31 ‘TEXT AND CONTEXT. TEXT TYPOLOGY. CRITERIA FOR TEXTUAL CLASSIFICATION. ]_TEXTAL STRUCTURE. REGISTER 8 Index 0. tueon 1. Testandeartort 11, ont 2. Tots sun ftestaty 11. Coheeaendcahce eons agy omabty 1A tty 28. Stain 3. Teatypooay 22 desipee ovata ce Presta 4 Rates 1 gate sds 5 sitlosrsnhyToten gs Cont 0. INTRODUCTION The tratonl concem of nuit: analysis has been the construction of senfences; batin resent ypars there has bean an increasing intrest in analysing the way sentences work in sequence to jroduce cokerent stretches of language. ‘Two main pprooches have developed. Discourse analysis focuses on the suture of naturally cccuring spoken language a fund in such “dscourses" 2 conversations, interiws, commentaries and speeches. Text analysis ootses on the structure of writen anguage, as found In such exs' as 89/8, noflces, road sons, and chaps, But is dtnton Is not clearcu, and there have been many other usés ofthese labs. Inpercular, both ‘lscourse" and “tex” can be used in @ much \woeder sere o include language uns wih a definable communicative funcion, whether spoken or writen, Some scholars tak about spoken and writen text. in Ewope, the term tox Unguisics i ten ‘sed forthe sty of the ingus principles governing fe stuctur ofa forms of tex. “Te search fr lager Inge units and structures has been pusued by scholars fom many isis. Linguis investigate the features of language tat bind senlences when they are used in Sequence, Etinogeaphers and socoysts study the stucture of social iteecon, especially 25 rmanfsted in the way people erer ini logue, Avopologists analyse te sbuci of mys and folctaes,Peyctlogss cary ot experiments on tbo mental processes undying comprehension. And ‘ure contibuions have come rom those concerned wih arial intlignce, rhetaic, philosophy, and so ‘These approaches have a common concer: they eves the need tb ee language 2s a dynamic, Soci inercive phenomenon whether between speaker and Ustener, or wir and reader. is ‘argue thal meaning is conveyed not by single sentences but by more compex exchanges in which the Paripants’ belts and expectations, the knowledge hoy share about each ther and abou the word, ‘andthe sitaon in which they irtractpay a crucial pat. 4. TEXT AND CONTEXT “Txt and context put togeter tke his, re aspects of th samo process. There is ext and here 's ofr text that ancomparies& text tat is with, namely the comet. This notion of whats wi the text; however, goes beyond wats said and wien: it nudes other non-vetbal goings on the tot environment in which art uns. So it serves to make a ridge between be text and te sueton in ‘ich texts actualy oacur. Witkin ox general topic we shall be focusing onthe special area of what in Tngut e refered toa tet bt slay with emphis onthe ston, se tho conto in wich txts nfl andin which they are to be interpreted. ‘What do we mean by text What do we mean by context? We are going to del wit context es, for he reason that, inseal le, contests precede text. The sluaton fs prior to the discourse hatrelates wk ‘Alina a wextls neds to 9 relate tots contort Tho word confrt,taken fam a general point of vew, coud be dened a the set of cicunstences, the environment surauncing someting,Tada Tog Clank cee Pete 2 From angus point of von, a tetis precisely a iextbecaueeicoheres: + Watts, Winds situation This enabies us to explain wy texts ae retical toa high oxen and why, given astuaon, we an resee the formal and seman features ofa tet iting into Bat stan 1.4, CONTEXT Upto Mefnowskis tim, te word confox in English had mean comet; that isto say, the words and to sentences before and after the particle seence that one was looking a. Mainowst needed a term that expressed the tolal envionment, including the verbal envonment, but also Including the salon in wich etext was uttered Honor, Malinowski alo su thet was necessary to gue more than he medal endronment He saw that in any adequate desripive tet i was necessary to rove iformafon not only tout \hat was happening ale tie but also about the toll cultural background, because volved in any ind of ingissinferasfon in any kindof conversational exchange, were not ony the immesite sighs and sounds suounding th ever, but aso the whole culture history bend the parlpants. Al fese Played apart inthe interpretation ofthe meaning, So Malinowski irtoduced the two notons of what he called the conted of sition’ and the oni of culture an toh of hese, he considered, wee necessary forthe adequcte understanding of the ted. ‘Any actual ‘conte of ston fs not jst 2 random jumble of features, but a totally ~2 package, 0 to speck, of tings that typically go together in the cure, Peopla do these things on these ‘occasions and aac these meanings and values to them; tis is what acute i ‘Azat rom the inluences mentioned above thre is aso one derived fm the fact that part ofthe ‘environment of any tetis aso previous text (Inertoxtuay) Final it could be stated that texts cont for ise (the intatrtul cone) itis coherent t hangs together: ALany point a he beginning, what has gone before provides the envfonment for what ' caning next. Ths sls up iseralexpectaons and these are matched up wih he expectaions refered to earir, thatthe stoner or reader tings ftom the extemal sources, fom the context of situation and of cute, One of the srongestreesons wy texts are coherent is because of the fact that they show Cohesion. Hasan defined i as te set of ingusic resources that every language hs fo lnking one part ot atexto anomer. Texts feng to ccrply wih this conden of coherence may be impossible to understand not because a given sentence win tis not well constructed, but siply because the preceding sequence of sentences doesnot provide z context wih which what flows can coher. “Therefore, each lament inthe discourse, whether ust phrase or an entre chapter fa book, has avaeas 4. Aten into 2 Aconex to ote tet ast come,‘Summartsing, Hasan lentes fou main Kinds of context that etersne the farm and meaning of text ‘CONTEXT; 2) Non-verbal 1. Cont! o sition. Configuration of ti tenor end mode that speci the registro text 2. Cone of cure. nsuonal and ideological background that gues vate fo the text and constrai s intxpetaton, 1b) Verbal 1. Tho hlertextual context nfrextusiy, relations. with other texts and sumptions that ar cared over thereom, 2. Tho inatexual context. Coherence within the text including the Unguistis Cahesion embodying tha internal seman relationships. ‘acme enue oF conrexrorsrusnon CE ‘We can say that all se oftanguage has a canfxt. The textual features ena th decourse to ‘coher not only wth ise but als wth is context stuaton, Now, fotovng Haiday, We can analyse tho cont of ston int thre component: he fd of iscouse, the tenor of discourse and the mode of dscoure. These conoeps seve to inepet the ‘cial contxt ofa ext the envicnmentin which meanings are exchanged ~ Tho fl of sceure: fers to what is heppening, tothe nature ofthe socal ton that is taking place, thats say reflects tho subject of a gon discourse, + The tenor of ciscourse: refers to who i taking par tothe rate of te partpants, ther statuses and rls, e, itheips to descibe the relafonsips between heparan ia the scours. + The mode of iscause: refers to what art the language is playing, what is that the Dartcipanis a expecting the languago todo for tem in tat stun, Le, refer to the role assigned to language inthis particular eccurence, Any plece of text ong or shor, spoken or writen, wl ay with iindcalons of is cotext. We only have to hear or ead a secon oft to know where comes frm. This means that we reconsvuet rom the tet certain aspects of sialon, cartin features of th fel, tear and the mode, Given the toxt we construct he atuaton foro ‘Another useful concept in anguage leeching, not far removed from the concept of fll the concept of genre. Tis concep: was fst used in iterary theory ths txts could be calagoied a amatc, poet, tap, epic, ical, el. But the term has been adopted by epledInguisis such as ‘Swale and Marin and they deity in the shope of dcouree the diferent purposes of use. And 80 ferent types of communicative betavour wil have diferent types of tex these dferences infuence the vocabulary, the type of syiactc structures andthe diferent building books ofthe dscouse. For instance, busines lees have a certain number of rules that make trem completly diferent from essays. To teach students the rls ofthe diferent gees is as important a o teach the grammatical (ues that undetine text formation,lets elgg nba ean igi ‘ 41.2. THE TEXT ‘Wihat do we mean by text? We can define tex inthe simplest way perhaps, by saying tat itis language that is Kuconal. By funcional we simply mean language that's doing some jo in some cone, 2s opposed to isolated words or sentences. So any instance of hing language Wats plying some patina context of stain, we shal call text maybe ether wien a spoken, ‘The important thing about the nature of a testis tha though when we wie down tooks 2s ‘hough tis made of words and sentences itis realy made of meanings, Cf course, the meanings have tobe expressed, or coded, n words and sutures, jst as hase in ‘um have tobe expressed over again (recoded, f you lke) in sound or in wien symbol. thas be ded in sotting in ode to be communicated but as @ thing in sell, a ets essentially a semantic unit not something that can be dened as boing just anther kind of sentence, ony binge. Thus, we cannot simply treat a theory of text 2s an extension of grammatical teary, and set up formal systems of daciding what a txts tis by no means easy to move from the formal Goiton of sentence 19 the iferpretation of pariculer sentences of thing language; and this problem Is consieratly greater inte caso of tot. Secause of snare as a semantz ent, a text, mare than ‘any oer inguisc unt has o be considered rom to perspectives atonce, bth as a produc! and 28 2 proces. The tenis a product in he sence that isan ouput, somethin that can be recrded and studied, ‘avng acorn consructon tatcan bo presented in systomatc ors. tis a process in th sense ofa coninuous process of semantic chico, a movement trough the network of rearing plenl ith each set of chalcesconstutig the envronment fr afurter se. ‘texts a fom of exchange; andthe fundamental frm ofa text is ha of slogue, of interacton between speakers. Not that dbgue fs more important than any other kinds of text; but in the fast resort, ever kind of ttn every language is meaningful because canbe rlatet to inlrecon among speakers, and umately to ordnay everday spontaneous conversaon. Thatis the kind of text where people exploit oth fl the resources of language tht they have; the kind of sation in which thoy Improve, in which they ianovae, in which changes inthe system take place. The lating edge of unconscious change and deveopment in any langvage I typicaly to be found in ts natural conversational txts. Ate then, s both an object ints own ight and an stance — an instanceof social meaning in 2 parculer contest of siuaton, ils a product of ls enirorment, a product of a coninuous process of choices in meaning Unty is cuca tribute ofa text and structure is source of textual ui. The stucure of atext, \s closely relate othe context sluaton, so much so thatthe spec values of felt, toner and mode which opeter make up a contetul coniguraion canbe used to meke cetsin predifons ebou the structure of ate, just as the urfolding structure of he txt itself can bo used 9 a point to the very natu ofthe contextual coniguraion Theres, thus, a two-way reatonship between text stuctire and Contextual confgutaon: the ongoing structure of the text defines and conf the nalure ofthe contextual configuration, while te later act as a point of reference for dcicing what kind of elements can sppopitly appear, where, and how oon2. TEXTS AS UNITS OF TEXTUALITY ‘Anatherperspecve onthe nation of txt tat somehow competes the one proposed by Haliday ‘and Hasan she one suggested mainly by de Beaugrande and Dressle. Atextis a uni of language that shows fexvay. Testu isthe resut of the interplay of seven factors 2.1. COHESION AND COHERENCE “To call a sequence of sentences a ‘tet i to imply tat the sentences display some kind of mia dependence; ley are not oocuring at random. The tsk of textual anaes 1 deny the Ingusc features thal cause the senierce sequence to “cobere” ~ something that happens whenever the interpretation of onefelue is dependent upon another elsewhere inthe sequence. The Hes that bind a text together are ofen refered to under the heading of cohesion (Haida and Hasan). Several yps of cohesive factors have been recognized ~ Conjunctive relations. Wat is about to be said is exit releted to what has been said before trough suchnotons as contasy,resultnd fe, ~ Corwfernco, Fates that cannot semantically interpreted without refering to some ther feature in the text. Two types of relaonsigs are recognized: anaphoi relations ok backwards forthe iterpretaton, and cataphorc relations look forwards. = _Subsuton. One feature replaces a povous expression ~ Elsi. piece of stucture is omitod, and can be recovered only rom the preceding ddseoure. = _ Ropoated forms. An expressions repeated in whole or paral ~ Lexical relationships. One lexical tem enters into astructrleonship wih another. CComprison, & compared expressions presupposed in the provious discourse. Cohesive links go long wy towards explaining how the sentences ofa text hang together, but ‘hey donot te the whole stor. ts possible to invent. a sentence sequence thats highly cohesive but nonetheless Incoherent A tant plainly has to be coherent 2s wel 2s cohesive, in thatthe concepts and relaonships ‘expressed should be relevant to each other, thus enabling Us fo make plausie inferences about the nderjing meaning. Coherence ths, refers othe conénuly of conceps and réaons between them. 2.2. INTENTIONALITY AND ACCEPTABILITY Its clean necessary that senders infondto produce cohesive texts and that adressees anzopt them as such, stowing some ilrance towards texts where senders Inenfons may be less Dn perfectly realised, Sender intentions and adressoe acceptance are not based solely on knowledge of tho language system but alco onthe paricinans’' abt to txng the knowledge of te wot er show somo connection wt the produton and rezepin of tha text OF parr interests the way rcelvers fin gaps or breaks inthe surf coniulty ofthe textin order to make them cohesive and coherent.ota ay Oe ct ge 2.3, INFORMATIVITY Isa potion of extultycontored upon tie receiver of he test nfonnatiity refers to he flowing to factors 1. The degre to which the text produced is expecta or unexpeced 2 Wether the tert repeats wats known o provides new information. No test provides only ot r new infomation, but he reo ofthe two can vary considerably and epands on the senda’ tendons and assesment ofthe adossee. There is an inverse cometton between: 4. Atos offcony. This the quay of atx that meacures the degree of efor to be ‘made ty te paricipansin ode to produce and understand the tex Tens bout wel known ings easy produce and understand (hay are highly efile, But hey ‘aso bore hereaer 2 A tox offecfvoness. Texts that give alot of infrmation ae moro itrestng to the ‘eat (hus mot effective). But they axe aso harder o undestend 2.4,INTERTEXTUALITY This qualiy stesss theft thatthe produson and reception of tes and text unis fen dopend pon the parlpants ele ext and text forme and the pats or ways of expression 2.5. SITUATIONALITY ‘Stuationalty concems te fctors wich make a text relevant o a sitafon of cocurence, The intuence ofthe sivaton in th htrpetation ofa text canbe of extreme importance tmay even afc ‘cohesion, in stuaons where langage esonamy is inlended such as tlegrams, headings, ad signs,Tete ot sy Oe iene 7 3. TEXT TYPOLOGY 1 Wax rhe recon mals dovsopd in he txt ingusis use a mutevelaprosch for he clssicaon often ‘Our approzch rests upon ta important assumptions 2) Linguist communictn i an interactive process +) Observation of ingusic communication can be cares out at iferent levels, These can be grouped as follows, therfore conBittng cera fo text classitcaon + The various funofons fat language serves in hurnan cammunicalon (expressive, hal, iarmato or dec). © On the lover levels, the diferent kinds of txts. These ypes cen bo successively singished according to: = Types osivaton, ~ Types of stratooy “Types structure, = Pattens of expression. (i When tho iomav and be derive incon ae grouped ge wth an Stns ve marta pes: desu, nara, recive, exastory and eumerahe. 3.1. NARRATIVE TEXTS They have odo wth ret world evens. Thay dpay avery characteris sequencing of events in whieh dynarc verbs cocr in heir simple forms and in which sequencing edverials such as then {ist provide the base narativestucte, 1m order to inerm fsterers or readers about the word ofthe story, naraves usually display ‘wientafont. Ths includes the fme ofthe narave me ofentaon- andthe spa selina, place vinta. In aon tothe seking ol the story wold, the characters and thee reles must alo bo setup, - charateral identicaion- 3.2, DESCRIPTIVE TEXTS. ‘Thay we, in contest, concemed wth the locaton of persone and things In space. That is why they ltl what isto the right ore, nthe background or foreground, oc they wil provide the infermation ‘that perhaps sets the stage for natafon. ORen there wil be a Fequency of conceptual relafons for _atribtes, states, instances and specications,‘According to te top, it is leo possible to estabish a sub-ctegorsalion of descriptive te ‘There are diferent ways to describe something, but avays with a preestabished rgeisator: eanal frond! and psychloycal 8) Extomal desertion: wi nom ow atogcaldectin. The important ting in is hnd of descriptions is thatthe writer guides the readers ming to a hols view of the objec ‘hing @ good organisation account of al its prs and egarsaion 1) Funetiona! descrplins. They are oe used wih insturents, and they are based on the tasks they may pectom, an a pats are usualy described in tis fashion ©) Pyhlogctdescrtions. They dscrive the feelings tat something gives us. They could Ihave any topic: nae, ahovse, an animal ofa person. Notce that mst desrpSons wll make reference to the psyccogcal efecto he object onthe wer 3.3. DIRECTIVE TEXTS They are concord with concrete future acy. Cenalo such ots ee formal features such Jmporaiveso: forms which subsite for them. Ousianing instances ofthese els ae slage decons ‘and assembly and operation instuctons. Each ofthe tee types just mentioned has, a printed ou, grammatical rms associated wi it which may be expanded fo form sequences ofa textual nature. Furthermore, all thee ae centred ‘ound realworé events, wheres expostory and argumentative txts ae cogielyconod. Ths is ‘no case because they are concirned wth explanaton and persuasion, bot meatal processes hough te ear may cue conse amount of ecipon and re ater nay av coeeuecs n fc 3.4, EXPOSITORY TEXTS Expository texts identity and characte phenorrena. As cuch thy indude texts forme such a6 ‘etniions, expicatons, summaries, nd many types of essay. They may be subjecive (essay) or objective (summary, explication, detniion), Thy may also be divided ito ance, stating fem 2 concept and then characterizing ts parts or they may proceed i the opposite, syntiefc drecbon as well recouning charenteristis ad ending with an appropriate concep! or contusion. 3.5. ARGUMENTATIVE TEXTS ‘Arguentatve ents ate these used to promote the aoceptance o evauaon of crn bells or ideas as tue versus false, 0° postive versus nogave. Conceptual relains such 3s reason, Signifcance, vlton, value anc opposiion should be frequent. The sutace texts wil fen show cohesive devices for emphasis and insistence, eg, recurence, parallelism, and paraphraseTeta egg es tat kat Rate ’ ot REGISTERS. ‘A rogitor's a somanic unt It can be dafined as a contguaion of meanings that ere typically assorted with a paricdar siuatonal configuration of Fld, mode and tear. But since itis @ confguraton of meanings, a register must ako, of couse, include the expressions, the lxco ‘yammatcal and phonological ‘eet that typically accompany or cease these meanings. And sometimes we fn thal a paricuar riser so has inexica features, indices inthe form of pacar words, paricuar grammatical signals tht have the function of showing the parcipants that Dis isthe register in quesfon ‘The category of register wil vay from something thats closed and ited to something tha is ‘elatvely flee and open-ended. Thats to say, here ate cetin registers in which the total number of possible meanings is fxed and fnte and may be quie smal; whereas in oles, the range of the ‘dscourse is much less consid, 4.1. REGISTERS AND DIALECTS Registers and dialects ae tvo sorts variety ofa language, ‘register can be defined 2: avait according to use. In other words, the rgiteris what you ae speatng a te time, depending on what you are doing andthe nature ‘of the activity in which the language is functoring A dialect, dilectal varie, can be dened asa vary oflanguage aocoring tothe user. Thats, the dialects what you speak htituly, depending in prince on who you a, and thet means where you come fom eter geogrepcally in the case of regional calc, or soil inthe case of socal ioe. ‘Sowheress, npincpl teat anyindual might go rough fe speskng only one det ts "ot possible o go through fe using only one ens. The regis reflects another aspect ofthe seca oder, that of social processes, the diferent types of socal acy that people commonly engage in Hence, in principle, dialects ere saying the same thing in oiferent ways, whereas registers ee saying diferent things. So diaecis tend 10 der, notin te meanings thoy expres, but Inthe ‘realisations ofthese meanings at other levels ~in ir grammar, in their vocabulary, phonology, ‘honetcs. On the oer hand, ts precisa in her meanings that registers are dilerentated fom each ‘ter. Ofcourse they mis lo ifr in grammer and in vocabulary, because grammar and veeabulsry axe wat express the meanings Registers do not usualy der in phonlogy, although some registers co atquie disincive voice quale. ‘The concepts of dialect ant reise are mutually defing, so tata functor rlaonship exits betneen the tuo, Rogisters aro the semante configurations that are typical associated wih partolar Social conterts, defined as we have defined them in teams of el, enor and mode, (Gy When we face a paiouar xt incr o interpret iin relation ots conte, we assign ito some register. We see i as an instanceof that particular funconal vty. Cat, fom one point of vie, every txt i dferet from evey oer te. Even ifthe same words have been spoken or weten ‘thousands and milion of imes defor, each instance i na catinsenge unique. Some tet fe tuly unique its this property we hase in ind when we say tat someting belongs to the rater vaquely defined category of ‘ierature’. A ierary text isa text thats valued ints oun ight, which must mean that fers ram al other tons.ott et py Caine en te, » But at he sama tne, itis ao te thal every text isn some sense tke otter tats end for any ‘ven ot hare wl be some att resembles more closely. There are clases of txts, and his i what ives us the general notin of a eit. The feeling we hav, as speakers of a language, tat his ext 'stike hat one is simply recogniion that they belong in some respect othe same register, 5. BIBLIOGRAPHY CRYSTAL, D. The Cambridge Encylopcei of Language. CUP, Camidge, 2000 DE BEAUGRANDE, R & CRESSLER, W: Inzoducton to Text Linguistics. Longman, London, 196, ‘GREGORY, M. & CARROL, S Language and Situation Language and Society Series. HALLIDAY, MAK & HASAN, Language, Colt, and Text Aspect of Languzgoin a Soi Set Perspecve. OUP. London 1889. HALLIDAY, MAAK. & HASAN, R.: Cohesion in Engksh Longman, London, 1876 HALLIDAY, MAK: Language a5 Social Semitic: The Social Interpretaton of Language and eaning. Edward Aznod,Looa, 1978, HAWKES, T: Stucturalsm and Semiotics. Now Accents Series. MCLAREN, N. MADRID, D: A Handbook fr TEFL. Mari. coy, 1866,