Cuban Revolution

United States.[16][19] Batista developed a powerful security infrastructure to silence political opponents. In
the months following the March 1952 coup, Fidel Castro, then a young lawyer and activist, petitioned for the
overthrow of Batista, whom he accused of corruption
and tyranny. However, Castros constitutional arguments
were rejected by the Cuban courts.[20] After deciding that
the Cuban regime could not be replaced through legal
means, Castro resolved to launch an armed revolution.
To this end, he and his brother Ral founded a paramilitary organization known as The Movement, stockpiling
weapons and recruiting around 1,200 followers from Havanas disgruntled working class by the end of 1952.[21]

For other uses, see Cuban Revolution (disambiguation).

The Cuban Revolution (195359) was an armed revolt
conducted by Fidel Castro's 26th of July Movement and
its allies against the U.S.-backed authoritarian government of Cuban President Fulgencio Batista. The revolution began in July 1953,[4] and continued sporadically
until the rebels nally ousted Batista on 1 January 1959,
replacing his government with a revolutionary socialist
state. The 26th of July Movement later reformed along
communist lines, becoming the Communist Party in October 1965.[5]
The Cuban Revolution had powerful domestic and international repercussions. In particular, it reshaped Cubas
relationship with the United States, which still maintains
a trade embargo against Cuba as of 2016, although efforts to improve diplomatic relations have gained momentum in recent years.[6][7][8][9] In the immediate aftermath
of the revolution, Castros government began a program
of nationalization and political consolidation that transformed Cubas economy and civil society.[10][11] The revolution also heralded an era of Cuban intervention in foreign military conicts, including the Angolan Civil War
and the Nicaraguan Revolution.[12]

2 Early stages
Main article: Moncada Barracks
To strike their rst blow against the Batista government,
Fidel and Ral Castro gathered 123 Movement ghters
and planned a multi-pronged attack on several military
installations.[22] On 26 July 1953, the rebels attacked
the Moncada Barracks in Santiago and the barracks in
Bayamo, only to be decisively defeated by government
soldiers.[4] The exact number of rebels killed in the battle
is debatable; however, in his autobiography, Fidel Castro claimed that nine were killed in the ghting, and an
additional 56 were executed after being captured by the
Batista government.[23] Among the dead was Abel Santamara, Castros second-in-command, who was imprisoned, tortured, and executed on the same day as the
attack.[24]

Background and causes of cuban

revolution

In the decades following its independence from Spain in

1902, Cuba experienced a period of signicant instability, enduring a number of revolts, coups and periods of
U.S. military intervention. Fulgencio Batista, a former
soldier who had served as the elected president of Cuba
from 1940 to 1944, became president for the second time
in March 1952, after seizing power in a military coup
and canceling the 1952 elections.[13] Although Batista had
been a relative progressive during his rst term,[14] in the
1950s he proved far more dictatorial and indierent to
popular concerns.[15] While Cuba remained plagued by
high unemployment and limited water infrastructure,[16]
Batista antagonized the population by forming lucrative
links to organized crime and allowing American companies to dominate the Cuban economy.[16][17][18]

Numerous key Movement people, including the Castro

brothers, were captured shortly afterwards. In a highly
political trial, Fidel spoke for nearly four hours in his defense, ending with the words Condemn me, it does not
matter. History will absolve me. Fidel was sentenced to
15 years in the Presidio Modelo prison, located on Isla de
Pinos, while Ral was sentenced to 13 years.[25] However,
in 1955, under broad political pressure, the Batista government freed all political prisoners in Cuba, including
the Moncada attackers. Fidels Jesuit childhood teachers
succeeded in persuading Batista to include Fidel and Ral
[26]
During his rst term as President, Batista had been sup- in the release.
ported by the Communist Party of Cuba,[14] but dur- Soon, the Castro brothers joined with other exiles in
ing his second term he became strongly anti-communist, Mexico to prepare for the overthrow of Batista, receivgaining him political and military support from the ing training from Alberto Bayo, a leader of Republican
1

3 GUERRILLA WARFARE

forces in the Spanish Civil War. In June 1955, Fidel met

the Argentine revolutionary Ernesto Che Guevara, who
joined his cause.[26] The revolutionaries named themselves the 26th of July Movement, in reference to the
date of their attack on the Moncada Barracks in 1953.

Guerrilla warfare
I believe that there is no country in the
world including any and all the countries under colonial domination, where economic colonization, humiliation and exploitation were
worse than in Cuba, in part owing to my countrys policies during the Batista regime. I approved the proclamation which Fidel Castro
made in the Sierra Maestra, when he justiably called for justice and especially yearned to
rid Cuba of corruption. I will even go further:
to some extent it is as though Batista was the
incarnation of a number of sins on the part of
the United States. Now we shall have to pay for
those sins. In the matter of the Batista regime,
I am in agreement with the rst Cuban revolutionaries. That is perfectly clear.U.S. President John F. Kennedy, interview with Jean
Daniel, 24 October 1963[27]

The yacht Granma arrived in Cuba on December 2, 1956,

carrying the Castro brothers and 80 others, even though
the yacht was only designed to accommodate 12 people
with a maxiumum of 25.[28] The boat landed in Playa
Las Coloradas, in the municipality of Niquero, arriving
two days later than planned because the boat was heavily
loaded, unlike during the practice sailing runs.[29] This
dashed any hopes for a coordinated attack with the llano
wing of the movement. After arriving and exiting the
ship, the band of rebels began to make their way into the
Sierra Maestra mountains, a range in southeastern Cuba.
Three days after the trek began, Batistas army attacked
and killed most of the Granma participants while the
exact number is disputed, no more than twenty of the
original eighty-two men survived the initial encounters
with the Cuban army and escaped into the Sierra Maestra
mountains.[30]
The group of survivors included Fidel and Ral Castro,
Che Guevara and Camilo Cienfuegos. The dispersed survivors, alone or in small groups, wandered through the
mountains, looking for each other. Eventually, the men
would link up again with the help of peasant sympathizers and would form the core leadership of the guerrilla army. A number of female revolutionaries, including
Celia Sanchez and Hayde Santamara (the sister of Abel
Santamaria), also assisted Fidel Castros operations in the
mountains.[31]

(Directorio Revolucionario Estudantil, DRE), composed

mostly of students stormed the Presidential Palace in
Havana, attempting to assassinate Batista and decapitate the government. The attack ended in utter failure. The RDs leader, student Jos Antonio Echeverra, died in a shootout with Batistas forces at the Havana radio station he had seized to spread the news of
Batistas anticipated death. The handful of survivors included Dr. Humberto Castello (who later became the
Inspector General in the Escambray), Rolando Cubela
and Faure Chomon (both later Commandantes of the 13
March Movement, centered in the Escambray Mountains
of Las Villas Province).[32]
Thereafter, the United States imposed an economic
embargo on the Cuban government and recalled its
ambassador, weakening the governments mandate
further.[33] Batistas support among Cubans began
to fade, with former supporters either joining the
revolutionaries or distancing themselves from Batista.
Nonetheless, the Maa and U.S. businessmen maintained
their support for the regime.[34][35]
Batistas government often resorted to brutal methods to
keep Cubas cities under control. However, in the Sierra
Maestra mountains, Castro, aided by Frank Pas, Ramos
Latour, Huber Matos, and many others, staged successful
attacks on small garrisons of Batistas troops. Che Guevara and Ral Castro helped Fidel to consolidate his political control in the mountains, often through execution of
suspected Batista loyalists or other rivals of Castros.[36]
In addition, poorly armed irregulars known as escopeteros
harassed Batistas forces in the foothills and plains of
Oriente Province. The escopeteros also provided direct
military support to Castros main forces by protecting
supply lines and by sharing intelligence.[37] Ultimately,
the mountains came under Castros control.

Ral Castro (left), with his arm around his second-in-command,

Ernesto Che Guevara, in their Sierra de Cristal mountain
stronghold in Oriente Province, Cuba, in 1958

In addition to armed resistance, the rebels sought to

On 13 March 1957, a separate group of revolutionaries use propaganda to their advantage. A pirate radio sta the anticommunist Student Revolutionary Directorate tion called Radio Rebelde (Rebel Radio) was set up in

3
February 1958, allowing Castro and his forces to broadcast their message nationwide within enemy territory.[38]
The radio broadcasts were made possible by Carlos Franqui, a previous acquaintance of Castro who subsequently
became a Cuban exile in Puerto Rico.[39]
During this time, Castros forces remained quite small
in numbers, sometimes fewer than 200 men, while the
Cuban army and police force had a manpower of around
37,000.[40] Even so, nearly every time the Cuban military
fought against the revolutionaries, the army was forced to
retreat. An arms embargo imposed on the Cuban government by the United States on 14 March 1958 contributed signicantly to the weakness of Batistas forces.
The Cuban air force rapidly deteriorated: it could not repair its airplanes without importing parts from the United
States.[41]

Map showing key locations in the Sierra Maestra during the 1958
stage of the Cuban Revolution

Castros forces began their own oensive. In the Oriente province (in the area of the present-day provinces of
Santiago de Cuba, Granma, Guantnamo and Holgun),
Fidel Castro, Ral Castro and Juan Almeida Bosque directed attacks on four fronts. Descending from the mountains with new weapons captured during the Ofensiva and
smuggled in by plane, Castros forces won a series of initial victories. Castros major victory at Guisa, and the
successful capture of several towns including Mao, Contramaestre, and Central Oriente, brought the Cauto plains
under his control.

Batista nally responded to Castros eorts with an attack on the mountains called Operation Verano, known
to the rebels as la Ofensiva. The army sent some 12,000
soldiers, half of them untrained recruits, into the mountains. In a series of small skirmishes, Castros determined
guerrillas defeated the Cuban army.[41] In the Battle of La
Meanwhile, three rebel columns, under the command
Plata, which lasted from 11 July to 21 July 1958, Castros
of Che Guevara, Camilo Cienfuegos and Jaime Vega,
forces defeated a 500-man battalion, capturing 240 men
proceeded westward toward Santa Clara, the capital of
[42]
while losing just three of their own.
Villa Clara Province. Batistas forces ambushed and
However, the tide nearly turned on 29 July 1958, when destroyed Jaime Vegas column, but the surviving two
Batistas troops almost destroyed Castros small army of columns reached the central provinces, where they joined
some 300 men at the Battle of Las Mercedes. With his forces with several other resistance groups not under
forces pinned down by superior numbers, Castro asked the command of Castro. When Che Guevaras column
for, and received, a temporary cease-re on 1 August. passed through the province of Las Villas, and speciOver the next seven days, while fruitless negotiations took cally through the Escambray Mountains where the anplace, Castros forces gradually escaped from the trap. By ticommunist Revolutionary Directorate forces (who be8 August, Castros entire army had escaped back into the came known as the 13 March Movement) had been ghtmountains, and Operation Verano had eectively ended ing Batistas army for many months friction developed
in failure for the Batista government.[41]
between the two groups of rebels. Nonetheless, the combined rebel army continued the oensive, and Cienfuegos won a key victory in the Battle of Yaguajay on 30
4 Final oensive and rebel victory December 1958, earning him the nickname The Hero
of Yaguajay.
The enemy soldier in the Cuban example
which at present concerns us, is the junior
partner of the dictator; he is the man who gets
the last crumb left by a long line of proteers
that begins in Wall Street and ends with him.
He is disposed to defend his privileges, but he
is disposed to defend them only to the degree
that they are important to him. His salary
and his pension are worth some suering and
Map of Cuba showing the location of the arrival of the rebels
some dangers, but they are never worth his
on the Granma in late 1956, the rebels stronghold in the Sierra
life. If the price of maintaining them will cost
Maestra, and Guevara and Cienfuegoss route towards Havana
it, he is better o giving them up; that is to
via Las Villas Province in December 1958
say, withdrawing from the face of the guerrilla
danger.
On 31 December 1958, the Battle of Santa Clara took
Che Guevara, 1958[43]
place in a scene of great confusion. The city of Santa
Clara fell to the combined forces of Che Guevara, Cienfuegos, and Revolutionary Directorate (RD) rebels led
On 21 August 1958, after the defeat of Batistas Ofensiva, by Comandantes Rolando Cubela, Juan (El Mejicano)

5 AFTERMATH

Abrahantes, and William Alexander Morgan. News of

these defeats caused Batista to panic. He ed Cuba by air
for the Dominican Republic just hours later on 1 January
1959. Comandante William Alexander Morgan, leading
RD rebel forces, continued ghting as Batista departed,
and had captured the city of Cienfuegos by 2 January.[44]
Castro learned of Batistas ight in the morning and immediately started negotiations to take over Santiago de
Cuba. On 2 January, the military commander in the city,
Colonel Rubido, ordered his soldiers not to ght, and Castros forces took over the city. The forces of Guevara
and Cienfuegos entered Havana at about the same time.
They had met no opposition on their journey from Santa
Clara to Cubas capital. Castro himself arrived in Havana on 8 January after a long victory march. His initial
choice of president, Manuel Urrutia Lle, took oce on
3 January.[45]

ers received long sentences of imprisonment. A notable example of revolutionary justice was after the capture of Santiago, where Ral Castro directed the execution of more than seventy Batista POWs.[49] For his part
in taking Havana, Che Guevara was appointed supreme
prosecutor in La Cabaa Fortress. This was part of a
large-scale attempt by Fidel Castro to cleanse the security forces of Batista loyalists and potential opponents of
the new revolutionary government. Though many were
killed or imprisoned, others were fortunate enough to be
dismissed from the army and police without prosecution,
and some high-ranking ocials of the Batista administration were exiled as military attachs.[49] Scholars generally agree that those executed were probably guilty, but
the trials did not follow due process.[50]

5.1 Reforms and nationalization

Aftermath

During its rst decade in power, the Castro government introduced a wide range of progressive social reforms. Laws were introduced to provide equality for
black Cubans and greater rights for women, while there
were attempts to improve communications, medical facilities, health, housing, and education. In addition, there
were touring cinemas, art exhibitions, concerts, and theatres. By the end of the 1960s, all Cuban children were
receiving some education (compared with less than half
before 1959), unemployment and corruption were reduced, and great improvements were made in hygiene and
sanitation.[51]

According to geographer and Cuban Comandante

Antonio Nez Jimnez, 75% of Cubas best arable land
was owned by foreign individuals or foreign (mostly
Fidel Castro (far left) and Che Guevara (centre) lead a memo- American) companies at the time of the revolution. One
rial march in Havana on 5 May 1960, for the victims of the La of the rst policies of the newly formed Cuban governCoubre freight ship explosion.
ment was eliminating illiteracy and implementing land
reforms. Land reform eorts helped to raise living standards by subdividing larger holdings into cooperatives.
Our revolution is endangering all AmerComandante Sori Marin, who was nominally in charge
ican possessions in Latin America. We are
of land reform, objected and ed, but was eventually exetelling these countries to make their own
cuted when he returned to Cuba with arms and explosives,
revolution.
intending to overthrow the Castro government.[52][53]
Che Guevara, October 1962[46]
Many other non-Marxist, anti-Batista rebel leaders were
forced into exile, purged in executions, or eliminated in
failed uprisings such as that of the Beaton brothers.[54]
On 15 April 1959, Castro began an 11-day visit to the Shortly after taking power, Castro also created a revoluUnited States, at the invitation of the American Society of tionary militia to expand his power base among the forNewspaper Editors.[47] He said during his visit: I know mer rebels and the supportive population. Castro also
the world thinks of us, we are Communists, and of course created the informant Committees for the Defense of
I have said very clear that we are not Communists; very the Revolution (CDRs) in late September 1960. Loclear.[48]
cal CDRs were tasked with keeping vigilance against
Hundreds of Batista-era agents, policemen and soldiers
were put on public trial, accused of human rights abuses,
war crimes, murder, and torture. Most of the people accused were convicted by revolutionary tribunals of political crimes and were executed by ring squad; oth-

counter-revolutionary activity, keeping a detailed record

of each neighborhoods inhabitants spending habits, level
of contact with foreigners, work and education history,
and any suspicious behavior.[55] Among the increasingly persecuted groups were homosexual men.[56]

5.3

Exiles and counterrevolutionary rebels

In February 1959, the Ministry for the Recovery of Misappropriated Assets (Ministerio de Recuperacin de Bienes Malversados) was created. Cuba began expropriating land and private property under the auspices of the
Agrarian Reform Law of 17 May 1959. Farms of any size
could be and were seized by the government, while land,
businesses, and companies owned by upper- and middleclass Cubans were nationalized (notably, including the
plantations owned by Fidel Castros family). By the end
of 1960, the revolutionary government had nationalized
more than $25 billion worth of private property owned
by Cubans.[10] The Castro government formally nationalized all foreign-owned property, particularly American
holdings, in the nation on 6 August 1960.[11]

meanwhile, resented the Americans for providing aid to

Batistas government during the revolution.[62] After the
revolutionary government nationalized all U.S. property
in Cuba in August 1960, the American Eisenhower administration froze all Cuban assets on American soil,
severed diplomatic ties and tightened its embargo of
Cuba.[6][11][64] In 1961, the U.S. government backed an
armed counterrevolutionary assault on the Bay of Pigs
with the aim of ousting Castro, but the counterrevolutionaries were swiftly defeated by the Cuban military.[63] The
American embargo against Cuba the longest-lasting single foreign policy in American history[65] is still in force
as of 2016, although it has undergone a partial loosening
in recent years.[6] The U.S. began eorts to normalize rein the mid-2010s,[8][66] and formally
In 1961, the Cuban government nationalized all prop- lations with Cuba
in Havana after over half a century
erty held by religious organizations, including the dom- reopened its embassy
[9]
in
August
2015.
inant Roman Catholic Church. Hundreds of members
of the church, including a bishop, were permanently ex- Castros victory and post-revolutionary foreign policy had
pelled from the nation, as the new Cuban government global repercussions. Inuenced by the expansion of the
declared itself ocially atheist. Education also saw sig- Soviet Union into Europe after the 1917 Russian Revnicant changes private schools were banned and the olution, Castro immediately sought to export his revprogressively socialist state assumed greater responsibil- olution to other countries in the Caribbean and beyond,
ity for children.[57]
sending weapons to Algerian rebels as early as 1960.[12]
In July 1961, the Integrated Revolutionary Organizations In the following decades, Cuba became heavily involved
(IRO) was formed by the merger of Fidel Castros 26th of in supporting Communist insurgencies and independence
July Movement, the Peoples Socialist Party led by Blas movements in many developing countries, sending miliGhana, Nicaragua, Yemen and
Roca, and the Revolutionary Directorate of 13 March led tary aid to insurgents in[12]
Angola,
among
others.
Castros intervention in the
[58]
by Faure Chomn.
On 26 March 1962, the IRO beAngolan
Civil
War
in
the
1970s
and 1980s was particcame the United Party of the Cuban Socialist Revolution
ularly signicant, involving as many as 60,000 Cuban
(PURSC) which, in turn, became the modern Communist
[12][67]
Party of Cuba on 3 October 1965, with Castro as First soldiers.
Secretary. Castro remained the ruler of Cuba, rst as
Prime Minister and, from 1976, as President, until his retirement in February 2008.[59] His brother Ral ocially
replaced him as President later that same month.[60]

5.2

Following the American embargo, the Soviet Union became Cubas main ally.[11] The two Communist countries
quickly developed close military and intelligence ties, culminating in the stationing of Soviet nuclear weapons in
Cuba in 1962, an act which triggered the Cuban Missile
Crisis. Cuba maintained close links to the Soviets unInternational reactions and foreign til the Soviet Unions collapse in 1991. The end of Soviet
economic aid led to an economic crisis and famine known
policy
as the Special Period in Cuba.[68]

Main article: Foreign relations of Cuba

5.3 Exiles and counterrevolutionary rebels

The greatest threat presented by Castros Cuba is as an

example to other Latin American states which are be- Main article: Cuban exiles
set by poverty, corruption, feudalism, and plutocratic exploitation ... his inuence in Latin America might be
overwhelming and irresistible if, with Soviet help, he In the wake of the revolution, thousands of disaffected anti-Batista rebels, former Batista supporters, and
could establish in Cuba a Communist utopia.
campesinos (peasants) ed to Cubas Las Villas province,
Walter Lippmann, Newsweek, 27 April 1964[61]
where an anticommunist underground had been forming
since early 1960. Operating out of the Escambray MounThe Cuban Revolution was a crucial turning point in tains, these counterrevolutionary rebels, also known as
U.S.-Cuban relations. Although the American govern- Alzados, made a number of unsuccessful attempts to
ment was initially willing to recognize Castros new overthrow the Cuban government, including the abortive,
government,[62] it soon came to fear that Communist in- United States-backed Bay of Pigs Invasion of 1961.[63]
surgencies would spread through the nations of Latin In the aftermath of the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, the
America, as they had in Southeast Asia.[63] Castro, United States promised not to invade Cuba in the future;

8 FURTHER READING

in compliance with this agreement, the U.S. withdrew

all support from the Alzados, eectively crippling the
resource-starved resistance.[69] The counterrevolutionary conict, known abroad as the Escambray Rebellion,
lasted until about 1965, and has since been branded the
War Against the Bandits by the Cuban government.[69]
Between 1959 and 1980, an estimated 500,000 Cubans
left the island for the United States, for both political
and economic reasons; 125,000 left in 1980 alone, when
the Cuban government briey permitted any Cubans who
wished to leave to do so.[70] By 2010, the Cuban American community numbered over 1.9 million, 67% of
whom lived in the state of Florida.[71] As a voting bloc,
Cuban Americans have traditionally been strongly opposed to ending the U.S. embargo of Cuba, but in recent
years there has been growing support for diplomatic engagement among the younger generations.[72]

In popular culture
The Cuban Revolution, including Batistas resignation and ight into exile, plays a major role in the
plot of the 1974 lm The Godfather Part II.[73]
The 1987 video game Guevara, released in the
United States as Guerrilla War, features Castro and
Guevara ghting in the jungle against the forces of
an unnamed dictator.[74][75]
The Cuban dissident and exile Reinaldo Arenas
wrote about Castros persecution of homosexuals
in his 1992 autobiography Antes Que Anochezca,
which became the basis for the 2000 lm Before
Night Falls.[76]
Steven Soderbergh's 2008 lm Che, a two-part
biopic about Che Guevara, depicts the rise of Castros movement and Guevaras role in the Cuban
Revolution.[77]
The 2010 video game Call of Duty: Black Ops features a level set in Havana in 1961, in which players
must attempt to assassinate Castro. The level was
condemned by the Cuban government.[78]
The 2013 strategic board game Cuba Libre by US
wargaming publisher GMT Games puts players into
the roles of the involved parties in the Revolution
and lets them reenact the conict alongside a randomized storyline of the key historical events.[79][80]

See also
Communist revolution
Cuban Thaw
History of Cuba

Latin American wars of independence

8 Further reading
Thomas M. Leonard (1999). Castro and the Cuban
Revolution. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-29979X.
Julio Garca Luis (2008). Cuban Revolution Reader:
A Documentary History of Key Moments in Fidel
Castros Revolution. Ocean Press. ISBN 1-92088889-6.
Samuel Farber (2012). Cuba Since the Revolution
of 1959: A Critical Assessment. Haymarket Books.
ISBN 9781608461394.
Joseph Hansen (1994). Dynamics of the Cuban Revolution: A Marxist Appreciation. Pathnder Press.
ISBN 0-87348-559-9.
Julia E. Sweig (2004). Inside the Cuban Revolution:
Fidel Castro and the Urban Underground. Harvard
University Press. ISBN 0-674-01612-2.
Thomas C. Wright (2000). Latin America in the Era
of the Cuban Revolution. Praeger Paperback. ISBN
0-275-96706-9.
Marifeli Perez-Stable (1998). The Cuban Revolution: Origins, Course, and Legacy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512749-8.
Geraldine Lievesley (2004). The Cuban Revolution: Past, Present and Future Perspectives. Palgrave
Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-96853-0.
Teo A. Babun (2005). The Cuban Revolution: Years
of Promise. University Press of Florida. ISBN 08130-2860-4.
Antonio Rafael de la Cova (2007). The Moncada
Attack: Birth of the Cuban Revolution. University of
South Carolina Press. ISBN 1-57003-672-1.
Samuel Farber (2006). The Origins of the Cuban
Revolution Reconsidered. The University of North
Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-5673-8.
Jules R. Benjamin (1992). The United States and the
Origins of the Cuban Revolution. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-02536-3.
Comite central del Partido comunista de Cuba:
Comisin de orientacin revolucionaria (1972).
Rencontre symbolique entre deux processus historiques [i.e., de Cuba et de Chile]. La Habana,
Cuba: ditions politiques.
David M. Watry (2014). Diplomacy at the Brink:
Eisenhower, Churchill, and Eden in the Cold War.
Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press.
ISBN 9780807157183.

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[3] Eckhardt, William, in Sivard, Ruth Leger (1987). World
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[15] Arthur Meier Schlesinger (1973). The Dynamics of World
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[16] Remarks of Senator John F. Kennedy at Democratic Dinner, Cincinnati, Ohio, October 6, 1960. John F. Kennedy
Presidential Library. Retrieved 29 June 2013.

[17] Fulgencio Batista. HistoryOfCuba.com. Retrieved 29

June 2013.
[18] Daz-Briquets, Sergio & Prez-Lpez, Jorge F. (2006).
Corruption in Cuba: Castro and beyond. University of
Texas Press. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-292-71482-3.
[19] James Stuart Olson (2000). Historical Dictionary of the
1950s. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 6768. ISBN
0-313-30619-2.
[20] Biography of Fidel Castro. About.com. Retrieved 29
June 2013.
[21] Bourne, Peter G. (1986). Fidel: A Biography of Fidel Castro. New York City: Dodd, Mead & Company. pp. 68
69. ISBN 978-0-396-08518-8.
[22] Historical sites: Moncada Army Barracks. CubaTravelInfo. Retrieved 10 July 2013.
[23] Castro (2007), p. 133
[24] Castro (2007), p. 672
[25] CHRONICLE OF AN UNFORGETTABLE AGONY:
CUBA'S POLITICAL PRISONS. Contacto Magazine.
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[26] Castro (2007), p. 174
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[30] Thomas (1998)
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[39] Carlos Franqui. Daily Telegraph. 24 May 2010. Retrieved 14 June 2013.
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[44] Faria (2002), p. 69

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[51] Mastering Modern World History by Norman Lowe, second edition.
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[53] Lazo 1968, p. 288

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9.1 Bibliography
Castro, Fidel (2007). Ignacio Ramonet, ed. Fidel Castro: My Life. Translated by Andrew Hurley.
Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-102626-8.

9
Clark, Juan (1992). Cuba: Mito y Realidad: Testimonios de un Pueblo. Miami: Saeta Ediciones.
ISBN 978-0-917049-16-3.
English, T. J. (2008). Havana Nocturne: How the
Mob Owned Cuba and Then Lost It to the Revolution.
William Morrow. ISBN 0-06-114771-0.
Faria, Miguel A., Jr. (2002). Cuba in Revolution:
Escape from a Lost Paradise. Milledgeville, GA:
Hacienda Pub Inc. ISBN 0-9641077-3-2.
Thomas, Hugh (1998). Cuba: The Pursuit of Freedom. New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-30680827-7.

10

External links

Fidel Castro. What Cubas Rebels Want at the

Wayback Machine (archived April 17, 2009). The
Nation via Internet Archive. 30 November 1957.
The Cuban Revolution (19521958)".
American Studies Organization.

Latin

Michael Voss. Reliving Cubas Revolution. BBC.

29 December 2008.
The History of Socialist Revolution in Cuba (1953
1959)". World History Archives.
Arthur Brice. Memories of Boyhood in the Heat
of the Cuban Revolution. CNN. 2009.
1959 2009: Celebrating 50 years of the Cuban
Revolution. Cuba Solidarity Campaign.
A lm clip Castro Triumphs. Havana Crowds Hail
Success Of Revolt, 1959/01/05 (1959)" is available
for free download at the Internet Archive.

10

11

11
11.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Cuban Revolution Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuban_Revolution?oldid=711644941 Contributors: Mav, The Anome, William

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11.2

Images

File:CheLaCoubreMarch.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/CheLaCoubreMarch.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Museo Che Guevara (Centro de Estudios Che Guevara en La Habana, Cuba) Original artist:
Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://
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org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590'
/></a>
File:CheyFidel.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/CheyFidel.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Museo Che Guevara, Havana Cuba Original artist: Alberto Korda

11.3

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File:Coat_of_Arms_of_Cuba.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Coat_of_arms_of_Cuba.svg License:

Public domain Contributors: This vector image was created by converting the Encapsulated PostScript le available at Brands of the World
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