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IEC Standard
CORTO CIRCUITO
Caractersticas principales:
automtica
de
Slide 2
Purpose of Short-Circuit
Studies
A Short-Circuit Study can be used to determine
any or all of the following:
Verify protective device close and latch capability
Verify protective device interrupting capability
Protect equipment from large mechanical forces
(maximum fault kA)
I2t protection for equipment (thermal stress)
Selecting ratings or settings for relay coordination
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 3
Slide 4
Fault Current
IL-G can range in utility systems from a few percent to
possibly 115 % ( if Xo < X1 ) of I3-phase (85% of all faults).
In industrial systems the situation IL-G > I3-phase is rare.
Typically IL-G .87 * I3-phase
In an industrial system, the three-phase fault condition
is frequently the only one considered, since this type of
fault generally results in Maximum current.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 5
Short-Circuit Phenomenon
v(t)
i(t)
v(t) Vm Sin( t )
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 6
v(t)
i(t)
di
v(t) Ri L Vm Sin(t ) (1)
dt
Solving equation 1 yields the following expression
R
- t
Vm
Vm
i(t)
sin(t - )
sin( - ) e L
Z
Z
Steady State
Transient
(DC Offset)
Slide 7
DC Current
Slide 8
Slide 9
Machine Reactance ( = L I )
AC Decay Current
Slide 10
Slide 11
IEC Short-Circuit
Calculation (IEC 909)
Initial Symmetrical Short-Circuit Current (I"k)
Peak Short-Circuit Current (ip)
Symmetrical Short-Circuit Breaking Current
(Ib)
Steady-State Short-Circuit Current (Ik)
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 12
IEC Short-Circuit
Calculation Method
Ik = Equivalent V @ fault location divided by
equivalent Z
Equivalent V is based bus nominal kV and c
factor
XFMR and machine Z adjusted based on
cmax, component Z & operating conditions
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 13
Transformer Z Adjustment
KT -- Network XFMR
KS,KSO Unit XFMR for faults on system side
KT,S,KT,SO Unit XFMR for faults in auxiliary
system, not between Gen & XFMR
K=1 Unit XFMR for faults between Gen &
XFMR
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 14
Slide 15
Types of Short-Circuits
Near-To-Generator Short-Circuit
This is a short-circuit condition to which at least
one synchronous machine contributes a
prospective initial short-circuit current which is
more than twice the generators rated current, or
a short-circuit condition to which synchronous
and asynchronous motors contribute more than
5% of the initial symmetrical short-circuit current
( I"k) without motors.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 16
Near-To-Generator Short-Circuit
Slide 17
Types of Short-Circuits
Far-From-Generator Short-Circuit
This is a short-circuit condition during which the
magnitude of the symmetrical ac component of
available short-circuit current remains essentially
constant.
Slide 18
Far-From-Generator Short-Circuit
Slide 19
Slide 20
Slide 21
Types of Short-Circuits
When these options
are selected
Maximum voltage factor is used
Minimum impedance is used (all negative
tolerances are applied and minimum
resistance temperature is considered)
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 22
Types of Short-Circuits
When this option is
selected
Minimum voltage factor is used
Maximum impedance is used (all positive
tolerances are applied and maximum
resistance temperature is considered)
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 23
Slide 24
Calculation Method
Breaking kA is more
conservative if the option
No Motor Decay is
selected
Slide 25
Slide 26
Slide 27
Slide 28
L-G Faults
Slide 29
L-G Faults
Symmetrical Components
Slide 30
Sequence Networks
Slide 31
Slide 32
I a 2 I a1
3 VPr efault
If
Z1 Z 2
Slide 33
Z1
Z0 Z 2
if Zg 0
Slide 34
Slide 35
Slide 36
Slide 37
Slide 38
Slide 39
Slide 40
Slide 41
Slide 42
Slide 43
Slide 44
Slide 45
Slide 46
Slide 47
TEMA 2
Slide 48
ms
de
Actualizacin
automtica
Corriente de Corto Circuito.
75,000
de
Coordinacin tiempo-corriente de
dispositivos.
Auto-coordinacin de dispositivos.
Integrados
unifilares.
los
diagramas
Slide 50
Slide 51
Agenda
Concepts & Applications
Star Overview
Features & Capabilities
Protective Device Type
TCC Curves
STAR Short-circuit
PD Sequence of Operation
Normalized TCC curves
Device Libraries
Slide 52
Definition
Overcurrent Coordination
A systematic study of current responsive devices
in an electrical power system.
Slide 53
Objective
To determine the ratings and settings of
fuses, breakers, relay, etc.
To isolate the fault or overloads.
Slide 54
Criteria
Economics
Available Measures of Fault
Operating Practices
Previous Experience
Slide 55
Design
Open only PD nearest (upstream) of the fault
or overload
Provide satisfactory protection for overloads
Interrupt SC as rapidly (instantaneously) as
possible
Comply with all applicable standards and
codes
Plot the Time Current Characteristics of
different PDs
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 56
Analysis
When:
New electrical systems
Plant electrical system expansion/retrofits
Coordination failure in an existing plant
Slide 57
Spectrum Of Currents
Load Current
Up to 100% of full-load
115-125% (mild overload)
Overcurrent
Abnormal loading condition (Locked-Rotor)
Fault Current
Fault condition
Ten times the full-load current and higher
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 58
Protection
Prevent injury to personnel
Minimize damage to components
Quickly isolate the affected portion of the system
Minimize the magnitude of available short-circuit
Slide 59
Coordination
Limit the extent and duration of service
interruption
Selective fault isolation
Provide alternate circuits
Slide 60
Coordination
C
t
D B
A
A
C
I
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 61
Slide 62
Required Data
Generator Data
Transformer Data
Transformer kVA, impedance, and connection
Motor Data
Load Data
Fault Currents
Slide 63
Study Procedure
Prepare an accurate one-line diagram (relay
diagrams)
Obtain the available system current spectrum
(operating load, overloads, fault kA)
Determine the equipment protection guidelines
Select the appropriate devices / settings
Plot the fixed points (damage curves, )
Obtain / plot the device characteristics curves
Analyze the results
Slide 64
Slide 65
Slide 66
Question
What are the scaling factors to plot the 0.48 kV
and 13.8 kV TCC curves?
Slide 67
Slide 68
Fixed Points
Points or curves which do not change regardless
of protective device settings:
Cable damage curves
Cable ampacities
Transformer damage curves & inrush points
Motor starting curves
Generator damage curve / Decrement curve
SC maximum fault points
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 69
I2t
I2t
I 2t
2
Motor
Gen
Xfmr
Cable
Slide 70
Cable Protection
Standards & References
IEEE Std 835-1994 IEEE Standard Power Cable
Ampacity Tables
IEEE Std 848-1996 IEEE Standard Procedure for the
Determination of the Ampacity Derating of Fire-Protected
Cables
IEEE Std 738-1993 IEEE Standard for Calculating the
Current- Temperature Relationship of Bare Overhead
Conductors
The Okonite Company Engineering Data for Copper and
Aluminum Conductor Electrical Cables, Bulletin EHB-98
Slide 71
Cable Protection
The actual temperature rise of a cable when exposed to
a short circuit current for a known time is calculated by:
2 t
A
T2 234
0.0297log
T1 234
Where:
A= Conductor area in circular-mils
I = Short circuit current in amps
t = Time of short circuit in seconds
T1= Initial operation temperature (750C)
T2=Maximum short circuit temperature
(1500C)
Slide 72
Slide 73
Shielded
Cable
The normal tape
width is 1
inches
Slide 74
(1) Termination provisions of equipment for circuits rated 100 amperes or less,
or marked for Nos. 14 through 1 conductors, shall be used only for conductors
rated 600C (1400F).
(2) Termination provisions of equipment for circuits rated over 100 amperes, or
marked for conductors larger than No. 1, shall be used only with conductors
rated 750C (1670F).
Slide 75
Transformer Protection
Slide 76
Transformer Category
ANSI/IEEE C-57.109
Slide 77
Transformer Categories I, II
Slide 78
Slide 79
Transformer
FLA
200
t
(sec)
Thermal
I2t = 1250
Infrequent Fault
(D-R LG) 0.58
Frequent Fault
Mechanical
K=(1/Z)2t
Inrush
2.5
Isc
25
I (pu)
Slide 80
Slide 81
Transformer Protection
Slide 82
Transformer Protection
Oil Level
Fans
Oil Pumps
Fault withstand
Harmonics
Devices 26 & 49
Differential Device 87
Slide 83
Recommended Minimum
Transformer Protection
Protective system
Above 10 MVA
Up to 10 MVA
Above
10 MVA
Instantaneous restricted
ground fault
Differential
Gas detection
Over excitation
Overheating
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 84
Question
What is ANSI Shift Curve?
Slide 85
Answer
For delta-delta connected transformers, with
line-to-line faults on the secondary side, the
curve must be reduced to 87% (shift to the
left by a factor of 0.87)
For delta-wye connection, with single line-toground faults on the secondary side, the
curve values must be reduced to 58% (shift
to the left by a factor of 0.58)
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 86
Question
What is meant by Frequent and
Infrequent for transformers?
Slide 87
Frequent-Fault
Incidence Zone*
Slide 88
Motor Protection
Slide 89
Motor Protection
Motor Starting Curve
Thermal Protection
Locked Rotor Protection
Fault Protection
Slide 90
Slide 91
XS X d "
LOCKED
ROTOR
RELAY PICK UP
I
I
PICK UP
1.6 TO 2
LOCKED ROTOR
RELAY PICK UP
I
I
PICK UP
1.2 TO 1.2
LOCKED ROTOR
Slide 92
Slide 93
Fault Protection
(NEC Art / Table 430-52)
Non-Time Delay Fuses
300% of FLA
Slide 94
Slide 95
Low-voltage Motor
Ratings
Continuous amperes
Range of ratings
9-250
240-600
Horsepower
1.5-1000
00-9
Types of protection
Quantity
NEMA
designation
Overload: overload
relay elements
OL
Short circuit:
circuit breaker current
trip elements
CB
Fuses
FU
Undervoltage: inherent
with integral control
supply and three-wire
control circuit
Slide 96
Slide 97
Service factor
Maximum locked rotor time (thermal limit curve) with the motor at ambient and/or
operating temperature
Slide 98
Class El
Class E2 (with
(without
fuses)
fuses)
2300-6900
0-8000
25-75
Quantity
2300-6900
0-8000
160-570
NEMA
Designation
Phase Balance
3
3
3
OL OC TR/O
OL
TOC relay
OC
TR/OC
Short Circuit:
Fuses, Class E2
IOC relay, Class E1
FU
OC
Ground Fault
TOC residual relay
Overcurrent relay with toroidal
CT
1
1
GP
GP
BC
Negative-sequence voltage 1
relay (per bus), or both
Undervoltage:
Inherent with integral
control supply and threewire control circuit, when
voltage falls sufficiently to
permit the contractor to
open and break the seal-in
circuit
Temperature:
Temperature relay,
operating from resistance
sensor or thermocouple in
stator winding
UV
OL
Slide 100
Slide 101
Slide 102
Slide 103
(49)
I2T
O/L
tLR
MCP
(51)
ts
200 HP
Starting Curve
MCP (50)
LRAs
LRAasym
Slide 104
Protective Devices
Fuse
Overload Heater
Thermal Magnetic
Low Voltage Solid State Trip
Electro-Mechanical
Motor Circuit Protector (MCP)
Relay (50/51 P, N, G, SG, 51V, 67, 49, 46, 79, 21, )
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 105
Slide 106
Fuse Types
Expulsion Fuse (Non-CLF)
Current Limiting Fuse (CLF)
Electronic Fuse (S&C Fault Fiter)
Slide 107
Total Clearing
Time Curve
Minimum Melting
Time Curve
Slide 108
Slide 109
ta = t c tm
Ip
ta = Arcing Time
tm = Melting Time
ta
tm
Time (cycles)
tc
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
tc = Clearing Time
Ip = Peak Current
Ip = Peak Let-thru Current
Slide 110
1996-2009
Operation
Inc.
Workshop
Notes: Protective
Device Coordination
1996-2009 Operation
Technology,
Inc.Technology,
Workshop
Notes:
Short-Circuit
IEC
Slide 111
Let-Through Chart
7% PF (X/R = 14.3)
230,000
300 A
100 A
12,500
60 A
5,200
100,000
Slide 112
Fuse
Generally:
CLF is a better short-circuit protection
Non-CLF (expulsion fuse) is a better
Overload protection
Electronic fuses are typically easier to
coordinate due to the electronic control
adjustments
Slide 113
Selectivity Criteria
Typically:
Non-CLF:
CLF:
Slide 114
Molded Case CB
Thermal-Magnetic
Magnetic Only
Types
Poles
Current Limiting
High Interrupting Capacity
Frame Size
Trip Rating
Interrupting Capability
Voltage
Non-Interchangeable Parts
Insulated Case (Interchange
Parts)
Slide 115
MCCB
Slide 116
Slide 117
Thermal Maximum
Thermal Minimum
Magnetic
(instantaneous)
Slide 118
LVPCB
Voltage and Frequency Ratings
Continuous Current / Frame Size / Sensor
Interrupting Rating
Short-Time Rating (30 cycle)
Fairly Simple to Coordinate
Phase / Ground Settings
Inst. Override
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 119
LT PU
CB 2
CB 1
LT Band
CB 2
ST PU
480
kV
CB 1
IT
ST Band
If =30 kA
Slide 120
Inst. Override
Slide 121
Slide 122
Slide 123
Question
What is Class 10 and Class 20 Thermal
OLR curves?
Slide 124
Answer
At 600% Current Rating:
Class 10 for fast trip, 10
seconds or less
Class 20 for, 20 seconds or
less (commonly used)
20
Slide 125
Answer
Slide 126
Slide 127
Overcurrent Relay
Time-Delay (51 I>)
Short-Time Instantaneous ( I>>)
Instantaneous (50 I>>>)
Electromagnetic (induction Disc)
Solid State (Multi Function / Multi Level)
Application
Slide 128
1996-2009
Operation
Inc.
Workshop
Notes: Protective
Device Coordination
1996-2009 Operation
Technology,
Inc.Technology,
Workshop
Notes:
Short-Circuit
IEC
Slide 129
Time-Overcurrent Unit
Ampere Tap Calculation
Ampere Pickup (P.U.) = CT Ratio x A.T. Setting
Relay Current (IR) = Actual Line Current (IL) / CT
Ratio
Multiples of A.T.
CT
IL
= IR/A.T. Setting
= IL/(CT Ratio x A.T. Setting)
IR
51
Slide 130
Instantaneous Unit
Instantaneous Calculation
Ampere Pickup (P.U.) = CT Ratio x IT Setting
Relay Current (IR) = Actual Line Current (IL) / CT
Ratio
Multiples of IT
CT
IL
= IR/IT Setting
= IL/(CT Ratio x IT Setting)
IR
50
Slide 131
Relay Coordination
Time margins should be maintained between T/C
curves
Adjustment should be made for CB opening time
Shorter time intervals may be used for solid state
relays
Upstream relay should have the same inverse T/C
characteristic as the downstream relay (CO-8 to
CO-8) or be less inverse (CO-8 upstream to CO-6
downstream)
Extremely inverse relays coordinates very well with
CLFs
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 132
Situation
4.16 kV
CT 800:5
50/51
Relay: IFC 53
CB
Cable
CU - EPR
Isc = 30,000 A
DS
5 MVA
6%
Slide 133
Solution
Transformer:
5,000kVA
694 A
3 4.16kV
5
IR IL
4.338 A
800
IL
IL
IR
R
CT
(6/4.338 1.38)
5
52.1A 55 A
800
Slide 134
Question
What T/C Coordination interval should be
maintained between relays?
Slide 135
Answer
B
t
CB Opening Time
+
Induction Disc Overtravel (0.1 sec)
+
Safety margin (0.2 sec w/o Inst. & 0.1 sec w/ Inst.)
I
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 136
Recloser
Recloser protects electrical transmission systems from temporary
voltage surges and other unfavorable conditions.
Reclosers can automatically "reclose" the circuit and restore normal
power transmission once the problem is cleared.
Reclosers are usually designed with failsafe mechanisms that prevent
them from reclosing if the same fault occurs several times in
succession over a short period. This insures that repetitive line faults
don't cause power to switch on and off repeatedly, since this could
cause damage or accelerated wear to electrical equipment.
It also insures that temporary faults such as lightning strikes or
transmission switching don't cause lengthy interruptions in service.
Slide 137
Recloser Types
Hydraulic
Electronic
Static Controller
Microprocessor Controller
Slide 138
Recloser Curves
Slide 139
TEMA 3
Slide 140
Transient Stability
Topics
What is Transient Stability (TS)
What Causes System Unstable
Effects When System Is Instable
Transient Stability Definition
Modeling and Data Preparation
ETAP TS Study Outputs
Power System TS Studies
Solutions to Stability Problems
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 142
It is a Electromechanical Phenomenon
Time frame in milliseconds
Slide 143
T = mechanical torque
P = number of poles
= rotor angle
Slide 144
= inertia constant
= damping constant
Pmech
Pelec
Slide 145
Slide 146
Slide 147
Slide 148
At = -180
(Out-of-Step,
Slip the Pole)
Slide 149
Slide 150
is limited to 180
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 151
Slide 152
Machine
Exciter and AVR
Prime Mover and Governor / Load Torque
Power System Stabilizer (PSS) (Generator)
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 153
Slide 154
Slide 155
Slide 156
Slide 157
Slide 158
Slide 159
Slide 160
Action
Bus
3-P Fault
L-G Fault
Branch
Fraction
Fault
Clear
Fault
PD
Trip
Close
Generator
Droop /
Isoch
Start
Loss Exc.
Grid
P Change
V Change
Delete
Motor
Accelerate
Load
Change
Delete
Clear Fault
P Change
V Change
Delete
Delete
MOV
Start
Wind Turbine
Disturbance
Gust
MG Set
Emergency
Main
Ramp
Slide 161
Bus Transfer
Fast load transferring
Load Shedding
Under-frequency
Under-voltage
Slide 162
1 cycle
1 cycle
unstable
unstable
unstable
stable
CFC
T
Cycle
Separation Separation
1 cycle
1 cycle
unstable
unstable
unstable
stable
CSS
T
Separation Separation
Cycle
Slide 163
Slide 164
Ttransfer 10 cycles
90 degrees
ER 1.33 per unit (133%)
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 165
Slide 166
Slide 167
Slide 168
Slide 169
TEMA 4
Slide 171
Harmonic Analysis
ARMONICAS
Caractersticas principales:
Exploracin de frecuencia.
Flujo Armnico de Carga.
Dimensionamiento y Diseo de
Filtros.
Evaluacin Automtica del lmite
de distorsin.
Factores de la influencia del
telfono (TIF & I*T)
Slide 173
Slide 174
Slide 175
Waveform Distortion
Primary Types of Waveform Distortion
DC Offset
Harmonics
Interharmonics
Notching
Noise
Slide 176
Harmonics
One special category of power quality
problems
Harmonics are voltages and/or currents
present in an electrical system at some
multiple of the fundamental frequency.
(IEEE Std 399, Brown Book)
Slide 177
Nonlinear Loads
Sinusoidal voltage
applied to a simple
nonlinear resistor
Increasing the
voltage by a few
percent may cause
current to double
Slide 178
Fourier Representation
Any periodic waveform
can be expressed as a
sum of sinusoids
The sum of the
sinusoids is referred to
as Fourier Series (6pulse)
I ac
2 3
1
1
1
1
I d (cost cos 3t cos 7t cos11t cos13t
5
7
11
13
I h cos(ht h )
h 1
Slide 179
Harmonic Sources
Utilities (Power Grid)
Known as Background Harmonic
Pollution from other irresponsible customers
SVC, HVDC, FACTS,
Usually a voltage source
Synchronous Generators
Due to Pitch (can be eliminated by fractionalpitch winding) and Saturation
Usually a voltage source
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 180
Slide 181
Slide 182
Harmonic I and V
Slide 183
Classification of Harmonics
Harmonics may be classified as:
Characteristic Harmonics
Generally produced by power converters
Non-Characteristic Harmonics
Typically produced by arc furnaces and discharge
lighting (from non-periodical waveforms)
Slide 184
Slide 185
Slide 186
Seventh Order
Slide 187
Slide 188
Characteristic Harmonics
Slide 189
Characteristic Harmonics
(contd)
Slide 190
Harmonic Spectrum
%
Slide 191
Harmonic-Related Problems
Motors and Generators
Increased heating due to iron and copper losses
Reduced efficiency and torque
Higher audible noise
Cogging or crawling
Mechanical oscillations
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 192
Harmonic-Related Problems
(contd)
Transformers
Parasitic heating
Increased copper, stray flux and iron losses
Slide 193
Harmonic-Related Problems
(contd)
Power Cables
Involved in system resonance
Voltage stress and corona leading to dielectric
failure
Heating and derating
Fuses
Blowing
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 194
Harmonic-Related Problems
(contd)
Switchgears
Increased heating and losses
Reduced steady-state current carrying capability
Shortened insulation components life
Relays
Possibility of misoperation
Metering
Affected readings
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 195
Harmonic-Related Problems
(contd)
Communication Systems
Interference by higher frequency
electromagnetic field
System
Resonance (serial and parallel)
Poor power factor
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 196
Parallel Resonance
Total impedance at resonance frequency
increases
High circulating current will flow in the
capacitance-inductance loop
Slide 197
Parallel Resonance
Slide 198
Capacitor Banks
Slide 199
Capacitor Banks
Slide 200
Capacitor Banks
Slide 201
Capacitor Banks
Slide 202
Slide 203
Harmonic Distortion
Measurements
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
Also known as Harmonic Distortion Factor (HDF),
is the most popular index to measure the level of
harmonic distortion to voltage and current
Ratio of the RMS of all harmonics to the
fundamental component
For an ideal system THD = 0%
Potential heating value of the harmonics relative
to the fundamental
Slide 204
Harmonic Distortion
Measurements (contd)
Good indicator of additional losses due to
current flowing through a conductor
Not a good indicator of voltage stress in a
capacitor (related to peak value of voltage
waveform, not its heating value)
THD
2
F
i
2
F1
Slide 205
Harmonic Distortion
Example
Find THD for this waveform
Slide 206
Harmonic Example
Find THD for this Harmonic Spectrum
Slide 207
Slide 208
Slide 209
Harmonic Distortion
Measurements (contd)
2
RMS
Slide 210
Harmonic Distortion
Measurements (contd)
Arithmetic Summation (ASUM)
Arithmetic summation of magnitudes of all
components (fundamental and all harmonics)
Directly adds magnitudes of all components to
estimate crest value of voltage and current
Evaluation of the maximum withstanding ratings
of a device
ASUM Fi
1
Slide 211
Harmonic Distortion
Measurements (contd)
Telephone Influence Factor (TIF)
Weighted THD
Weights based on interference to an audio
signal in the same frequency range
Current TIF shows impact on adjacent
communication systems
W F
i
TIF
Slide 212
Harmonic Distortion
Measurements (contd)
I*T Product (I*T)
A product current components (fundamental
2
(
I
T
)
h h
h 1
Slide 213
Triplen Harmonics
Odd multiples of the
third harmonic
(h = 3, 9, 15, 21, )
Important issue for
grounded-wye systems
with neutral current
Overloading and TIF problems
Misoperation of devices due to presence of
harmonics on the neutral
Slide 214
Triplen Harmonics
Slide 215
Winding Connections
Slide 216
Implications
Neutral connections are susceptible to overheating
when serving single-phase loads on the Y side that
have high 3rd Harmonic
Measuring current on delta side will not show the
triplens and therefore do not give a true idea of the
heating the transformer is subjected to
The flow of triplens can be interrupted by appropriate
isolation transformer connection
Removing the neutral connection in one or both Y
windings blocks the flow of Triplen harmonic current
Three legged core transformers behave as if they have
a phantom delta tertiary winding
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 217
Modeling in Harmonic
Analysis
Motors and Machines
Represented by their equivalent negative
sequence reactance
Slide 218
Modeling in Harmonic
Analysis (contd)
Transformers
Leakage impedance
Magnetizing impedance
Loads
Static loads reduce peak resonant impedance
Motor loads shift resonant frequency due to
motor inductance
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 219
Reducing System
Harmonics
Add Passive Filters
Shunt or Single Tuned Filters
Broadband Filters or Band Pass Filters
Provide low impedance path for harmonic
current
Least expensive
Slide 220
Reducing System
Harmonics (contd)
Increase Pulse Numbers
Increasing pulse number of convert circuits
Limited by practical control problems
Slide 221
Reducing System
Harmonics (contd)
Apply Transformer Phase Shifting
Using Phase Shifting Transformers
Achieve higher pulse operation of the total
converter installation
In ETAP
Phase shift is specified in the tab page of the
transformer editor
Slide 222
Reducing System
Harmonics (contd)
Either standard phase shift or special phase
shift can be used
Slide 223
Reducing System
Harmonics (contd)
Add Active Filters
Instantly adapts to changing source and load
conditions
Costly
MVA Limitation
Slide 224
(%)
THD (%)
69 kV and below
3.0
5.0
1.5
2.5
1.0
1.5
PCC
In ETAP:
Specify Harmonic Distortion Limits in Harmonic
Page of Bus Editor:
Slide 225
Slide 226
TEMA 5
Slide 227
Motor Starting
Dynamic Acceleration
ARRANQUE DE MOTORES
Caractersticas principales:
Aceleracin
motores.
dinmica
de
Slide 229
Slide 230
Why to Do MS Studies?
Ensure that motor will start with voltage drop
If Tst<Tload at s=1, then motor will not start
If Tm=Tload at s<sr, motor can not reach rated speed
Torque varies as (voltage)^2
Slide 231
Why to Do MS Studies?
Ensure motor feeders sized adequately
(Assuming 100% voltage at Switchboard or MCC)
LV cable voltage drop at starting < 20%
Slide 232
Motor Sizing
Positive Displacement Pumps / Rotary Pumps
p = Pressure in psi
n = efficiency
Centrifugal Pumps
Slide 233
Motor Types
Synchronous
Salient Pole
Round Rotor
Induction
Wound Rotor (slip-ring)
Single Cage CKT Model
Slide 234
Wound Rotor
Higher starting torque
Lower starting current
Speed varied by using external resistances
Slide 235
Slide 236
Wound Rotor
Slide 237
Operation of Induction
Motor
AC applied to stator winding
Creates a rotating stator magnetic field in air gap
Field induces currents (voltages) in rotor
Rotor currents create rotor magnetic field in air gap
Torque is produced by interaction of air gap fields
Slide 238
Slip Frequency
Slip represents the inability of the rotor to
keep up with the stator magnetic field
Slip frequency
S = (s-n)/s
where s = 120f/P
n = mech speed
Slide 239
Slide 240
Slide 241
Service Factor
Slide 242
Inrush Current
Slide 243
Resistance / Reactance
Torque Slip Curve is changed by altering
resistance / reactance of rotor bars.
Resistance by cross sectional area or
using higher resistivity material like brass.
Reactance by placing conductor deeper in
the rotor cylinder or by closing the slot at the
air gap.
Slide 244
Slide 245
Slide 246
Slide 247
Slide 248
Slide 249
Slide 250
Slide 251
Slide 252
Slide 253
Slide 254
Slide 255
Motor Efficiency
kW Saved = HP * 0.746 (1/Old 1/New)
$ Savings = kW Saved * Hrs /Year * $/kWh
Slide 256
Acceleration Torque
Greater
Acceleration
Torque means
higher inertia
that can be
handled by the
motor without
approaching
thermal limits
Slide 257
Acceleration Torque
Slide 258
Operating Range
Motor, Generator, or Brake
Slide 259
Rated Conditions
Terminal Current
Load(kva)
Constant Power
kvar
0.8
Terminal Voltage
1.0
Ir
L1
1.0
Slide 260
Starting Conditions
Constant Impedance
Starting Conditions
Constant Impedance
It
Kva
LR
I LR
.8 kva
.9 I LR
LR
0.9
Terminal Voltage
1.0
Vt
(pu)
1.0
Vt
(pu)
____
KVR
KVB
Slide 261
Voltage Variation
Torque is proportional to V^2
Current is proportional to V
I
100% voltage
v1
80% voltage
p
R
ws
0
I
wm
ws
wm
Load
100% V
Tst ( operating
voltage)
_____________
Rated voltage
80% V
Ist ( _____________
operating voltage)
Rated voltage
T st
T st
Slide 262
Frequency Variation
As frequency decreases, peak torque shifts toward lower
speed as synchronous speed decreases.
As frequency decrease, current increases due reduced
impedance.
I
T
em
F1
F1
F2 F1
F2 F1
W3 = 120
___f RPM
P
0
WS1
WS2
Wm
WS1
WS2
Wm
Adjustable speed drive : Typical speed range for variable torque loads such as pumps and fans is 3/1,maximun is 8/1 ( 1.5 to 60 Hz)
Slide 263
T
em
2 P - poles
WS =
P - poles
WS
___
2
Load
WS
WS
Wm
Slide 264
Rotor Z Variation
Increasing rotor Z will shift peak torque towards lower
speed.
Rotor Resistance Variation
r2
r3
r4
r1
P
R
r1 r2 r3 r4
Slide 265
Modeling of Elements
Switching motors Zlr, circuit model, or
characteristic model
Synch generator - constant voltage behind
Xd
Utility - constant voltage behind Xd
Branches Same as in Load Flow
Non-switching Load Same as Load flow
All elements must be initially energized,
including motors to start
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 266
Motor Modeling
1. Operating Motor
Constant KVA Load
2. Starting Motor
During Acceleration Constant Impedance
Locked-Rotor Impedance
Circuit Models
Characteristic Curves
After Acceleration Constant KVA Load
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 267
Locked-Rotor Impedance
ZLR = RLR +j XLR
(10 25 %)
POWER FACTOR
Slide 268
Circuit Model I
Single Cage Rotor
Single1 constant rotor resistance and
reactance
Slide 269
Circuit Model II
Single Cage Rotor
Single2 - deep bar effect, rotor resistance and
reactance vary with speed [Xm is removed]
Slide 270
Slide 271
Circuit Model IV
Double Cage Rotor
DB2 independent rotor cages
Slide 272
Characteristic Model
Motor Torque, I, and PF as function of Slip
Static Model
Slide 273
Calculation Methods I
Static Motor Starting
Time domain using static model
Switching motors modeled as Zlr during starting and
constant kVA load after starting
Run load flow when any change in system
Slide 274
Calculation Methods II
Slide 275
Slide 276
MS Simulation Features
Start/Stop induction/synchronous motors
Switching on/off static load at specified loading category
Simulate MOV opening/closing operations
Change grid or generator operating category
Simulate transformer LTC operation
Simulate global load transition
Simulate various types of starting devices
Simulate load ramping after motor acceleration
Slide 277
Automatic Alert
Slide 278
Y/D Winding
Stator Resistor
Partial Wing
Stator Reactor
Soft Starter
Capacitor at Bus
Capacitor at Motor
Terminal
Torque Control
Voltage Control
Slide 279
Starting Device
Comparison of starting conditions
Slide 280
Slide 281
line
VMCC
50%
tap
5VMCC
IST
VM
Autotransformer starter
Slide 282
During Y connection Vs = VL / 3
Phase current Iy = Id / 3 and 3 to 1 reduction in torque
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 283
Slide 284
Resistor
RL
5VMCC
VMCC
50%
tap
XL
VM
RLR
XLR
without resistor)]
1- (0.5) * [1-(PFST)]
Slide 285
5VMCC
VMCC
50%
tap
XL
VM
RLR
XLR
(without reactor)
Slide 286
V limit
Tit
Tot
T
Slide 287
MOV Modeling I
Represented as an impedance load during
operation
Each stage has own impedance based on I, pf, Vr
User specifies duration and load current for each stage
Slide 288
MOV Modeling II
Five stages of operation
Opening
Closing
Acceleration
Acceleration
No load
No load
Unseating
Travel
Travel
Seating
Stall
Stall
Slide 289
MOV Closing
With Hammer Blow- MOV Closing
Slide 290
MOV Opening
With Hammer Blow- MOV Opening
Slide 291
ACCL
STALL
UNSETTING
TRAVEL
Tacc
Tpos
Travel
Tstl
Slide 292
TEMA 6
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 293
Short-Circuit
ANSI Standard
CORTO CIRCUITO
Caractersticas principales:
automtica
de
Slide 295
Slide 296
Short-Circuit Analysis
Types of SC Faults
Three-Phase Ungrounded Fault
Three-Phase Grounded Fault
Phase to Phase Ungrounded Fault
Phase to Phase Grounded Fault
Phase to Ground Fault
Fault Current
IL-G can range in utility systems from a few percent to
possibly 115 % ( if Xo < X1 ) of I3-phase (85% of all faults).
In industrial systems the situation IL-G > I3-phase is rare.
Typically IL-G .87 * I3-phase
In an industrial system, the three-phase fault condition
is frequently the only one considered, since this type of
fault generally results in Maximum current.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 297
Purpose of Short-Circuit
Studies
A Short-Circuit Study can be used to determine
any or all of the following:
Verify protective device close and latch capability
Verify protective device Interrupting capability
Protect equipment from large mechanical forces
(maximum fault kA)
I2t protection for equipment (thermal stress)
Selecting ratings or settings for relay coordination
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 298
System Components
Involved in SC Calculations
Power Company Supply
In-Plant Generators
Transformers (using negative tolerance)
Reactors (using negative tolerance)
Feeder Cables and Bus Duct Systems (at
lower temperature limits)
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 299
System Components
Involved in SC Calculations
Overhead Lines (at lower temperature limit)
Synchronous Motors
Induction Motors
Protective Devices
Y0 from Static Load and Line Cable
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 300
Slide 301
Slide 302
Short-Circuit Phenomenon
v(t)
i(t)
v(t) Vm Sin( t )
Slide 303
v(t)
i(t)
di
v(t) Ri L Vm Sin(t ) (1)
dt
Solving equation 1 yields the following expression
R
- t
Vm
Vm
i(t)
sin(t - )
sin( - ) e L
Z
Z
Steady State
Transient
(DC Offset)
Slide 304
DC Current
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WorkshopNotes:
Notes:Short-Circuit
Short-CircuitIEC
ANSI
1996-2009
Slide 305
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WorkshopNotes:
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Short-CircuitIEC
ANSI
Slide 306
Machine Reactance ( = L I )
AC Decay Current
Slide 307
Slide 308
ANSI
Slide 309
Models
All sources are modeled by an internal
voltage behind its impedance.
E = Prefault Voltage
R = Machine Armature Resistance
X = Machine Reactance (Xd, Xd, Xd)
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 310
Synchronous Generators
Synchronous Generators are modeled
in three stages.
Induction Machines
Transient Reactance
Subtransient Reactance
Synchronous Reactance
Slide 311
Cycle Network
1 to 4 Cycle Network
This network is used to calculate the interrupting short-circuit current
and protective device duties 1.5-4 cycles after the fault.
30-Cycle Network
This is the network used to calculate the steady-state short-circuit
current and settings for over current relays after 30 cycles.
Slide 312
Utility
Turbo Generator
Hydro-Gen with
Amortisseur
winding
Hydro-Gen without
Amortisseur
winding
Condenser
Synchronous
Motor
Cycle
1 to 4 Cycle
30 Cycle
Xd
Xd
Xd
Xd
Xd
Xd
Xd
Xd
Xd
0.75*Xd
0.75*Xd
Xd
Xd
Xd
Xd
1.5*Xd
Slide 313
1 to 4
Cycle
Xd
1.5*Xd
Xd
1.5*Xd
1.2*Xd
3.0*Xd
< 50 hp
1.67*Xd
Note: Xd = 1 / LRCpu
Slide 314
1 to 4 Cycle
Currents
(Transient Network)
HV Circuit Breaker
Interrupting
Capability
LV Circuit Breaker
Interrupting Capability
---
Fuse
Interrupting
Capability
SWGR / MCC
Bus Bracing
---
Relay
Instantaneous
Settings
---
---
Slide 315
Momentary Multiplying
Factor
Device Rating
HV CB
Asymmetrical RMS
Crest
C&L RMS
C&L RMS
HV Bus
Asymmetrical RMS
Crest
Asymmetrical RMS
Symmetrical RMS
Asymmetrical RMS
Symmetrical RMS
Asymmetrical RMS
LV Bus
Crest
Slide 316
Interrupting Multiplying
Factor
MFi is calculated based on:
Fault X/R (Separate R & X Networks)
Location of Fault (Remote / Local
generation)
Type and Rating of CB
HV CB
LV CB & Fuse
SC Current Duty
Device Rating
Symmetrical RMS
Slide 317
HV CB Closing and
Latching Duty
Calculate Cycle Current (Imom, rms, sym) using Cycle Network.
Calculate X/R ratio and Multiplying factor MFm
Slide 318
HV CB Interrupting Duty
Calculate 1 to 4 Cycle Current (Imom, rms, sym) using Cycle Network.
Determine Local and Remote contributions (A local contribution is
fed predominantly from generators through no more than one
transformation or with external reactances in series that is less than
1.5 times generator subtransient reactance. Otherwise the
contribution is defined as remote).
Calculate no AC Decay ratio (NACD) and multiplying factor MFi
NACD = IRemote / ITotal
ITotal = ILocal + IRemote
(NACD = 0 if all local & NACD = 1 if all remote)
Calculate Iint, rms, adj = MFi * Iint, rms, Symm
Slide 319
HV CB Interrupting
Capability
CB Interrupting kA varies between Max kA and Rated kA
as applied kV changes MVAsc capability.
ETAPs comparison between CB Duty of Adj.
Symmetrical kA and CB capability of Adjusted Int. kA
verifies both symmetrical and asymmetrical rating.
The Option of C37.010-1999 standard allows user to
specify CPT.
Generator CB has higher DC rating and is always
compared against maximum through SC kA.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 320
LV CB Interrupting Duty
Slide 321
Slide 322
L-G Faults
Slide 323
L-G Faults
Symmetrical Components
Slide 324
Sequence Networks
Slide 325
Slide 326
I a 2 I a1
3 VPr efault
If
Z1 Z 2
Slide 327
Z1
Z0 Z 2
if Zg 0
Slide 328
Slide 329
Slide 330
Slide 331
1996-2009
1996-2009Operation
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Inc.Workshop
WorkshopNotes:
Notes:Short-Circuit
Short-CircuitIEC
ANSI
Slide 332
1996-2009
1996-2009Operation
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WorkshopNotes:
Notes:Short-Circuit
Short-CircuitIEC
ANSI
Slide 333
Slide 334
Slide 335
Tolerance
Adjustments
Transformer
Impedance
Reactor
Resistance
Overload
Heater
Resistance
Length
Adjustments
Cable Length
Transmission
Line Length
Temperature
Corrections
Adjust Fault
Impedance
Transmission
Line Resistance
L-G fault
Impedance
Cable Resistance
Slide 336
Tolerance Adjustments
Z 'Transforme r Z Transforme r * (1 Tolerance )
Length'Cable LengthCable * (1 Tolerance )
Length'Transmissi onLine LengthTransmissi onLine * (1 Tolerance )
Positive tolerance value is used for IEC Minimum If calculation.
Negative tolerance value is used for all other calculations .
Slide 337
Temperature Correction
(234.5 Tc )
R'Copper ' RBASE *
(234.5 Tb)
( 228.1 Tc )
R' Alumi RBASE *
(228.1 Tb)
RBASE Resistance at base tempereature
R' Resistance at operating temperature
Tb Conductor base temperature in C
Tc Conductor temperature limit in C
Slide 338
Transformers
T1 X/R
PS =12
PT =12
ST =12
T2 X/R = 12
Gen1
Voltage Control
Design Setting:
%Pf = 85
MW = 4
Max Q = 9
Min Q = -3
Lump1
Y open grounded
1996-2009
1996-2009Operation
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Inc.Workshop
WorkshopNotes:
Notes:Short-Circuit
Short-CircuitIEC
ANSI
Slide 339
Slide 340
Slide 341
Short-Circuit Alerts
Bus Alert
Protective Device Alert
Marginal Device Limit
Slide 342
Bus SC Rating
Type of Device
MV Bus (> 1000 Volts)
LV Bus (<1000Volts)
Monitored Parameter
Condition Reported
Bracing Asymmetrical
Bracing Crest
Bracing Symmetrical
Bracing Asymmetrical
LVCB
Breaking
Momentary C&L
Making
N/A
Breaking
Fuse
Breaking
SPDT
Making
SPST Switches
Making
HV CB
Slide 343
1996-2009
1996-2009Operation
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WorkshopNotes:
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Short-CircuitIEC
ANSI
Slide 344
1996-2009
1996-2009Operation
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Inc.Workshop
WorkshopNotes:
Notes:Short-Circuit
Short-CircuitIEC
ANSI
Slide 345
TEMA 7
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 346
Transient Stability
Slide 348
Introduction
TS is also called Rotor Stability, Dynamic
Stability
Electromechanical Phenomenon
All synchronous machines must remain in
synchronism with one another
TS is no longer only the utilitys concern
Co-generation plants face TS problems
Slide 349
Analogy
Slide 350
Introduction (contd)
System protection requires consideration of:
Critical Fault Clearing Time (CFCT)
Critical Separation Time (CST)
Fast load transferring
Load Shedding
Slide 351
Causes of Instability
Short-circuits
Loss of utility connections
Loss of a portion of in-plant generation
Starting of a large motor
Switching operations (lines or capacitors)
Impact loading on motors
Sudden large change in load and
generation
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 352
Consequences of Instability
Synchronous machine slip poles
generator tripping
Power swing
Misoperation of protective devices
Interruption of critical loads
Low-voltage conditions motor drop-offs
Damage to equipment
Area wide blackout
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 353
Synchronous Machines
Torque Equation (generator case)
T = mechanical torque
P = number of poles
= rotor angle
Slide 354
Swing Equation
Slide 355
Synchronous Machines
(contd)
Swing Equation
= inertia constant
= damping constant
Slide 356
Slide 357
Slide 358
Slide 359
Slide 360
Slide 361
Slide 362
Slide 363
Slide 364
Slide 365
Slide 366
Slide 367
Slide 368
Slide 369
Generator Modeling
Machine
Equivalent Model / Transient Model / Subtransient Model
Slide 370
Slide 371
Factors Influencing TS
Post-Disturbance Reactance seen from generator.
Reactance Pmax
Generator Inertia.
Inertia Rate of change of Angle Kinetic Energy
Generator Internal Voltage
Internal Voltage Pmax
Slide 372
Factors Influencing TS
Generator Loading Prior To Disturbance
Loading Closer to Pmax. Unstable during acceleration
Slide 373
Solution to Stability
Problems
Improve system design
Increase synchronizing power
Slide 374
Solution to Stability
Problems
Reduction of Transmission System
Reactance
High Speed Fault Clearing
Dynamic Braking
Regulate Shunt Compensation
Steam Turbine Fast Valving
Generator Tripping
Adjustable Speed Synchronous Machines
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 375
Solution to Stability
Problems
HVDC Link Control
Current Injection from VSI devices
Application of Power System Stabilizer
(PSS)
Add system protections
Fast fault clearance
Load Shedding
System separation
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 376
TEMA 8
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 377
FLUJO DE CARGA
Caractersticas principales:
Slide 379
Slide 380
System Concepts
Slide 381
LN
3 V LL I *
P jQ
Inductive loads have lagging Power Factors.
Capacitive loads have leading Power Factors.
Lagging Power Factor
Slide 382
Leading
Power
Factor
Lagging
Power
Factor
P jQ
P - jQ
P + jQ
Slide 383
S 3VI
V 3ZI
SB
B
3VB
2
V
B
Z
B SB
ZB (Base Impedance)
(kVB ) 2
ZB
MVA B
IB (Base Current)
I actual
I pu
IB
Vactual
Vpu
VB
Zactual
Z pu
ZB
Sactual
Spu
SB
VB (Base Voltage)
SB (Base Power)
ETAP selects for LF:
100 MVA for SB which is fixed for the
entire system.
The kV rating of reference point is
used along with the transformer turn
ratios are applied to determine the
base voltage for different parts of the
system.
Slide 384
Example 1: The diagram shows a simple radial system. ETAP converts the branch
impedance values to the correct base for Load Flow calculations. The LF reports show
the branch impedance values in percent. The transformer turn ratio (N1/N2) is 3.31
and the X/R = 12.14
Transformer Turn Ratio: The transformer turn ratio is
used by ETAP to determine the base voltage for different
parts of the system. Different turn ratios are applied
starting from the utility kV rating.
kVB1
N1
kV
kVB2
N2
1
B
kVB2
X pu
X
R
Z pu
X
R
R pu
x pu
X
R
Slide 385
X pu
0.065(12.14)
1 (12.14) 2
0.06478
R pu
0.06478
0.005336
12.14
The transformer impedance must be converted to 100 MVA base and therefore the
following relation must be used, where n stands for new and o stands for old.
o
n
o VB
Z pu Z pu n
VB
SnB
13.8 100
o (5.33 10 3 j0.06478)
(0.1115 j1.3538)
13.5 5
SB
kVutility 13.5
VB
4.0695
3.31
N1
N 2
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
VB2
(4.0695) 2
ZB
0.165608
MVA
100
Slide 386
The per-unit value of the impedance may be determined as soon as the base
impedance is known. The per-unit value is multiplied by one hundred to obtain
the percent impedance. This value will be the value displayed on the LF report.
(0.6038 j6.0382)
ZB
0.1656
% Z 100 Z pu 60.38 j603.8
The LF report generated by ETAP displays the following percent impedance values
in 100 MVA base
Slide 387
Slide 388
Basic Requirement
Power Flow in each line and transformer
Voltage Magnitude and Phase Angle at each bus
Slide 389
Slide 390
Slide 391
Optimize Operating
Conditions
Bus Voltages are Within Acceptable Limits
Voltages are Within Rated Insulation Limits
of Equipment
Power & Current Flows Do Not Exceed the
Maximum Ratings
System MW & Mvar Losses are Determined
Circulating Mvar Flows are Eliminated
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 392
Calculation Process
Non-Linear System
Calculated Iteratively
Assume the Load
Voltage (Initial Conditions)
Calculate the Current I
Based on the Current,
Calculate Voltage Drop Vd
Assume VR
Calc: I = Sload / VR
Calc: Vd = I * Z
Re-Calc VR = Vs - Vd
Slide 393
2.
Newton-Raphson Method
Fast-Decoupled Method
Slide 394
kWRated
HP 0.7457
kVARated
PF Eff
PF Eff
kVARated
FLA3
3 kV
kVARated
FLA1
kV
Where PF and Efficiency are taken at 100 %
loading conditions
kW
kVA
kVA
( 3 kV)
kVA
I1 1000
kV
I 3 1000
Slide 395
Slide 396
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WorkshopNotes:
Notes:Short-Circuit
Load Flow Analysis
1996-2009
IEC
Slide
Slide 397
397
Slide 398
Slide 399
Generic Loads
Exponential Load
Polynomial Load
Comprehensive
Load
Slide 400
Feedback Voltage
AVR: Automatic Voltage
Regulation
Fixed: Fixed Excitation
(no AVR action)
Slide 401
Slide 402
Isochronous Mode
Slide 403
Droop Mode
Slide 404
Droop Mode
Slide 405
Droop Mode
Slide 406
Slide 407
Adjusting Excitation
Slide 408
Slide 409
In the Swing Mode, the voltage is kept fixed. P & Q can vary
based on the Power Demand
In the Voltage Control Mode, P & V are kept fixed while Q &
are varied
In the Mvar Control Mode, P and Q are kept fixed while V &
are varied
Slide 410
Slide 411
Slide 412
Slide 413
Slide 414
Machine Rating
(Power Factor
Point)
Slide 415
Generation Categories
Generator/Power Grid Rating Page
Load Flow Loading Page
10 Different Generation
Categories for Every
Generator or Power Grid
in the System
Slide 416
Power Flow
V1 V1 1
V 2 V2 2
S V*I P jQ
V *V
1 2 *SIN( 1 2 )
X
2
V1*V2
V2
j
*COS( 1 2 )
X
X
V1*V2
*SIN( 1 2 )
X
2
V1*V2
V2
Q
*COS( 1 2 )
X
X
P
Slide 417
X
j5
I 10 j2.68
I
Slide 418
The following graph shows the power flow from Machine M2. This
machine behaves as a generator supplying real power and
absorbing reactive power from machine M1.
( V E)
sin
X
( V E)
cos
X
Power Flow
V
X
2
2
Slide 419
Bus Voltage
ETAP displays bus voltage values in two ways
kV value
Percent of Nominal Bus kV
For Bus4:
kVCalculated 4.03
V%
kVCalculated
100 96.85%
kVNo min al
Slide 420
Slide 421
Slide 422
Reactor Impedance
Adjust reactor impedance based on specified tolerance
Overload Heater
Adjust Overload Heater resistance based on specified tolerance
Cable Length
Adjust Cable Impedance based on possible length variation tolerance
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 423
Temperature Correction
Cable Resistance
Transmission Line
Resistance
Slide 424
Slide 425
Slide 426
Slide 427
Slide 428
Cable
Reactor
Line
Transformer
UPS/Panel
Generator
Slide 429
Monitored parameters %
Condition reported
OverLoad
OverLoad
Fuses
Rated Current
OverLoad
Contactors
OverLoad
OverLoad
Slide 430
1996-2009Operation
OperationTechnology,
Technology,Inc.
Inc.Workshop
WorkshopNotes:
Notes:Short-Circuit
Load Flow Analysis
1996-2009
IEC
Slide
Slide 431
431
Advanced LF Topics
Load Flow Convergence
Voltage Control
Mvar Control
Slide 432
Slide 433
Voltage Control
Under/Over Voltage Conditions must be
fixed for proper equipment operation and
insulation ratings be met.
Methods of Improving Voltage Conditions:
Transformer Replacement
Capacitor Addition
Transformer Tap Adjustment
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 434
Under-Voltage Example
Create Under Voltage
Condition
Method 2 - Shunt
Capacitor
Run LF
Voltage is improved
Run LF
Slide 435
Mvar Control
Vars from Utility
Close Switch
Open Switch
Run LF
Method 1 Generator
Change Generator from
Voltage Control to Mvar
Control
Set Mvar Design Setting to 5
Mvars
Slide 436
Panel Systems
Slide 437
Panel Boards
They are a collection of branch circuits
feeding system loads
Panel System is used for representing
power and lighting panels in electrical
systems
Slide 438
Representation
A panel branch circuit load can be modeled as
an internal or external load
Advantages:
1. Easier Data Entry
2. Concise System
Representation
Slide 439
Pin Assignment
Pin 0 is the top pin of the panel
ETAP allows up to 24 external load connections
Slide 440
Assumptions
Vrated (internal load) = Vrated (Panel Voltage)
Note that if a 1-Phase load is connected to a 3Phase panel circuit, the rated voltage of the panel
circuit is (1/3) times the rated panel voltage
The voltage of L1 or L2 phase in a 1-Phase 3-Wire
panel is (1/2) times the rated voltage of the panel
There are no losses in the feeders connecting a
load to the panel
Static loads are calculated based on their rated
voltage
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 441
Line-Line Connections
Load Connected Between Two Phases of a
3-Phase System
A
B
C
B
C
IB = IBC
IBC
Load
IC = -IBC
LoadB
SBC = VBC.IBC
PBC = VBC.IBC.cos
QBC = VBC.IBC.sin
SB = VB.IB
PB = VB.IB.cos ( - 30)
QB = VB.IB.sin ( - 30)
And, for load connected to phase C
SC = VC.IC
PC = VC.IC.cos ( + 30)
QC = VC.IC.sin ( + 30)
Slide 442
Info Page
NEC Selection
A, B, C from top to bottom or
left to right from the front of
the panel
Phase B shall be the highest
voltage (LG) on a 3-phase, 4wire delta connected system
(midpoint grounded)
Slide 443
Rating Page
Intelligent kV Calculation
If a 1-Phase panel is connected to a 3-Phase bus
having a nominal voltage equal to 0.48 kV, the
default rated kV of the panel is set to (0.48/1.732
=) 0.277 kV
For IEC, Enclosure Type
is Ingress Protection
(IPxy), where IP00 means
no protection or shielding
on the panel
Slide 444
Schedule Page
Circuit Numbers
with
Standard Layout
Circuit Numbers
with
Column Layout
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
Slide 445
Description Tab
First 14 load items in the list are based on NEC 1999
Last 10 load types in the Panel Code Factor Table are user-defined
Load Type is used to determine the Code Factors used in calculating the total
panel load
External loads are classified as motor load or static load according to the
element type
For External links the load status is determined from the connected loads
demand factor status
Slide 446
Rating Tab
Slide 447
Loading Tab
For internal loads, enter the % loading for the selected loading category
For both internal and external loads, Amp values are
calculated based on terminal bus nominal kV
Slide 448
Slide 449
Feeder Tab
Slide 450
Action Buttons
Copy the content of the selected
row to clipboard. Circuit number,
Phase, Pole, Load Name, Link
and State are not copied.
Slide 451
Summary Page
Continuous Load Per Phase and Total
Non-Continuous Load Per Phase and Total
Connected Load Per Phase and Total (Continuous + Non-Continuous Load)
Slide 452
Output Report
Slide 453
Slide 454