BME 340: Bioimaging

Lecture 14: Introduction to Ultrasound

Characteristics of ultrasound and its interactions with matter

Ultrasound
Ultrasound imaging is the class of techniques that form images on the
basis of the reflection of sound waves from structure boundaries.
A pulse-echo acquisition (like radar).
Frequency range for medical imaging is 2-10 MHz.
An imaging modality that is genuinely wavelength limited with respect
to spatial resolution.

Sound Propagation
Propagation of mechanical energy through a continuous
elastic medium by compression and subsequent expansion of
the medium itself.
As with EM radiation, wavelength is given as:
=c/f
with c typically given as m/s.
Sound velocity varies widely among materials and is a
function of the bulk modulus (B, a measure of elasticity and
resistance to compression) and the density () of the
medium:
B
c=

Units are kg/(ms2) for B and kg/m3 for .

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Tissue Velocities

Sound Propagation
Typical wavelengths in tissue:
f = 2MHz in soft tissue, = 0.77mm.
f = 10MHz is soft tissue, = 0.15mm.
f = 5MHz is soft tissue, = 0.31mm.
f = 5MHz in fat, = 0.29mm (5.8% from
soft tissue).
Wavelength determines the achievable spatial
resolution along the direction of the beam.
Higher frequency has a shorter wavelength.

Sound Propagation
Penetrability of the sound energy varies with frequency.
In general, lower frequency beams will penetrate further.
Increasing frequency reduces penetrability.
For abdominal imaging, f = 3.5 5 MHz.
For thyroid, breast, etc., f = 7.5 10 MHz.
Scanners generally supplied with a range of transducers to
cover several applications.

Sound Propagation
The constructive and deconstructive interference phenomena are very
important in shaping and steering the ultrasound beam.

Pressure
Sound energy represents local variations in pressure
within the propagating medium.
Pressure amplitude defined as the peak maximum or
minimum of the pressure waveform referenced to the
average value.
SI unit is the Pascal (Pa) = 1 N/m2.
1 atmosphere = 100kPa.
Typical ultrasound beams in diagnostic imaging exceed 1
MPa in peak pressure.

Intensity
Intensity is defined as the power (energy/time) per unit area
and is proportional to the square of pressure amplitude:
I P2
Typical unit is mW / cm2.
Intensity varies with peak pressure, and operating mode.
Relative values expressed as dB:
Relative Intensity (dB) = 10 log (I2 / I1)
Relative Pressure (dB) = 20 log (P2 / P1)
Typical return echoes can be 60dB reduced in intensity over the
transmitted pulse.

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Example: Calculate the remaining intensity of a 100 mW

ultrasound pulse that loses 30 dB while traveling through
tissue.

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Ultrasound Interactions in Matter

A propagating sound wave can undergo reflection, refraction,
absorption, and scatter.
Reflection occurs at boundaries where there is a difference in
acoustic impedance with the reflected energy traveling back
towards the source. This is the basis for image formation.
Refraction is the change in direction resulting from nonperpendicular incidence.
Scattering results from both reflection and refraction from small
structures and produces the characteristic background texture seen
in ultrasound images.
Absorption is the conversion of sound energy to heat.
Attenuation is defined as the loss of intensity due to scatter and
absorption.
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Acoustic Impedance
Acoustic impedance (Z) is defined as: Z = c
Where c is the speed of sound in m/s and is density in kg/m3 .
The unit of Z is kg / (m2s), and is known as a rayl. Acoustic impedance
can be thought of as a measure of compressibility.
Sound waves will reflect from boundaries representing a mismatch in
acoustic impedance.

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Reflection and Refraction

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Reflection
Reflection of sound energy from a boundary is a function of the
impedance mismatch at the boundary separating two materials:
RP =

Pr Z 2 Z1
=
Pi Z 2 + Z1

Where RP is the reflection pressure coefficient, Pr and Pi are the

reflected and incident pressures respectively, Z1 and Z2 are the
acoustic impedances.
The intensity reflection coefficient is given as:
Z Z1
I

RI = r = 2
I i Z 2 + Z1

Following conservation of energy, the transmitted intensity is

given as:
TI = 1 RI
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Reflection
For perpendicular incidence on a boundary, the reflected
energy returns to the transducer as an echo (time delay).
Where is much longer than structural variations in the
boundary, a smooth boundary is rendered (assumed in all
previous discussions).
Reducing increases scatter off variations in the boundary
and a smaller return to the source.
For non-perpendicular incidence, reflection takes place at the
same angle away from the transducer resulting in loss of
signal.

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Refraction
This is the change in direction of transmitted sound energy upon a nonperpendicular encounter with a boundary.
Angles of incidence, reflection, and transmission are measured relative
to the normal to the boundary.
The index of refraction is determined by the difference in the speed of
sound across the boundary.

Where c2>c1, total reflection can occur when the angle of incidence
is greater than the critical angle, defined as c = arcsin c1
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c2

Scattering
Acoustic scattering results from objects on the order of a
wavelength in size (representing a rough surface).
Some organs have a characteristic surface structure that gives
rise to a characteristic scatter signature (useful diagnostically).
Rough reflectors reflect sound over a range of angles, thus
causing loss in amplitude of received echoes.

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Scattering
Intensity of return signal from rough reflectors has less of a
dependence beam direction than that from smooth reflectors.
Along a rough boundary, differences in scatter amplitude show
up as differences in image intensity.
Factors determining echo amplitude:

Number of scatter structures/volume

Size of scatter structures
Boundary Z difference
Signal frequency

All else being the same, scatter increases with frequency.

In US lingo, Hyperechoic = high scatter amplitude,
Hypoechoic = low scatter amplitude, relative to average
background signal, useful in characterizing anatomy.
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Attenuation
Attenuation results from loss of acoustic energy (converted to
heat) and scattering.
Attenuation coefficient () in units of dB/cm.
is approximately linear with frequency (i.e. doubling the
frequency doubles the attenuation).
General value for soft tissue is 0.5dB/cm/MHz.
Tissue half-value thickness (HVT) corresponds to thickness
for 3dB drop in intensity (or 6dB drop in pressure amplitude).

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Attenuation

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Attenuation
For medical imaging purposes, ultrasound detectors must
have a dynamic range on the order of 120-140dB in
pressure amplitude (factor of 107).
Deeper penetration requires lower frequencies.
Frequency dependence of transmission results in depthdependent (low pass) filtering of broadband pulses.

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Example: Calculate the approximate intensity HVT in soft

tissue for ultrasound beams of 2 and 10 MHz. Determine the
number of HVTs the incident beam and the echo travel at a 6cm depth.

Attenuation

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Review
What is the typical range of ultrasound frequency used for
medical imaging?
Does longer wavelength imply better ultrasound penetrability?
The wavelength of a 2 MHz ultrasound beam is ________ mm
in soft tissue. (In soft tissue c = 1540 m/sec).
What is the constructive/deconstructive interference?
Calculate the remaining intensity of a 10 mW ultrasound pulse
that loses 60 dB while traveling through tissue.
What intensity fraction of an ultrasound beam is reflected from
an interface between two media with Z (acoustic impedance)
values of 1.65 and 1.55?

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