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ALTERNATING CURRENTS
Transformer
ALTERNATING CURRENTS
1. ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
(i) Alternating voltage: An alternating voltage (or E.M.F.) is one whose magnitude changes with time and direction reverses periodically.
The instantaneous value (i.e. value at any time t) of an alternating voltage is
given by;
E = E0 sin t
where
...(i)
ALTERNATING CURRENTS
ALTERNATING CURRENTS
1. ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
(i) Alternating voltage: An alternating voltage (or E.M.F.) is one whose magnitude changes with time
and direction reverses periodically.
The instantaneous value (i.e. value at any time t) of an alternating voltage is given by;
E = E0 sin t
where
...(i)
Note that = 2 f where f is the frequency of the alternating voltage. If T is the time period of alternating
voltage, then,
2
= 2 f =
T
It may be noted that in the above equation of the alternating voltage, E0 and are constant. Therefore,
instantaneous value E of alternating voltage changes with time according to sine
I
I0
E0
E
0 t T/4
T/2
0 t T/4
T/2
- I0
E0
Fig. 17.1
Fig. 17.2
function of time.
Note: An alternating voltage can also be represented as a cosine function of time viz., E = E 0 cos
t [See Fig. 17.2]. Both representations lead to the same result.
(ii) Alternating current: An alternating current is one whose magnitude changes with time and
direction reverses periodically.
The instantaneous value (i.e. value at any time t) of an alternating current is given by;
I = I0 sin t
where
I = value of alternating current at time t
I0 = maximum value (i.e. amplitude) of alternating current
= 2 f = 2/T
I
Fig. 17.3 shows the waveform of an alternating current.
I0
I
0 t T/4
T/2
I0
Fig. 17.3
ALTERNATING CURRENTS
3
I = I0 sin wt
I = I0 sin wt
_
+
_
E = E0 sin wt
E = E0 sin wt
(ii)
(i)
Fig. 17.4
Note: An alternating current can also be represented as a cosine function of time viz. I = I 0
cos t. The current-time graph will be similar to that shown in Fig. 17.2 except replacing voltage
by current along Y-axis.
q =
T /2
= I0
=
T /2
I dt =
cos t
T /2
I 0 sin t dt
=
I0
cos 2 cos 0
I0
I
2I
[cos cos 0] = 0 ( 1 1) = 0
2 I0
or
...(i)
T
2
From eqs. (i) and (ii), we have,
q = Im
or
or
Im
T 2I0
=
2
Im
T
T
= 2 I0
2
2
2
I m = I 0 = 0.637 I 0
I m = 0.637 I 0
...(ii)
( = 2 f =
2
)
T
Hence half-cycle average value of a.c. is 0.637 times the peak value of a.c.
For positive half-cycle, Im = + 0.637 I0
For negative half-cycle, Im = -0.637 I0
Obviously, average value of a.c. over a complete cycle is zero.
Similarly, half-cycle average value of alternating voltage is given by ;
Em = 0.637 E0
The student can derive this relation by replacing I0 by E0/R in the above derivation.
ALTERNATING CURRENTS
Note. A d.c. voltmeter or ammeter reads average (or d.c.) value. Therefore, they cannot be used to
measure alternating voltage/current. It is because the average value of alternating voltage/current
over a complete cycle is zero. We use a.c. meters to measure alternating voltage/current.
dH = I 2 R dt = ( I 0 sin t ) 2 R dt = I 02 R sin 2 t dt
In one complete cycle (i.e. time 0 to T) of alternating current, the total amount of heat produced in R
is given by ;
T
H = dH = I 02 R sin 2 t dt
0
= I 02 R
1 cos 2 t
dt
2
I 02 R
T 1 dt T cos 2 t dt
0
2 0
T
2
I R
sin 2 t
= 0
t
2
2 0
sin 2 T
I 02 R
sin 0
(T 0)
2
2
I 02 R
2
sin 2 2
T
( T = 2)
I 02 RT
... (i)
2
If Iv is the virtual (or r.m.s.) value of the alternating current, then heat produced in R in the same time
(i.e. 0 to T) is given by ;
...(ii)
H = I v2 RT
From eqs. (i) and (ii), we have,
H =
I 02 RT
2
I0
Iv =
= 0.707 I 0
or
2
IV = 0.707 I0
Similarly, it can be shown that virtual or r.m.s. value of an alternating voltage is given by ;
Ev = 0.707 E0
The student can derive this relation by replacing I0 by E0/R in the above derivation.
I v2 RT =
Alternate Method:
I = I 0 sin t
If this current is passed through a resistance R, then power delivered at any instant is given by ;
ALTERNATING CURRENTS
5
p
p = I 2 R = ( I 0 sin t ) 2 R
= l02 R sin 2 t
p = l02 R sin 2 t
Because the current is squared, power is always positive. Since
or
I 20 R
Average power
1 2
2 I0R
the value of sin 2 t varies between 0 and 1, its average value is 1/2
0
[See Fig. 17.5].
1 2
t
Fig. 17.4
Power delivered, P = I 02 R
From eqs. (i) and (ii), we have,
...(ii)
1 2
Iv R
2
I
I v = 0 = 0.707 I 0
or
2
Iv = 0.707 I0
Note that r.m.s. value is the same whether calculated for half-cycle or full-cycle.
I v2 R =
= 230 2 sin 2 50 t
( E0 = 2 Ev )
E = 230 2 sin 314t
(ii) When we say that alternating current in a circuit is 5A, we are specifying the r.m.s. value. It
means that the alternating current flowing in the circuit has the same heating effect as 5A d.c.
under similar conditions.
(iii) A.C. ammeters and voltmeters record r.m.s. values of current and voltage respectively.
Note. The alternating voltage/current can be measured by utilising the heating effect of electric
current. Such instruments are called hot-wire instruments and measure the r.m.s. value of voltage/
current since r.m.s. value is the same for half-cycle or complete cycle.
OM = OP sin = I0 sin t
= I, the value of current at that instant
ALTERNATING CURRENTS
When an alternating voltage is applied across a pure resistance, then free electrons flow (i.e. current) in one
direction for the first half-cycle of the supply and then flow in the opposite direction during the next half-cycle,
thus constituting alternating current in the circuit.
E I
E
I
I
0
2p
wt
E = E0 sin wt
(i)
(ii)
Fig. 17.9
Consider a pure resistor of resistance R connected across an alternating source of e.m.f. [See Fig. 17.9
(i)]. Suppose the instantaneous value of the alternating e.m.f. in given by;
E = E0 sin t
...(i)
If I is the circuit current at that instant, then,
F E0 sin t
=
( E = E0 sin t)
R
R
E
I = 0 sin t
or
R
The value of I will be maximum (i.e. I0) when sin t = 1. Therefore, eq. (ii) becomes:
I = I0 sin t
...(iii)
I=
...(ii)
( I0 = E0 /R)
ALTERNATING CURRENTS
(i) Phase angle: It is clear from eqs. (i) and (iii) that the applied e.m.f. and circuit current are in phase
with each other i.e. they pass through their zero values at the same instant and attain their
positive and negative peaks at the same instant. This is indicated in the wave diagram shown
in Fig. 17.9 (ii). The phasor diagram shown in Fig.17.9 (iii) also reveals that current is in phase
with the applied voltage.
(ii) Power absorbed: In an a.c. circuit, voltage and current vary from instant to instant. Therefore,
power at any instant is equal to the product of voltage and current at that instant i.e.
Instantaneous power, p = EI = (E0 sin t) (I0 sin t)= E0 I0 sin2 t
1 cos 2 t
= E0 I 0
E I
E I
p = 0 0 0 0 cos 2t
...(iv)
2
2
Since power varies from instant to instant, average power over a complete cycle is to be considered.
This is found by integrating eq. (iv) w.r.t. time for 1 cycle and dividing by the time of 1 cycle. The time
for one cycle is T.
Average power, P =
Now
1
T
E0 I 0
1
dt
T
2
E0 I 0
cos 2 t dt
2
0 cos 2 t dt = 0
E0 I 0
E
I
0 = 0 0
2
2
2
or
P = Ev Iv
Therefore, average power absorbed by a resistor in an a.c. circuit is equal to the product of virtual
voltage (Ev) across it and virtual current (Iv) through it. Obviously, this power is supplied by the source of
alternating e.m.f.
p=
Note: Since I v =
Ev
R
P = I v2 R
or
Ev2
R
E I
I
0
p/2
I
2p
wt
E = E0 sin wt
(i)
(ii)
Fig. 17.10
If I is the current in the circuit and dI/dt is the rate of change of current at that instant, then e.m.f.
induced in L = L dI/dt. As applied voltage is equal and opposite to induced e.m.f. at every instant,
LdI
E =
dt
or
or
dI
dt
dI
E0 sin t = L
dt
E=L
( E = E0 sin t)
ALTERNATING CURRENTS
E0
sin t dt
L
Integrating both sides, we get,
E
E
I = 0 sin t dt = 0 ( cos t )
L
L
E
I = 0 sin ( t / 2 )
L
The value of I will be maximum (I0) when sin (t /2) = 1.
dI =
or
...(ii)
E0
L
Substituting the value of E0/L = I0 in eq. (ii), we get,
I = I0 sin (t /2)
...(iii)
(i) Phase angle: It is clear from eqs. (i) and (iii) that circuit current lags behind the voltage by /2
radians or *90. Hence in a pure inductance, current lags the voltage by 90.
This fact is indicated in the wave diagram [See Fig. 17.10 (ii)]. The phasor diagram shown in Fig.
17.10 (iii) also reveals that Iv lags behind Ev by 90.
(ii) Inductive reactance: Inductance not only causes the current to lag behind the voltage but it also
limits the magnitude of current in the circuit. We have seen above that:
E
E0
I0 = 0
or
= L
L
I0
Clearly, the opposition offered by the inductance to current flow is L. This quantity L is
called the inductive reactance XL of the inductor. It has the same dimensions as resistance and
is, therefore, measured in ohms ().
Inductive reactance, XL = L = 2 f L
Note the XL will be in if L is in henry and f in Hz.
Notes:
I0 =
(a)
Ev = E0 / 2
and
Iv = I0 / 2
E0
E
E
or
= v = XL
Iv = v
I0
Iv
XL
(b) For d.c. f = 0, XL = 2 fL = 2 0 L = 0
Therefore, a pure inductance offers zero opposition to d.c.
(c) XL = 2 f L or XL f. Therefore, greater the f, greater is and vice-versa.
(d) We can show that the units of XL are that of ohm.
1
1
Volt
Volt
XL = L =
henry =
=
= ohm
sec
sec amp/sec amp
(iii)
Average power consumed
E = E0 sin t
I = I0 sin (t /2) = I0 cos t
E0 I0
Instantaneous power, p = E I = (E0 sin t) ( I0 cos t) =
sin2 t
2
Average power, P = Average of p over one cycle
1 T E I
= 0 0 sin t dt = 0
T 0
2
Hence average power absorbed by pure inductance is zero. Let us see what really takes place in a
pure inductive circuit. During one quarter cycle of alternating source of e.m.f., energy is stored in the
magnetic field of the inductor. This energy is supplied by the source. During the next quarter cycle, the
stored energy is returned to the source. For this reason, average power absorbed by a pure inductor over
a complete cycle is zero.
ALTERNATING CURRENTS
E I
I
0
p/2
E
p
2p
wt
E = E0 sin wt
(i)
(ii)
Fig. 17.11
Consider a capacitor of capacitance C connected across an alternating source of e.m.f. [See Fig. 17.11
(i)]. Suppose the instantaneous value of the alternating e.m.f. is given by ;
E = E0 sin t
...(i)
If I is the current in the circuit and q is the charge on the capacitor at this instant, then,
q
C
At every instant, the applied e.m.f. must be equal to the p.d. across the capacitor.
q
C
q
E0 sin t =
C
q = C E0 sin t
E=
or
or
I =
sin (t + / 2)
1/ C
The value of I will be maximum (I0) when sin (t + /2) = 1.
Now,
I =
I0 =
...(ii)
E0
1/ C
E0
(ii), we have,
1/ C
I = sin (t + /2)
...(iii)
(i) Phase angle: It is clear from eqs. (i) and (iii) that the circuit current leads the applied voltage by /
2 radians or *90. Hence in a pure capacitance, current leads the voltage by 90. This fact is indicated in
the wave diagram [See Fig. 17.11 (ii)]. The phasor diagram shown in Fig. 17.11 (iii) also reveals that Iv
leads Ev by 90.
(ii) Capacitive reactance: Capacitance not only causes the voltage to lag behind the current but it also
limits the magnitude of current in the circuit. We have seen above that :
E0
E0
1
I0 =
=
or
1/ C
C C
Clearly, the opposition offered by capacitance to current flow is 1/C. The quantity 1/C is called the
capacitive reactance XC of the capacitor. It has the same dimensions as resistance and is, therefore,
measured in ohms ().
1
1
=
C 2 f C
Note that XC will be in if f is in Hz and C in farad.
Notes:
(a)
and
Ev = E0 / 2
Iv = I0 / 2
Capacitive reactance, X C =
E
E0
E
1
or
Iv = v
= v =
= XC
X
C
I0
Iv
C
1
1
(b) For d.c. f = 0, X C =
=
= .
2fC 2 0 C
Therefore, a pure capacitance offers infinite opposition to d.c. In other words, a capacitor
blocks d.c.
10
ALTERNATING CURRENTS
1
1
or X C . Therefore, greater the f, smaller is XC and vice-versa.
f
2fC
1
sec
sec
volt sec
(d) X C =
=
=
=
= ohm
C farad coulomb/volt amp/sec
Therefore, the units of XC are ohm.
(iii) Average power absorbed
E = E0 sin t
I = I0 sin (t + /2) = I0 cos t
E0 I 0
sin 2t
Instantaneous power, p = E I = (E0 sin t) (I0 cos t) =
2
Average power, P = Average of p over one cycle
1 TE
= 0 sin 2t dt = 2
T 0 2
Hence average power absorbed by pure capacitance is zero. Let us see what really takes place in a
pure capacitive circuit. During one quarter cycle of the alternating source of e.m.f., energy is stored in the
electric field of the capacitor. This energy is supplied by the source. During the next quarter cycle, the
stored energy is returned to the source. For this reason, the average power absorbed by a pure capacitor
over one cycle is zero.
(c)
XC =
V R = Iv R
...
where VR is in phase with Iv
and
V L = I v XL
...
where VL leads Iv by 90
Taking current as the reference phasor, the phasor diagram of the circuit can be drawn as shown in Fig.
17.12 (ii). The voltage drop VR (= Iv R) is in phase with current and is represented in magnitude and
direction by the phasor OA. The voltage drop VL (= Iv XL ) leads the current by 90 and is represented in
magnitude and direction by the phasor AB. The applied voltage Ev is the phasor sum of these two voltage
drops i.e.
VL
Iv
VR
Iv
90
VR
VL
Iv
B
Ev
VL
o
90
O
Ev
(i)
Ev =
or
Iv =
VR
Iv
(ii)
Fig. 17.12
RR2 + L2L = ( I v R) 2 + ( I v X L ) 2 = I v
R 2 + X L2
Ev
R + X L2
2
The quantity R 2 + X L2 offers opposition to current flow and is called impedance of the circuit. It is
represented by Z and is measured in ohms ().
E
Iv = v
where Z = R 2 + X L2
Z
(i) Phase angle: It is clear from the phasor diagram that circuit current Iv lags behind the applied
voltage Ev by . Therefore, we arrive at a very important conclusion that in an inductive circuit, current
lags behind the voltage. The value of phase angle can be determined from the phasor diagram.
ALTERNATING CURRENTS
tan =
11
I X
VL
X
= v L = L
VR
Iv R
R
XL
R
E I
Since the values of XL and R are known, the value of can be
calculated. The wave diagram shown in Fig. 17.13 also reveals that
circuit current lags behind the applied voltage.
If the applied voltage is E = E0 sin t, then equation for circuit
0
current is given by ;
I = I0 sin (t ) where I0 = E0 / Z
(ii) Impedance: The total opposition offered to the flow of alternating current is called impedance Z. In RL series circuit,
or
tan =
E
I
Fig. 17.13
Z = R 2 + X L2 where XL = 2 f L
The magnitude of impedance in R L series circuit depends upon the values R, L and supply frequency f.
(iii) Power consumed
Instantaneous power, p = E I = (E0 sin t) [I0 sin (t )]
1
= E0 I 0 [2 sin t )]
2
1
E0 I 0 [cos cos (2t )]
2
1
1
p = E0 I 0 cos E0 I 0 cos (2t )
2
2
Obviously, instantaneous power consists of two parts :
1
(a) a constant part
E I cos whose average value over one cycle is the same.
2 0 0
1
(b) a fluctuating part E0 I0 cos (2t ) whose average value over one cycle is zero.
2
Average power consumed, P = Average of p over one cycle
=
1
E0 I 0 cos 0
2
E I cos
p= 0 0
or
2
E0
I
=
0 cos
2
2
P = Ev Iv cos
where Ev and Iv are the r.m.s. values of applied voltage and circuit current respectively. The term cos is
called power factor of the circuit and its value is given by (from phasor diagram) ;
=
I R R
VR
= v =
Ev
Iv Z Z
R
cos =
Z
P = Ev Iv cos
R
= ( Iv Z ) Iv
Z
= I v2 R
Alternatively:
[ Ev = I v Z ; cos =
R
]
Z
P = I v2 R
This is expected because power is consumed in resistance only ; inductance does not consume
any power.
12
ALTERNATING CURRENTS
(i) the impedance of the circuit i.e. Z =
R 2 + X L2 .
Ev
Iv
VL = Iv XL
XL
VR = Iv R
R
Fig. 17.15
Fig. 17.14
Note. The reciprocal of reactance is called susceptance and the reciprocal of impedance is called
admittance.
Iv
Ev Iv cos
Ev Iv sin
Ev Iv
Iv sin
Power triangle
Fig. 17.16
Fig. 17.17
Consider an inductive circuit in which circuit current Iv lags behind the applied voltage Ev by . The
phasor diagram of the circuit is shown in Fig. 17.16. The circuit current Iv can be resolved into two
rectangular components viz. (i) Iv cos in phase with Ev and (ii) Iv sin ; 90 out of phase with Ev.
Apparent power, S = Ev Iv = Ev Iv V A
Ev I v cos
True power
=
Ev I v
Apparent power
Note that it is the component Iv cos of the total current which contributes to true or real power. It is
always desired that this component (i.e. Iv cos ) should be as large as possible because it is this component which does the useful work in the circuit. This is possible only if the value of power factor (i.e. cos
) is large. For this reason, we always wish that power factor of the circuit to be as near to 1 as possible.
Note that component Iv cos is called wattful component while component Iv sin is called wattless
component.
ALTERNATING CURRENTS
13
The component of current (i.e. Iv sin ) which does no useful work in an a.c. circuit is called wattless
current.
Since the wattless current does no useful work in an a.c. circuit, it should be kept as small as
possible. This can be achieved if we increase the power factor ( = cos ) of the circuit i.e. should
be as close to 0 as possible. It may be noted that wattless current (= I v sin ) is a liability on the
generator because it has to supply additional current. In practice, engineers devote considerable time to
devise ways and means to minimise the wattless current.
Note. The power Ev Iv sin is called reactive power. It is a circulating power and does no useful
work in the circuit. It merely flows from the source to the circuit and vice-versa periodically.
90
Iv
VR
R
VC
C
O
Iv
VR
VR
VC
90
VC
Ev
Ev
(i)
Let
(ii)
and
VC = Iv XC ....... where VC lags Iv by 90
Taking current as the reference phasor, the phasor diagram of the circuit can be drawn as shown in
Fig. 17.21 (ii). The voltage drop VR (= Iv R) is in phase with current and is represented in magnitude and
direction by the phasor OA. The voltage drop VC (= Iv XC) lags behind the current by 90 and is represented
in magnitude and direction by the phasor AB. The applied voltage Ev is the phasor sum of these two voltage
drops i.e.
Ev = VR2 + VC2 = ( I v R) 2 + ( I v X C ) 2 = I v
Ev
Iv =
2
R + X C2
The quantity
R 2 + X C2
R 2 + X C2 offers opposition to the current flow and is called impedance of the circuit.
Ev
where Z = R 2 + X C2
Z
(i) Phase angle: It is clear from the phasor diagram that circuit current Iv leads the applied voltage Ev
by . This fact is also illustrated in the wave diagram shown in Fig. 17.22 and impedance triangle
in Fig. 17.23. The value of phase angle is given by (from phasor diagram);
Iv =
E I
E
I
Z
0
2p
wt
Fig. 17.22
Fig. 17.23
XC
14
ALTERNATING CURRENTS
tan =
VC
I X
X
= v C = C
VR
Iv R
R
XC
R
Since current is taken as the reference phasor, negative phase angle implies that voltage lags
behind the current. This is the same thing as current leads the voltage.
(ii) Power consumed: The equations for applied voltage and circuit current are :
tan =
or
E = E0 sin t
where E0 =
I = I0 sin (t + ) where I0 =
2 Ev
2 Iv
= I v2 R + 0 = I v2 R
Ev
R
= Ev I v
= Ev I v cos
Z
Z
P = Ev Iv cos
= ( I v R)
Ev
Iv
VR
VC
VL
VL
VL V C
VR
VC
Iv
Ev
Fig. 17.26
Therefore, the applied voltage Ev is the phasor sum of VR and VL VC and is represented by OD.
Ev = VR2 + (VL VC )2 = ( I v R )2 + ( I v X L I v X C ) 2
= Iv
Iv =
The quantity
circuit.
R2 + ( X L X C )2
Ev
R2 + ( X L X C )2
R
=
Z
R + ( X L X C )2
V VC
X XC
tan = L
= L
VR
R
Since XL, XC and R are known, the phase angle f can be determined.
2
...(i)
...(ii)
ALTERNATING CURRENTS
15
Three cases of R-L-C series circuit: We have seen above that impedance of a R-L-C series circuit is
given by ;
Z =
R 2 + ( X L Xc)2
(i) When XL XC is positive (i.e. XL > XC), phase angle is positive and the circuit will be inductive.
In other words, in such a case, the circuit current Iv will lag behind the supply voltage Ev by ; the
value of being given by eq. (ii) above.
(ii) When XL XC is negative (i.e. XC > XL), phase angle f is negative and the circuit is capacitive. That
is to say, the circuit current Iv leads the supply voltage Ev by ; the value of being given by eq.
(ii) above.
(iii) When XL XC is zero (i.e. XL = XC), the circuit is purely resistive. In other words, circuit current Iv
and supply voltage Ev are in phase i.e. = 0. The circuit will then have a unity power factor.
If the equation of the supply voltage is E = E0 sin t, then equation for the current will be
I = I0 sin (t ) where I0 = E0 /Z
The value of will be positive or negative depending upon which reactance (XL or XC) predominates.
XL = XC
or
2 fr L =
or
f r2 =
or
fr =
1
2 fr C
1
42 L C
1
2 LC
If L and C are in henry and farad respectively, then fr will be in Hz.
Effects of series resonance: When series resonance occurs, the effect on the circuit is the same as
though neither inductance nor capacitance is present. The current under this condition is dependent
solely on the resistance of the circuit and voltage across it.
(i) The impedance of the circuit is minimum and is equal to the resistance of the circuit i.e.
Zr = R
... at series resonance
(ii) The current in the circuit is maximum as it is limited by the resistance of the circuit alone i.e.
Ir =
Ev
E
= v
Zr
R
(iii) Since at series resonance the current flowing in the circuit is very large, the voltage drops across
L and C are also very large. In fact, these drops are much greater than the applied voltage.
However, voltage drop across LC combination as a whole will be zero because these drops are
equal in magnitude but 180 out of phase with each other.
Resonance Curve: The curve between the circuit current and
the supply frequency is known as resonance curve. Fig. 17.29
shows the resonance curve of a typical R-L-C series circuit. Note
that current reaches the maximum value at the resonant frequency
(f r), falling off rapidly on either side at that point. It is because if the
frequency is below fr, XC > XL and the net reactance is no longer zero.
If the frequency is above fr, then XL > XC and the net reactance is again
not zero. In both cases, the circuit impedance will be more than the
impedance Z r (= R) at resonance. The result is that magnitude of circuit current decreases rapidly as the frequency changes from the resonant frequency.
Small R
I
Large R
fr
Fig. 17.29
Note the effect of resistance in the circuit. The smaller the resistance, the greater is the current at resonance and sharper the resonance
curve. On the other hand, the greater the resistance, the lower is the resonant peak and flatter is the resonance
curve (See Fig. 17.29).
16
ALTERNATING CURRENTS
R
The Q-factor of a series resonant circuit can also be expressed in terms of L and C.
1
1
r =
f r =
We know that,
2 LC
LC
Application of Series Resonance. One important application of series resonance is to tune radio and
R
TV receivers. Fig. 17.30 shows the circuit for tuning a
To
radio receiver. The input signal comes from the anC
Amplifier
tenna and induces a voltage E in L of the *series From
L
E
Antenna
resonant circuit. The voltage across the capacitor
becomes V C = QE where Q is the quality factor of
the circuit. As the value of Q is generally large, the
Fig. 17.30
original signal received by the antenna increases many
times in value and appears across C. The value of VC is much more than that could have been obtained by direct
transformer ratio. Thus the amplifier receives a greatly increased signal.
2f r LC
ALTERNATING CURRENTS
17
Current
fr
frequency (f )
Fig. 17.32
ELECTRICAL DEVICES
ELECTRICAL DEVICES
ELECTRICAL DEVICES
1. E.M.F. INDUCED IN A ROTATING COIL
When a coil is rotated with a constant angular velocity in a uniform magnetic field, the
e.m.f. induced in the coil is sinusoidal. Such a rotating coil in a uniform magnetic field is
the basic operating principle of an a.c. generator.
Consider a rectangular coil being rotated (anticlockwise) with constant angular
velocity in a uniform magnetic field about an axis perpendicular to the field.
ELECTRICAL DEVICES
ELECTRICAL DEVICES
1. E.M.F. INDUCED IN A ROTATING COIL
When a coil is rotated with a constant angular velocity in a uniform magnetic field, the e.m.f. induced in the coil
is sinusoidal. Such a rotating coil in a uniform magnetic field is the basic operating principle of an a.c. generator.
(ii)
( i)
Fig. 18.1
Consider a rectangular coil being rotated (anticlockwise) with constant angular velocity in a uniform
magnetic field about an axis perpendicular to the field.
Let N = number of turns of the coil
A = area of each turn
B = strength of the magnetic field
Suppose at t = 0 (i.e. initially), the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field
as shown in Fig. 18.1 (i). Let the coil rotate in anticlockwise direction through an angle ( = t) in time t [See
Fig. 18.1 (ii)]. At this instant, the perpendicular to the plane of the coil makes an angle q with the direction of the
field. Therefore, at this instant, the magnetic flux through each turn of the coil is given by;
= A B cos = A B cos t
( = t)
The e.m.f. E induced in the coil at the considered instant is given by;
E=
d
d
(N) =
(N A B cos t)
dt
dt
d
(cos t) = N A B ( sin t)
dt
E = N A B sin t
... (i)
The magnitude of induced e.m.f. will be maximum (E0) when sin t = 1 i.e.
E0 =
NAB
Eq. (i) becomes,
E = E0 sin t
where E0 = N A B
Thus a coil rotating with a constant angular velocity in a uniform magnetic field produces a sinusoidally alternating e.m.f. Fig. 18.2 shows the waveform of the induced e.m.f. If a resistor of resistance R is
connected across the coil, the resulting current will also be sinusoidal. Its instantaneous value is given by;
= NAB
E sin t
E
= 0
R
R
or
I = I0 sin t
where I0 = E0/R = maximum value
Alternate method: The above e.m.f. equation (i.e. E = E0 sin
E
t) can also be derived from energy principle. Suppose the ends of
the coil are connected to a resistor. At the considered instant (i.e. at E0 = NAB
time t), suppose the induced e.m..f. and the resulting current are E
and I respectively. The torque T acting on the coil is given by;
T = N A B I sin = N A B I sin t
If the coil rotates through a small angle in a small time t,
0
then,
Mechanical work done per second by torque
E0 = NAB
= T
t
Fig. 18.2
= (N A B I sin t)
t
I =
= N A B I sin t
Electrical energy generated per second in the coil
= EI
... (i)
FG
H
IJ
K
...(ii)
ELECTRICAL DEVICES
E = E0 sin t
where E0 = N A B
P1
Q1
Fig. 18.3
(i) Armature: A rectangular coil ABCD of many turns (only one is shown) of copper wire is wound on a
soft iron core. The coil and its core are collectively called the armature. The function of the core is to increase
the magnetic flux and hence the induced e.m.f.
(ii) Field magnets: The armature is rotated in a strong uniform magnetic field provided by powerful
permanent magnet NS. The axis of rotation is perpendicular to the field.
(iii) Current collecting arrangement: The current collecting arrangement consists of slip rings and
brushes. The two ends of the loop are connected to copper rings P and Q (slip rings) which are insulated from
each other and from the shaft (not shown) on which they are fastened. The two carbon stationary brushes (P1
and Q1) make contact with these rotating rings and lead current that is induced in the coil to the external circuit.
Working: Suppose, initially the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field lines as shown in
Fig. 18.4 (i). As the coil rotates anticlockwise, at any time t, the flux linking the coil is = NAB cos where (=
t) is the angle between magnetic field and normal to the coil. Since is changing with time, the amount of
magnetic flux linking the coil is also changing. Hence e.m.f. is induced in the coil and current flows through the
load.
(i) Note that direction of induced e.m.f. (and hence current) changes periodically. Thus referring to Fig.
18.4 (i), as the coil moves anticlockwise, the conductor AB is moving downwards through the field
lines and conductor CD is moving upwards. After half a revolution, AB and CD interchange their
positions [See Fig. 18.4 (iii)]. Now conductor CD is moving downwards and conductor AB is moving
upwards. Consequently, according to Flemings right-hand rule, the current in the coil must reverse
as AB changes from downward to upward motion. Hence, alternating current is produced.
ELECTRICAL DEVICES
P
D
E=0
(i)
C
B
Induced e.m.f.
+ _
E = E0
(ii)
E=0
(iii)
B
A
+ _
E = _ E0
E=0
(v)
(iv)
ONE-CYCLE
+E0
90
180
270
360
E0
Fig. 18.4
(ii) Note that magnitude of e.m.f. and current are changing with time. It is because when a coil rotates
with a constant angular velocity () in a uniform magnetic field, the induced e.m.f. at any time t is
given by;
*E =
E0 sin t
where E0 = N A B
Thus the magnitude of e.m.f. changes with time according to sine function of time. The resulting current
is also sinusoidal.
E sin t
E
E
= 0
Instantaneous circuit current, I =
= I0 sin t
I0 = 0
R
R
R
Note. When (i.e. at t = 0) is measured from the position of the coil when its plane is perpendicular to
the direction of magnetic field, then, E = E0 sin t. If is measured from the position of the coil when its
plane makes an angle with the normal to the direction of the field, then, E = E0 sin (t + ). If (i.e. at t =
0, the plane of the coil is parallel to the field), then, E = E0 sin (t + 90) = E0 cos wt i.e. E = E0 cos t.
FG
H
IJ
K
ELECTRICAL DEVICES
b2 Coil B
N
a2
Phase A
Phase B
a1
Coil A b1
90
(i)
c1
N
Coil A
b2
a2
a1
b1
Coil B
Phase A
Phase B Phase C
c2
120
240
Coil C
(ii)
Fig. 18.5
EA = E0 sin t
EB = E0 sin (t 90)
(ii) Three phase a.c. generator. Fig.18.5(ii) shows a 3-phase a.c. generator. It has three identical windings or coils A, B and C displaced 120 from each other and rotating in anticlockwise direction with
an angular velocity in a 2-pole field.Since the three coils are identical and have the same angular
velocity, the e.m.f.s induced in them will be of the same magnitude and frequency. However, the three
e.m.f.s will be displaced from one another by 120.Note that e.m.f. is coil B will be 120 behind that of
coil A and the e.m.f. in coil C will be 240 behind that of coil A. This is shown in the wave diagram in
Fig. 18.5(ii). Theequations of the three e.m.f.s can be represented as:
EA = E0 sin t
EB = E0 sin (t 120)
EC = E0 sin (t 240)
ELECTRICAL DEVICES
10
ELECTRICAL DEVICES
Primary
Secondary
IS
IP
VP
EP
NS
NP
ES
VS
Loa
Fig. 18.14
called the secondary winding (or secondary). The alternating voltage VP whose magnitude is to be changed is
applied to the primary. Depending upon the number of turns on the primary (NP) and secondary (NS), an
alternating e.m.f. ES is induced in the secondary. If load is connected across the secondary, the secondary e.m.f.
ES will cause a current IS to flow through the load. Thus, transformer enables us to transfer a.c. power from one
circuit to another with a change in voltage level. Note that there is no electrical connection between primary and
secondary. The a.c. power is transferred from the primary to the secondary through the magnetic flux.
Working: When an alternating voltage VP is applied to the primary, an alternating flux is set up in the
core. This alternating flux links both the windings and induces e.m.fs EP and ES in them according to Faradays
laws of electromagnetic induction. The e.m.f. EP induced in the primary is termed as primary e.m.f. and e.m.f. ES
induced in the secondary is termed as secondary e.m.f.
d
d
; ES = NS
Clearly,
EP = NP
dt
dt
ES
NS
=
SP
NP
In an **ideal transformer, VP = EP and ES = VS.
V
N
ES
= S = S = K
V
N
EP
P
P
where
K = transformation ratio
If NS > NP, then ES > EP (or VS > VP), it is then called a step-up transformer. If NS < NP, then ES < EP (or VS
< VP), it is called a step-down transformer.
The following points may be noted carefully:
ES
N
(i)
= S
EP
NP
EP
E
or
= S
NP
NS
This means that e.m.f. induced per turn is the same in primary as well as secondary.
(ii) There is no change in frequency i.e. output power has the same frequency as the input power.
(iii) The efficiency of a transformer is very high so that output power is nearly equal to the input power.
For an ideal transformer,
VP IP = VS IS
VS
I
or
= P
VP
IS
ES
VS
I
I
N
= P = P = S =K
=
EP
VP
IS
IS
NP
VS I S
EP I S
=
(iv) Efficiency of transformer, =
VP I P
EP I P