadth B= Depth D=15m
Estimated fundamental natural frequency ?0 = .2 Hz
Estimated critical damping ratio, ß = .015
Mean wind speed at top of the building, VH =30m/s
Estimated maximum deflection at top of the building, ? = 0.36m
Estimated average building density, =175 kg/m3
1) GUST FACTOR:
2. Along-wind Acceleration
aD= 4? 2 n0 2 gp r R1/2 (?/G)
= 4? 2 *0.22 *3.75 * 0.445*4.07½ (.36/4.74)
=0.4038 m/sec2 (4.12% of g)
51
3. Cross-wind Acceleration
ar =78.5*10-3 [VH/ (n0 W) ]3..3
= 78.5*10-3 [30/(0.2 * 15)]3..3
=156.63 Pa
aW = n0 2 gp [WD]½ (ar / ?g ß½ )
= 0.22 *3.75 * [15*15]½ *(156.63 / 175*9.81* 0.015½ )
=1.676 m/sec2 (17.10% of g)
The along-wind and cross –wind acceleration has found in Table-5.5, Table-5.6,
and Table-5.7. The along-wind acceleration and cross-wind acceleration of one sample
of 70m storey has calculated above and other building of 80m, 90m and 100m in height
is calculated in same procedure and recorded in Table-5.5. In Table-5.6 and Table-5.7
the along-wind acceleration and cross-wind acceleration of a typical building in 90m
height has found with change in the width of along-wind direction and cross-wind
direction respectively.
TABLE 5.6 Results for the cross –wind acceleration with increase at width of the
along-wind direction.
52
TABLE 5.7 Results for the cross –wind acceleration with increase at width of the
cross-wind direction.
The variation of cross-wind acceleration with respect to the width of along –wind
direction is shown in Fig-5.3. This graph indicates that the cross-wind acceleration is
increased with the increase in the width of the along-wind direction. Because the cross-
wind acceleration depends on the ar and both the width of along-wind and cross-wind
direction. Though the width of cross-wind direction is remain constant the cross-wind
acceleration increases with the increase in the width of the along-wind direction.
2.5
2
Cross-wind Acceleration (m/s2)
1.5
0.5
0
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Width (m)
53
The variation of cross-wind acceleration with respect to the width of the cross-
wind direction is shown in Fig-5.4. This graph indicates that the cross-wind acceleration
is decreased with the increase in the width of the cross-wind direction. Because when the
width of the cross-wind direction increases ar is decreased abruptly, so the cross-wind
acceleration is decreased with increase in the width of the cross-wind direction.
3.5
3
Cross-wind Acceleration (m/s2)
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Width (m)
54
CHAPTER- 6
CONCLUSION
6.1 CONCLUSION
A theoretical investigation has been made to study the drift, along-wind and
cross-wind behavior of tall building due to wind loads. The following conclusions can be
drawn from this theoretical study:
1. The drift of the structure increases with increase in the height of the structure.
The drift of 10-storey, 15-storey and 20-storey is increased due to increase in the
height of the structure.
2. The drift at the same level increases with increase in the total height of the
structure.
3. The drift of the structure decreases with the increase in the width of the structure.
4. The cross-wind acceleration increases with increase in the total height of the
structure.
5. The cross-wind acceleration increases with the increase in the width of the
structure at the along-wind direction.
6. The cross-wind acceleration decreases with the increase in the width of the
structure at the cross-wind direction.
6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
In this theoretical study only wind loads is considered. The following should be
kept in mind for fur ther study:
1. The drift and dynamic response due to seismic load should be considered.
2. The differential equation is only formed for coupled shear wall and wall- frame
structure, this equation should be formed for all type of structural system.
3. The program is only applicable for coupled shear wall; it should be modified for
all type of tall structure.
55
References
1. Stafford Smith Bryan & Alex Coul, “Tall Building Structure: Analysis and
Design”. John Wiley & Sons, INC.
2. Taranath B.S. (1988), “Structural Analysis and Design of Tall Buildings ”.
McGraw-Hill Book Company.
56