Construction and Building Materials 75 (2015) 293305

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Construction and Building Materials

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Review

The use of elastic elements in railway tracks: A state of the art review
Miguel Sol-Snchez , Fernando Moreno-Navarro, M Carmen Rubio-Gmez
Laboratorio de Ingeniera de la Construccin de la Universidad de Granada, C/Severo Ochoa s/n, 18071 Granada, Spain

h i g h l i g h t s
 An analysis of elastic elements to improve railway track behavior and durability.
 A review of studies about rail pads, under-sleeper pads and under-ballast mats.
 The effect of diverse parameters on elastic elements behavior is described.
 Recommendations about stiffness of elastic elements have been drawn.

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 21 July 2014
Received in revised form 3 October 2014
Accepted 12 November 2014
Available online 2 December 2014
Keywords:
Railway
Elastic elements
Rail pads
Under-sleeper pads
Under-ballast mats
Review

a b s t r a c t
Railway is envisaged as the transportation mode of the future, but in spite of its advantages, its development is not exempt from technical difculties that lead to track deterioration. To overcome these drawbacks, research in this eld needs to be developed. Geometry degradation, as well as noise and vibration,
have been identied as problems that need to be reduced, which could be possible by modifying track
vertical stiffness and obtaining a more homogeneous value along the track. One measure to minimize
these problems involves the installation of elastic elements (e.g. rail pads, under-sleeper pads, and
under-ballast mats) in the railway track. In fact, this has now become the most effective means to vary
track vertical stiffness as well as to abate noise emission and vibrations caused by the passage of trains.
This paper discusses the problems associated with track stiffness, geometry degradation, and vibrations,
and at the same time, studies the characteristics of elastic elements as well as the research carried out to
test and evaluate their effectiveness. After reviewing and analyzing a wide range of research initiatives,
this paper proposes a set of recommendations and guidelines for the use of elastic elements in railway
infrastructure as well as highlighting a series of possible further investigations.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents
1.
2.

3.

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Main problems of railway tracks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.
Track deterioration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.
Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1.
Ground vibrations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2.
Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.
Relevance of vertical stiffness of the track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Elastic elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.
Rail pads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1.
Main characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.2.
Cases and studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.
Under sleeper pads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1.
Main characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2.
Cases and studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.
Under ballast mats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 958249445; fax: +34 958246138.

E-mail addresses: msol@ugr.es (M. Sol-Snchez), fmoreno@ugr.es (F. Moreno-Navarro), mcrubio@ugr.es (M.C. Rubio-Gmez).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.11.027
0950-0618/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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3.3.1.
Main characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.2.
Cases and studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1. Introduction
Since their invention, railway trains have become one of the
most popular transportation modes in the world. Their freight
capacity, high efciency and functionality, combined with their
minimal environmental impact, have made trains one of the most
frequently chosen options for transporting people and merchandise from one place to another. Moreover, high-speed train travel
has transformed the railway into one of the most attractive transportation modes with features that signicantly enhance rapid
communication between cities. Such properties make high-speed
trains preferable to other modes, especially on busy routes with
a heavy transportation demand [1].
Although railway transport has advantages, the increase in rail
freight being transported and train velocity make it not exempt
from technical difculties, and the study and research for nding
new solutions is essential. The increase in speed and the load
transported has incurred higher forces on the track as well as the
increase of the noise and vibrations caused by the trains [1,2]. In
addition, the higher speed leads to an increase in the dynamic
overload that may accelerate the track deterioration, a problem
which is particularly marked on tracks with inappropriate values
of vertical stiffness [3,4], making it necessary to obtain an optimal
global stiffness of the infrastructure.
Consequently, if railway systems are to continue to grow in
socioeconomic importance, nding solutions for the negative
effects of those technical difculties is imperative since this will
undoubtedly facilitate the future development and evolution of
railway transportation method. In this regard, the most frequent
measure taken to reduce stresses on railway tracks and to abate
noise emissions and vibrations is the incorporation of elastic elements into railway tracks [5]. The purpose of this is to improve
track performance and overcome problems stemming from highspeed train trafc. Broadly speaking, elastic elements used in ballasted tracks fall into three categories: (i) rail pads (installed
between rails and sleepers); (ii) under-sleeper pads (embedded
beneath sleepers); and (iii) under-ballast mats (installed on the
granular layer in the case of ballast tracks, and underneath the slab
in the case of slab tracks).
This paper provides a review of the technical properties of elastic components within the context of recent research and experience initiatives. The rst section briey describes the main
problems on railway tracks which could be mitigated or reduced
by using elastic elements. The following section studies the main
types of elastic component, such as rail pads, under-sleeper pads,
and under-ballast mats, and analyzes their most salient features.
It also explains the way in which the installation of these components modies the properties and parameters of railway
infrastructure.
2. Main problems of railway tracks
There are different types of damage in the railway system (deterioration of the geometrical quality of the track, defects on the
track surface, settlement of the granular layers, fatigue of materials, etc.), which need to be identied and analyzed in order to
develop specic solutions to reduce track deterioration and
maintenance costs, while achieving higher durability of the

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303

infrastructure [6]. In addition, the emission of air-born noise and

the propagation of waves through the ground constitute serious
social and environmental problems that should be studied and
reduced. In this regard, the importance of track stiffness in terms
of both its long-term performance and the reduction of other
modes of track deterioration should be taken into account.
2.1. Track deterioration
According to Nielsen et al. [7] and Teixeira [8], there are various
types of deterioration of the track quality in reference to the damage source, causing different modes of failure. The deterioration
modes could be associated with the track component degradation:
the service life of rails, sleepers and fastener systems plays an
essential role in the railway infrastructure since their failure could
cause train derailment as well as important maintenance costs.
Nonetheless, these components, due to the materials which they
are made of, have a high fatigue strength and durability. Thus,
when they reach the end of their service life, the best solution is
to replace them [9].
Granular layers also present a further progressive deformation
with the passage of trains, causing an accumulative deterioration
of the track geometry, which is a fundamental parameter, especially on high-speed lines. This failure mode is due to the settlement of granular layers as a consequence of the loss of contact
between particles or the breakage of them caused by the repeated
dynamic loads. The granular layer settlement is equal to the sum of
the deformation of the diverse layers used in order to distribute the
loads transmitted to the sub-layers. Selig and Waters [10] showed
that the ballast is the layer with highest contribution to the track
settlement (up to 5070% of the total vertical deformation). Fig. 1
shows an example of ballast settlement in a railway track.
Various authors [11,12], using measurements from French and
Japanese railway tracks, have shown that the ballast settlement
accords with an exponential law, with the greater deformations
occurring at the beginning of the track service (due to low material
compaction), followed by a progressive vertical deterioration. On
the other hand, some authors [10] have found that there is a lineal
relationship between the mean settlement and the differential vertical deformation of the track, which indicates that an increase in
ballast deterioration can lead to important degradation of the track
geometry (longitudinal and transversal levelling, alignment and
buckles).
In order to reduce these problems, there are various possible
solutions, such as the use of ballast particles with high performance; an increase in the number of maintenance tasks; or nally
the replacement of the granular material. However, these solutions
can lead to important increases in social, economic and environmental costs due to the necessity of using more specic material
(longer hauling distance, high consumption of raw materials,
etc.) as well as a higher quantity of ballast during maintenance
and rehabilitation tasks, whose frequency is also increased. Given
these problems, a more efcient solution is the reduction of load
transmitted to the ballast layer in order to obtain lower settlement,
and therefore, higher durability of the railway tracks. For this purpose, elastic elements are used since their resilient behavior allows
for a reduction of the stress on the ballast layer at the same time
that the contact area between components is increased.

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295

Fig. 1. Visual apparence of the effect of ballast settlement on railway track [6].

Fig. 2. Rail corrugation [21].

Fig. 3. Visual apparence of auxiliar rails used to reduce the effect of track transition
[22].

2.2. Vibrations
The vibrations generated by the trains cause two distinct
effects: noise, and track vibration [13,14]. Given the importance
that these effects can have on the deterioration of the tracks and
on the wellbeing of residents living near to railways, the propagation of waves has been the focus of attention since the beginning of
the railway system, with studies from South [15] and Hyde and
Lintern [16].
2.2.1. Ground vibrations
The vibration waves that are transmitted through the railway
track and the underlying ground are generated by the passing of
trains, there being 3 distinguishable sources:

 The effect of vehicle speed since it generates dynamic loads

which are applied through an elastic half space, causing a periodical movement of the track components. The higher the train
speed, the higher the frequency of vibrations and the greater the
effect of the propagation of waves [17]. In lines where the train
speed is higher than 250300 km/h, studies in track dynamics
are required.
 Irregularities at the wheelrail contact, which can be divided
into 2 groups (long and short waves) depending on their
vibration frequency [18]. Long waves (k > 300 mm) are mainly
caused by rail waves and deformations of several meters
due to rail manufacturing or the effect of out-of-roundness
(o-o-r) [19]. Short waves caused by impact loads due to the
presence of multiple singularities in wheelrail contact such
as wheelats, rail joints or turnout crossings [7,20]. In addition,
rail corrugation (Fig. 2) is a source of vibrations whose frequency depends on the characteristics of the rail deformation;
the main solutions for this problem consist of the rail and wheel
maintenance like rail grinding, although the stiffness of the rail
pads used under the rail have an important effect also [21].
 Irregularities in the track which can be caused by several phenomenon such as differential settlements of the ballast layer,
sleeper spacing, stiffness variations (as track transitions), heterogeneities of subgrade soil, and others. All of them provoke an
effect that increases vibrations amplitude, and therefore, track
deterioration. This causes an increase in damage to the infrastructure, leading to a relentless degradation process. Due to
the effect of this type of irregularities, diverse authors have proposed different solutions, focusing on reducing track transitions
by the incorporation of auxiliary rails (Fig. 3) [22] or the most
common technique consisting of elastic elements with different
properties [23].
These different vibration sources cause acceleration (on the vertical, transversal, and longitudinal plane) of the different components of the railway infrastructure [24]. The vertical vibration
leads to the fatigue of elements such as the fastener system, as well
as the ballast expansion that could take place, which is accentuated
when critical levels of particle acceleration are reached (1.4 g and
1.6 g), leading to ballast liquefaction [25,26]. In addition, when vertical vibration waves are transmitted through soft soil, energy can
accumulate underneath the weight of the train and cause the
known phenomenon of resonance when vibration waves oscillate
at train speed, leading to the rapid deterioration of the infrastructure [14,27]. Thus, track stiffness can have a very important role to
play in the generation of vertical ground vibrations. As a consequence, diverse solutions, like elastic elements, have been developed to vary the track stiffness [28,29] with the aim of reducing
vibrations.
With respect to lateral vibrations, they mainly produce an effect
known as corrugation, which manifests itself as a periodic irregularity or waviness that develops on the rail. This corrugation effect

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M. Sol-Snchez et al. / Construction and Building Materials 75 (2015) 293305

causes a periodic application of impacts that produce a cyclical

process of structural damage, loud noise, uneven movement, and
deterioration of the track and train cars [30,31]. These effects can
be reduced by using elastic elements with appropriate stiffness,
according to a study developed by Egana et al. [21]. The third possible vibration type (longitudinal movements) is best interpreted
as compression waves within the rails, which can lead to fatigue
in rail axes, and can also loosen the fastening system [24].
2.2.2. Noise
Trains are regarded as one of the most environmentally-friendly
modes of transportation. Nevertheless, the noise generated by train
trafc is a serious environmental problem, particularly at locations
with nearby residential areas that are exposed to this noise [32].
There are basically three types of railway noise: (i) traction and
auxiliary noise; (ii) aerodynamic noise and (iii) rolling noise, the
latter two being the most predominant types.
Aerodynamic noise is known to increase faster with the train
speed than rolling noise, so this type of noise could be the most
predominant on high-speed lines. Aerodynamic sound is caused
by unstable air currents that take place due to the separation
between railcars, bogies, trafc lights, etc. On the other hand,
structural noise caused by train rolling can be predominant in conventional railways, being emitted by the mechanical vibrations of
the wheels over a rough, irregular surface (Fig. 4) [33] and has a
high frequency range (over 1500 Hz). In contrast, the noise emitted
by sleepers is generally in a medium frequency range (500
1500 Hz), whereas the noise associated with the ballast layer is
in a lower frequency range [32]. Thus, it would be necessary to
have different solutions, depending on the rank of frequencies in
which the acoustic transmissions need to be reduced.
It is also necessary to consider that the stiffness of the structure
in general, and its components in particular, has a great impact on
the noise transmitted by the trains. Thus, Lichtberger [35] compared the noise produced on a slab track with the noise produced
on a ballast track and concluded that the track over concrete produces an increase of 5 dB (particularly between frequencies of
250 Hz and 1000 Hz) over the noise produced on a ballast track,
given the absence of the granular layer (shock-absorbing element)
in the slab track and the difference in the stiffness between the different railway infrastructures.
Following the study of the effects and sources of vibrations, it is
understood that the use of elastic components could be an effective

solution to mitigate vibrations, since these elements, due to their

resilient characteristics, allow damping movements, and therefore,
vibrations at the same time that the can modify the track stiffness
(an important parameter in noise and waves propagation).
2.3. Relevance of vertical stiffness of the track
The vertical stiffness of the track structure has an impact on the
dynamic overloads, given that Prudhomme [36] demonstrated that
the increase of this parameter also increases the demands on the
railway track. This could speed up the deterioration of the track
geometry and components, as well as increase the level of vibrations and noise transmitted by the passage of trains. Thus, some
authors [3740] conrmed the advantages of reducing the stiffness
of the track given that it will decrease the vertical effort transmitted to the infrastructure.
However, another study by Fortin [41], concerned with the
high-speed line between Paris and Lyon, showed that a big
decrease in the track stiffness could produce an increase in the
resistance to forward movement of the vehicles and therefore, of
the energy consumed by them. In addition to this, the decrease
in the track stiffness could increase the settlement of the track
and the fatigue of its elements thus increasing the deterioration
of the track [42].
Consequently, various authors [10,43] have focused their studies on analyzing how much the track stiffness could be reduced
without affecting other parameters of the mechanical performance
of the infrastructure. Lopez Pita [44] established an optimal value
of vertical stiffness around 5078 kN/mm (taking into account
the dynamic loads and the dissipated energy), and Teixeira [8]
xed this value at 7080 kN considering the energy costs associated with exploiting the track and its deterioration (maintenance
costs). This latter rank for optimal stiffness of the system was
established after the maintenance studies for the ParisLyon and
MadridSevilla railways [23].
To obtain an optimal value of stiffness, the most common solution is to incorporate elastic elements with different properties
into the railway infrastructure, given that the modication of the
stiffness of other components such as rail, sleepers or ballast can
cause the deterioration of the stability and resistance of the track
[8]. In addition, the elastic elements allow for a reduction in the
variations of the stiffness along the track [23,45] as well as obtaining gradual changes of the stiffness between sections with different type of structures (e.g. between embankment and concrete
structures, or between ballasted track and slab track). This could
not only reduce the effect of dynamic overloads, but also the extent
of track degradation and intensity of the vibrations.
3. Elastic elements

Fig. 4. Scheme of rolling noise generated by rough contact between rail and wheels
[34].

With the increase in rail freight trafc and train speed, many
countries have incorporated elastic elements into their railway
systems as standard practice [24]. Such elements modify the stiffness of the track and mitigate phenomena such as ballast liquefaction, noise emission, and wave propagation. This is made possible
by the fact that elastic components can be manufactured with different stiffness levels as well as a high damping capacity.
The polymeric nature of these elements means that they are
lightweight, highly resistant, corrosion-proof, and easy to mould.
Nevertheless, one of the main problems of elastic elements used
in railroads is the deterioration produced by environmental agents
such as temperature, oxidation, or hydrolysis. For this reason, they
have a useful life of approximately 20 years [45,46].
There are many types of elastic components (embedded rail,
elastic pad under rail fastenings, elastic under-sleeper pads,

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M. Sol-Snchez et al. / Construction and Building Materials 75 (2015) 293305

geogrids, etc.) which are not only intended to reduce vibrations

and stress on components, but are also used as track reinforcement
in the same sense that elements like geogrid are employed in other
infrastructures [47]. However, the most commonly used devices
are rail pads, under-sleeper pads, and under-ballast mats, which
can distribute loads and reduce the noise emissions and vibrations
stemming from the movement of rails, sleepers, and ballast, whilst
at the same time mitigate the impact of these elements on each
other [45,48].
3.1. Rail pads
3.1.1. Main characteristics
Resilient elastic pads are generally installed beneath train track
rails since it became standard practice to make sleepers out of concrete. Rail pads are normally made out of rubber, high-density
polyethylene (HDPE), thermoplastic polyester elastomer (TPE),
and ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) [49,50]. Nonetheless, over the last
few years, new elastic elements have been developed from alternative materials, with emphasis upon those made from used tires
[51,52].
As a general rule, these pads (see Fig. 5) come in various designs
in order to better adapt to the railway system, and can thus range
in thickness from 4.5 to 15.0 mm. With regard the horizontal
geometry, rail pads are usually 180 mm long and 140 mm wide
under rail type UIC 54, and 180 mm long and 148 mm wide under
rail UIC 60. The use of this component improves load distribution,
which means a smoother ride, and a better conservation of the
superstructure. Furthermore, rail pads provide electrical insulation
(between track rails) and damp the vibrations that the rail transmits to the sleepers. This prevents the concrete from cracking
and reduces ballast wear.
The characteristic parameter of the rail pads is their vertical static stiffness. Given that these materials have a non-lineal performance, in order to study its inuence the value of the tangent
stiffness is usually taken into account for the design load, or the

Fig. 5. Types of rail pad [49,53].

value of the secant between the minimum and maximum load

design [42]. In addition, when modeling of the pad behavior is
required, nonlinear models that follow the hysteretic curve are recommended due to the non-lineal performance of these materials
[54].
As previously mentioned, rail pads come in a wide range of stiffness (k, kN/mm), which means that they can be used in trams and
light railway systems as well as in infrastructures with heavy axle
loads. Thus, their secant vertical stiffness is the main parameter to
characterize the behavior of rail pads. However, the materials classication according to this parameter can be different depending
on the literature reviewed, since their properties vary in relation
to the track characteristics and the main aim of the application
of the rail pads. In this sense, Table 1 shows some examples of rail
pad classications, proving the differences depending on the consulted bibliography [9,55]. In the present paper, the classication
proposed by Lpez Pita [9] will be used in order to study the effect
of rail pads in the railway system.
3.1.2. Cases and studies
In certain European countries, such as Germany and Spain, the
rst high-speed lines had stiff rail pads (approx. 400500 kN/
mm) which, in combination with an increased number of foundation layers, made the stiffness of the system excessive. This factor
was responsible for the increased deterioration of the ballast particles. This experience led to the use of rail pads that were more
resilient with stiffness values of less than 60100 kN/mm [56]. This
tendency to decrease the stiffness of the rail pads also occurred in
France (Paris-Lyon railway), where the elastic elements with
4.5 mm of thickness and 150 kN/mm of stiffness were replaced
by 9.0 mm thick rail pads and 90 kN/mm of stiffness in order to
reduce the global vertical stiffness. Therefore, this last example
demonstrates the inuence of the thickness of the rail pads.
This trend toward reducing the stiffness of rail pads was conrmed by the results of research carried out after cracks appeared
in the concrete sleepers of a Greek railway line after fewer than
15 years of service [57]. The evaluations showed that the use of
stiff rail pads increased stresses on the sleepers, causing them to
crack. Results showed that replacing stiff rail pads (250 kN/mm)
with more exible ones (40 kN/mm) reduced stresses transmitted
to the sleeper by up to 20% (in a ballasted track).
Further, to determine the capacity of the rail pads to attenuate
impacts between rail and sleepers, a study from the University of
Wollongong [58] evaluated the energy dissipated by the HDPE
pads against the impact of a 6 m high mace. From these results,
they concluded that these elastic elements can attenuate up to
50% of the energy transmitted by an impact load, and the remainder is absorbed by the vehicles suspension, the fastening system,
and the ballast particles. Similarly, Carrascal et al. [59] showed that
the use of TPE pads with 7.0 mm of thickness (stiffness equal to
100 kN/mm) lead to an attenuation of 50% of the impact loads,
reducing sleeper deformation when the rail pad stiffness is
decreased. Fig. 6 displays the inuence of pad stiffness on the
capacity of impact attenuation, showing that softer pads lead to
lower sleeper deformation on its top and bottom surface.
Regarding the corrugation phenomenon, studies focused on lateral movements have shown that the rail pad stiffness is one of the

Table 1
Rail pad classication. Differences depending on the consulted bibliography [9,54].
Author

Author 1 [9]
Author 2 [54]

Type of rail pads depending on their vertical secant stiffness, k (kN/mm)

Soft

Medium

Stiff

Very stiff

Extremely stiff

<80
130

80 < k < 150

410

>150
1300

4100

13,000

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Fig. 6. Effect of rail pad stiffness on the attenuation capacity for load impacts [58].

most inuential parameters, given that they limit the movement of

the track as well as make the contact between the wheel-track less
aggressive [60]. Egana et al. [21] measured rail deformations before
and after replacing pads with a stiffness equal to 90 kN/mm by
60 kN/mm pads. They found that the last type of pads allowed
for a reduction in the length and amplitude of rail waves of up to
55% in comparison with the use of stiff pads.
Moreover, the pad stiffness also has an important inuence on
variations of track stiffness. For example, the transition between
sections with 40 kN/mm of stiffness to others with 80 kN/mm
could lead to an increase of up to 40% in the stress over the ballast
layer. However, the decrease of rail pad stiffness below 100 kN/mm
could markedly reduce the changes in track behavior [8,9].
In the evaluation of the effect of rail pads on noise emission,
these elements are employed as discrete absorber of noise, and
therefore specic formulations should be used to predict the effect
of rail pads, according to diverse authors [29,32].
Based on these models, Wu and Thompson [60] afrm that even
though soft rail pads (68.8 kN/mm, while the rest of pads studied
had stiffness values equal to 270 kN/mm and 1,190 kN/mm)
increase the movements and vibrations in rail as well as increasing
noise from wheelrail contact up to 3 dB (A), this is compensated
by the fact that the sleepers emit less noise since their movement
is reduced. However, when stiff rail pads are used, precisely the
opposite occurs. More specically, the noise made by the sleepers
increases, whilst the noise made by the rails decreases [55]. The
effect of pad stiffness on noise is shown in Fig. 7. The inuence
of rail pads on sound level variations particularly affects frequencies of up to 250 Hz, 450 Hz, and 800 Hz in the case of pads with
low stiffness, medium stiffness, and high stiffness, respectively
[61].
Similarly, Leykauf and Stahl [62] showed that the reduction of
rail pad stiffness resulted in a lower speed of the vibration of ballast particles. It was demonstrated by measurements recorded in a
conventional German line where the most favorable behavior was
presented by a section with rail pads with stiffness equal to 27 kN/
mm, followed by 60 kN/mm pads, and nally 500 kN/mm pads. In
addition, it was seen that the rail pad stiffness had a greater effect
at the frequency between 16 and 250 Hz, since differences near
90% were recorded in that frequency range.
With respect to general track behavior, it is known that the use
of softer rail pads produced larger rail deection, which could lead
to the fatigue of this component or others such as the fastener system. Nonetheless, they lead to a more even distribution of stiffness
throughout the railway system. In contrast, it was found that stiff

Fig. 7. Inuence of pad stiffness on noise generation [34].

pads cause greater dynamic actions on the infrastructure and ballast material. However, on the more positive side, they have a
longer service life and reduce rail vibrations. Thus, from the experiences and studies recorded in this article, Table 2 shows a scheme
of the optimal eld of application of the rail pads according to their
vertical static stiffness.
On the other hand, due to the importance of the rail pad stiffness in the behavior of the railway track, some authors have
focused their studies on analyzing the effect of various parameters
on pad stiffness. Thus, Carrascal et al. [63] evaluated the inuence
of temperature in the mechanical performance of TPE (thermoplastic elastomer) pads. They found that an increase of 30 C could lead
to a reduction in the material stiffness of over 30%, this effect being
more notable in the static response of the material. This trend is
also seen when the load frequency is increased [59], showing that
dynamic loads cause stiffening (up to 25%) of the material in comparison with static loads.
In stiffness tests for elastic elements, the xed preload value is
more important than the frequency value, since the pad becomes
stiffer mostly when the preload is increased and only slightly when
the load application frequency is raised. Some studies [64] have
proved that an increase in preload of 20 kN can produce an
increase in dynamic stiffness up to 50%, according to Fig. 8.

Table 2
Field of application of rail pads according to its stiffness.
Field of application
Reduction of damage in sleepers
Decrease in the stress transmitted to sublayers
Impact attenuation
Reduction in corrugation
Decrease in rail deection. Lower energy
consumption
Reduction in stiffness changes
Lower rail movements. Longer life of fastener system
Reduction in rail vibrations
Lower level of noise from wheelrail contact
Reduction in sleeper and ballast vibration

Stiff
pads

Soft
pads
U
U
U
U

U
U
U
U
U
U

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299

3.2. Under sleeper pads

Fig. 8. Effect of preload values on the dynamic stiffness of rail pads [63].

However, the loss factor is practically independent of the preload

applied and only increases very slightly with the load frequency
[65,66].
Furthermore, Carrascal Vaquero [49], who studied the dynamic
response of TPE pads, points out that when evaluating the performance of these materials, it is necessary to take into account that
with the repetition of loads, pad stiffness could increase up to
18% and at the same time the dissipated energy falls to approximately 40% (a change that is further accentuated at temperatures
of 4060 C). The increase in stiffness and reduction in capacity
to dissipate energy during the fatigue process has also been demonstrated by other authors [67] who have analyzed the behavior
of rail pads manufactured from end-of-life tires. In addition, they
found that the stiffness (static and dynamic) of rubber pads ts
with a power law in reference to the pad thickness, which showed
that the increase in thickness can lead to an important reduction in
material stiffness.
The evaluation of the material stiffness during its service life is
also important. Thus, some authors [68] have analyzed the inuence of different deterioration processes (physicalchemical and
mechanical actions that can take place on railway tracks) on rail
pads made of TPE (ThermoPlastic Elastomer). It was conrmed that
such environmental factors cause the pads to progressively
increase in stiffness, a value that can reach 3341% for a service life
of 13 years, respectively.
Stiffness variation in rail pads has also been evaluated by testing equipment developed by the University of Wollongong in Australia (a non-destructive testing methodology based on the
vibration response to frequencies of 01.000 Hz) [69]. In relation
to HDPE rail pads (5.5 mm thick), the annual rate of deterioration
of the dynamic stiffness and the damping constant was found to
be approximately 12 kN/mm and 108 Ns/m, respectively [70,71].
Table 3 shows the ways in which various parameters can vary
the stiffness of rail pads.

3.2.1. Main characteristics

Elastic pads between the ballast and sleepers are a popular
solution since they can reduce the load and vibrations from concrete sleepers, whose damping power is not sufciently potent
from a structural viewpoint. Under-sleeper pads (USP) have been
used for over twenty years, though a wider utilization of these pads
has been developed with the construction of high speed railway
tracks. They are installed to reduce the track stiffness as an alternative to increase the thickness of the ballast or sub-ballast layers,
which makes the compaction of this layer more difcult [45].
These elastic pads (see Fig. 9), which are installed under the
sleepers, are normally made of polyurethane elastomers, rubber,
and EVA [72,73] as well as elastic waste material could be used
[74]. USP have a thickness of 1020 mm and are usually 1 m long
(with the exception of pads for diblock sleepers where the length
is similar to that of the sleeper block) while their width depends
on the sleeper geometry (typically close to 2030 cm) [2,17,75].
Under-sleeper pads usually have two layers: (i) a cellular layer
inserted inside the sleeper, thus providing it with the necessary
damping characteristics, and (ii) an elastic layer on the lower part
of the sleeper that protects the hard cellular layer from the damage
caused by repeated impacts with the ballast.
The use of these pads helps to distribute the load transmitted by
the rail between a greater number of sleepers. At the same time,
the design and installation of various types of sleeper pad makes
it possible to even out differences in stiffness along turnouts, as
well as transition zones between building and construction works
and natural soil [48].
Unlike rail pads, there is currently no standard classication of
under-sleeper pads. However, certain authors, such as Witt [2],
categorize this component in terms of its vertical stiffness as follows: soft (50 kN/mm); medium (400 kN/mm); and stiff
(3.000 kN/mm). However, the parameter used to form the undersleeper pads is the static bedding modulus C (N/mm3), which is
obtained as the material stiffness per unit area relating to the area
of the USP [76]. According to this parameter they can be classied
as stiff (0.250.35 N/mm3), medium (0.150.25 N/mm3), soft
(0.100.15 N/mm3) and very soft (less than 0.10 N/mm3).
From the data collected by the UIC (International Union of Railways), the medium and hard under-sleeper pads can be appropriated to improve the track quality, to reduce the stiffness between
consecutive sections, to reduce the thickness of the ballast layer,
and to avoid the contraction of the track; whereas the soft pads
are more suitable for reducing the vibrations caused by the trains.
3.2.2. Cases and studies
One of the rst experiences with elastic pads under sleepers
was developed on the line between Tokaido and Shinkasen in the
70s. The USP used had a vertical stiffness close to 68 kN/mm. It
was seen that these elements allowed for a reduction in the ballast

Fig. 9. Under-sleeper pads [48].

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M. Sol-Snchez et al. / Construction and Building Materials 75 (2015) 293305

vibration of 22% as well as decreasing the stress on the granular

layers, thereby demonstrating the effectiveness of USP in reducing
ballast deterioration [9].
From this experience, the use of these pads has spread throughout Europe due to the construction of high-speed railways [72]. In
2003, sleepers with USP were used in a track section in Copenhagen in order to reduce ballast thickness. The railway line is still
in good condition and there has been no unforeseen maintenance.
The improvement of the track quality was also shown by the use of
USP (23 mm of thickness, and made of polyurethane) in Austrian
railway lines such as that between Langenlebarn and Tulln [75],
which is still in service, and various tests have shown that the track
presents good levelling values after more than 2 decades.
On the other hand, a study developed between 1997 and 2000
in a bridge of the German Hannover-Gottingen line showed that
USP (with a stiffness between 30 and 70 kN/mm) led to the reduction of geometry deterioration (the rate of railway defects was
reduced by 2530% in comparison to a railway without USP),
which allowed for an increase in the interval time of maintenance
tasks, and therefore reduced costs [9]. It was also seen in studies
developed between 2001 and 2006 in Austrian lines since tracks
with USP (with a bedding modulus close to 0.2 N/mm3) presented
low rates of defects [77] in comparison with sections without USP
(differences higher than 1.0 mm, obtaining the greater differences
in the transition between sleeper with and without USP), increasing the time between ballast tamping [48].
Other studies carried out in Germany have analyzed the effect
of under-sleeper pads on the vibration velocity of ballast in reference to a sleeper with only a pad under the rail. Fig. 10 shows that
USP reduce up to 45% (in the case of a frequency equal to 63 Hz)
the vibrations transmitted by the sleepers to underlying layers
[78], which decreases the damage to the ballast and avoids the
development of the liquefaction phenomenon. It was observed that
the use of USP in tracks with stiff rail pads leads to a comparable
mechanical performance with that recorded in tracks with soft rail
pads and without USP.
In addition, Austrian studies have shown that USP allows for a
reduction in rail corrugation in small radius curves by using soft
pads. Thus, a study developed in a tight curve (radius equal to
265 m) in the Austrian line of Markerforf showed that the use of
USP with a bedding modulus near 0.20.3 N/mm3 reduced the

length of rail waves as well as decreasing the amplitude of the

deformations by up to 50% after 25 GMT [77]. The inuence of
under-sleeper pads on rail corrugation development has also been
evaluated in a narrow curve (R = 288 m) in a test track in Czech
Republic [75], obtaining good behavior of the track with USP since
it was built in 2008. In addition, different studies focused on the
use of USP in small radius curves have shown that these elastic
components could modify the lateral resistance of the track. However, there is no general consensus about whether USP increases or
decreases the lateral track stability [75].
With the use of USP (0.13 N/mm3) in a 17 km Swiss track (a new
line between MattstettenRothrist) it was possible to reduce structure borne vibrations. With this purpose, USP were also used in
Zurichs main station. In addition, other European studies have
evaluated the changes in the noise emission of train passages after
the installation of under-sleeper pads. In these studies, a resonance
frequency of 16.031.5 Hz was observed for all the under-sleeper
pads studied. This signied greater noise levels for that frequency
range. However, there was an effective noise reduction from

Fig. 11. Effect of USP stiffness on rail movements, depending on rail pad and ballast
characteristic [71].

Fig. 10. Comparison of ballast vibration between a section with USP and another without this type of elastic element [77].

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M. Sol-Snchez et al. / Construction and Building Materials 75 (2015) 293305

frequencies above 40 Hz, which reached a level of between 8 and

15 dB as insertion loss [73]. These levels of noise reduction were
also recorded in an experimental study carried out in Croatia, in
which there was a more marked effect of USP among 5250 Hz
[45].
In relation to the effect of the USP stiffness, the DB (Deutsche
Bahn) developed a study in an experimental section where USP
with stiffness equal to 70 kN/mm and 80 kN/mm were used, along
with an analysis of sleepers without elastic elements as a control. It
was observed that the decrease in stiffness led to the increase (30
50%) in rail and sleeper movements. In addition, it was shown that
USP allowed for a reduction of up to 35% of the stress on the ballast
[17].
In addition to these various experiences, a number of authors
have analyzed the response of railway structures that have incorporated this element, studying USP with diverse stiffness values.
The results show that under-sleeper pads (3 cm thick) reduce the
intensity of vibrations transmitted by the railway system by up
to 30% [39]. However, the use of soft USP (35 kN/mm) can produce
higher movements (up to 35% more, depending on the characteristics of the rail pads and ballast modulus) and accelerations
(increase near 50% for frequencies around 150 Hz) of rail and sleepers, according to a theoretical study developed by Johansson et al.
[72] in which the inuence of USP on the dynamic behavior of the
railway track was analyzed. Fig. 11 shows an example of the effect
of USP stiffness in rail movements depending on rail pad and ballast stiffness.
It is evident that under-sleeper pad stiffness has an important
inuence on the dynamic performance of the railway infrastructure. Accordingly, various authors have studied the role of this
parameter in the behavior of the railway system. It has been found
that under-sleeper pads with a bedding modulus equal to
0.3 N/mm3 reduce the overall stiffness of the track as well as
stresses on the sleepers and ballast layer [2,79]. However, since
this type of pad causes more movement and vibrations in the
rails and sleepers, it was necessary to use stiffer pads to avoid
such problems. Stiffer pads also reduce the bending moment of
the rail, but have the disadvantage of increasing the load transmitted to the under layers and can lead to the potential sagging of the
sleepers.
A number of authors [2,23] have also investigated the inuence
of under-sleeper pad stiffness on the dynamic forces exerted on the
railway track. Results showed that the use of stiff pads (in this
study with a bedding modulus higher than 0.5 N/mm3) has little
effect on the variation of contact forces between wheel and rail.
However, soft under-sleeper pads (0.05 N/mm3 in this case) allow
for a reduction in the variation of forces and stress in track sections
with changing vertical stiffness. In addition, these types of pads
reduce the loads transmitted to the ballast and subgrade layers,
obtaining a decrease higher than 140% [80]. The use of USP is
responsible for the increase in the area of interaction between
the sleeper and ballast, since it is possible to reach values higher
than 30% (depending on the stiffness) of the total surface of the
sleeper, whereas such values are normally 34% on ballasted tracks
without USP [2,81]. This fact has been conrmed in laboratory tests
where USP from tire pads were used [74], although in this case the
increase in area was lower due to the tire slots.
With the aim of summarizing the inuence of USP stiffness on
railway tracks, Table 4 shows some eld of application for these
elements, depending on its vertical stiffness.
3.3. Under ballast mats
3.3.1. Main characteristics
Another measure adopted for the damping of vibrations and
energy absorption from train passage is the use of an elastic

Table 3
Inuence of various parameters on rail pad stiffness.
Parameters
Temperature (increase)
Dynamic loads
Frequency (increase)
Pre-load (increase)
Fatigue process
Pad thickness (increase)
Mechanical deterioration
Thermal ageing

Stiffness increase

Stiffness reduction
U

U
U Low inuence
U High inuence
U High inuence
U
U High inuence
U

Table 4
Field of application of USP according to its vertical stiffness.
Field of application

Stiff USP

Reduction in rail movements and vibrations

Decrease in rail deection
Reduction in corrugation (curve sections)
Reduction in corrugation (straight sections)
Reduction in sleeper movements and
vibrations
Decrease in ballast settlement due to stress
reduction
Reduction in ballast vibrations
Decrease in ballast layer thickness
Reduction in track stiffness variations

U
U
U
U
U

Soft
USP

U
U
U
U (less effect than
soft)

Table 5
Field of application for UBM with different vertical stiffnesses.
Field of application

Stiff
mats

Soft
mats

Reduction in ballast pressure

Increase in track exibility
Decrease of the ballast layer thickness
Reduction in ballast degradation in stiff sections
Reduction in vibrations transmitted through the
ground

U
U
U
U
U

U
U

anti-vibration mat between the ballast layer and the substructure

(ballasted track) or beneath the concrete slab (slab track). This
mat is essential in areas (tunnels, bridges, elevated stations, cuts,
switches, etc.) where elastic components are required in the railway structure to reduce stress on the substructure as well as vibrations and noise levels [82,83], due to the deformation capacity and
mechanical energy dissipation of this material. These properties
depend on the thickness and density of the mat as well as on the
size and type of compound that the material is composed of (see
Fig. 12).
Elastic mats usually have a thickness of 1530 mm whereas
their horizontal dimensions depend on the technique developed
during the construction. UBM are often composed of a single layer
of polymeric material or of two layers: (i) a distribution layer to
uniformly distribute loads, and (ii) an elastic layer to dampen
loads. In addition to the conventional elastic materials used in
mat manufacturing, alternative composites are being developed
from waste tires in order to reduce costs [84]. Despite the variation
in design and composition, all of these mats are able to absorb the
impact of loads and the vibrations produced by the railway system.
They can also maintain performance even after a repeated number
of loads and in diverse climate conditions.
Whilst the rail pads and under sleeper pads (elastic elements
near the surface) are more suitable for increasing the elasticity of

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M. Sol-Snchez et al. / Construction and Building Materials 75 (2015) 293305

Fig. 12. Under-ballast mats [52].

the rail, the under-ballast mats (UBM) are more efcient for reducing the fast deterioration of the ballast in contact with the planks
and with rigid substructures such as tunnels or bridges. The mats
are dened by their dynamic bedding modulus Cdyn (N/mm3),
and they can be classied as hard (>0.22 N/mm3), medium (0.09
0.22 N/mm3), soft (0.050.09 N/mm3) and very soft (0.030.05 N/
mm3) [83].
3.3.2. Cases and studies
The use of elastic under-ballast mats in railway infrastructure
began in the rst high-speed railway line between Tokyo and
Osaka in 1964. The rst under-ballast mats were made from used
automobile tires, and were installed to increase vertical exibility
all along the track system. At the same time, the objective was to
reduce stresses on the ballast, and thus avoid the rapid breakage
and crushing of ballast particles, which was occurring in the areas
near the deck of the concrete bridges of the high-speed railway [9].
Since this rst experience in Japan, other studies have been
developed. In particular, it is worth highlighting the work developed in European countries where the UBMs are used as specic
solutions. For example, the instruction I-AM 05/02 established by
the SBB (Swiss National Railways) indicate the employment of
UBM to be appropriate when the ballast layer thickness is lower
than 30 cm, since the elastic mats allow for an increase in the track
exibility. Similarly, the DB (Deutsche Bahn) recommends UBM in

lines with ballast thickness lower than 30 cm and trafc higher

than 10,000 tonnes per day [83].
In the United Kingdom, of the different cases, the use of under
ballast mats in a tunnel section of the Gospel Oak line (London)
is particularly worthy of note, as in this case the ballast layer thickness was reduced by up to 13 cm. Thus, the main aim of the UBM
was to increase the track exibility and reduce ballast degradation
[85].
In addition, UBM with a bedding modulus equal to 0.83 N/mm3
were placed in a bridge (1160 m length) from the high-speed line
between Hannover and Wrzburg (Germany) in 1987. After
21 years (trafc roughly 384 MGT), the elastic mats were taken
off during maintenance and rehabilitation tasks in order to analyze
their mechanical response. Laboratory studies conrmed that the
mats stiffness had increased by only 11.2% whereas the visual
aspect of the underlying granular layers was good, and in addition
a lower number of maintenance tasks had been developed during
the service life of the track in comparison with a section without
UBM [86]. This work indicates the potential of UBM to be used
long-term whilst at the same time reducing track deterioration.
This decrease in track degradation is related to the fact that the
use of UBM allows for an increase in the area of contact between
the ballast layer and the underlying ones [87,88], which reduces
the stresses transmitted by the ballast to the under layers (thus
producing fewer settlements). At the same time, this in turn

Fig. 13. Comparison of ballast vibration between a section without UBM and another where UBM were installed [88].

M. Sol-Snchez et al. / Construction and Building Materials 75 (2015) 293305

decreases the vibrations transmitted to the soil, and also reduces

the noise stemming from the contact between ballast particles.
In addition, a study [89] carried out in a tunnel section in Germany
was focused on measuring the vibrations before and after
(18 years) the use of UBM. Results (shown in Fig. 13) indicated that
the speed of the waves transmitted through the ground decreased
when the elastic mats were used in comparison with the results
recorded before the maintenance task, obtaining a reduction of
15 dB (almost 30%) for frequencies higher than 31.5 Hz in comparison with a section without UBM.
A further study [83] also indicates that mats reduce up to
19 dBV the vibrations transmitted to the structure when 0.3 N/
mm3 mats are used, these being more effective in reducing its
dynamic bedding modulus, and also when used over rock or in tunnels instead of banks. It was also shown that the UBMs protect the
ballast, given that they avoid contact between the ballast and the
substructure, whist giving greater exibility to the track so that
the load of the trains is divided between more planks, therefore
reducing the transmitted tension (see Table 5).
In relation to the properties of these elements, Kimura [87]
developed a simplied prediction procedure based on an original
WettschureckKurze model [90]. This model uses a nite termination impedance to represent the case of an anti-vibration mat
installed beneath a concrete slab or asphalt layer. This prediction
procedure was tested against measurements on at-grade installations on light rail transit and commuter railway installations in
Baltimore and Boston. This comparative analysis showed that this
method can be useful for the study of the properties of under-ballast mats because it can predict insertion losses for the range of
low frequencies in which the transmission of vibrations to the soil
is particularly important [91].

4. Conclusions
In spite of the many advantages of railways (efciency, transportation capacity, low environmental impact, etc.), there are some
drawbacks that need to be addressed in order to improve their efciency. Thereby, this paper presents a state of the art review
focused on elastic elements as a common solutions applied in railway infrastructure to reduce the effect of the main problems associated with train trafc. From the study, the following conclusions
can be drawn:
Elastic elements are an adequate solution to modify the vertical
stiffness of tracks and to dampen loads, vibrations and noises. The
most commonly used elastic elements in railway infrastructure are
rail pads, under-sleeper-pads, and under-ballast mats.
The stiffness (k, kN/mm) of the rail pads is the main characteristic parameter of these elements. Nonetheless, this property is
inuenced by diverse factors like temperature, load frequency, preload and material degradation.
 Different studies have shown that soft rail pads (close to 80 kN/
mm) could increase rail movements (and thus its vibrations and
noise) and deection, which could cause the fatigue of other
railway components. Stiff pads are more appropriate to reduce
noise and vibrations from wheelrail contact.
 Nonetheless, the decrease of rail pad stiffness can reduce the
vibrations and noise from sleepers and ballast particles, whilst
these types of pads can simultaneously allow for a more homogeneous distribution of stiffness throughout the track and a
lower effect of the loads transmitted to underlayers.
With regard to under-sleeper pads and under-ballast mats, their
characteristic parameter is the bedding modulus (C, N/mm3) that is
to say the element stiffness per unit area.

303

 When dealing with under-sleeper pads, it is advisable to

use stiff pads to reduce vibrations in sleepers and rails
(more effectives for frequencies higher than 4050 Hz). In
contrast, soft pads (approximately 0.100.15 N/mm3) should
be installed to reduce stresses on the ballast, though medium stiffness pads (0.20 N/mm3) are the most suitable to
achieve a progressive variation of stiffness throughout the
track.
 Under-ballast mats are mainly used to mitigate the lowfrequency vibrations transmitted to the soil and to increase
the overall exibility of the track, the use of soft mats being
more appropriate (bedding modulus lower than 0.10 N/mm3).
At the same time, these mats reduce stresses on the ballast
layer as well as on the underlayers of the track bed. Thus,
it is possible to reduce the ballast layer thickness when
UBM are used.
Based on the study of the state of the art of elastic elements for
railway infrastructure, some lines of investigation could be
proposed:
 Only a few authors have quantied the changes in the lifespan
under fatigue of materials such as the fastener when the stiffness of rail pads is modied. Thus, more in-depth research is
needed in order to analyze the effect of this parameter on the
deterioration of the track components.
 The use of elastic pads under the sleeper could modify the lateral resistance of the track. Thus, some experimental studies
have focused on this issue, but they conclude that a more indepth study is necessary to quantify the effect of USP on the lateral stability of tracks.
 When under ballast mats are used it could be necessary to
determine the maximum possible reduction of ballast thickness
that would not modify track behavior.

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