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Louis

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All Theses and Dissertations (ETDs)

1-1-2010

Change Your Mind: Neuroplasticity & Buddhist

Transformation
Laura Vollmer

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WASHINGTONUNIVERSITY
DepartmentofEastAsianStudies

CHANGEYOURMIND:
NEUROPLASTICITY&BUDDHISTTRANSFORMATION

by
LauraJeanVollmer

Athesispresentedtothe
GraduateSchoolofArtsandSciences
ofWashingtonUniversityin
partialfulfillmentofthe
requirementsforthe
degreeofMasterofArts

May2010
SaintLouis,Missouri

copyrightby
LauraJeanVollmer
2010

Acknowledgments
MyheartfeltthanksgoestoDr.RobertE.Hegelwhohasbeenmyadvisorand
friendsincemyfirstdayatWashingtonUniversity.Youhavebeensopatientand
encouraginginsynthesizingmymanyinterestsandIsincerelycouldnothave
completedthisworkwithoutyou.ThankyouDr.PaulineC.Leeforeverything,from
laughtertoliterature,youhavegivenmerichesandIamexceedinglygratefulforall
theopportunitiesyouhaveprovidedmewith.MythankstoDr.BeataGrantaswell,
forsupplyingthetitleChangeYourMindandforofferingmanyhelpfulsuggestions
tomakethisworkmoreeffective.ThankyouDr.CarlF.Craverfortakingthetimeto
discussmyworkandforprovidinginputonimportantquestionsinphilosophyof
mind.IwouldalsoliketothankDr.FrankK.Flinnforinvitingmetospeakonmy
research.Youhavebeensupportiveandinspiring.Thankyoutoallmyprofessors;
everybitofknowledgegainedfromyourexpertisehasbeenacontribution.

ii

Dedication
Tothebeautyofnoveltiesthatinvokechildlikewonder,
Andtothemysteriousdepthsofhumankindspower.
Tothemeetingofdarkcosmosandtheilluminatingmind,
AndthemusicofNaturessongthroughtime,
ResonatinginthatwhichIs,soitmayberevealedandknown.

iii

CONTENTS

1.Introduction

NeuroplasticityandtheMind

Method

ModernBuddhismandtheBuddhismofBuddhismandScience

TheBuddhistPerspective:MutabilityandContemplativeTechniques

2.TheScience

18

30

54

MentalFacultiesConducivetoNeuroplasticity
MeditationandNeuroscience
MindfulnessMeditationandNeuroscience
CompassionMeditationandNeuroscience

3.PhilosophicalImplicationsofResearch

TheMiddleWaybetweenPhysicalismandDualism
TheNeuroplasticMind,TwoWayCausation,andtheProblemofSelf
TheSelf
TheMindBodyProblem
RealityasWeExperienceIt:Perception
Consciousness,Neurophysiology,andMindBodyCausation

4.Conclusion

ScientificStudyoftheMind
ScienceandtheEthicalGoalsofBuddhism
WORKS CITED

62

1
INTRODUCTION
NeuroplasticityandtheMind
Inthelasttwentyyears,revolutionsinthefieldofneurosciencehaveraisedmany
openquestionsforscientistsandphilosophersofmindalike,asprimary
assumptionsinthefieldregardingtheimmutabilityofneuralandmentalstateshave
proventobeincorrect.Previously,thefieldpostulatedthattheadultbrainwasfixed
intworespects:inthatnonewneuronsarebornandthefunctionsofbrain
structureswerethoughttobedeterminate.1Recentstudieshaveshownthatbothof
thesenotionsaremistaken,aswillbediscussed.Anotheroverturnedassumptionin
thefieldhasbeenthediscoverythatthebrainnotonlychangesthroughoutones
life,ratherthanceasingwithchildhood,butthatinadditionanindividualcan
consciouslyparticipateinthatchangebycultivatingvariousmentalstates.2The
brainspotentialformodificationisreferredtoasneuroplasticity.3Theideaof

1Thecreationofnewneuronsisexpressedbythetermneurogenesis.Thepresenceofneurogenesis
inadultshasalsochallengedthenotionthatthehumanbrainiscomparabletoasophisticated
computer,asitisdifficulttoaccepttheideathatnewcellscouldcomeintoacomplicatedcircuitand
becomepartofitinawaythatwouldnotonlynotbedisruptivebutmightbebeneficial,FredGage,a
neuroscientistattheSalkInstituteinLaJolla,California,remarkedtotheDalaiLamaatthetwelfth
MindandLifeconference.SeeSharonBegley,TrainYourMind,ChangeYourBrain:HowaNewScience
RevealsOurExtraordinaryPotentialtoTransformOurselves(NewYork:RandomHouse,2007),52and
6.
2Ibid.,xii.
3Plasticityreferstoinanindividualorpopulation,thecapacityforadaptation:a)throughgene
changes(geneticplasticity)orb)throughinternalphysiologicalmodificationsinresponsetochanges
inenvironment(physiologicalplasticity).SeeJamesN.ParkerandPhilipM.Parker,eds.Brain:A
MedicalDictionary,Bibliography,andAnnotatedResearchGuidetoInternetReferences(IconGroup
InternationalInc.,2004),429.Brainsystemsareshapedbyexperiencethroughoutlife,although
somebrainsystemsaremoreplasticthanothers.SeeBegley,75.

neuroplasticityisrevolutionary;thefactthatthemindcanalterboththeprocesses
andtheverystructureofthebraincallsintoquestionthepredominantphysicalist
interpretationofmindcommoninthefieldofneuroscience.Physicalismholdsthat
themindisreducibletoafixedbrainandmentalprocessesarenothingotherthan
neuralprocesses.4However,suchareductionistviewofmindisdifficulttoreconcile
withcurrentresearchandtheworkingsofvolitionalneuroplasticity,leavingcurrent
modelsofmindinneedofrevisionoroutrightrejection.
Asresearchregardingthebrainscapacitytochangecontinuestogrow,there
hasbeenincreasinginterestinthecapabilitiesofmeditationinalteringthebrain,as
meditationoffersasortofdemonstrationfortheloftierabilitiesofneuroplasticity.5
ExperiencedcontemplativesintheBuddhisttraditionfindthemselvesincreasingly
inWesternlaboratories,whereinnovativeresearchisbeingconductedtolearn
aboutthevoluntaryabilityofusingmentalapparatustochangethefunctioningof
thebrainandtheprocessesofthemind.Advancedcontemplativeshave
demonstratedextrememalleabilityofmindandtheproductionofphysical
manifestationsofsuchmentalpractice,makingtheminvaluableforstudy.Often
scholarsconvenientlydismissthepossibilitythatreligionandsciencecouldhave
anymeaningfulexchange,yettheresearchthatwillbediscussedhereillustrates

4Physicalismactuallyreferstoamuchbroaderworldviewandholdsthatthenatureofrealityis

physicalorsupervenesonorisnecessitatedbythephysical.SeetheStanfordEncyclopediaof
Philosophy,http://plato.stanford.edu,underPhysicalismat
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/physicalism.Insomediscussiononphilosophyofmind,
physicalismisusedtorefertoidentitytheory,suggestingmentalstatesandpropertiesare
neurologicalstatesandproperties.Thisishowthetermwillbeusedinthisstudy.However,the
physicalismargumentpredominantintheneurosciencescomestobemodified,aswillbediscussed.
5Forasurveyofscientificresearchonneuroplasticityandrelatedresearchonmeditation,see

Begley.

howthisdogmaisquicklybeingmovedtothepileofoutmodedhistoricalgivensin
intellectualthought.WhileBuddhismandneurosciencecontinuetoconverseina
varietyofsubfields,ofalltheconceptsinmodernneuroscience,itisneuroplasticity
thathasthegreatestpotentialformeaningfulinteractionwithBuddhism,Richard
Davidson,thedirectoroftheLaboratoryforAffectiveNeurosciencebasedatthe
UniversityofWisconsinMadison,remarkedtotheDalaiLamaononeoccasion.6
TheproductionofmeaningfulexchangewithBuddhismregarding
neuroplasticityprimarilyoccursinoneoftwodomains.Oneisinthescientific
researchitself,asexperiencedcontemplativesactasthesubjectsofresearch
involvingsuchthingsastheroleofattentionforneuroplasticefficacy.Thesecond
domainisinphilosophyofmindandtheself.Contemporarywesternphilosophyof
mindhasanumberoftheoriesregardingthenatureofmentalitythatcanbe
categorizedunderthemoregeneraldivisionsofmonism,includingphysicalism
mentionedabovethatarguestherearenofundamentaldivisionsbetweenthe
mentalandthephysical,anddualismthatassertstheexistentialindependenceof
mindandmatter.7Inregardstothephilosophicalimplicationsofneuroplasticity,
suchastheontologicalimplicationthatmindexists,themetaphysicalpossibilityof

6Ibid.,11.

7Dualismhasreferredtoavarietyofpositionsinthehistoryofthought,howeverheredualism
referstothedoctrineregardingphilosophyofmindthatcontrastsmindandbody.Dualistthinkers
includePlato,Aristotle,RenDescartes,andKarlPopper.Formsofdualismincludepsychophysical
parallelism,occasionalism,andpropertydualism.Seehttp://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dualism.
Monismincludesnotonlytheidentitytheoryasnotedabove,butalsothetheoriesofbehaviorism,
upheldbyLudwigWittgenstein,andfunctionalism,developedbyHilaryPutnamandJerryFodor.See
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/behaviorismandhttp://plato.stanford.edu/entries/functionalism.
Themostcommonformofmonismincontemporarywesternphilosophyisidentitytheory
physicalism.ImportantthinkersincludeJohnSmartandUllinPlace.

topdowncausality(i.e.mindtobodycausality),andtheepistemological
consequencesregardingobservation/experienceandknowledgeofreality,these
theorieshaveanumberofopenquestionsthatreducestheirexplanatorypower,
howeverpliancyofmindisafundamentalassumptioninBuddhistphilosophy,
givingrisetothecontemplativetradition.8Assuch,Buddhistshavelongbeen
utilizingmentalpotentialitythroughthedevelopmentofmanydifferenttechniques,
generalizedasmeditation.Surroundingpracticeisaphilosophyofmindor
consciousnessandtherelatedphilosophyofselfthatinmanywaysreflectcurrent
neuroscientificresearchandindoingso,providesatheoreticalmodelofwhichto
understandneuroplasticityanditsimplications,addressingalacunainWestern
theoriesofmind.9
AccordingtotheBuddhistperspective,theimplicationsofneuroplasticityfor
philosophyofmindandtheselfarevastandanswerarangeofopenquestionsinthe
West,including:Whatcharacterizesmentality?Whatistheself?Whatisthe
relationshipbetweenmindandbody?Howcanexperiencebeaccountedfor?What
aretheprocessesandmechanismsofmentalstates?Andhowcanthemindbe

8Throughoutthiswork,Irefervariouslytotopdowncausation,twowaycausation,andmindbody
causation.Somescientistsusethetermtopdowntorefertohigherbiologicalprocessesaffecting
lowerprocesses.Thisisnothowthetermisusedinthisstudy,rathertopdownisonetermthat
referstomindtobodycausationasitiscommonlyreferredtointhesciences.Alltheaboveterms
areusedtoconveymentalandphysicalinteractionorcausationinitiatedfromoneortheother
impactingtheotherorboth.
9Itisimportanttobeawareofthelinguisticlimitations.JustasinEnglish,Buddhistsalsousemany
termsthatrefertothementalincludingtheTibetantermssem(cittainSanskrit),translatedas
mind;namshe(vijnanainSanskrit),consciousness;andyi(Sanskrit,manas),mentalityor
mentalstates.TheTibetanwordnamshe,referringtoconsciousnesshasmuchbroaderapplicability
thantheEnglishterm,coveringallconsciousexperiencesinadditiontowhatmaybecategorizedas
unconsciousinWesternpsychologicalandpsychoanalytictheories.Also,theTibetanwordfor
mind,semreferstothoughtinadditiontoemotion.Thetermmindasusedinthisstudyrefersto
thewholerangeofmentalevents.

studiedscientifically?Thesequestionsarethemainobjectofthisstudyandthe
answers,thecontribution.
Method
Inthepasttwentyyearsorso,theworksofmanyamateurs,specialistsfroma
varietyofdisciplines,andenthusiastsofallsortshaveexploredvariousaspectsof
BuddhismandScience.Thereareatleastfivecommonapproaches.Thefirstisthe
studyofBuddhismandScienceundertakenbythoseinthehumanitiesandsocial
sciencesandincludestheanalysisofsuchscholarsasDonaldS.LopezJr.,B.Alan
Wallace,andDavidL.McMahan.Thesecondapproachisthescientificormedical
studyofBuddhistpractice,suchasmeditation.Variousscientistsanddoctors,
includingStephenLaBerge,RichardDavidson,andJonKabatZinn,haveundertaken
researchinthisfield.ThethirdapproachisasynthesisofBuddhism(variously
defined)andscientificfindings(variouslyenumerated)toproducescientific
theories.Thosewhohavetakenthisapproachincludethereligious,thesecular,and
thescientific,inbothpopularandscholarlyworkswithperspectivesrangingfrom
apologiststocritics.OneexamplefromthemanyavailableisTheQuantumandthe
Lotus,byMatthieuRicardandTrinhXuanThuan,whichexploresparallelsbetween
physicsandBuddhistthought.Somewithinthisdomainevenproducecooperative
worksbetweencontemplativesandscientists,suchastheMindandLifeInstitute
publications.10ThefourthapproachinvolvestheworksofmodernBuddhistssuch
astheDalaiLama,whopresentBuddhismandScienceintermsofthereown

10ForalistofpublicationsfromtheMindandLifeInstitute,see

http://mindandlife.org/books.pubs_section.html.

understandingoftheevolvinglivingtradition.WhiletheDalaiLamaconsciously
reinterpretsphilosophyandpracticetoappropriateBuddhismtothemodern
context,othercontemplativesandscholarshavetakenthisapproachaswell,yet
perhapswithlittleawarenessofhowtheyarecontributingtothetransformationof
thetraditioninquestionbyrepresentingoldideasinnovelwaysinadditionto
deemphasizingorignoringincommensurablereligiouselements.
Thefifthapproachisasynthesisoftheotherfour,combiningscholarly
analysisoftheemergingscientifictheoriesofcontemplativesalongwiththe
scientificstudyofBuddhistpracticeandthedialoguethatthesedomainscreate.
HorizonsinBuddhistPsychology:Practice,Research,&Theory,editedbyMauritsG.T.
Kwee,KennethJ.GergenandFusakoKoshikawa,reflectsthismethodology.This
approachinvolvesgrantingthestatusofmodernBuddhismasatraditionwithinits
ownrightandanalyzesBuddhismandScienceinaccordancewiththisliving
tradition.WhatmodernBuddhisminvolvesandwhatthereferentBuddhismof
BuddhismandScienceiswillbediscussedinthenextsection.Thisworkprimarily
followsthisfifthapproach.InthespiritofmodernBuddhismwithitsmultifaceted
nature,Iwillavoidessentializingthevariousperspectives,howevermyaimisalso
toconveytheintellectualvigorofthedialoguebetweenthesevariousapproaches
andhencetooutlinetheinterpretationsthathavesurroundedBuddhist
involvementwithneuroscienceandtoengagewiththephilosophicalquestions
raised.

Iwouldalsoliketocontributetothegrowthofasixthapproach,which
involvestheexpansionofdialoguebetweenBuddhistcontemplativesand/or
scholarsofBuddhistphilosophyandwesternphilosophersofscience.Iundertook
thisresearchinparttoaddtothegrowingrealizationthatapurelyEurocentric
approachtobroadphilosophicalquestionsisimposingneedlesslimitations.Iam
certainlynotqualifiedtoassesstheaccuracyofthescientificresearchoradequately
presentthephilosophiesofscienceinentirety,Iwriteasascholarofmodern
Buddhistphilosophywithaninterestintheimpactofscience.However,philosophy
ofscienceisanimportantelementformeaningfulresearchwithinthisdomain.
NeuroscienceisinterpretedalmostexclusivelybyWesternenlightenment
philosophyandanundeniablebiasinthefieldoftenresultsinthecondemnationof
Easternphilosophybeforeitisseriouslyconsidered.Therearemanyopenquestions
inphilosophyofneuroscienceandmindandBuddhismhasmanyideasthatwillbe
noveltowesternreaders.Imakenoattempttodisguisemyownpartialitytowards
andadmirationofBuddhistthought;yetIalsowishtoconveytheimportanceof
expandingdialoguebetweenBuddhistcontemplativesandwesternphilosophersof
scienceatthistime.ThisresearchexploressomeparticularBuddhistencounters
withwesternscience,yetitisnotjustahistoricalstudyofideas,butIhope,a
contributiontotheexpansionofthemodernphilosophicalandintellectual
imagination.
Inviewofthefactthatthisresearchisforadiverseaudienceofscholars,
philosophers,botheastandwest,andscientists,manyreadersarelikelytobe
unfamiliarwithsomeaspectofthisstudy.Therefore,Iwillpresentthereaderwith
7

manyreferencesandfootnotesforclarification.Alsoincludedisabroadoutlineof
theBuddhisttraditionandvariouselementsofbeliefandpractice.Themaintarget
ofthisworkthoughisthemodernappropriationofBuddhismratherthanthe
religionwithintheAsiancontext.WhileIavoidassertingBuddhismissomehow
scientificallyaccurate,Idoattempttoprovideatheoreticalmodelforinterpreting
theneuroscienceandaddressthephilosophicalissuesraised.Themodelcannotbe
foundwithinanysingleBuddhistteaching;ratheritisextrapolatedfromavarietyof
sourcesthathavecontributedtothedevelopmentofmodernBuddhistphilosophy.
Buddhisttheoryofneuroplasticitythereforeisonepresentationofhowamodern
Buddhistphilosophermightinterpretthematerial.Whilethismayseematenuous
compilationofvariouslyidentifiedBuddhistelements,theanalysisand
presentationofBuddhistphilosophyreflectsmodernBuddhistsownunderstanding
oftheirtradition,aswillbediscussedinthenextsection.
WhenBuddhismwasfirstintroducedtotheWestitwasofteninterpretedin
termsofwesternexpectationsandassumptions.Presently,scholarshaveaddressed
suchissuesandhavegreatlyexpandedourknowledgeofthelivingtraditioninAsia.
However,becausetheinitialpresentationofBuddhismtotheWestwasoften
wroughtwithmisunderstanding,acounterintellectualtrendemergedwitha
markedtendencytoalmostexclusivelyanalyzethemoderntraditionthrougha
narrowdefinitionofBuddhism,strippedoftheorientalistandessentialistnotions
thatpermeatedearlierscholarship.Yet,everymethodologyhasitslimitsanditis
importanttorecognizethatmodernBuddhismdemandsanewparadigmthatcan
accountforaBuddhismoutsidetheimposedboundariesappliedtothereligionby
8

thiscountertrend.ThequestionHowBuddhististhisBuddhism?isoftenraisedas
anobjectiontoBuddhistappropriationtothemodernworldasifthisformofthe
traditionweresomehowinauthentic.Whilemisunderstandingofthereligionhas
certainlyoccurred,sohaveadaptation,evolution,andrebirthastheresultofboth
consciouslymodernizingindividualsandtheadoptionofthetraditionbyself
identifiedBuddhists,whomayormaynotbeawareoftheircontribution.The
noveltiesofthisformofBuddhismarenotindicativeofinauthenticity,butrather
themarkofadistincttradition.Inshort,modernBuddhismshouldnotbeheldupto
sometraditionalstandardortoapreconceiveddefinitionofthereligion,ratheras
scholarsandenthusiasts,weshouldembracethisformofBuddhismaspartofthe
greatercultural,intellectual,andspiritualtrendsofmodernity.
ThenextsectionisdevotedtoexploringtheproblematictermsofBuddhism
andScience.Partofthiscounterintellectualtrendisemphasisontheuseofterms.
Obviouslyclarityisalwaysaconcern,howeverthefocushasbeenonresistingthe
generalizationandsimplificationofEasterntraditionswiththeuseofoverarching
wordssuchasBuddhism,tradition,Eastern,andWestern.Whileitisimportant
tobeawareofsuchissueswhicharevitaltomuchscholarship,I,likeRichard
DawkinsinTheBlindWatchmaker,takethestandthatwordsareourservants,not
ourmasters.11Itisimpossibletomakeanyrealprogressifeverytermis
problematized.Nonetheless,thetermsBuddhismandScienceneedtobeexplored
todefinetheirusagebythemodernBuddhistphilosopher.Yet,onceIhavemade
knownhowthesewordsaretobeutilized,Iwillthenusethemfreelywithinthe

11SeeDawkins,TheBlindWatchmaker(NewYork:W.W.Norton&Company,1996),4.

contextIhavemappedout.ModernBuddhisminpartillustrateshowtheusesof
dichotomiessuchasEastandWestandtraditionandmodernityarebecoming
increasinglyineffective.However,perhapsduetomyownlackofimagination,Isee
nowayofcompletelyavoidingtheiruse.Thesetermsarethefingerpointingtothe
moon,notthemoonitself,butIhopemeaningwillbeconveyednonetheless.
ModernBuddhismandtheBuddhismofBuddhismandScience
Traditionally,Buddhismhasnotconcerneditselfwithscience,howeveroverone
hundredyearsago,themodernworldbegantoinfluenceBuddhisminawaythatled
tounprecedenteddevelopments,influencingthereligioneversince.This
engagementwiththeintellectualtrendsofmodernityhasledtothegrowthofanew
formofBuddhism,onebranchofthelongtraditionsevolution,referredtoas
modernBuddhism.AccordingtoDavidMcMahan,modernBuddhismis:
AnactualnewformofBuddhismthatistheresultofa
processofmodernization,westernization,
reinterpretation,imagemaking,revitalization,and
reformthathasbeentakingplacenotonlyintheWest
butalsoinAsiancountriesforoveracentury.12
WesternenthusiastsandmodernizingAsiansbecametheavenueofwhich
theBuddhistcommunitypenetratedthemodernworld.Modernintellectualtrends,
suchasscientificrationalism,wereadoptedandsubsequentlyutilizedasameansto
expandBuddhistrelevanceandapplicabilityinavarietyofmoderncontexts.

12SeeDavidL.McMahan,TheMakingofBuddhistModernism(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,

2008),5.

10

Disenchantedwesternersbecameimportantcontributorstothedevelopmentof
modernBuddhismaswell.Modernindividualslookedtoeasternwisdomtoaddress
socialproblemsoftheage,includingreligiouspluralism,theincreasingclash
betweenreligionandscience,modernwarfare,andemergingenvironmentalissues.
ThemeetingofBuddhismandmodernityhasoccurredonmanycultural,
intellectual,andhistoricalfronts,theimpactshapinghowBuddhismwould
modernizethroughtime.Althoughtraditionalelementsremaininthisformof
Buddhism,manyhavebeenreinventedtomoldtowesterninclinations,resultingin
thepurgeofmythologicalelementsandsuperstitiousritualfromthereligion.
Aftersuchafundamentaltransformation,Buddhismneededtoemphasizeother
aspectsofthetraditiontomaintainvitalityintheBuddhistworldandatthesame
timesituateitselfinthemoderncontext.Theconsequencesofsuchevolutionhave
includednewphilosophicalinterpretationsofcosmologyandpsychology,vast
changesinritualandotherpractice,withnewspeakersforthetradition,andan
emphasisontheintellectualtrends,socialimplications,andthelanguageof
modernity.ModernBuddhismisnotsimplyBuddhisminthemodernperiod,but
specificallyreferstoformsofBuddhismthathaveemergedoutofanengagement
withthedominantculturalandintellectualforcesofmodernity.13
ModernBuddhismhasreferredtomultipledifferentformsofBuddhismthat
havearisenfromtheengagementwiththeintellectualtrendsoftheEuropean
Enlightenmentandtheirpredecessors.ThediscourseonBuddhismandScienceis
nodifferent,inthatittoohasmanifesteditselfinmanydifferentways.Buddhism

13Ibid.,6.

11

hasmeanttheTheravadatraditionofSriLanka,theesotericBuddhismof
Theosophy,theZenofD.T.Suzuki,andthetantricBuddhismofTibet,tonameafew.
Sciencehasreferredtoarangeofthingsaswell,includingastronomy,physics,
moderncosmology,andneurobiology.ThecontemporaryphaseofBuddhismand
SciencereferstothatofTibetanBuddhismandthecognitivesciences,including
neuroscienceandpsychology.
Sincethe1990sTibetanBuddhismhasengagedwithsciencetoa
unparalleleddegreeinpreviousformsandphasesofmodernBuddhismandthe
DalaiLamahasbecometherepresentativechampionofthemovement,greatly
contributingtothestrengtheningofrelations.SincethedevelopmentoftheMind
andLifeConferencesandthesubsequentMindandLifeInstitute,creating,
expanding,andimprovingdialoguebetweenBuddhismandScience,theDalaiLama
neverfailstoemphasizethecompatibilityofthetwo.AtthefirstMindandLife
conference,whereunprecedenteddialoguebetweenBuddhistsandscientistswas
makinghistory,theDalaiLamasaid,ItismyviewthatgenerallyBuddhism,and
particularlyMahayanaBuddhism,isveryclosetoascientificapproach.14His
HolinessgoesontoassertthattheauthorityinbothBuddhismandsciencecanbe
reducedtoreasoningandlogicandthatthebasicBuddhistattitudeisanalysis

14SeeJeremyW.HaywardandFranciscoJ.Varela,eds.GentleBridges:ConversationswiththeDalai

LamaontheSciencesofMind(Boston:Shambhala,2001),31.

12

andexaminationthroughreasoning.15Suchsentimentsareubiquitousinthefield
ofBuddhismandScienceandareexpressedatalltheMindandLifeconferences.16
UnlikethevastmajorityofpreviousformsofmodernBuddhism,this
scientificTibetanBuddhismhasmostlysteeredfreeofapologistclaimsand
approachesitsrelationshipwithscienceinawholenewway.Whileprevious
advocatesofBuddhismandScience,andsomecontemporaryones,maketenuous
parallelsbetweenthepopularscienceofthetimeandvariousschoolsofthought,
scientificTibetanBuddhismdoesnotlooktomakeclaims,butrathertoestablish
dialogueandproducemeaningfulexchange.Becauseofthis,theworksofsuch
Buddhists,primarilytheDalaiLamaandhiscolleagues,informthisstudy.TheDalai
Lamasintellectualintegrityresultsinanimpartialrepresentationofthetraditionat
large,makingnoteofanyvariancefromschooltoschool.Thus,theBuddhist
perspectiveonneuroscientificissuesexploredinthisstudyisextrapolatedfrom
Tibetanthinkersexchangewithwesternscientistsinadditiontoshareddoctrinein
AsianBuddhistthought,includingthatofIndiaandTibet.
AsthesethinkersarepartofthemodernBuddhistmovement,thereislessof
afocusonsectariandifferencesandmoreemphasisonthecomplementariness
betweenanygiventenetofBuddhistthoughtandScience.Oneofthemajor
characteristicsofcontemporarymodernBuddhismisitsnonsectarianandinclusive

15Ibid.,32.

16Seehttp://www.mindandLife.org/current.conf.htmlforanoverviewofmeetings,conferences,
andevents.Theirvisionasdescribedontheinstituteswebsiteillustratestheequalstandingof
BuddhismandScience:Toestablishmutuallyrespectfulworkingcollaborationandresearch
partnershipsbetweenmodernscienceandBuddhismtwooftheworld'smostfruitfultraditions
forunderstandingthenatureofrealityandpromotinghumanwellbeing.See
http://www.mindandLife.org/mission.org_section.html.

13

nature.AsthisstudyissubsumedwithinthefieldofmodernBuddhism,the
Buddhistperspectiveisaccordinglyandappropriatelypresentedinanonsectarian
mannerasthemodernBuddhistwould.Thatis,theBuddhistperspectivedraws
fromallschoolsofthought,withspecifictenetschosenfortheirrelevance,
compatibility(forbothcomparingandcontrasting),consistency,andtheir
complementarinesswithcurrentscienceandtherelatedphilosophies.However,
whenreferringtoBuddhismandtraditionalthoughtregardingphilosophyofmind
andtheself,IwillbeusingitinthegeneralsenseofbothancientIndianandTibetan
thought,astheschoolsassociatedsharemanyprimaryassumptionsandmuch
doctrine,yetmajorpointsofcontentionwillofcoursebedulynoted.
Naturally,therearemanycontradictionsandcomplicationsthatarisewhen
drawingtogethertwosystemsofthoughtlikeBuddhismandScience.Scholarsand
devoteesalikehaveaccountedfortheseinconsistenciesinanumberofways
includingarguingBuddhismhasalwaysbeenmodernorscientific,dismissing
incompatibilitiesbetweenBuddhistandscientificthoughtasirrelevantoratleast
notcentraltotheargumentathand,andunderstandingtheBuddhistutilizationof
scienceasawesternstyledskillfulmeans.17Theemergenceofallthesedifferent
modelsforunderstandingBuddhismandScienceillustratethesignificantimpact
thisdialoguehashad,asboththescholaranddevoteestrugglewithunderstanding
sciencesplaceintheBuddhistworld.Manyscholarshaveaddressedandattempted

17DonaldS.LopezsuggestsjustasBuddhismgrewtoincludeVedicgodsinIndiaandkamiinJapan,

inorderforBuddhismtobesuccessfulintheWest,perhapsthereligionhasgrowntoincludethegod
ofScienceinthepantheonaswell.SeeLopez,BuddhismandScience:AGuideforthePerplexed(New
York:UniversityforChicagoPress,2008),37.

14

toanswerthisquestion,somewithanoptimisticoutlook,18somewithmore
doubtfulinclinations.19Yet,despitehowBuddhismhasbeenmodifiedtosituate
itselfinscientificdialogue,thisisnotindicativeofmeaninglessness.Buddhismand
Scienceisanimportanthistoricalmovementthatcontinuestoproducevaluable
dialoguewithmanyimportantimplications.
AfterbrieflydiscussingtheBuddhistperspectiveonthemutabilityofmental
andphysicalprocesses,Iwillturntothescientificresearchonmeditationand
neuroplasticity.Asthesciencewillrevealthephilosophicalissuesinvolved,Iwill
thendiscusstheopenquestionsatlengthandprovideamodernBuddhistanalysis
andinterpretationofneuroplasticityanditsimplications.Iwillconcludewitha
suggestionofhowthescientificstudyofmindmightproceedandtheethical
implicationsofneuroplasticityfromtheBuddhistperspective.Byfocusingonsucha
narrowtopicwithinthefieldofBuddhismandScience,Ihopetoconveythelimitless
possibilitiesformeaningfulexchange.
TheBuddhistPerspective:MutabilityandContemplativeTechniques
TheultimategoaloftheBuddhisttraditionaspresentedbytheBuddhaintheFour
NobleTruthsistoendsufferingorunsatisfactorinessandrebirthbyfulfillingthe
humanpotentialforenlightenmentornirvana.LivinginaccordwiththeEightFold

18SeeB.AlanWallaceandBrianHodel,ContemplativeScience:WhereBuddhismandNeuroscience

Converge(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2009).B.AlanWallaceisaknownpractitionerof
Buddhism,thefounderoftheSantaBarbraInstituteforConsciousnessStudies,andanactivescholar
andsupporterinthefieldofBuddhismandScience.
19SeeLopez.Lopeztakesatentativeapproachinviewingscientificstudyasaccretiontothe

Buddhistcanon.Whileheseestheaccretionmodelexplanationassomewhataccurate,heisalso
waryofthisapproach,asitreducesmuchofwhatweonceunderstoodtobeBuddhism.

15

Pathcultivateswisdom,morality,andmeditation,resultingintheeventual
transformationofbody,speech,andmindandultimatelyliberation.TheBuddhist
contemplativetraditionisbasedonthefundamentalbeliefinthemutablenatureof
humanbeingsandimplicittothisideaisarelationshipbetweenmindandbody
enablingtransformation.
TheBuddhistcontemplativetraditionholdsthatbyusingmentalfaculties,
oneimprovesthequalityofthefaculties,whichpivotsontheassumptionputforth
intheEightFoldPath,thatmind,body,andbehaviorcanbetransformed.20Crucial
totransformationisfirstleveltraininginintrospection,aimedatdeveloping
attentionandequanimity.Attentionisthefacultythathelpsdirectthemind(a
deliberateintention)toachosenobjectamongthevarietyexperienced.Attentionis
developedthrough(a)mindfulnessafacultythatkeepsthemindtiedtotheobject
bymaintainingmetaawarenessofmentalstatesand(b)introspectivevigilancea
facultytodiscernwhetherdistractionoccursandwhetherthevividnessofthe
mindsfocushasbecomelax.Thesecondfacultycrucialtointrospectionis
equanimitynotexcessivelyintrospectingwherebytheobjectbecomesdistorted
andthemindisdestabilized.Developmentofattentionandequanimitywillleadto
mentalpliancy,inthatthemindiseasilyserviceableandcanbedirectedfreelyto
anyobject,knownasthetranquilabidingofthemindoramatha,inSanskrit.21

20ThemindscapacityfortransformationisdiscussedinmanyBuddhisttexts.Someoftheearlier
MahayanaworksincludethefourthcenturyTheSublimeContinuum,attributedtoMaitreyaand
PraisetotheUltimateExpanse,attributedtoNagarjuna.Dharmakirti,animportantTibetan
philosopher,alsodiscussestransformationofmind.
21Ibid.,153.amathaisknownasshineinTibetan.

16

Secondleveltrainingisknownasinsight(vipayan)meditation,andworksto
discerninvestigationandanalysiswhileintranquilabiding.22Itbeginswith
sharpnessofinquiryandthenmaintainingfocusonresultantinsightaslongas
possible.
Thereareothertechniquesaswellincludingstructuredanalysisthathas
beendevelopedtofocuscontemplativeexplorationandaddressthepitfallsto
fantasyanddelusion.23Thesefacultieshavebeentargetedbyspecifictechniquesin
ordertoinducetransformationofmind.Unfortunately,thescientificstudyofthe
causalpowerofmentalstatestomodifybrainconditionwaslongneglected,foras
thelatebiologistFranciscoVarelacommented,Itseemscounterintuitiveto
Westernassumptions.However,hegoesontomakethecompellingstatement,but
itislogicallyimplicitinwhatscienceissayingtoday.24

22VipayanisknownaslhakthonginTibetan.Bothamathaandvipayanarepracticedin
TheravadaandMahayanatraditions.
23Ibid.,155.InStagesofMeditation,the8thcenturyIndianBuddhistmasterKamalashilaprovidesa

detailedaccountofhowbothamathaandvipayanmaybesystematicallycultivated.Atranslation
andcommentaryofthisworkbytheDalaiLamaisavailable.SeeStagesofMeditation(SnowLion
Publications:2003).
24SeeBegley,133.Varelawashighlyaccomplishedintheneuroscientificandcognitivescientific

fieldswithover150publications.Asasidenote,theideathatthemindcanbereducedtothebrain
beganintheseventeenthcenturywhenReneDescartesdeclaredthedualismbetweenmindand
mattertobeascientificprinciple.Later,thoseknownastheOxfordCircle,ledbyThomasWillis,the
fatherofmodernneurology,conductedthefirstscientificexplorationofthebrainandthenervous
system.Withthesestudiesbeganthetrendofthinkingaboutthemindinreductionistterms,inthat
allmentalandemotionalstatescametobeconsideredasmanifestationsofbrainprocesses.As
philosopherColinMcGinnputitthereisnothingmoretoaconsciousstatethanitsneuralcorrelate
(quotedinibid.,135).Bythe1990sneuroscientistshadidentifiedwhattheycalledtheexplanatory
gapinhowbrainpropertiesadduptomentality.Someiconoclastsbegantounderstandthemindas
anemergentpropertyofbrainfunctions,sothatthemindcanaffectthelowerorderprocessesfrom
whichitcamefrom,aswillbediscussedlater.Whilethemainstreamheldthatmentalstatescould
onlyaffectmentalstatesbecausetheywereinfactbrainstates,someimportantscientists,including
NobelPrizewinningneuroscientistRogerSperry,stayedfirmwiththeclaimthattheinteraction

17

2
THESCIENCE
MentalFacultiesConducivetoNeuroplasticity
Aftertwowaycausationhadbeenimplicatedbysomeinitialresearchon
neuroplasticity,scientistsquicklytookupthechallengetodeterminethecausal
powerofmentalstates.Inonestudy,HarvardsneurophysiologistAlavaroPascual
Leoneshowedthatthoughtsofplayingthepianoalteredthebraininthesameway
asthosewhoactuallypracticedplaying.Mentalpracticeresultedinthesame
physicalexpansionofthemotorcortexandresultedinsimilarreorganizationofthe
brain.25Thisstudyshowsthatinternal,mentalstimuli,suchasthoughtsand
concentration,canchangethebrain.Asstudiescontinuedthroughoutthe1990s,it
becameincreasinglyapparentthatthedegreeofattentionwasdirectlyrelatedto
themagnitudeofneuroplasticefficacy.Inotherwords,attentionwasfoundtobe
vitalandnecessaryifneuroplasticityistocometofruition.26Thisreflectsthe
Buddhistapproach,asfocusedattentionisthefoundationformoreadvancedmental
training.AsDavidsonnotes,attentionaltrainingissoimportantinBuddhism,andit

betweenthementalandphysicalwasnotunidirectional.Ashistorywassoontotell,thisseemstoin
factbethecase.
25Notedinibid.,152.SeeA.PascualLeone,A.Amedi,F.Fregni,andL.B.Merabet,ThePlastic

HumanBrainCortex,AnnualReviewsofNeuroscience28(2005):380.

26Forexample,seeG.H.Recanzone,C.E.Schreiner,andM.M.Merzenich,Plasticityinthe

FrequencyRepresentationofPrimaryAuditoryCortexFollowingDiscriminationTraininginAdult
OwlMonkeys,JournalofNeuroscience13(1993):87103.

18

alsoisrecognizedtobeveryimportantbyscientists.Inmanyways,attentional
trainingcanbethoughtofasthegatewaytoplasticity.27
MeditationandNeuroscience
Buddhismandneuroscienceagreeparticularmentalstates,suchasattention,enable
themalleabilityorplasticityofthemind.However,attentionalonewillnotproduce
change,ratherspecificmeditativetechniquesareneededtoachievethedesired
effect.TheselectionofBuddhistmeditationfortheneuroscientificexplorationof
techniquesforharnessingthepowerofneuroplasticitywasnotanarbitraryone.In
theCambridgeHandbookofConsciousness,thereasonforthischoiceisdescribedas
follows:unlikemanycontemplativetraditions,Buddhisttraditionstendtooffer
extensive,preciselydescriptive,andhighlydetailedtheoriesabouttheirpracticesin
amannerthatlendsitselfreadilytoappropriationintoaneuroscientificcontext.28

27Begley,160.
28SeeA.Lutz,J.D.Dunne,andR.J.Davidson,MeditationandtheNeuroscienceofConsciousness:

AnIntroductioninTheCambridgeHandbookofConsciousness.(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity
Press,2007),503.Thisisnottosaytheambiguityofthetermisnotamatterofconcernforscientists.
Muchtothecontrary,thoseinvolvedinsuchstudycontinuetolookformeaningfulwaysof
describingBuddhistpractice.However,becausethequestionsaskedvarygreatlyfromthatofsocial
scientists,theparametersforadefinitionofmeditationarethereforequitedifferent.Whatisdefined
iswhatcanbeobservedobjectively.So,whilemeditativetechniquesandthestatesinducedare
acceptabletermsofdefiningmeditationbecauseoftheirmeasurableneuralcorrelates,the
meditativereflectiononultimaterealityandothersuchphilosophicalcomponentsareseparatedas
unverifiable.Davidsonremarked,Thevalueofconsultingaspecifictraditionispreciselythat
throughaccidentorexpertisethetraditionmayhavegleanedsomevaluableknowledgeor
developedsomepracticethatisnotfoundelsewhere.Focusingonaspecifictraditionallows
scientiststoexploretheparticularpsychologyandepistemologyassociatedwithit,inadditiontothe
meditationtechniques,andthenfromthesetenetsderivewhatcontributionsBuddhismcanofferto
theneurosciencesintermsofunderstandingthecognitiveandaffectiveprocessesthatarealteredby
mentaltraining.ThereisanotherreasonthatneuroscientistsseevalueinstudyingBuddhist
techniques,itissimplythatBuddhistunderstandingisstronglyconsistentwithourknowledgeof
theneurosciences.See499502foranexcellentreviewofissuesinthestudyofmeditationandhow
theclaimsanddescriptionsresultingfromsuchstudyarebeingsortedoutbyneuroscientists,
makingresearchincreasinglysophisticatedandmeaningful.

19

Whiletherehavebeenover1,000empiricalstudiesdoneonmeditation,the
neurophysiologicalprocessesinvolvedandtheeffectsoflongtermmentaltraining
remainlargelyunknown.29Partoftheproblemwithsuchstudieshasbeentheuseof
thetermmeditation,asithasreferredtonumeroustypesofpractice.Today,
however,cognitivescientistsaremuchmoreawareofthisproblemandfocuson
specifictypesofBuddhistmeditationinthehopesthatitmayrevealsomeclear
effectsofmentalpractice.30
WhilethetypesofBuddhistmeditationarenumerous,thoseunderrigorous
andcriticalinvestigationcanbecategorizedintothreebroaddivisions:amatha,
alsoknownasobjectmeditation,cultivatestranquilityandconcentration;
vipayan,sometimescalledmindfulness,providesinsightandwisdom;andmaitr,

29Ibid.,499500.ForacompletesurveyoftheempiricalliteratureonmeditationseeJ.H.Austin,
ZenandtheBrain:TowardanUnderstandingofMeditationandConsciousness(Cambridge:MITPress,
1998);R.CahnandJ.Polich,MeditationStatesandTraits:EEG,ERP,andNeuroimagingStudies,in
PsychologicalBulletin132(2006):180211;M.M.Delmonte,ElectrocorticalActivityandRelated
PhenomenaAssociatedwithMeditationPractice:ALiteratureReview,inInternationalJournalof
Neuroscience24(1984):217231;Delmonte,BiochemicalIndicesAssociatedwithMeditation
Practice:ALiteratureReview,inNeuroscience&BiobehaviouralReviews9.4(1985):557561;P.B.
Fenwick,MeditationandtheEEG,inThePsychologyofMeditation,editedbyA.West(NewYork:
ClarendonPress,1987),104117;D.S.Holmes,MeditationandSomaticArousalReduction:A
ReviewoftheExperimentalEvidenceinAmericanPsychologist39(1984),110;andR.R.Pagano
andS.Warrenburg,Meditation:InSearchofaUniqueEffectinConsciousnessandSelfRegulation
(Vol.3),editedbyR.J.Davidson,G.E.Schwartz,andD.Shapiro(NewYork:PlenumPress,1983),152
210.Atheoreticalmodelinvolvingtheneurophysiologicalprocessesinvolvedinthetransformation
ofmindbroughtaboutbymeditationwillbeexploredatalaterpoint.
30Neuroscientists,ofcourse,haveveryspecificandsophisticatedwaysofdefiningmeditationso

thatitmaybeobjectivelystudied.Meditationisdefinedinfourways.First,aformofmeditationis
describedaccordingtothepredictableanddistinctivestateassociatedwithit,indicatedbyspecific
cognitiveand/orphysicalphenomenonthatcanbeobservedandrepeated.Second,thepredictable
andlastingtraitsand/oreffectsonbothmindandbodyinducedbyrepeatedpracticeareusedto
distinguishoneformfromanother.Thethirdwaymeditationisunderstoodisbytheincreasing
levelsofchangefromnovicetoadept,whereimprovementisobservablebytheacquisitionofcertain
cognitive,emotional,and/orphysicaltraitsorbytheoccurrenceofcertaincognitive,emotional,or
physicalevents.Fourth,isthattheinductionofmeditativestatesmustbesomethingthatcanbe
learned,otherwiseclaimsofarelationshipbetweentheproductionofmeditativestatesandthe
developmentofcertaintraitsbecomesirrelevant.SeeLutz,Dunne,andDavidson,502503and510
518foradiscussiononhowmeditationterminologyisbeingusedinscientificstudies.

20

orcompassionmeditation,developslovingkindness.31TheBuddhistscholar
understandsthatthesecategoriesarevagueandsomewhatarbitrary,asamatha
andvipayandescribetwoaspectsofthesamemeditativestateandarenotso
easilyseparated.Furthermore,whenscientistsstudymeditationtechniquesthey
oftenlookatonetypethatfallsunderoneofthesethreecategories.32Forthesake
ofsimplicity,thescientificresearchdiscussedhasbeendividedintojustthetwo
categoriesofmindfulnessmeditationandcompassionmeditation.
MindfulnessMeditationandNeuroscience
Mindfulnessmeditationisincreasinglybeingusedinsecularenvironmentstotreata
rangeofmentalpathologies,includingstress,depression,andobsessivecompulsive
disorder(OCD).InastudyconductedbyneuropsychiatristJeffreySchwartzand
colleagueLewisBaxter,patientssufferingfromOCDwhowentthrough
mindfulnessbasedtherapyshowedadramaticdecreaseinactivityintheorbital
frontalcortex,theareaactivatedbythedisorder,comparedtocontrolsubjects.As
Schwartznoted:
[Thestudy]offeredstrongevidencethatwillful,mindful
effortcanalterbrainfunction,andthatsuchself
directedbrainchangesneuroplasticityareagenuine

31ThesearetheSanskritterms.SeeDakpoTashiNamgyal,Mahmudr:The
MoonlightQuintessenceofMindandMeditation(Boston:WisdomPublications,2006)foradetailed
descriptionofdifferentformsofmeditation.MaitrisalsopracticedinbothTheravadaandMahayana
Buddhism.Inadditiontothesebroadcategoriesofmeditation,TibetanBuddhismalsohasthousands
oftantricvisualizations.
32Forexample,focusedattentionmeditation,TscigTingngdzin,occursinmanyformsof
practice,butisgenerallyunderstoodasamatha.

21

reality.Mentalactioncanalterthebrainchemistryofan
OCDpatient.Themindcanchangethebrain.33

Inanotherexample,psychologistZindelSegalandCambridgesJohnTeasdale

andMarkWilliamsdevelopedwhattheycalledmindfulnessbasedcognitivetherapy
forthetreatmentofdepression.Whilepatientsunderusualtreatmentservedasthe
controlgroupwith34percentfreeofrelapse,ofthoseundermindfulnessbased
cognitivetherapy,therateincreasedto66percent.Thatcomesouttobea44
percentreductionintherelapserateamongthoseinvolvedinmindfulnesstherapy,
asreportedin2000.34In2004,Teasdale,alongwithcolleagueHelenMa,replicated
thestudy,findingthesameresultsofreducedrelapse.Bydrawingawarenessto
theirownmentalstates,patientssufferingfromdepressionwereabletokeeptheir
negativethoughtsfromresultinginrelapse.35Thesefindingsindicatetopdown
plasticity,becausetransformationoriginatesincognitiveactivity,thatis,themind
initiateschangesinthebrain.

Mindfulnessmeditationhasalsofounditselfinthetreatmentofstress.In

1995,JonKabatZinndevelopedaprogramcalledtheCenterforMindfulnessin
Medicine,HealthCare,andSocietyasanoutgrowthoftheacclaimedStress

33Begley,141.SchwartzsstudiesofOCDandmindfulnessbasedtherapyarediscussedatlengthin

J.M.SchwartzandS.Begley,TheMindandtheBrain:NeuroplasticityandthePowerofMentalForce
(NewYork:ReganBooks,2002),chapter2,BrainLock.
34SeeJ.Scott,J.D.Teasdale,E.S.Paykel,A.L.Johnson,R.Abbott,H.Hayhurst,R.Moore,andA.

Garland,EffectsofCognitiveTherapyonPsychologicalSymptomsandSocialFunctioninginResidual
Depression,BritishJournalofPsychiatry177(2000):44046;andJ.D.Teasdale,Z.V.Segal,J.M.
Williams,V.A.Ridgeway,J.M.Soulsby,andM.A.Lau,PreventionofRelapse/RecurrenceinMajor
DepressionbyMindfulnessBasedCognitiveTherapy,JournalofConsultingandClinicalPsychiatry68
(2000):61523.
35SeeS.H.MaandJ.D.Teasdale,MindfulnessBasedCognitiveTherapyforDepression:

ReplicationandExplorationofDifferentialRelapsePreventionEffects,JournalofConsultingand
ClinicalPsychiatry72(2004):3140.

22

ReductionCenter,establishedin1979attheUniversityofMassachusettsMedical
School.36Mindfulnessbasedtherapyhasbeenfoundtoproducealterationsin
patternsofprefrontalbrainactivitythathaspreviouslybeenfoundtoaccompanya
positiveaffect.37CoursesonMindfulnessBasedStressReductionnowextend
beyondthehospitalsettingforchronicpatientsandareappliedtoawidearrayof
individuals.38Thismethod,withaprimarybasisinBuddhistpractice,isnowbeing
usedtotreatchronicpain,anxietydisorders,generalpsychologicalwellbeing,
psoriasis,andrecurrentdepression.39Recentstudieshaverevealedthatthistypeof
therapyalsoproduceschangesinbrainstructure,showingagainthatmeditation
caninduceneuroplasticity.40
CompassionMeditationandNeuroscience
Inthe1980ssomeinitialstudiesontheplasticityofbaselineemotionsrevealeda
connectionbetweenattachmentsecurityandcompassion.41Attachmentsecurityis

36Formoreinformation,seehttp://www.umassmed.edu.KabatZinnisalsoafoundingFellowof

theFetzerInstitutethataimsattheutilizationoflove,forgiveness,andcompassionintransforming
individualsandcommunities.Seehttp://www.fetzer.org.
37SeeR.J.Davidson,J.KabatZinn,J.Schumacher,M.Rosenkranz,M.Muller,D.Santorelli,S.F.
Urbanowski,A.Harrington,K.Bonus,andJ.F.Sheridan,AlterationsinBrainandImmuneFunction
ProducedbyMindfulnessMeditation,PsychosomaticMedicine65.4(2003):564570.
38SeeJ.KabatZinnandA.ChapmanWaldrop,CompliancewithanOutpatientStressReduction
Program:RatesandPredictorsofProgramCompletion,JournalofBehavioralMedicine,11.4(1988):
333353;andKabatZinn,Lipworth,andBurney,TheClinicalUseofMindfulnessMeditationforthe
SelfRegulationofChronicPain,JournalofBehavioralMedicine8.2(1985):16390.
39SeeP.Grossman,L.Niemann,S.Schmidt,andH.Walach,MindfulnessBasedStressReduction

andHealthBenefits:AMetaAnalysis,JournalofPsychosomaticResearch57.1(2004):3543.
40SeeS.Lazar,G.Bush,R.L.Gollub,G.L.Fricchione,G.Khalsa,andH.Benson,Meditation

ExperienceisAssociatedwithIncreasedCorticalThickness,Neuroreport16.17(2005):18937.
41Begley,1978.

23

thedegreeofwhichonefeelssecureinhis/herownpersonalrelationshipsand
thosewhohadahighdegreeofattachmentsecurityalsohadhigherdegreesof
compassion.Afteraseriesofstudies,PhillipShaverandMarioMikulincerofBarIlan
UniversityinIsrael,foundthatthecircuitryforattachmentsecurityisplasticand
thereforecanbeincreasedalongwithcompassion,therebydecreasingselfishness
andethnocentrism.42
Thesefindingslaunchedfurtherstudiesindevelopingpositivementalstates
thatwouldtakeadvantageofthepossibilitiesofneuroplasticity.RichardDavidson,
whoisfamiliarwithBuddhistmeditationanditsimplicationsfortransforming
emotions,undertookastudytoexaminetherelationshipbetweenmentaltraining
andthegenerationofenduringhappinessandotherpositiveemotions.His
hypothesiswasthatmeditationhastheabilitytochangethebrain,throughthe
workingsofneuroplasticity,wherepatternsofneuralactivityoreventhestructure
ofneuronscanbealtered.TibetanBuddhistsmonkstraveledtotheUnitedStatesat
theDalaiLamasencouragementtoactassubjectsofresearchaimedatdetecting
changeinpatternsofprefrontalactivation,thephysicallocationcorrelatedto
positiveemotions,throughtheprocessofmentaltraining.43Themonksfollowedthe
scientistsinstructionsinalternatingneutralmentalactivitywithsixmentalstates,
includingcompassionmeditation.Duringcompassionmeditation,theleftfrontal

42MikulincerandShaverdescribetheirworkinnumerouspublications.SeeMikulincer,T.Dolev,
andShaver,AttachmentRelatedStrategiesduringThoughtSuppression:IronicReboundsand
VulnerableSelfRepresentations,JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology89(Nov.2005):817
39,foranextensiveoverview.
43EEGistheacronymforelectroencephalographyandisatoolformeasuringtheelectricalactivity
betweenneuronsfiringacrossthebrain.

24

cortex,andtheneuralcorrelateforhappiness,washigherthan99.7percentof
everyoneevermeasured.44
Afterlisteningtoareportofthefindings,theDalaiLamamakesthe
compellingremarkthathappinessissomethingthatcanbecultivateddeliberately.45
Davidsonmakesasimilarconclusion,statinghappinessisnotsimplyastateora
trait,butaskill,onethatcanbeenhancedthroughmentaltraining,justasBuddhism
suggests.Davidsonsays:
Thereisatremendouslacunainourworldview,where
trainingisseenasimportantforstrength,forphysical
agilityforathleticability,formusicalabilityfor
everythingexceptemotions.TheBuddhistssaythese
areskills,too,andaretrainablelikeanyothers.46

Whereasemotionshadbeenpreviouslythoughttobelocalizedincertain

areasofthebrain,studiesbegantorevealthateveryareaofbraindedicatedto
emotionisalsodevotedtosomeaspectofthought;bothemotionandcognitive
processingsharethesameneuralcircuits.47Thisneuroanatomyisconsistentwith
theBuddhistnotionthatthoughtsandemotionsareinseparablepartsofthesame
mentaleventandonlyfurtherthehypothesisthatcognition,withmentaltraining,

44Begley,229.
45Ibid.FormoreinformationregardingBuddhistandscientificunderstandingsofemotions,see

PaulEkman,RichardJ.Davidson,MatthieuRicard,andB.AlanWallace,BuddhistandPsychological
PerspectivesonEmotionsandWellBeing,inCurrentDirectionsinPsychologicalScience14.2(2005),
5963.
46Begley,231.
47Ibid.,232.

25

canalterthecircuitryofemotions.48Davidsoncontinuedtoinvestigatethe
possibilitiesofemotionalplasticity.UsinganfMRItomeasureactivityinthe
amygdala,theareaofthebrainassociatedwithemotionssuchasdistress,fear,
anger,andanxiety,hefoundthatsimplybyhavingtheaspirationthatapersonina
photobefreeofsuffering,subjects,evenwithoutmentaltraining,canalter
activationinthebrain.49Thoughtwasalteringemotion.

Inanotherexperiment,DavidsontestedeightBuddhistadeptsalongwith

eightnonmeditatorsascontrols,toengageinlovingkindnessmeditationwhile
theirbrainwavesweremeasuredbyEEGs.Theprominentpresenceofgamma
waveswasnoticedatonce,thesignalcontinuingtoriseoverthemeditationperiod.
Gammawavesarebelievedtogenerallybeassociatedwithmentaleffortinaddition
tobeingthesignatureforactivitybetweenwidespreadbraincircuitryandseemto
berelatedtoconsciousnessandperception.Evenduringneutralmentalactivity,the
monksincreaseingammawaveswaslargerthanhadeverbeenrecordedin
previousneuroscienceexperimentation.50Furthermore,Davidsonfoundalinear
relationshipbetweenthenumberofyearspracticedandtheirbaselinegamma
signal,showingthatthedegreeofmentaltrainingisrelatedtothedegreeof
change.51Thestudywasthefirststudyoncompassionmeditationeverconducted

48Buddhistnotionsofcognitiveemotionalprocessing,designatedbytheunitvithiinthe
Abhidharma,willbediscussedatalaterpoint.
49Ibid.,2323.
50Ibid.,234.
51Ibid.,236.

26

andwassoonpublishedintheprestigioussciencejournalProceedingsofthe
NationalAcademyofSciences.52
Theresultsalsoshowedthatevenwhennotmediatingtheadeptsbrain
signalsweresignificantlydifferentthannonmeditators,illustratingthatmeditation
ormentaltrainingcanmanifestasanenduringbraintrait.Buddhistsdonotfindthis
surprising,asitsupportstheclaimthatmeditationhassignificantandlastingeffects
beyondtheactualperiodofpractice,influencingthepersononafundamentallevel
thatchangeseverydaylife.OfevengreatersignificancetoBuddhistsistheregionsof
thebrainthatwereshowntobeactiveduringcompassionmeditation,asthe
physicalcorrelatesofthepracticereflectwhatthistypeofmeditationismeantto
cultivate.Duringmeditation,thebrainsofexperiencedmeditatorsandthecontrol
subjectsalikebothshowedactivityinareasrelatedtomonitoringemotions,
planningmovements,andpositiveemotionssuchashappiness.Fortheadepts,
however,therewasincreasedactivationintherightinsulaandcaudate,thenetwork
associatedwithempathyandmaternalloveandthatisexactlythedesiredeffectof
thistypeofmeditation.Theamountofhoursspentinmeditationwasagain
informativeofthedegreeofactivationintheseareas.Andbecauseofthisincreased
activationintheareaofthebrainrelatedtoplannedmovement,itseemedasifthe
monksheldtheintenttoactonthiscompassion.AsDavidsonnotedatthetwelfth

52SeeA.Lutz,L.L.Greischar,N.B.Rawlings,M.Ricard,andR.J.Davidson,LongTermMeditators

SelfInduceHighAmplitudeGammaSynchronyduringMentalPractice,ProceedingsoftheNational
AcademyofSciences101(Nov.16,2004):1636973.

27

MindandLifeconference,theseresultsseemedtogiverealmeaningtothephrase
movedbycompassion.53
AnotherconsistencybetweenBuddhismandsciencerevealedbysuch
studiesisthatthemeditatingmonksshowedactivationinnetworksassociatedwith
painand,asDavidsonnotes,showsthenotionofsufferingwithsomeonemakes
realsenseneurologically.54Aspartofcompassionmeditationinvolvesthe
ingestionofotherssuffering,thismakessensetoBuddhistsaswell.55Furthermore,
regionsthatareinvolvedintheunderstandingofwhatisselfandwhatisother
showedreducedactivity,inadeptsandnovicesalike.56TheBuddhistscholarcan
immediatelyseehowthesestudiesaresocompellinginthestudyofBuddhist
philosophy.Asallmeditationisultimatelyorientatedtowardrealizingthewisdom
ofemptinessandnoself,physicalevidenceofmeditationquietingthenotionof
selfisquitecompelling.Theconceptofnoselfwillbediscussedatalaterpoint.
Suchactivityofthebrainisnotablyhigherinexperiencedmeditators,suggesting
againthatthecultivationofthesepositiveskillscanbetrained.
Ofcourse,theseresultsareofgreatinteresttotheneuroscientificcommunity
aswell,for,asDavidsonsays:

53Begley,238.
54Ibid.,238.
55InTibetanthispracticeiscalledtonglenandinvolvessendingoutyourhappinessand

compassiontoallsentientbeingswiththeexhalationofbreath,proceededbytheinhalationofall
otherspainandsuffering.
56Ibid.,237.

28

Becauseincreasedtrainingincompassionmeditation
resultsingreateractivationofareaslinkedtoloveand
empathy,itsuggestthatemotionsmightbetransformed
bymentaltraining.Sciencehaslongheldthatemotional
regulationandemotionalresponsearestaticabilities
thatdontmuchchangeonceyoureachadulthood.But
ourfindingsclearlyindicatethatmediationcanchange
thefunctionofthebraininanenduringway.57

57Ibid.,2389.

29

3
PHILOSOPHICALIMPLICATIONSOFRESEARCH
AstheresearchhasrevealednotonlyconsistenciesbetweenBuddhismand
neuroscience,butalsosomequitecompellingpossibilities,itseemstheimplications
ofthefindingsforphilosophyofminddeservessomeattention.Buddhismhaslong
consideredthepotentialoftheplasticmind,whichhasbeensubjecttointense
analysisbyseriouscontemplatives.TheresultantBuddhistmodelofmindisan
alternatevisionthathasnotbeenfullyconsideredbywesternphilosophers,one
thataddressesthedifficultiesandpitfallsassociatedwithcurrent,predominantly
acceptedmodelsinthefield,includingphysicalismanddualism.58
TheMiddleWaybetweenPhysicalismandDualism
Regardingthestructureofreality,Buddhismrejectsbothphysicalismanddualism,
insteadtakingthemiddlewaybetweenthetwo.Buddhismsuggeststherearethree
fundamentalaspectsofthemundaneworldofconditionedthings,theworldof
conventionalexperience:(1)matterphysicalobjects;(2)mindsubjective
experience;and(3)abstractcompositesmentalformations.Sciencedeals
primarilywiththatwhichisphysical,observable,andobjectifiableandoften
maintainsthemetaphysicalassumptionthatallrealityisultimatelyreducibleto
such,includingthemind.Manyphilosophersofneurosciencemaintainsimilar

58Thisisavastoversimplificationofthesophisticatedargumentsputforthbymanyimportant
thinkers.Yet,reducingthephilosophicalviewpointstothisdichotomywillhelpillustratethe
Buddhistunderstandingbycomparison.Foracomprehensiveoverviewofpastandpresent
contributionsinphilosophyofmind,seeDavidJ.Chalmers,ed.,PhilosophyofMind:Classicaland
ContemporaryReadings(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2002)

30

views.AccordingtotheBuddhistperspective,thementalrealmisheavilycontingent
uponphysicalbases,howeveritisalsoconsideredseparatefromthematerialworld.
Inotherwords,thementalcannotbereducedtothephysical,althoughitmay
dependuponthephysicaltofunction.59Atfirstglancethismayappeartobe
dualistic,howeverthisinfactisnotthecase,aswillbediscussedshortly.Thethird
realmofabstractcompositescannotbecharacterizedasphysicalormentalbecause
itisnotcomposedofmaterialconstituentsnordoesitexistonlyinsubjective
experience.Theseincludefeaturesofrealitythatareintegraltoourunderstanding
oftheworld,includingtime,concepts,andlogicalprinciplesthatareessentially
constructsofourmindbutdistinctfromthetypologyofmentalphenomena.All
phenomenawithinthisrealmarecontingentuponeitherthephysicalormental
realmsbuthavecharacteristicsdistinctfromthetwo.60
Buddhistphilosophyfurtherdividesthementalrealmintoasixfoldtypology
ofmentalphenomena:theexperiencesofsight,hearing,smell,taste,touch,andthe
mentalstates.61Mentalphenomenacorrespondingtothefivesensesareconsidered

59WiththeexceptionofonematerialistschoolinIndia,mostancientIndianandTibetan
philosophicalschoolsagreethatthementalcannotbereducibletothephysical.SeeHisHolinessthe
FourteenthDalaiLama[TenzinGyatso],TheUniverseinaSingleAtom:TheConvergenceofScience
andSpirituality(NewYork:BroadwayBooks,2005),126.
60ThisissimilartophilosopherofscienceKarlPoppersvisionofreality.SeeThreeWorlds,the

TannerLectureonHumanValuesdeliveredattheUniversityofMichigan,April7th,1978.Accessible
athttp://www.tannerlectures.utah.edu/lectures/documents/popper80.pdf.
61OnedivisionoftheYogacaraschoolpositsaneightfoldtypology.Inadditiontothesixdiscussed,

theyarguefortheexistenceofabasicmindthatretainsthroughoutthelifetimeofanindividualand
isbestunderstoodasfoundationalconsciousness.Inextricablefromthisfoundationalconsciousness
istheconsciousnessofselfhood,assertingIam.Thisisunderstoodasadistinctstreamof
consciousness.TheMiddleWayschool,generallyupheldbyTibetanthinkers,rejectsthistypology
becauseofthepotentialimplicationsoffoundationalconsciousnessregardingthenatureofself.See
theDalaiLama(2005),123124.

31

contingentuponthesensoryfacultiesthatareunderstoodasmaterial(i.e.physical).
Theexperienceofmentalstatesontheotherhand,havegreaterindependencefrom
theirphysicalbasesasfacultiessuchasimaginationillustrate.Therearetwo
primarycharacteristicsthatdefinethesevariousstatesasmental:luminosityand
knowing.62Luminosityorclarityreferstotheabilityofmentalstatestorevealor
reflect.Knowingorcognizancereferstomentalstatesfacultytoperceiveor
apprehendwhatappears.Allphenomenahavingthesequalitiesareregardedas
mental.TheDalaiLamaprovidesfurtherelucidation:
Justasinlightthereisnocategoricaldistinction
betweentheilluminationandthatwhichilluminates,so
inconsciousness[i.e.mentalstates]thereisnoreal
differencebetweentheprocessofknowingorcognition
andthatwhichcognizes.Inconsciousness,asinlight,
thereisaqualityofillumination.63
Mentalityisnotconsideredtobedistinctfromthesementalprocesses;ratherthe
mindischaracterizedassuch.
Asphysicalismholdsthatmentalprocessesarenothingotherthanphysical
processes,categorizingthemindasmentalprocessesmayseemtosuggestthe
mentalissimplyphysical,evidencedbyneuralcorrelatesofmentalevents.
However,theprimarycharacteristicofmindisitssubjectivenatureandnothing
purelyobjectivecanfullyaccountforsubjectivity.Itisbynaturedifferentthanthe
physical,objectiveworld.Becausethenatureofthementalandphysicalare
necessarilydifferentonecannotbethesubstantialcauseoftheother.Thisis

62YoungTibetanBuddhistsfirstlessoninepistemologyis,Thedefinitionofthementalisthat

whichisluminousandknowing.Ibid.,124.
63Ibid.,125.

32

becauseaccordingtoBuddhisttheoryofcausationtherearetwoprinciple
categoriesofcauses:(1)thesubstantialcause,thesubstancethatturnsintoa
particulareffect(forexample,clayisthesubstantialcauseofapot);and(2)
contributoryorcomplementarycauses,thatisallotherfactorsthatmaketheeffect
possible(continuingthepreviousexample,thiswouldincludesuchthingsasthe
potterandkiln).64AccordingtoBuddhisttheoryofconsciousness,consciousness
andmattercananddocontributetowardtheoriginationofeachother,butonecan
neverbethesubstantialcauseoftheother.65Furthermore,ifthisisthelineof
demarcationbetweenthementalandthephysicalthansubjectiveexperiencehaving
neuralcorrelatesdoesnotrefutetheclaimthatonesmind,onessubjective
experiencecanalterthephysical.Infact,theneuralcorrelatescanbeinterpretedas
supportingsuchatheory,astheyprovidethemechanismofwhichthementalcan
actonthephysical.
Dualismsuggeststherearetwoindependentsubstances,mindandmatter.
ThisisnottheBuddhistview.Instead,realityasexperiencedbyordinaryperception
istheworldofconditionedthings.Thenatureofrealitycontainstwotruths,the
conventionalandtheultimate.Theyaredistinctandneitherismoretruethanthe
other.Ontheultimatelevel,nothinghasinherentexistenceandisknownas
empty,rathereverythingisdependentlyoriginated,thatiseverythingoriginates
accordingtocausesandconditionsandisthereforesubjecttochange.Allthings

64ItisperhapsworthnotingthesubstantialandcontributorycausesarecomparabletoAristotles

materialandefficientcauses.
65Ibid.,131.BuddhisttheoryofcausationhasbeenexploredbythinkerssuchasDharmakirti(ca.

7thcent.).HisphilosophyisgenerallyupheldbyTibetanthinkersandispartofthemonastic
curriculum.

33

experiencedintheconditionedworldgothroughthethreephasesofarising,
remaining,andceasing.Themind,likeallconditionedphenomena,arisesfrom
manycontributingfactorsandisdependentonandrelationaltomanycomponents.
Mindandbodyaredistinct,butnotwhollyseparate,related,butnotequivalent.
Bothphysicalismanddualismhavedifficultyaccountingfortwoway
causationimplicatedbyneuroplasticity.Thephilosophyofphysicalismis
complicatedbyrecentresearchshowingtheproductionofphysicalchangethrough
attentionandothervolitionalmentalstates(suchasequanimity),whichwouldbe
impossibleaccordingtotheprevalentviewinneurosciencethatrejectsmental
causation.Twowaycausalityisaproblemfordualisminthatifmindandmatterare
completelyexistentiallyindependentfromeachother,howcouldanykindofcausal
relationshipbetweenthetwobeaccountedfor?Justasitisdifficulttoacceptthat
mindandmatterarereduciblyequivalent,positingthementalandthephysicalare
whollyindependentisequallyunsatisfactory.Rather,themiddlewaybetweenthe
two,positingdistinction,butnottotalseparationbetweenmindandbodyseemsto
beconsistentwiththeneuroscientificresearchandtheimplicationsof
neuroplasticity.66
TheNeuroplasticMind,TwoWayCausation,andtheProblemofSelf

66B.AlanWallacehasalsoacknowledgedtheBuddhistviewastheMiddlePathbetweenDualism
andMaterialism.SeeHoushmand,etal.,3437.

34

Buddhistsseeneuroplasticityasanexpressionofthefluidityandimpermanenceof
mentalstatesintheeverchangingprocessesthatcharacterizeconsciousness.67This
ideaisoffundamentalimportancetoBuddhism,inthatneuroplasticitycanbe
equatedtomentaltransienceandattainingunderstandingofthenatureofmindis
thefoundationoftheBuddhistnotionofnoself,tobediscussedshortly.
Neuroplasticitysuggeststhemindisnot,infact,someautomated,mechanical
processemergingfromthephysical,butisdistinctandenjoyssomeindependence
fromthebrain,reflectingBuddhistunderstanding.68Eventhoughthemindis
consideredtobedistinctfromthebrain,thisisnotseenasestablishinganykindof
permanentorinherentexistence.Rather,themindischaracterizedbythetransitory
processesofconsciousnessorneuroplasticpotentialand,therefore,hasno
permanentattributesthatcouldaccountforinherentexistence.TheMadhymikaor
CentristviewofTibetanBuddhismrejectstheinherentexistenceofallthings.
However,thingsdoexistinrelationtoeachother,includingthementalandthe
physicalrelatedthroughsensation,perception,andconception.Thisschoolof
thoughtrejectsboththephilosophiesofdualismandphysicalismasnotedabove.
Phenomenadonotexistinthemselves,butdoexistasdependentlyrelatedevents.

67HisHolinesstheDalaiLamaexplicitlyexpressesthisview.SeetheDalaiLama(2005),150.There
aremanyvarietiesofawarenessanddegreesandqualitiesofconsciousnessfallingalongaspectrum
fromtheverygrosstotheverysubtle.Thosethatareofagrossernatureareentirelydependenton
thephysicalbodyasdiscussedearlier,howeversubtlelevelsofconsciousnessarerelatedto
conceptualawareness(asopposetosensoryawareness).Forabriefdiscussiononthespectrumon
consciousnessbetweenHisHolinessandwesternscientists,seeZaraHoushmand,RobertB.
Livingston,andB.AlanWallace,eds.ConsciousnessattheCrossroads:ConversationswiththeDalai
LamaonBrainScienceandBuddhism.Ithaca:SnowLionPublications,1999,3755.
68Buddhismconcedesthatthebrainorthebodyisthebasisforcertainkindsofawareness,butthe
brainisnotunderstoodasapprehendinganythingatall.Theawarenessapprehends,notthephysical
body.SeeDanielGoleman,ed.HealingEmotions:ConversationswiththeDaliaLamaonMindfulness,
Emotions,andHealth.Boston:Shambhala,1997,232.

35

Dependenceisthreefold:(1)thingsariseindependenceonprecedingcausal
influences,(2)phenomenaexistindependenceontheirownattributes,and(3)they
aredependentonhumankindsverbalandconceptualdesignationofthem.69The
mindtoo,existsasacausalnexus,partofwhichissharedwiththebody,allowing
fortwowaycausation.70
Inlightoftheimplicationsofneuroplasticityregardingmindbodycausality,
bothphysicalistsanddualistsneedtomodifysomeoftheirclaimsaboutthemind
bodyrelationship.Whilethisisstillamajorproblemthatneedstobeaddressedin
dualism,advocatesofphysicalismhaveputfortharevisedargument,positingthe
mindisanemergentpropertyofthebrain,whichhasbecomethepredominant
theoryinneuroscience.Theideathatthemindisapropertyofthebrainisa
philosophicallytrickyexplanationthatfindsawaytorecognizethemindand
dismissitatthesametimeandattemptstosupportthetwocontradictorynotions
thatmindhasexistencebutiswithoutsubsistence.Thisexplanationallowsforthe
continuationofthereductionist,physicalistviewbydenyingthemindany
categoricaldistinctionfromthebrain.Buddhistsandneuroscientistsagreethat
consciousnessisaprocess;however,ifthemindisaprocessitnecessitatesacause

69SeeHoushmand,etal.,35.
70Somephilosophersofscienceargueforanetiologicalunderstandingofexplanations,thatis
explanationshoulddescribecauseandeffectintermsofasharedcausalnexusbetweensupporting
componentparts,ratherthanaconstitutiveexplanationofcomponentpartsthatunderstandscause
andeffectinreductionistterms.Forexample,seeWesleyC.Salmon,CausalityandExplanation(New
York:OxfordUniversityPress,1998),whichbringstogetherthisimportantthinkerscontributions
overthecourseofhiscareer.Buddhistunderstandingofdependentoriginationcanbecomparedto
theetiologicalexplanationposition,inthatcauseandeffectdonotoccursolelyasthe
mechanical/physicalreactionofcomponentparts,butalsooccurasacausalnexus.Agood
explanationtherefore,willaccountforcausalrelations.Followingthislineofreasoning,anadequate
explanationofmindshoulddescribethemindnotintermsofreduciblyphysicalcomponentparts,
butratheraccountforanexusbetweenmindandbody.

36

andthespontaneousemergenceofmindfrombrainseemstosuggestaninitialpoint
ofwhichthereisnocause.Logicallyacauselessinitialcauseisinconsistentand
difficulttoaccept.71Thistheorycreatesasituationofwhichthemindcanstillbe
understoodassomedefinable,determinable,physicallyobservablephenomenon,
givingittheillusionofsubsistenceandprovidingahavenforitsexistencetoreside
in.Inotherwords,thetheoryallowsfortopdowncausalitywithouttopdown
causes,allowsformindtobraincausalitywithoutgrantingmentalcauses.72
Suchproblemsariseinpartduetoattachmenttothenotionofpermanent
selfhoodpervadingwesternthinking.Westernphilosophytoooftenconflatesthe
termsmindandself.Forexample,anygivenbookonphilosophyofmindwilldevote
sometimetothenotionoffreewill.Therelevanceoffreewilltomindliesinthe
ideathatthemindholdstheautonomyandindependenceoftheself.While
previouslythepredominantviewwasthatselfhoodpersistedinsuchformsasa
soul,asreligiousthoughtbecamelessrelevantaftertheEuropeanenlightenment,
selfhoodwasrelocatedtothementalrealm,whichtomanywasreduciblyphysical.
Theimpermanenceofthebodywasgranted,howeverthepermanenceorinherent
existenceofsomeattributesconstitutingtheselfwasassumednonetheless.

71AtthethirdMindandLifeconference,theDalaiLamaandwesternscientiststouchedonthis
subjectofcategorizingthemindasanemergentpropertyofthebrain.TheDalaiLamacommented:
Therearemanydegreesofsubtletyofconsciousness,andsciencehaslookedonlyattheordinary
levels.So,sciencehasmerelynotfoundthemoresubtleonesandmerelynotfindingisnotenough
tocontrovertbecauseofthehumanbody,thereisacertainconsciousnessthatentirelydependson
thehumanorganism.Obviously,wecallthatgrosserlevelofmindthehumanmind.Inthatsense,you
couldvirtuallyspeakofthehumanmindasbeinganemergentpropertyofthebody.However,in
regardstosubtlerlevelsofconsciousness,thesubstantialcauseforthementalmustbemental.See
Goleman(1997),227228.
72Foradiscussionregardingphilosophicalissuesraisedininterpretingtopdowncausalityin

termsofinterlevelcausation,ratherthanintralevelcausation,seeCarlF.CraverandWilliamBechtel,
TopDownCausalitywithoutTopDownCauses,inBiologyandPhilosophy(2007)22:547563.

37

Thisassumptionhasledwesternphilosophersofmindtofocusonexplaining
whatpermanentattributescouldaccountforselfhoodandoftenignoringthe
possibilitythatthereisnoself.73Eventheemergentmindhypothesis,which
attemptsatdismissingamindthatiscategoricallydistinctfromthebrainreflects
suchproblems.Iftherewerenoselftoconsideralongwithnomindtodeny,there
wouldbenoneedtoestablishthemindasexistentiallydependenton,butcausally
distinctfromthechanging,neuroplasticbrain.Asresearchonneuroplasticity
revealedthebrainisratherdynamic,itcouldnolongerserveastheseatofselfhood.
Selfhood,thenmustresideinthementalrealm,existingbywayofmemoryorsome
othercontinuity.Inordertomakesuchnotionsofselfhoodconsistentwith
physicalistornaturalisticphilosophies,thementalcametoberegardedasan
emergentpropertyofthebrain.Inthisway,thementalrealmisgrantedsome
independence,butnotgrantedcategoricaldistinctionfromthebrain,allowing
selfhoodtopersistoutsideoftheimpermanent,transientbodywhilesimultaneously
maintainingamindthatisreduciblyphysical.Thesimplerexplanationtoaccount
formindbraincausalitywouldbetoconcludethemindissubjecttocauses,
conditions,andchangeandisnomorestableorenduringthanthebrain,bothlack
permanenceandexistonlyindependenceonparticularcausalnetworks,although
theyaredistinct.Neuroscientificfindingsregardingneuroplasticityclearlyindicate
theimpermanenceofbrainstructureandmentalstates.Theimplicitobjectionto

73Forexample,seeRobertR.Llinas,IoftheVortex:FromNeuronstoSelf(Cambridge:MITPress,
2002),whichexaminesselfhoodfromtheperspectiveofcellularphysiology.

38

suchamodelofmindisifthemind,likethebrain,isimpermanent,whatisleftto
identifytheselfwith?74
TheSelf
Neuroplasticityrevealsthathumanbeingsarenotsomefixed,monolithicentity,
ratherboththementalandthephysicalaspectsoftheindividualareplasticandare
evencharacterizedbyimpermanentandvaryingprocesses.Knowingthatchangeis
thenatureofourbeing,thequestionofselfhasneverbeengreater.75Ifbothmind
andbodyareconstantlychangingandthereforelackpermanentattributes,what
accountsforselfhood?FromtheBuddhistperspective,perhapsthemostsignificant
implicationsofneuroplasticityarethoseregardingconceptionsoftheself.
AccordingtoBuddhism,justasthemindissubjecttoparticularcausesand
conditions,undergoingconstantchangeandthereforeimpermanentandlacking
inherentexistence,sotoofortheself.WhenBuddhistsassertthatthereisnoself,
whatisbeingsuggestedisthatthereisnopermanententityofwhichtoidentify
withtheselfandtheexperienceofselfasaenduringbeingisanillusion.Rather,the

74Somescientistsinthefieldofbiologyandcognitivescienceareawareoftheproblemofselfwhen
thinkingofthemindasanemergentpropertyofthebrain.Forexample,neuroscientistFrancisco
VarelanotesthattheBuddhistnotionofnoselforemptyselffollowsthemodelofvirtualselfbeing
developedinhisfield.Followingthisview,theselfcanbeseenastheemergentpropertyofthemind,
butlikethemind,theselfhasnoinherentexistenceandissomethinglikeanopticalillusionofthe
mind.Individualsreifytheselfandattributepermanenceandsoliditytosomethingthatisillusory.
However,eventhisnotionofvirtualselfseemstomaintainattachmenttothenotionofapermanent
self,despitetheimplicationsofsuchatheory.Whileitisnotedthattheselfcannotbelocated
anywhereinthebody,theselfisdescribedasproducedbyanunderlyingnetworkofbiologicaland
cognitivesystems.However,followingthelogicalconclusionofvirtualselfthereshouldbenothing
thatcouldbeidentifiedasproduced,exceptperhapswhenspeakingoftheconventionalexperience
ofself,butthatisnothowitisused.SeeDanielGoleman,ed.,DestructiveEmotions:AScientific
DialoguewiththeDalaiLama(NewYork:Bantam,2004),93.

75Naturally,manythinkershaveexploredthequestionofself.Foracontemporaryandinfluential
work,seeDouglasR.HofstadterandDanielDennett,TheMindsI:FantasiesandReflectionsonSelf&
Soul(NewYork:BasicBooks,2001),whichcontainsDennettswellknownessay,WhereAmI?.

39

selfisdesignatedasatransientlyexistentphenomenon,meaningtheselfisboth
existentandillusory.

Noselfcanbeexaminedasfollows.WhenthinkingofI,therearisesa

conceptionofsomethingindependentofthebody,mind,oracontinuumofsuch
elements,asifthesethingswereirrelevanttoandseparatefromI.Thenonemay
questionifthisIisonewiththeelementsordifferentfromthem.Buddhists
understandmentalandphysicalaggregatesashavingdifferenttypesandsources,
lackingtheunityofI.Becausetheseaggregatesareofmanykinds,therewouldbe
manytypesofIiftheselfcouldbeequatedtotheseelements.Furthermore,ifthese
aggregateswereeliminatedordestroyed,Iwouldbealso.Itisimpossible,
therefore,thatIandtheaggregatescouldbeoneinthesame.

However,iftheIandtheaggregateswerecompletelyindependentofeach

other,theycouldnotrelatetoeachother.Then,whenthebodyissick,itwould
meantheIisnotsick,whenthebodysuffers,Idonotsuffer,butthisisnot
supportedbyexperience.Therefore,theselfandmentalandphysicalaggregates
cannotbeunrelated.

Yet,fortheselftohaveexistenceitmusthavesubsistence(somethingthat

categorizesitasexistentandasexistentiallydistinctfromotherexistententities)
andwhatcharacterizesitshouldeitherbethesameordifferentfromtheaggregates.
Becauseneitheroneisthecase,onemustconcludethatthereisnothinginherently
existenttotheI.TheIdoesnotexist,butthisisalsocountertoexperience,soone
mustconcludethatitisnottotallynonexistent.Conventionally,thereisaself,butit

40

isanominalIofimputedexistence.76Theselfisnotinherentlyexistent,itisnot
totallynonexistent,itisnotbothofthese,anditisnoteitherofthese.77Theself
mustbeunderstoodbothontheconventionalandultimatelevels.Asmentioned,a
fundamentalBuddhistphilosophicalbeliefisthetwotruths:thetwolevelsof
reality.AstheDalaiLamastates:
Onelevelistheempirical,phenomenalandrelative
levelthatappearstous,wherefunctionssuchascauses
andconditions,namesandlabels,andsooncanbe
validlyunderstood.Theotherisadeeperlevelof
existencebeyondthat,whichBuddhistphilosophers
describeasthefundamental,orultimate,natureof
reality,andwhichisoftentechnicallyreferredtoas
emptiness.78
Sowhiletheselfdoesnotexistattheultimatelevel,itcancontinuetobevalidly
understoodintermsoftherelativelevelofordinaryexperience.

AmajorobjectiontosuchaviewisiftheIhasimputedexistence,whois

doingtheimputing?Inotherwords,theremustbeselftoestablishself.However,
thisobjectionassumesanihilisticinterpretationoftheBuddhistviewandisnotin
agreementwithwhatisbeingsuggested.Buddhistsaredenyingtheinherent

76ThelogicusedinanalyzingtheselfisextrapolatedfromtheDalaiLamaspresentationofthe

argument.SeeH.H.theDalaiLama,TheBuddhismofTibetandtheKeytotheMiddleWay(Delhi:Vikas
PublishingHouse,1975),4245.
77Inthediscussiononthenatureofself,theDalaiLamaquotesNagarjunahere,fromthe

FundamentalTextCalledWisdom(XV.10):Existenceisholdingtopermanence,Nonexistenceisa
viewofnihilism.Notexistent,notnonexistent,notbothandnotsomethingthatisnotboth.Quoted
inibid.,44.
78SeeDalaiLama,HerbertBenson,RobertA.F.Thurman,DanielGoleman,andHowardGardner,et
al.,MindScience:AnEastWestDialogue,proceedingsofthesymposiumsponsoredbytheMind/Body
MedicalInstituteofHarvardMedicalSchool&NewEnglandDeaconessHospital,andTibetHouse
NewYork,editedbyDanielGolemanandRobertA.F.Thurman(Boston:WisdomPublications,1991),
14.

41

existenceofselfasaphenomenonindependentofotherphenomena.Thus,inherent
existenceistheobjectofnegation.Theideathattheselfiscompletelynonexistent
isnottheBuddhistview.Rather,theselfisadependentlyoriginatedphenomenon
andisconstantlyundergoingchange,howeverasaresultofconditioning,
phenomenaappeartoinherentlyexist.Attachmenttotheideaofpermanence
invariablyleadstodissatisfaction,orsufferingasnotedintheFourNobleTruths.
FromtheBuddhistperspective,allmentalafflictionsarisefrommisunderstanding
thenatureofthings,namelythenatureofself.79
TheMindBodyProblem
Whiledependentorigination,discussedearlier,explainstheontologicalstatusof
mindandmatterandconfirmsbothassubjecttochangeandthereforewithout
inherentexistence,thetheorydoesnotexplainhowthephysicalandmental
interact.Knownasthemindbodyprobleminwesternphilosophyofmind,the
questionishowcansomethingnonphysical(themind)actonthephysical(the
body)?Whatisthemechanism?AccordingtoBuddhism,thecausalnetworksof
mindandbodyareintertwined,yettheyarenotidentical,noraretheysubjecttoall
thesamelaws,asmentalstatesindependencefromphysicalsensoryinformation

79ForaninterestingcomparisonbetweenBuddhismandscienceregardingafflictionsrelatingto
identity,seeWilliamS.Waldron,CommonGround,CommonCause:BuddhismandScienceonthe
AfflictionsofIdentity,inBuddhismandScience:BreakingNewGround,editedbyAlanWallace(New
York:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2003),145191.

42

illustrates.80Therefore,whenthephysicalandmentalrealmsinteract,the
occurrencesarewithinaparticularcausalnetwork.
Whenthenoseasphysicalsensoryorgancomesincontactwiththescentofa
flower,thereoccursamentalcorrelatetophysicaloccurrence.Thatmental
correlateorsensationismediatedbyperceptionandtranslatedintotherealmof
subjectivityasaconcept.Thephenomenongoesfromatransitiontophysical(for
example,arose),thenexistsasbothphysicalandmentalphenomena(smellingthe
rose),thenenjoysindependencewithinthementalrealm(smelloftherose).The
Abidharmakosasastra(AbhidhammainPali),oneofthethreepartsofthePalicanon
knownastheTripitaka(Pali:Tipitaka),regardsconsciousnessasactingwithoutan
actor,butnotwithoutcause,andconsciouscognitionisthereforeunderstoodin
termsofthedynamicsofinputandoutput.81Theinputdataaretheobjectsof
consciousness.Whentheobjectsofconsciousnessarisefromthephysicalsenses
theyareknownasrupa,translatedasbodyormatter.Otherinputcomesfrom
consciousnessitself,independentfromthephysicalsenses,callednama,translated
asmind.AccordingtotheAbidharma,themindisregardedasthesixthsense,as

80Thatisnottosaytherearenolaws.OneimportantBuddhistthinkerwhoexploredpsychological

lawswasDharmakirti(ca.7thcent.).

isacompilationofcanonicalTheravadaBuddhisttextsandoneofthreesetsof
volumesknowncollectivelyastheTipitakaorThreeBaskets.ThetextsareinPali,compiledaround
500B.C.E.to250B.C.E.anddealwithphenomenologicalpsychologyasobtainedthroughtheeffects
ofmeditationortrainedintrospection.SeeHenkBarendregt,TheAbhidhammaModelof
ConsciousnessandItsConsequences,inHorizonsinBuddhistPsychology,(TaosInstitute
Publications:ChagrinFalls,2006),331349forasketchoftheAbidharmamodelandan
interpretationofthatmodelregardingvariouspsychologicalnotionslikeneurosis,psychosis,and
copingmechanisms.Theeffectsofmindfulnessmeditationareconsideredinlightof
psychotherapeuticexplanations.NotallvolumesoftheAbidharmahavebeentranslatedintoEnglish,
includingfivevolumesofthePatthana.
81TheAbidharma

43

notedearlierwhendiscussingthetypologyofmentalphenomena.Yet,thisdoesnot
refertoanythingsupernaturalassixthsenseimpliesintheWest,butreferstothe
abilityofconsciousnesstosupplyitsowninput.Whenrupaistheobject,itis
immediatelycopiedtoconsciousnesswithacorrespondingnama,asintheabove
exampleofsmellingtherose.82Namathenbecomesoutputintermsofmentalstates
andbodymovementsandspeech.83
SomesuggesttheAbidharmaisnotsolvingthemindbodyproblem,noreven
addressingit.84However,thatisbecauseinBuddhistphilosophythereisnomind
bodyproblem.Thequestionhowcanthemindactonthebody?wouldonlyhave
relevanceifthemindwherecompletelyindependentfromthephysicalworld,
becausethentherewouldbenocausalnetworksbetweenthetwotoaccountfor
interaction.However,sincetheminddoesinfactaffectandinfluencethebody,as
thebodydoesthemind,theyarenecessarilyrelatedandmustbesubjecttosomeof
thesamecausesandconditions.Asstatedearlier,Buddhismdoesnotassume
dualitybetweenmindandbody,rathertheygiverisetotheoriginationofeachother
andthereforemustsharesomeofthesamecausalnetworks.Twowaycausationis
thelogicalproductofsuchconditionedphenomena.Itisexactlybecausethemind
andbodyareconditionedphenomenathatthemindisabletoactonthebodyand

82Partofrupadoesnotcomefromthephysicalsense,butfromthemind.Organizinginformation

intocompositepartsisanexample.Anotherexampleistheimmediatejudgmentsofvisibleobjects
beingedibleorhavingsexualquality.Seeibid.,332.
83Ibid.,333.

84Ibid.,332.

44

thebodyonthemind.Iftheyexistedcompletelyindependentlyofeachother,
causalitywouldbeanimpossibility.
Understandably,thisexplanationwouldseemsomewhatinsufficientfor
thoseinthefieldofscience.Themaincomponentthatseemstobemissingisthat
mindcannotbelocalizedinspatiotemporalterms.Inotherwords,howisoneto
objectivelyidentifysomethingthatexistsoutsidethelawsofthephysicalworld,
howcoulditpossiblybeaccountedfor?Whiletheanswerstosuchquestionswillbe
exploredmorefullyintheconclusion,itseemsappropriateheretoaddressthe
relationshipbetweenthementalworldandphysicalreality.Empiricismisbasedon
observationandexperienceinthehopesofidentifyinganobjectiveworld
independentofmentalsubjectivity.However,empiricism,andthevalidityof
objectiveaccounts,isbasedonthefundamentalassumptionthatrealityexistsaswe
experienceit,oratleastthatthereissomecorrelationbetweenthetwo.Ifthere
werenone,allsensoryevidencewouldbeirrelevant.Yet,theempiricaltoolusedfor
scienceisafterallthemindandifscientistsdonotunderstandhowthemindis
relatedtophysicalreality,howcantheyeverexpectempiricaladequacy?85As
mentioned,Buddhistsregardthementalasoneofthefundamentalaspectsof
reality.Thefollowingthoughtexperimentwillhopefullyelucidatewhyandillustrate
whereandhowmentalityresidesinreality.

85B.AlanWallacecomments,Theprimaryinstrumentthatallscientistshaveusedtomakeevery

typeofobservationisthehumanmind[]Thisistantamounttousinganinstrumentforthree
hundredyearsbeforesubjectingittoscientificscrutiny.SeeWallaceandHodel,56.

45

Aclassicthoughtexperimentasks,Ifatreeweretofallintheforestandno
onewerearoundtohearit,woulditmakeasound?Ifsoundisunderstoodasthe
physicalwavesthatoccur,thenyes,thetreemakesasound.However,ifsoundis
understoodintermsofvibrationswithintheearresultinginhearing,thenno,sound
didnotoccur.Yet,assumethattheworldismadeupofalldeafbeings.Ifscientistsof
soundweretoconfinetheirresearchtosoundwavesalone,withoutanyreportsofa
hearingexperience,theywouldnotunderstandmuchaboutsound.Indeed,they
wouldhavenoreasonbasedonsoundwavesalonetoconcludetheyarecorrelated
tohearingatall.Now,removeallreferencetosensoryinformation.Inthisuniverse,
thereislittlereasontodetermineanythingregardingcorrelationsbetweenthe
mentalrealmandthephysicalworld.Rather,thisuniverseissilent,dark,andempty.
Furthermore,itwouldbecompletelymeaninglesstoaskquestionsaboutthis
abysmalworldbeyondourobservations.86
Therecanbenoknowledgewithoutknowingandnoknowingwithout
luminosity.Themindiswhatcaststhelightonthisuniverseresultinginthe
explosionofsensations,perceptions,andconceptions.Itisnothingotherthanthis
illuminationandknowing.Whenwetrytofindthemind,weneedonlylookatthe
brillianceofrealitysurroundingus.Withoutmind,matterwouldbeimpenetrably
dark,andwithoutmatter,mindwouldbeblindinglight.Betweenthetwoarisesthe
worldofconditionedthingsandquiteliterally,realityasweexperienceit.
RealityasWeExperienceIt:Perception

86Forafascinatingandcontroversialthesisontheemergenceofconsciousness,seeJulianJaynes,

TheOriginofConsciousnessintheBreakdownoftheBicameralMind(Boston:MarinerBooks,2000).

46

AccordingtoBuddhistepistemology,ourabilitytoascertainobjectshasinherent
limitations.Onelimitationistemporal,inthattheordinaryuntrainedmindcanonly
ascertainaneventthatoccursoveracertainperiodoftime,traditionallythoughtto
beaboutaspanofafingersnap.Whileonemayperceivetheevent,itisnotsubject
toconsciousrecollection.87Thesecondlimitationonhumanascertainmentisthe
inclinationtoregardobjectsoreventsaccordingtotheircompositenature.For
example,ifIweretolookatacoffeemug,Iwouldnotseetheindividualmolecules
orthespacebetweenthem,ratherIwouldseethecompositeobjectthatismadeup
ofsuch.Momentsaresimilarlyconflatedintoonecontinuum,wheninfactanygiven
momentiscomposedofnumberlesstemporalsequences.88
HowperceptionsariseisamajorpointofinterestinIndianandTibetan
Buddhistepistemologyandcontinuestobedebated.Therearethreemainschoolsof
thought.Onesuggeststhatwhenlookingatamulticoloredobject,forexample,there
isamultiplicityofperceptionsthatoccurwiththevisualexperience.Accordingly,
anygivenperceptionismadeupofendlessamountsofminuteperceptions.A
secondschoolupholdstheviewthatperceptionandtheobjectperceivedare
identicalandtheeventissplitintoobjectiveandsubjectivehalves.Thethird
positionisthattraditionallyacceptedinTibetanschools,andarguesdespitethe
myriadfacetsofachosenobject,perceptualexperienceoccursasasingleunitary

87Buddhistepistemologydistinguishesbetweenascertainmentandperception,withtheformer

referringtowhollyregisteringtheobject/event,subjecttorecollection.Perceptionsarea
componentofascertainment,howeverthenatureofperceptionismuchmorecomplicatedandwill
bediscussedbelow.
88SeeDalaiLama(2005),172.HisHolinessexplainsthenatureoftemporalconflationbyusingthe
exampleofperceivingamovieasonefluidmotioneventhoughitisinfactmadeupofaseriesof
individualpictures.

47

event.89Howweexperiencerealityisnotinfactmirroringwhatisoutthere,butis
acomplexprocessoforganizationthatmakespotentiallyinfiniteamountsof
informationmanageabletothehumanmind.
AnotherlongstandingquestioninWesternphilosophyofmindishowcan
experiencebeaccountedfor?Howcanneuronsgiverisetoexperience,howcan
neuronsbeaboutsomething?Thesequestionsariseduetotheneedforatheoryof
cognitiverepresentationconsistentwithaphysicalistornaturalistontology.Yet,
accordingtothetraditionalinterpretationofTibetanschools,becausethenatureof
perceptionpreventsthemindfrommirroringreality,thisviewdoesnotneedto
answerthequestionhowneuronscanbeaboutsomething,thatsomethingisthe
perception,notarealityorentity.Perceptualexperiencecannotbeequatedto
reality,althoughtheyarecorrelated.Eventhoughperceptioncannotreflectultimate
realityunderordinarycircumstances,itmaintainsconventionaltruth.Forall
practicalpurposes,ascertainingultimaterealityisirrelevantfordeterminingthe
truthofconventionalexperienceandconventionalrealityisrealityasweexperience
it.So,whileperceptiondoesnotreflectultimatereality,itretainstruthvaluein
understandingourworldofconvention.90
Consciousness,Neurophysiology,andMindBodyCausation
Neuroscientificresearchregardingmeditationhasshownmentalpracticeandthe
developmentofcertainmentalstatesisconducivetoneuroplasticity.The

89Ibid.,1723.
90AnotherpointofinterestinBuddhistepistemologyistheanalysisoftrueandfalseperceptions.

Seeibid.,173.

48

implicationsofsuchresearchfromtheBuddhistperspective,providesevidencefor
thetransformativenatureofmind,theexistentialdistinctionbetweenmindand
body,theabilityofthementalandphysicaltoinfluenceeachother,andasevidence
forthedistinctionbetweenperceptionandreality.Buddhistphenomenologyof
mindmayalsoprovideameansofwhichtounderstandtopdowncausationin
termsoftheassociatedneurophysiologicalhappenings.Afurtherexaminationofthe
Abidharmamodelofconsciousnessmayprovideatheoreticalexplanationofwhy
somemeditationbasedtherapyissuccessful.

TheAbidharmasuggestsconsciousnessisnotcontinuous;rather

consciousnessismadeupofminutesequencescalledcetas.Acetahasthreephases
ofarising,existing,anddisappearing,allinashortdurationoftime.Eachcetais
directedtowardsomeobjectofcognitionandwilldetermineproceedingcetas,
knownasthekarmic(Pali:kammic)effectoftheceta.Therearemanydifferent
typesofcetasthatcouldbeassociatedwithanygivenobject.Forexample,avisual
objectmayincitegreed,lust,orcompassion.Boththetypeandtheobjectoftheceta
influencefuturecetas.Suchinfluenceresultsinaccumulatedkarma,whichis
transferredandaugmentedtoproceedingcetas.Accumulatedkarma,caninfluence
presentcetasorfuturecetasinanumberofways.Whenacetahasadirecteffecton
thefollowingcetaitisknownasproducingkarma.Producingkarmaissubdivided
intounwholesome,leadingtoattachmentandsuffering,andwholesomekarma,
givingrisetofreedomanddecreasedsuffering.Whencollaboratedwithothercetas
toproduceaneffectitisknownassupportingkarma.Whenthekarmaforceofaceta

49

orcetasresisttheeffectsofothercetasitiscalledobstructingkarma.Someeffectsof
cetascanbewhollypreventedbyothercetas,calleddestructivekarma.

Cetasarecomposedofwhatareknownascetasikas,meaningborntogether

withaceta,andcanbethoughtofasmentalelementaryparticles.91Cetasikas
occursimultaneouslywithcetasandsharethesameobject.Mostcetasare
determinedbytheircetasikasofwhichtherearethreemaingroups:unwholesome,
neutral,andbeautiful.Cetasikasarealsodistinguishedaccordingtotemporality,
eitheruniversaloroccasional.AccordingtotheTibetanview,therearefivefactors
universaltoallmentalevents:feeling(valuejudgment,emotion),recognition
(rudimentarydistinctions,perception),engagement(volition,motivation),attention
(choosinginput),andcontact(obtaininginput)withtheobject.92Therecanbe
additionalfactors.Mentalfactorsarenotconsideredseparateentities,butratheras
differentaspectsorprocessesofthesamementalevent,distinguishedbytheir
functions.93Vithisconsistofaserialcollaborationofcetasandhavetodowith
cognitiveemotionalprocessing.

InTheAbhidhammaModelofConsciousness,HenkBarendregtshowshow

theAbidharmamodelispossiblyimplementedinthebrainintermsofcurrent
neurophysiologicalunderstanding.Barendregtstates,Itiswellknownfrom

91SeeBarendregt,335.

positssevenuniversalneutralcetasikas:contact(obtaininginput),feeling(value
judgment),volition(motivation),perception(rudimentarydistinctions),attention(choosinginput),
cooperation(synchronization),andonepointedness(focus).Ibid.,336.FortheTibetansystem,see
DalaiLama(2005),176.Therearemanysystemsofenumeration,howeverthestandardversion
traditionallyupheldbyTibetanthinkersfollowsthatofthefourthcenturythinkerAsanga.
92TheAbidharma

93SeeDalaiLama(2005),176.

50

neuropsychologicalexperimentsthatconsciousnesshasparallelandserialaspects,
andthatisexactlywhattheAbidharmamodelemphasizes.94Cetasshow
consciousnesshasastrongserialcomponentandcollaboratingcetasikassuggest
parallelprocessing.Serialdiscreteseriesofcetasperhapsoccurasthefiringofone
groupofneurons,asthisfiringindeedhappensindiscreteunits.Also,justasthe
cetahasthreephasesofarising,existing,andceasing,theactionpotentialforeach
neuronclearlyexhibitssuchalifecycle.Furthermore,thefourtypesofkarma
(producing,supporting,obstructing,anddestroying)areconsistentwiththewell
establishedcollaborating,excitatory,andinhibitorytypesofneurons.Finally,
accumulatedkarmamayoccurasnewsynapsesbetweenneurons.

AsBarendregtdiscusses,theAbidharmacanprovideinsightintothenature

ofsuchmentalafflictionsasneuroses,psychoses,andotherpathologiessuchas
depression.Forexample,Freuddiscussesneurosesintermsofconflictbetweenthe
superego,atthelevelofcognition,andtheidsunderlyingdrives.TheAbidharma
explainshowthisoccurs.Allcetascontainacetasikaoffeeling,howevervithis,asa
chainofcetas,constitutecognitiveemotionalprocessing.Emotions/feelings
associatedwithparticularcetascanandoftendoconflictwiththoughtsinthevithis.
TheAbidharmamodelshowstheorganizationofconsciousnessintermsofnotonly
thecognitivelevelofourmind,buttheneuroticcoreaswell.AsBarendregtnotes,
psychotherapistsoftenworkatthecognitivelevelofmindandattemptatmodifying

94SeeBarendregt,346.

51

onesthinking(i.e.onesvithis).However,workingdirectlywiththecetasand
cetasikasmaybeapowerfultreatmentaswell.95
TheAbidharmamodelillustrateshowconsciousnessmightoccuratthe
neurophysiologicallevel.Suchmodelingsuggestsatheoreticalexplanationasto
whysomemeditationtherapyhasbeensuccessful,evidencedbytheMindfulness
BasedStressReductiontreatmentdevelopedbyKabatZinnandMindfulnessBased
CognitiveTherapydevelopedbySegaldiscussedearlier.WhattheAbidharmamodel
ofconsciousnessillustratesishowsuchtopdowncausationmaypossiblyoccur.
Purificationofmentalafflictionsthroughmindfulnessinvolvesthepreventionof
unwholesomecetas,resultinginnonewaccumulationofnegativekarma.Thereisa
coherentphysiologicalexplanationfortheexperienceofadvancedmeditators:with
thereductionofthefiringofneuronsassociatedwithmentalafflictions,thebrain
circuitryfallsintodisuse,whilethenetworksresponsibleforpositiveemotions
becomeeverstronger.96Thisnotionisconsistentwiththeseventhcentury
philosopherandmonkDharmakirtispsychologicallawofimpermanenceregarding
thetransformabilityofconsciousness.Thelawpositsonementalstatecannotbe
developedwithoutunderminingtheintegrityofopposingmentalstates.Thismeans,
forexample,thatthecultivationofcompassionwillnecessarilyresultinthe
diminishmentofhateandethnocentrism.97Neuroplasticityhasshownthatchanges
inthemindandbrainarepossible,neurophysiologyprovidesameansofphysical

95Ibid.,339340.
96ThisargumentwasputforthatthetwelfthMindandLifeconference.SeeBegley,242.
97SeeDalaiLama(2005),147.

52

manifestation,andtheAbidharmanotionofconsciousnessprovidesatheoretical
modelforthetransformationofassociatedmentalandphysicalstates.

53

4
CONCLUSION
Neuroplasticityisthemeansbywhichmeditationcanbringaboutenduring
physical,mental,andemotionalchanges.Scientistsnowknowthatthebrain
undergoesconstantchange,eventhroughadulthood,andthatunderstandingand
controllingneuroplasticityisvitalforadaptingtochangingconditions,learningnew
things,anddevelopingnewskills.NeuroscientistMichaelMerzenichatthe
UniversityofCalifornia,SanFranciscobelievesthatinthefuture,ourunderstanding
ofneuroplasticitywillbringinanageofbrainfitnessbasedonthenotionthatjust
asoneneedstoexercisethebody,thebrainneedstobeworkedaswelltopromote
healthandwellbeingandBuddhistscouldnotagreemore.98Yet,beforethiscanbe
realized,someadvancesinthescientificstudyofmindareneeded.
ScientificStudyoftheMind
Althoughthemindpermeatesourexperiences,sciencegenerallyexcludesthe
subjectivefromthenaturalworldandattributescausalityonlytophysical,objective
phenomena.Thisisbecauseempiricismandscientificmaterialismareoften
conflated,resultinginthedogmawithinthescientificfieldthattheindividual,
private,andsubjectivearenotpartofthemetaphysicalcompositionofthecosmos.
Theassumptionisthattheobjectiveworldsomehowliesbeyondthesubjective
realmincludingalloursensoryandmentalinformation,whichisnotgrantedthe

98Begley,248.

54

samestatusofexistenceasthephysical,butratherconsignedthestatusof
epiphenomenonorillusion.
Scientistsfurthermoreputgreatemphasisonreductionism,analyzingreality
accordingtoitsconstituentparts.Althoughreductionismhasservedthescientific
traditionwell,itisnotalwaystheappropriateapproach.Justasexamining
phenomenaatthesubatomiclevelwillnotrevealtheglobalprocessesoccurringin
diverseregionsofthebrain,soasolelyobjectiveaccountofthebraincannot
accountforsubjectivementaleventsoranymindbraincorrelates.Suchanobjective
reductionistaccountbyitselfcannotrevealanytypeofevidencefortheexistenceof
consciousnessorsubjectiveexperienceatall,justassoundwavesalonecannot
explaintheexperienceofhearingasnotedearlier.Neuraleventscouldnoteven
havemeaningoutsideoffirstpersonaccountsofmind.Suchacommitmentto
ontologicalreductionismunderminesthefundamentalidealofconsiliencefoundin
thesciences.Oncefreefromthedogmasofmaterialismandreductionism,scientific
inquiryofconsciousnesscanbegreatlystrengthenedbyBuddhistthoughtandthat
ofothercontemplativetraditions.99
Buddhism,likescience,presentsitselfasabodyofsystematicknowledge
aboutthenaturalworldandpositsarangeoftestablehypothesisandtheories
regardingthenatureofmindanditsrelationshiptothephysicalenvironment.These
theorieshavebeentestedandexperientiallyconfirmednumeroustimesoverthe

99B.AlanWallacemakessuchanargumentinIntroduction:BuddhismandScienceBreaking

DowntheBarriers.SeeBuddhismandScience:BreakingNewGround,editedbyB.AlanWallace
(ColumbiaUniversityPress:NewYork,2003),129.

55

pasttwentyfivehundredyears,bywayofduplicablemeditativetechniques.
Althoughscientificknowledgeiscollectiveandpublicandcontemplativeinsights
areprivate,notbeingdemonstrableisnotequivalenttobeingunobservable.Any
competentresearcherwithsufficienttrainingcanreplicatetheresults.

Yet,themindisauniquecaseofinquiry,inthattheobjectofstudyismental,

theinstrumentofstudyismental,andthemediumbywhichthestudyisundertaken
ismental.Theresearchinstrumentsofsciencearedesignedtomeasurephysical
phenomenaandthereforecontemporaryneuroscienceinvolvesanalysisofsuch
physicalmeasurements.Buddhistcontemplativesrejectthismethodologyoutof
hand.Abriefdigressionwillillustratethepoint.AttheDalaiLamasurgingseveral
TibetancontemplativesresidinginthehillsofDharamsalaagreedtomeetwitha
groupofwesternscientiststostudytheeffectsofmentaltraining.Eachmonk,after
beingbriefedontheprojectandtheintendedresearch,madesimilarcomments
regardingthescientistsproposedmethodology:ifyouwanttounderstandthe
mind,youshouldexaminethemind.Oftentheencountersturnedintolongdebates
regardingthevalidityofscientificanalysisforthestudyconsciousness.Intheend,
resistancetoscientificanalysiswassoseverethatnousabledatawasgainedfrom
thescientiststimespentinDharamsala.100
SuchcomplicationsariseduetoBuddhistunderstandingofmentality,
characterizedbyitssubjectivenature.Allofsubjectiveexperiencehastwo
components,thephysicalcomponentssuchasbrainchemistryandbehaviorofan

100SeeBegley,215219.

56

individualandthephenomenologicalexperienceofthementaleventsthemselves,
includingcognitive,emotional,andpsychologicalstates.Inorderforthescientific
studyofmindtobecomplete,aparadigmshiftinmethodologyisneededtoaccount
fornotonlytheneurologicalandotherbiologicalhappenings,butalsothesubjective
experienceitself.Inordertoaccomplishsuchatask,useofboththethirdperson
andthefirstpersonapproachisnecessary.AstheDalaiLamanotes,itisforthe
phenomenologyofmindthattheapplicationofafirstpersonmethodisessential.101
Firstpersonmethodologyisvitalinadvancingunderstandingofthequaliaof
consciousness,somethingsciencehasyettoaddresssufficiently.Noobjective
accountofneuronsandbrainfunctionscanconveythesubjectiveexperienceitself.
ModernBuddhistsurgescientiststoutilizethefirstpersoninvestigativeanalysisof
thenatureandfunctionsofthemind,bytrainingthemindtofocusonitsown
internalstates.ReferredtoasgominTibetan,thismentaltrainingcarriesthe
connotationoffamiliarizationandimpliesrigorous,focusedanddisciplineduseof
introspection,mindfulness,andinsighttomakeempiricalobservations.Thisis
perhapsthemostscientificaspectofBuddhism.AstheDalaiLamahasargued,andI

101Ibid.,145.Somephilosophersofsciencehavearguedforthethirdpersonapproachaswell.For

example,seeGualtieroPiccinini,DatafromIntrospectiveReports:UpgradingfromCommonsenseto
Science,JournalofConsciousnessStudies10.910(2003),141156.Piccininiarguesscientistscanand
shouldanalyzeintrospectivereportsandprovidesamethodologybasedonpublicevidenceand
assumptionsinassessingthevalidityofthirdpersonaccounts.Alsosee,AlvinGoldman,
EpistemologyandtheEvidentialStatusofIntrospectiveReports:Trust,Warrant,andEvidential
Sources,JournalofConsciousnessStudies11.78(2004),116,forsimilarviews.Ludwig
Wittgenstein,inPhilosophicalInvestigations,putforthafamousobjectioncalledthebeetleinthe
boxthatarguesthemindistreatedasanentity,howeverthatentityisunobservableandtherefore
anyconclusionsofcommonalitybetweenmindsisgroundedonthebeliefinsomethingwecannotbe
certainexists.Wittgensteinsbeetlehasbeenappliedtoavarietyofphilosophicalinvestigations.See
DavidG.Stem,TheUsesofWittgensteinsBeetle:PhilosophicalInvestigations[section]293andits
Interpreters,inWittgensteinandHisInterpreters:EssaysinMemoryofGordonBaker,editedbyGuy
Kahane,EdwardKanterian,andOskariKuusela(Oxford:BlackwellPublishing,2007),248268.

57

agree,thecombinationofthefirstpersonmethodwiththethirdpersonmethod
offersthepromiseofrealadvanceinthescientificstudyofconsciousness.102
ScienceandtheEthicalGoalsofBuddhism
EthicsisfundamentaltoBuddhistphilosophy;anythingwithphilosophical
implicationsalsohasethicalimplications.103Compassion,theprimaryethicof
Mahayana,isunderstoodasbuiltintotheFourNobleTruths,wereawishtobefree
ofsufferingisextendedtoincludeallsentientbeings.However,freedomfrom
sufferingcannotbebestowed,itisaccomplishedonlybyinternalizingthetruth.The
goaloftheMahayanaBuddhistpractitionerthen,istofirstknowandembodythe
truthoneselfandthenteachittoothers.104
Buddhismhasestablishedfivefieldsofknowledgeinregardstocaringfor
others:medicine,technology,logic,thescienceofsound,andinner
knowledge/spiritualpractice.105Inthisethicalcontext,sciencebecomesamodeof
disseminatingknowledgeonappropriatepractice,revealingthetruthandefficacyof
Buddhistteaching.Oneofthebroadergoalsoutlinedinsuchorganizationsasthe
MindandLifeInstituteisthecollaborationbetweenBuddhistsandscientistsin
alleviatingsufferingandincreasingtheoverallwellbeingofhumankind,illustrating

102TheDalaiLama(2005),142.
103Ethicsisconsideredtobethebasisofallotherpracticeandthesupportforattainingwisdom
andtherefore,ethicalconductisprimary.SeeDalaiLama(1975),45.
104Ibid.,4647.Buddhasaidtheonlywaybeingscanbefreeisthroughthetruthofthenatureof

things.TheDalaiLamagoesontoexplainhowthegoaloftheBuddhististospreadtheteachings,
arguingpeopleneedtobetaughtwhatshouldbeadoptedandwhatshouldbediscardedinpractice.
105SeeGoleman(1997),245.

58

theroleofscienceasanallyinfollowingtheBuddhistethic.106Scienceactuallyhas
littletonoaffectonTibetannationalspracticeandbelief,butthiswasneverits
intendedroleinBuddhism.107Rather,scienceisateachingaidinthemodern
contextandcanbecompletelyseparatefromtheachievementofwisdomandthe
practiceoftheBuddhisttraditionatlarge,evenformodernBuddhists.108
JustaswithanyphilosophicaltopicswithinBuddhism,neuroplasticityis
interpretedinpartaccordingtoitsethicalimplications.Neuroplasticityhascalled
intoquestionwhatcriticscallneurogeneticdeterminism,thebelief,propelledby
moderngeneticsandpharmacology,thatgenesandchemicalcompositionarethe
ultimateandinescapabledeterminantsofbehaviorandmentalhealth.109Thisview
isnotarguedforexactly,ratheritisimplicitinmedicalresearchaimedatidentifying
genesthataccountforvariouspathologiesandthepharmacologicalattemptstofind
medicinalcuresforpsychologicalandbehavioraldisorders.Determinismoften
producesanihilisticattitudetowardspersonalresponsibility,asonecannotbe
accountableforhis/hernaturalcomposition,makingethicsirrelevant.However,
neuroplasticityrevealsthepowerofmindovermatter,makingindividualmoral
responsibilityrelevantonceagaininthemodernandscientificWest.SharonBegley,

106TheDalaiLamareiteratesthesegoalsateveryMindandLifeconference.
107TheDalaiLamaintroducedscientificdiscourseaspartofthemonasticcurriculumandtoday,
moreandmoreBuddhiststudentsfrommonasticuniversitiesengageinsomesystematicstudyof
science.Nonetheless,Tibetannationalslackthesameengagementwithsciencethatisoccurringin
theWest.SeeBegley,23and50.
108TheDalaiLamasrepeateddescriptionofscienceasammoforspreadingtheDharma

illustrateshowscienceisusedasatoolforgranderBuddhistgoals.Forexample,seeGoleman
(1997),248,Youscientistsaregivingmemoreammunitionnow!
109Ibid.,252.

59

NewsweeksciencewriterandauthorofTrainYourMindChangeYourBrain,
followingtheproceedingsofthetwelfthMindandLifeconference,states,Perhaps
oneofthemostprovocativeimplicationsofneuroplasticityandthepowerofmental
trainingtoalterthecircuitsofthebrainisthatitunderminesneurogentic
determinism.110Ratherthanadeterministicscenario,thisstudyhasrevealeda
dynamicone,intermsofthenatureofmindandbodyandethicalorientation.From
theBuddhistperspective,neuroplasticityvindicatestheroleofethics.
Intherealmofphilosophy,therelationshipbetweenBuddhismandScience
becomesquiteabitmorecomplex.Wherefactendsandtheorybeginsweseea
differentkindofrelationshipemergebetweenthetwo,notofethicalallies,but
philosophicalcompetitors,vyingforinterpretativesuperiority.Theemergenceofa
Buddhisttheoryofneuroplasticityillustratesthecreativetensionbetweenthetwo
traditions.Thisprocessisnotantagonistic,butconstructiveandrevealsalotabout
therelationshipbetweenBuddhismandScienceandthepotentialforfuturegrowth.
Neuroplasticityisanareaofstudythathasandcontinuestoproduce
particularlymeaningfulexchangewithBuddhism.Theinterpretationandanalysisof
neuroplasticityfromtheBuddhistperspectiveservesasacontributiontowestern
philosophyofscience,answeringmanyopenquestionsaboutthemindandthe
mindbodyrelationship.Furthermore,theBuddhistinterpretationillustratesthe
wideapplicabilityofBuddhistideastomodernwesternones;neuroplasticityisjust
oneareaofstudywithintherealmofBuddhismandScience,yettheimplications

110Ibid.,253.

60

andapplicationsarenumerousandofvitalimportance.Whatthisstudyhopefully
elucidatesisthevalidityandvalueofcontinuingdialogueandincludingBuddhist
philosophyinwesternphilosophyofsciencediscourse.Idonotthinkitisan
exaggerationtostatethemindisthescientificquestionofthetwentyfirstcentury,
yetcontemporarywesternphilosophycannotadequatelyexplainneuroplasticity
andmindbodycausality.Buddhismcan.Thenatureofourbeingischange,
harnessingthatchangebecomescultivation,andcultivationinducestransformation.
Imagineaworldofmentalfitness,nurturingtheskillsofhappinessandcompassion
anddecreasingsufferingandhate,aneraoflimitlesshumanpotential.

61

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