John B. Conway Functions of One Complex Variable Second Edition Springer-Verlag New York Heidelberg BerlinJoa B, Conway Dern’ of Matera dana Users Bloominge, IN 701 oS tril Bord i PR. Halnos FW. Gehnng C6. More | To am ‘AMS Subj Csicaice: 7-81 Ube Cn Cag nPntin ise “Rants ef oxe compe variable (Gennes) ‘eure ghetto atin 1 Te Gis om sis9y Teme anna rees, neaggtit mummies 017 Sige New Yeh oe © 18 Spang Ver, Ne Ya a. SAN SOMES Sng ag eho eeePREFACE, This book is intended as textbook for «frst cours in he theory of| funetons one complex arabe for stents vho aze-matbematialy mature enough to undertad snd exceute +8 arguments. The nal pe ‘equstes for reading this book are quite minimal not much more than Suit couse in basic ello and few facts about pal evivates The {opis from advanced caleuls that ae used (Libis tule fo die Calating under the tral sg) ae proved in det Corps Variables iect which has someting forall mathenatiians, In addition to having eppzations to other pars of analysis en tightly tla to beam ancestor of ay areas of mates e, hothtopy thet, ‘manifolds, This view of Complex Analysis 8 "An Ittduction to Mathe ‘mates hsielueneed the wing an election of bet nar or is bok The other gukine principle followed is tat all definitions, theorems, es should be clearly and preity stated. Prosi are sven mith the mde in ‘in. Most are presented in dtl ad hen this is not the case the rade (old preciely what ring and aed ofl in the pap as an exec, The eres ae varied in their dese of itil. Some are meant to fix the eas f the ection in the reader’ mind un sme extend he they o ive pplication other partsof msthematis,(Oscainally, eminaogy ed im anexercse which snot defn!—e. group integral dora) ‘Chapes I through V ad Sections Vil and VL? are baie Its pose to cover this material ina sigle semester only ia umber of proofs are omitted. Except fr the materi tthe beginning of Section VI on conver intone res ofthe book is independent of VIS and VIA, ‘Chaper VI nates the student in the consideration of foetions as ons ina metric spice The rests of the fst three estions ofthis chapter ae used repeatedly inthe fenainder ofthe bok. Seton our and ve eed ho defense: moreover, the Welertass Factoristion Theorem i estety for Chapter XI Section sx an sppliceion ofthe fconzntion there ‘The last two setions of Chaper Vitae not add inthe get ofthe Book hough thy are a part of casa! matheiaties which no one shou comply direpard Thocemaining chapters are independent topic and may’ be covered in ay onder ded ung Theorem ithe iospation for much ofthe theory of Function Algchrs. The proof preset in seeSon VIL, however, the ase one Involving “poe pushing™ Seton to applies Runge Theorem to btn ‘ore ger form of Cauchy's Theorem The tn wes of seston hice and four sould he rea by everyone ve the prot ‘Chaper IX stalin analyte comtinaation ality Is sade 10 anal masks and ceseriag snes, Sexy ne thrash Ace an be comaleted as ait ad nl pte the Walt kno sayontnsaton without necesitting his going through all of Chapter 1X ‘Chane X studies harmonic fneions tolading solution ofthe Dish, Problem and the inraduetin of Green's Function, I tis can be ile poled mathematics par af apped mathematics that everyone should ‘lihough thy are independent the as wo chapers cou fave een combined into one enisd "Fats Functions" However it ft that atamans Fatoiation Theoten and the Orat Theorem of Pa ar uel ferent that cach erie sown chapter. Also. rier rest Aepends upon the ober, With rane to Pras Theorem it should be mentioned that another poo sve The prot presented ere es oly elementary arguments While the proof found in mos other books use the modula function, "There we other topic that could have Ben covered. Some consideration vas gen to inlaing chapters on some ot alo he following: conformal ‘Raptieg, funcions on the dirk, elite fusions, appiations of bert nce methods fo compe unetns But we line had t be drawn somewhere hu tes topes wee the vite For those readers who would like to explore this nueva otto furor lmetgte the topics covered inthis book, the bitiogriniycontaine » naer of appropriate ens. ‘Mort of toe otation wed standard. The word "iT" suse in place of the ple “iad only and the symbol Mr ed to incite the ed of ‘oul When a faction (ther the path i being discussed, Latins Ere sel forthe Gosnin and Grek eters are ust forthe rang This took evolved fram cave taught at dian University 1 would he to thank ine Department of Mathematics fr raking is resoutees available to re during ts preparation, I would espadly Tie o thank the stdens In my clasiest was dtl thei retin to my cours in Complex Variables that rude me decide to take the plunge aod wate a book. Partial thanks ould go lo Marshe Merah for pointing out several stakes in an ext {ato Stephen Berna for gthring the trl fr several exes on “ister to Larry Cait or asin me as tbe Fl corrections the ‘Beiomcape {mast to thank Call Shehan Fortin the ral ret of the Imamuseop under unui ereurstanees. Finaly, Tus thank my wife to whom ths book is decd. Her cncourageneat was the mort salable assistaeeT rece Jone B. Convey PREFACE FOR THE SECOND EDITION ave teen very pleased wih the success of my book, When it was spparent that he second printing was nearly wid ost, Spenge-Verag Sted me 10 prepare a st of conectons for 8 thd priming. When T imevtioned that Tad toms ideas for more scbtamial revisions, they ‘eseted with characterise ents “There are four maior elfereoes between the present edition and it pregecewor Fis, John Dion's treatment of Cauchy's Theorem hs been Fnsinded. Tis has the advantage of providing a ick proof ofthe theorem in ie full generaity. Nevebelas, Tavera stong attachment © the omotopi version that appested in the fst eon and have proved this, form of Cavshy's Theorem ait was done thee. Ths version is very comets and quite enty to apply. Moreover, the notion of homotopy is ‘ceded forthe later tentment ofthe monodromy theorem; hence, mele tion of is version yields benefits far in exces of the Ue needed to discus i ‘Secon, the proof of Runge’ Theorem is new. The resent root i due to Sandy Grablner and des not ee “pole pushing Tn seae the “pole pushing” buried in the concept of uniform approximation and some eas rom Banach algebeas Nevertheless, it should be emphasized tha the prof is entrely elementary in that tes only on the material presented In this tex. [Next aa Appendix B has been added. This appendix contains some bibliographical material and a puide for further ead. inal, everal addins exercises have been added "There tre alo minor changes hat have been made. Several colleagues inthe mathematical communiy have helped me greatly by promding Consinicive ericinm and pointing out ypogrphicel errors 1 wish to ‘hank publicly Ear! Berkson, Loos Brickman, lames Deddens, Gerard Keough GK. Kristiansen, Andrew Lenard, John Mairhuber, Donald C Meyers, Jetrey Nunemacker, Robert Olin, Donald Peis, Jon Pte, Hsns Sagan, Glean Schober, David Stegenga, Richard Varga, James P Wiliams, and Max Zorn. Finally, {wish to tank the saat Speingee Verlag New York not only for thet westment of my tok, Bot alto forthe publication of so many fine books on mathematics nthe present time of shrinking graduate tnullments andthe consequat reluctance of so ma publishers o pent, ‘vanced texts and monograph Springer-Verlag making 2 coaribution tour discipline by increasing is efor dseminate Oe cent develop. ‘ments mathematice‘TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface The Complex Number System Tee ra ums FD The blé of om uriters 18: The compte line 1H Pour reresetton and oc a ope umber [5 Eine an al panne cpln pte 6 The etd pluses sere erent Mere Space and the Topology of © 1: Desation and examples of mee ces 2 Commtean| 1S Sequences and comptes Compacts $5. Comins 1. Uraoem cooverens ‘lemestary Properties an Exanpls of Analytic Functions 1. Pover sis (2 Ana fanetons 15; Anti incon i ping, Mobis annmatons Complex Inceaton pe Reranch {8. Zeros of en arate union Et Toe inden ofa dnd cone 18, Caacy’s Theorem nd Intel Fools {6 The homotupcyrnan of Cauchy's Tore 28d Simple sonnet 1. Conmtng nar the Opes Map Teor The Auer 8MI vu vin. 1% ‘The Minimum Modulus Theorem {0 Toe Maximan Pine [BS Lemme [BCom functor an Hadar Tee Ces Theorem He Pings Lietr Toren Comactnes and Comerpene in the Space of Avalte Functions The nace cots fneine CGA) 1 Space of ani ncn [5 Shoes of moma urcons The Remans Maprng Trem §. Woes Fatrtason Tere ff Fasonzion of he sn eon G2 The gemma fcr The Remon 2a fncion Rung’ s Theorem {1 Ringe’ There, FB. Shine connected B: Mip-LetersTheores Analytic Contnoaton and Riemann Surfaces {ie Stine Redaction rine {2 Ambre Count Along A Path 5 Moston Taare 1 Tepe Specs ad Nehborbod Systems {5,The She of Come of Asse Farce on an Open Se 1 Anais Manos Covering sper Harmonie Funcions fi Bae roperie of tron functions . Himonsfnctonr ons BB Subtamonic and wyerharmoie factions H. The Dire Prodien 8. Greens Fusions Entre Functions Si denen Forma 2. Thegen am er sei fin $F Maatmurd racer Tore ry re me 5 ine a0 a 2 Be sae XII. ‘The Range ofan Analytic Funeon noes Theres 2 The Lite Pasta Tizoe 5 Scot's Theorem The Gres Pear Theorem Aopen A: Cale for Complex Vale Fein on ‘Appeadis B: Suggestions for Furher Study and Bibliographical Notes References List of ymbos sage mos an a3 aChapter 1 ‘The Complex Number System The rel mambers ‘We denote the set of al real numbers by R. IC 36 assumed that each reader i acqusited sith the el number sytem an all sts proper. In Daiculr we rome a knowledge of the ordering of the defnions and ropes ofthe supremum an infimum (up and if), and the complete reer of every et im R which x Hownded above has supremum) Is tlko assed that every reader is famiar wath sequela convergence in and with infinite sores. Final. no oe should undertake 2 study of Complex Variables unless he ha thorough prounding is fuscons of one ‘eal variable. Although it has Ben raitonl to stay functions of several real vanables before stadyng analytic fonction thers, hs fmol a ‘cael prerequiste for this book There wil ot Be any occasion when the dep results ofthis area are needed, $2. The eld of complex numbers We define ©, the complex numbers, 10 be the set ofall odered puis (o, by wher and 8 are rel numbers ad Wheteadion and multplction (6.46 d= (are, bed) (6.0) = (oe, bead) scaly checked that with thee definitions © sti al the axioms for field. That, © satisfies the associative, commutative and dstnbative laws for addition and mulipleaton: (00) and (0) ae ieaties for sido dod multipleation respectively. and there are additive and mel liste iveres foreach nonsero element in ©. ‘We wll write forthe compix number (a, 0: Thit mapping a> (0,0) kines eld womogphim of inte C 40 we may consider fe a subst of {© Ime pars = (0,1) then (eb) = abr From tis pint on we abandon the ordered pir notation fer complex suber [Note that = Iso thatthe equation 271 = Ohas a rot ia. In fac, for each 20 62241 (24) (2nab Mowe gone, 2 and w are somes numbrs we obi tran ety2 “Te Campin Nester ys By eting za w be rea ues @ and 8 we can aban (with oth an re) fees stn) ax EP aR Nee, 40 that we have a for for the recprod! of complex number. When we write 2 = a5(g be) we call ard bth reo and inexiory pars of: unl denote this by¢ = Res, b = Im We cone this ston by intoducing two operations on C which are sot fel operations I = stipe eB) then we dine [| = (2492) C0 te the able clue of x and? — iy the comuate of = Not that at bP =a In parila, if = # 0 then te aac “The falling are basic properis of absolute values aml conjugates hove verifeatons are Itt the reader 22 Res Mesa) and Ime = 23 (RH = 48 and = 28. 2 Jew) = Ee 2s isl = len 26 leis “The eae shuld ty 19 aid exping = and nto hi el and inaginy pare nent eo ove the a re. Rater, we (21, 2hand 3: Baers 1. Fin he etl and maior art ofeach ofthe flowing: B45 (=A) wet (FF ay for 250 2, Find the absolute value and conjugate ofeach of the followin H Bei OHNO: TTS a aati”. “Te cont pine 5 2. Show that is areal number if and only fz ~ 2 44 IF and'w are complex numbers, prove the folowing equation: les? = eRe sei lew? = Paes [ee «bw = 2044 5. Use indeton 40 prove that fs Si a Seti A) ar 9. The comple plane From the defnition of complex mumbers itis lear that ezchz in C can beet with the unique point (Re zm) tthe plane Re. The adaiuon ‘of complex numbers is exacy the addon lw of the vector space 8. Tez and w a in C then daw the sight lines fom 2 and w to 0(=(0, 0) “Thee form two sides ofa parallelogram with O, = and w as thee vertices. ‘The fourth yen twas out tobe 24 "Note ako that [>i exact the dhtance hewn = and w. With his fn mind the lst equation of Exerc 4 inthe receding rection tates the ‘oraleogra ow: The sim ofthe squares ofthe ngs of the sies of @ paralllogam equals che sum ofthe squares ofthe lengths ofits diagonals. ‘A Tundameotal property of a distance function is that i ststes the ‘wang equality ee the next chapter) Tn this ease this inequality becomes Finl = la-nl + famal For complex numbers 2,252 BY using 2>—%5 = G2) Hey—BI A casy tose that we need nly show a let] s fl + Geo, “To show this at observe st for eny zim 32 ml = Rez = [el ls] ems = ence, Reo) [a = fo Tho, lee = b-4aRe emo Pel te = Git, from which (3.1 follows, (This tll the tone aoa owns if we represent >and in the pare 1) says tht the length of ene sie of he Irn [027 1] ex thon The Sur the nth of the ert de, (Or. the shortest dnance Fete wo pons a aight ie) On ceenner-‘ Tee Comox NnerSten ing anincaulity oe shouldabvay at for nacesar and suicient conditions that equality obtains. From looking at teinle and considering the 0 Imetalsipifeance of (1) we are fed (© consider the condition = = t For some 1 ff = 0 ( » =i if =O) His ler that equality wil focur wc the two pots se ealinear withthe opin. In fat if ws Took seit pron! of C1) we soe tht a aeetsary and suleat condition for [Es] = e+ tae ev Re (29). Equvalenly, thi ie = OG 2 Ise real number and Js nonnegative). Maliphing his by ar We get [Pte = Ove # OIE vere (42) mom hen» Oand == 1 By induction we abo ex a Teebey ts ots 3 eel tel Also wl is the ingusity a a Il) = [em [Now that we have sven a gommtrc interpretation ofthe absolute vale let gw se what taking a complex conjugate does (0 poin in the plare "Tina exsys infact, # Hs the point obtained by reflecting x across he sean (ie the eel a). Exerc 1, Prove (4) and give recast and sufcientcontions for quality 2 Show shat equality oct in (33) f and ony ays, > O for ay neers Kandel = hm forvwbich #0 3 tage it and ¢ > Oe fred. Deseibe the st of points = saisyng for evry posible choice of and c. Now let te any complex number ts. sig atation of the plane, deseribe te Toes of pots saisying the Shove eatin 4. Polar representation and rots of complex mabers Consider the point x= +9 yim the complex plane C. This point kas polar coordinates (72): x =r coe @, p= rsa BCleay 7 [and 6 the angle tetmeen Toe otis rel axis and he line segment frm Oto =. ovis that pls any ule of 2 canbe subsituted for 8 i the above Cons he angle # calle zit of sands deed y 8 = NB. Fcrne af the ambiguity of # "are" na a fantion, We aoc she eon a rot of pes ere : Let) — 10h 8 yr de Then zp = ry 38 8 C8 B= Fp (cos cos by—sin 8, sin 8) ny oo by sn 8, 604 8) By OE Formulas forth sine and cio of the stm of two angles we Be a sey nse 45) Altentely, ange.) = ag taney (What funtion of a real variable takes pdt no suse?) By induction we pt for = nie 1 2 kz a eee eer) 1 patel, “ P= Pasta, fo evry integer m0. Moreover if 2 0, 2f°# eis (-O] ~ 1540 that (44) also holds for al itausm poste, negative, and zero, if2 7 0. ASa Special ease of (44) we get de More's formula (605 0+ sin 9" = cos n-I5in ‘We ae sow in poston conser the fllowing problems: Fora gven somplex number a #0 and an infeget = 2, can jou find a number = Suthfying =~ 0? How many such = can you find? In light of (44) the foliiom easy: Let a i ls by (ay =~ a i (a) il hel However this snot the only sation Because 2 = of! cis # (a2) alto sates (29 = a I fat ese af the numbers “ areal oe20)0 5 ta finan mh oot ofa. By means of (44) we ative at the following: foreach ‘nonzero umber @ in there ae tinct mt ooo a they ar ive by Formula 5) Example Calclaethe mh root of iy. Sine ~ cis 045) ies these rosa ah » ree ce, cs 0, In pancula, the be rots of unity are 1 Lavin bans atthe y(t xen2. Caleate he folowing: (eh e gure roo ot {0 Be cabe roe of (esque rot of /3 +31 2. pms mor any ix 2 complex number a such, ta im dre dint tot of any, Show hat i a ad Bate tne mh andro funy epee. hen a is ih 0 Tye some integer What the sma vale OF? Wha can be ad Te ad bare nonin oo of way? {Go te thomar equation worbr= S (flaw, ()=iewe and compre the el and imi Tart ch side of de Moines ‘imate obs he orm const = 600 0-(1)cor?sint 04) xe ent 0 Sant (8) 00-1 0an0-(0) or P00 5. Lets ~ eis 2 for an integer n = 2. Show that 14 e-h. be! 6, Show that ot) = ct 1a group homemorpism ofthe ative group 2 conta the mulipcative group T= (= [e|~ I Ts ©€ and Re(e")=0 For every postive integer m, show that = is 2 poste rel number. 5 Lins and half planes inthe complex plane Lat denote staph line in ©. Ftom eomenary analytic wom, Lis dimined bya pont in Land a ditetion vet. Thus if ais ay pont in Band b ists deetion vector then atibs 2 ste} Sine 0 this ves, for ¢n 7 tn fac if suck hat ines nl ie hcg pe 1 implies that z= 01 1b, 20 << ce, Tht i fm ‘tibet es) >. fem") 0}, B= cs. It's =r ce 9 then = ris @=). Thus, sin Hyif and only isin (6A) = O; that ig when Bec we Hence My the hal plane ying to the le of the line Lit st L ear “walking slong Lin the dietion of 6. I we pat wofem(!)-q| then ti easy see thal 1, ~ a Hom (as: we Mads tha i Mis the uamlaton of iy by o. Hone, H, i he Half ans fing tothe hl of nfl) Is the half plan om the right of erie 1. Lal € be the citle te HPht 0: kta © tr go and putacfom(t)-4 “were B = sf Fd necessary a suicint conditions in tems off that 1 be tangent to C at 6. The extended plane ad its phere representation ‘one in complex aahss we willbe consent with funtion that be come lint a the vorable approaches 2 iver point. To dieu this tse Tun inna the exten plone wish is CU (or) = Caw We aso Seth Ye invoduoe a dntnce fection om Cin onder to diss contimity Tropics of fonctions assuming the value inniy. To accomplish this That ghe a concrete ricture of Cy. we represent Cy a8 the uit epee 8 = (euanmpeRssl ides = UD Lat N= (00, thas, Whe noth poe on S. Aso entity with (cing Si tae) 20 tat C ots 5 along the equator. Now foreach {Gig Shredder the sagt line in tough z and 8. This nescs te spec in eacly one pint Z # NE] > # then Z is in he northera imigbere and it [eI then Z sin the soutern hemisphere abo, for Pre cz What happen to Z a8 [| > coT Clrly Z appromhes ¥; ere idenaty Wand the pot 2 ia Cy. Thus ©, B repented as the sphere 5. TEI cspore this representation, Pot = x+y ad et Z ~ (sn X59) be he cosuoponding ptm on. We wil id eqalions expressing. tase mtcnme of andy The line in ubreugh = and 3 given by Naens na ere w)eor by o Wl-asdenin ne Hen, we co fin the eninates of af We eam fal the sale Wf Fa “Tasca pce anti peal peettion . which thls intersects Sf is this ve then HL =oP 4? Leconte Fron ih wo ao wa oa wear aeee a2 Mod ier OT are PT GPT 10 the pin i gen (ZN) and we wh find # then by sting xy and sing (1), we ave at “ [Now let us define » distance function teeen points ia. the exended plane in the following maer for," in define the distance fom 102 (. 2), tote the distance between the comesponding points Zand Zin WZ Gey Xp 33) 88 ZC 3 XD tT 6s 2) = =P HOH ADP Using the fot that Z and Zao 0a, (6) Bes 6s (ite 297 = 2-26eixh emit) By using equation (6.3) we st te-r mara Ia smile manner we gt for zn © a ae Heo) 2 a " This epreespanden Bees pins of and ©, i alle! the stercagranhe proton,® “Compl Nur yen Beers 1. Give the dts in the derivation of (67) and (69). 2. For cach ofthe fllonng poins in C, ge the coresponding point of 5:0, 141,352 3 Wich soso of Sconespond tothe real an imapiacy axes a C 2 Tet bea ice ing in SThen there i unique plate Pin R such that PAS = A. cal fom analyte geometry tht Pa fed: Sate =D where (Ss PB) isa veto orthogonal to P ad 1s some rel numer. Wear bs stumed that +8885 = 1. Use thi information t show that 11 Aonaits the point W then it projeetion on Cis straight ne. Oterwse, ‘A pojets onto & cae in C 5 Tet nnd 2 be pins on S corresponding to = and: rexguctely. Let We te point on S eorreeponding to 2-42 Find the coordinates of Win terms ofthe cordate of Z 08 Chapter I ‘Metric Spaces and the Topology of © l, Defniton and examples of metre spaces [Armetrc space sm pir (A) whore east and da function from ‘xe int By aled aan faction or tre wtih satis the lowing oudidons fore yy and #19 ax.) 20 sy) ~ Oif nd only fx = y As, 9) = ao, 2 (Smmet) bs 2) ds») 2) rare inequality) candy > Oat xed ton eine Be) = VEX: des) < Bees) = VEX: dy) 5A ‘tx; #) and Bs; ae eal he pen an claed Bal, respectively, with ‘eer and rads Eames LA Let = Ror € and defined, w) = Jz—. Tis makes both (Bd) fod (Ca) sets spaces, Tn fat, (C, 4) wil be the example of pisipal inecst tos the reader ha never encouotered the concept of mee pace Pefore this be should comivally keep (Cis mind during the study ofthis chapter. 2 Ler trad) be a metre space and let Y © X5 tan (Y, 4) sao a met space 13 Let X = C and deine dic tiy, 041) ~ [eal y—B). Then (, is 2 met pce. La Cet © and deine oes, 248) = max (xa [>B)) US Let i be any set and dene du, 9) = OiF x= yand ds») = Tix 2» ‘To show thatthe function fsatifes the langle inequality one merely onder all ponies of equality among x, and 2. Notice bere that, ‘ese consist nly ofthe pont rife = Vand Bisse) ~ Xihe> 1 Tas Ince space docs ot sper i the siedy of analyte felon theory. Te bet Ho BY and Gor = (eres gh F= Opes esa) im die won [Eon2 Metco te Taple ef © 17 Lats be any sot and denote by A(S) the st ofall fnetons fs $+ © sch tat Vio = #9 (a se83 < “Thai (S) consists of al complex valued functions whose range i om ited oe some sik ffs radi. Foef and gin B(S) define 3) = fale, We wll show tht sites the tna inequality. Infact f tan are in BS) and se any poise im then sl) at) = LC) =H0)+ Feed ONDA AOS AFB Bh. Ts, when De foprmom ie tkan over a £19, [/— Ble 5 1B +1—Allos which is the tangle inequality ford 18 Detaiton, For 4 met pace (X, d) a set G © X is pen if foreach Nin thre i ane > Osueb iat BC: 6) 6. “Thus actin © is open it has no “edge” For example, G = (o -< Rez) i open: bt: Rez <0} (0) isnot becuse BD; 6 wot Contin ia thie set no mall how small we chose « "We denote the empty sy, the st consitng of 2 elroents, by 19 Proposin, Let (Xd) bea mre space ther: (a) The sete X and Cl ave oper: A (Bf Gees sore pen ris X then 0 (Gus © WF eI te a colecton of open sets tn XJ any dete 3, then @ =O {G24 5d) 1 alo open. Proof The proof of (3) ea Wily. To prove (b) let xe G = () Gy then 26, fork = I... Tha bythe dfiton, foreach & there a o> 0 Such tha By) © Gy Duties = win ey gears v sg then for Ls = Dias) © Bless) © Gy. Ths Rox) © G and G open. “The poo of) is eta an eerie forthe eae. ‘There sarothe ean feats of 4 mevicspce which ae dstingsshe. “thee ae the sts whch contain al hele "edgy aeroately, the sts whose omploments have n0 "edge 1.10 Definition, A set F © X's lod if ie complement. X—F, i open. The Talowig proposition the complement of Proposton 1.9. The rook hose execution is let to the Fader, is accomplished by apoWing {Morgans Ins tothe preceding proposition LAL Propasion. Let (X09 be @ metre space. The (a) The sets ¥ and Core else: . (03 OF Face Fear eoed ets th a0) Fs (6) a ies Jo 5 ts any election of lee sent Xan then Pe iF 29. SV sao clase, ‘he iat eons error ae pon Haring oye eoe ister the itn hd et eat a 9 fy PLS Debniton a ean of mei specs 2 lose, This ofcourse, fu can be seen by lonklogat (¢@C: Re > 0} "fo Irs aither open nor coed 1.42 Defien. Let A bea sub of. The the interirof , in As the ct J (G: Gis open and @ ©). The clone of A, As the set) (FF is dosed and Fd}, Note thet iat may be empty and AW may Be, TtA'm (abt wand bare tinal numbers) then dmultaneoualy AW = C and int A~ 7). By Proposition [9 aad 111 we have lat 4~is lod and [at Aopen. The boundary ofA denoted by 24 and dened by 24 =~ nana 1LA3 Propodon Let A ond 8 be stots of mete space (X, 2). Then: (a) As open fond only fA = it A (0) A sed and ony fA = A (6) int d= X (Ln deg A> = Haine (XA); 8A = A lat A: @ Gen 4 OR (6) Seeint A and ony here sane > Ouch that Bocas © As (sed Wf and only if for esry €> 0, By; OAH Proof, The posts of (8)(0) ae Heft to the read. To prove (F) assume seed = Xniat (A); ths, 6 (XA). BY pact (0), for every £550 aise contained in XA. That iy there's polat ye By: ) Snhch in mt ia 2A. Hence, 9¢ Beet) A. Now suppose xo A — Write (4). Then so eint (XA) and, by (@, there an e 0 such that ergs ) = XA, That b, By: A= 50 thal xp does ot ‘ty th contin. Finally, one lst deiiton of distinguished type of st 1.14 Defilton, A subset A of metic space Xs dew if. A ~ X: The st of rational numbers @ i dense in and (x49: x, 7€Q) H dean ia ©. xercies 1, Stow that each ofthe examples of mestc spaces given in (1.2)-(16) is indeed a mate space, Example (1,6) the only one key fo give 205 Ui. lua deserbe B (act) foreach of thee cxampes 2! Which of the following ubucts of are open ad which are closed: a) sf): (8) the veal aus (6) {222"=1 for some integer n2 1); (@) (Sess wee and 02 2c): (@) [2 eCiz is eal and O52 Neck ahs any metre spaoe show that every ope ball i fc, a open ‘et Aho, show thu every closed bal a loved set {8 Give the deta of the proot of (30). 5. Prove Propesition 1.1 f Prane tat set 2 ¥ open fad only 6 closed, 2. Sw thin ts weeds given by (6) and Lea ee a. Kc Teresa hea mee spel PAs Sagas GX Pe“ Metco and he Tope of © thet G 0 ¥ is open in (Xd). Convery, show that if Gy = is open in (yd) thete isan open set © 2 such that Gy = 69 ¥. 5. De Escrsee with "ned ia lace of “open. 10, Prove Proposition LI. I, Show that (csk h'>0) is dense im T'={z©C:[e|=1). For which es of 8s [ela h@) A220) dense in 7? 82. Comecteiess Lets start this section by giving an example. Lat X= (2¢ 3} <1) U Erie = I] and sve tbe met isers from C. Heneconsen, Unbesever we consider subnets X of or © ax metic spaces we wl sume, Try uated tothe contrary tat X has the nketed meted) ~ fo= i) ‘Thee thest 4 = (ese) 1} simltaneosly open and closed Islnd eons ts complomeat inf B= X—A~ (2-3) <1) Is open: As pom teense aed then My 2) A (Noto that it may aot happen fhe (20: al <1} conned im 4—for example, if]@™~ 1. But the inkion of BG; 1) is (ee: [ema] < 1} and this is comtsined in 4) Sinility is ho Both open and closed in X. “Tis isan example ofa nomconneted spe 121 Definition, A metric space (¥,d) is comected ifthe only sabes of thich ae both open aad clved are [) and X- ICA © X'then A i comected Ie of if the ti pace (A, is connected "An eculent formlstion of conectednss i to say that X is oot counavied if there ave dist open tate A abd ln neither of which i ‘opp. sch hat AU Btn fet, ith condion hos then d = X—B alo cee, 22 Propeston set XR i connected If X tron nero. Prof. Suppose X = [a], and b elements of R. Let A & X be an open feet of Xsch that a 4, aad 7X. We wl show that A cnet abo be ‘Soret hence, Kat be sonaested, Since Ais open and eA here fs ane > Och that [a ate) = 4. Le sp (laate) ©} Chain at) © Aafia = x < a4 rbeo,patiogh ~ armx > 0 the defition of supremum implies thre Is an e with rh « 0 seh that (2¥r—B GSA Bcoteaiting the abome ea. “Fe vo that eer typ aera te cones is i te let apa ent Teor the coivene » baer 1 and are nC then we denote the stright line segment from 2 to » Ew = (wad-oe 05151) 1A polygon tom a to b ia set P= C)tty where 25 = a, wy = b aed for 1 ck ation, P Comer 23 Thearem, An open set G'& C comecied If fr any to points a, bb tere sr polygon from ato b ing ental ide G Proof, Suppose that Gsalsis this condition and le ws suum that @ ‘ot conseta. We wll obama contraction. From the deinitios, @ (AUB where snd B are both open sd closed, 4 B=, nd elie noe Bie emy. Let ge and b= By by hypothe therein « polyeoe P ftom ato auch that PC G, Now a moment thought will show hat one fof the segments making up P wil have one point a A and another in. So we ean asume that P= [a 9 Def, S = (relO, 1 she (t-geed} T= (eB, be d—pee 8) ‘Then $0 T = [, SUT = [0,1},.0¢ Sand 1 © However itcam be shown that bot Sand Tate ope (Exercise 2), contaicing the connecednes of [0,1 Tha, G muse be coneced. [Now suppose that Gis connected and i point ain G.To show how to oesrct «polygon (ying in from at «pot 8 G wold be diel. But we dowt have to perform such 2 constuction; we metely show that one cist. Fora fed in dete A= (be: therein polygon P © Glrom ato) "he plan i to show that is simultaneously open and cote in G. Since 126-4 and G's conneced iis wll ge that 4 ~ G andthe theorem will be Prove. "To thow that A is open ft BEA and et P= [a ts. %— OB 8 polygon fiom ato b with P = G. Since Gis open (hin was no ese in he Tit al), dere sane > O such that BQ) © 6. Butt 7 tb: thes lbva] © Bs) © G. Hene the polygon Q = PU, 2s inside and gos from ato. This shows that Bi 6) = 4 and so is open "To show that dis lose supose theresa pit in Gd and ete > 0 be sch that (0) = Ge If thre v8 point ia 4 9; «then a above, ‘we can contracts polygon from ato 2 Thus we must have tht Be woe Biz) < Gd. Tht iy GA is open otha Ais closed. 24 Curly. 1G © € tt open and connected an @ and bare pots in then there polygon in from ato Poh ale up of ine segments evel wo ctr te rol agar asao in fom ob and hex ly ech fm eget oh aoa ee sacl ate dnc proper. Howe, oF Fara tune empaco (ce Ere 37, Atti oot Ae ee bins tof ren 2 Dede he 28 See ee Oe Sin eson at te pogors met inh eo Sc The ner the ral bai wh asc msn enya be rll a8 a. a or Haris = nag. = pre te be poggen +13 $07 8 Sg anda pots ral a 2 ee tanya Sm mae spss eee snd way ste ne fom es 115 Defion, A subset D ofa msec pace X isa component of Xt 3 ae rence sobut of Xe Thats D is connected and ter i 00 ‘ones sutet of X that peopecy comtas D. Trt render examines te cxxmpe tthe begining of tis ston Be wil note tht both A and are components and, furthermore, thse a6 The dat components of. For anoter example It = (0 1s 3 be -I. ‘Phas leans every component of ¥ 3 point and each pint is a Component Nerseariar emp {atop te ont) 126 Lemna, Let xo ¢X alot (Dye J) be a collection of connected ets Bhi a tat tee D, fr eash) J. Then D =) Wy.) J} is comected. Prof Lt Abe a subset ofthe metre space (D, whieh is both open ad Freeh Nae auppose that A Then AMD, is open in (Dd or each | Seditisao closed (Exerc Sand 1.9 Sine Ds connected we gs that Mie A.D, = chor AND, = Dy Since A » 1 there sat Ketone k SR far 4A Dy # Dy nee A Dy = Dy Im particular xa 4 0 that seen Dy tor every j Th AD; = Dip oF By = As for ach inde ‘This ges that D = A, so tat D is Connet. 1217 Theorem. Let (Xd) he a mere space. Te (Boch gn i contd Ix 0 component of X- (0) Distinct components of X are dot Reet part (0 an ht the Union fits components ‘roo, (a) Let be the collection of comacedsuets of X which sont Fe es ce Nota that (re) «90 that @ #1, Abo note tha the Bombs of the preceding Tema apply to the colton 2 Hence CUYD: bc | weomneted and x91 C. Bul C mt be a component Gal Pi commoc and C= D thon xr D so tha Dv 7: hat then Dee sothat CD Than Cis masala pat (ais poe “bs Soptene and Crave enmponenty CCl nan ere epee cy fy Ana the Tema spy that CV C9 connected Sequnse an cles » Since both Cy tnd Cz ate components, this gies Cy = €, UC. = Cia contradiction 28 Proposiion (a) A Xiscomeced and A.C BC A”, then Biscomeced DU Ctve somponan of hn Cs coed “The proof is et as a vere. 129 Theorem. Let he open In ©; then the components of Gare opon ond there ar oly @ countable mamber of the Proof. La C bea component of Gand iet xo ©. Since Gis ope ther is 0 2S Oth ays e) © G- By Lema 26, xy; ) UC i connected and 60 Tiel te €. Th fe sy; «) = 406 Cs, therefor, open. “To ee thatthe numb of components countable kt = (ei 1 and bare ational and aie @). Then S B countable and each con ponent of @ ontans pola ef S, so that the purer of components ‘countable Exerc 1 Te ppt isn ho show (0S hat se A & san ita fr ny to points oad 8 in A with a < b, the interval fa, 6] . (Ue pe} aw te A&R command then Show tat the sts Sand inthe proof of Theorem 23 ae ope. X Whehof the following sce Y of Care connected if Xis nt connate, shat are is components: @) X= fe: le = NU Esk -2 <1) nuftelewe th x= CUM whe A= 5) and 8 Egrabercnocasen rans forages of Uenm 24 (Dy Jed} a Satcionfcomscted tern af and ior ext and & fed we hve punts itn DU) Dycfos) eomesee eS att FG a ce tor ey pi of kts thin Fandeah «0 toe tr pron sprees a Petsson de a) cell en icin tit Fin Soe seit Ab a chek ahs opr ae Feo rosy Te ST sous Oho an are lene i x connected subset of Riga 1s Sequnce and competence ‘ne of the st yf sce in nrc a that of converge sence, Thi cont ml nel i doplested i he study of ete Space hd compen sa AM Detiton 16 (5 Ins secre tre Spee Co8 Mee Sats nde Topo of © (4) conerges to xin symbols ~ lim sy of > Hf fr every « > 0 thar isan sntegerN sich that x) < whenever n> “Aterately, = lim x10 = lim A, ®). TEX = € then ¢ = ln, means that fr each ¢ > O herein such that ea < ewhen a 2 i Many once ia the theory of metre spaces cen be phrased in terms of sequences. The folowing an exanoe 132 Propesilon, A set F-& ¥ i closed i foreach souance (x) in F with xe lin swe have 0 F Prof Suppose Fis dosed and x = lim x, where each x, ia F-So or eery 120, hee isa pint xin BG stats Be) FC so that ee ‘= Fby Propestion 28 Now suppose F is not closed; so cei plat ia F~ whichis not Jn F, By Propouion L1MD, for every «> Ome have Bley; JF 2 Ch dex) Ovthere i an imger fT sub tha dy 9) < «forall m= (Xd) as the property that each Cauchy sequence has iin X then C1) 1s complete 6 Proposition compo Prof tt) a Cavey sequence ia C thes) aby are Cay sequeeey in R Since Ris compet, ty = aby. for pane 9 mR. Tefallows that +f tm (ng ahd te conte Conder Chats meted (16 an, 8) oe = DEBS nC Serta nd completa » ican be shown that diz 2)-+O4 and nly iff, -r 0. spite of his, say sequener (2) with me) = 20 Cauchy in C., ut of ote, snot Cauchy i TA © X we define the damster of by dns A ~ sup (dy) x and are ini [37 Camors Thearem. A mitre space (X, 4) 8 compat if for any seuence a) of name closed ste with Fy > Fy > «ond iam Fy 0, F, conse afoot Pont. oe ‘Proof Seppone(X,d) x complete and let (F,) bea sequence of cloud ets having the properties: @)F, > Fy >--- and) him dam = 0, For exch sks bean arbitrary point in Fis ife,m > N then nein Fe 80 tat, by defntion, ry =) = dim Fy. By the hypotbersN can be chosen sufcenlsInrge that dla Fy this shows that Cs) ia Cavey sequen, See A compete, ~ tim 5, exists. Als, xy iin Fy for all n> N sine © Fy hee in Fi for every Nad ths gives xf) Fs = F So F contains at east one pin; if lo, yn F then Both x and ya la foreach and this aves dg.) = dam Fy > 0. Therefore deg, 3) =, oF =. Nov let us show that X complete if satis the stated coniton Let (5) bea Cauchy sequence in X and pal Fy = (Sy Soins} 3 et Ae Ie > 0, choow H such that's, i) = foreach im = Nz ths gives that diam ip Seaqes-) = «for nN and so dara F< form = N (Exerise 3). Ts dam F, 0 and, by hypothe, there ISS pois xy in A wit xg} = FF, so. «Ue parole ye Fy sed So dig) © Siam F-»0. Therefor = bin ty I ‘Therein sandra exerese stoned wih hs theorem Isto id | soquecs of tes (F) in which suse two of the editions: (a) each Fyn closed, OA>A> © dam E> 6: but whih has P= Fy; 0... iter empty or consisting of more thin one pot. Everyone Should gx examples sausieg the possible combina. 8 Proposition Le (Yd) bea cnplete metric space and et YX. Then (Ya) ta ample meiie ace if ¥ eles in eis eft as am exrie to show that (4) complete whenever Ys 1 closed suet Now ansume (Fd) Wo he complete: Jet he im point OF Y. Then there i a sequence CF] of pam in P wh that xy =limy Henge fru) a Cauchy sequence serene 8) and mint comerge 0 3 Pont ny Ye ine (Tf) complete fellow thi ry ty and so F ‘nts allo nt pots Hence sling by Bsn 44» ei esa the Tepe estes 1, Prove Proposition 3.4 2, Furnnt the deta of the prof of Proposition 3.8 5: Show that diam 4 — dsm 4 4, Lave: be peintsin Cand led be the meieon Cy, Show hat ,~2|-=0 SE aod ly it ey, 2) --0, Aso show tha Fo then (2) B Casey jn Ca (ot) converge in C3) 5 Show thot every convergent sequence in (Ys a Cauchy soon. & Give thee exams of ton complete merc spaces. 5. Baa mee don such that [ays +O if and only if diy 2)», ot that (i) 4 Cauchy sequenee a (when > co. Hint Take inspiration from ©.) Suppose (in) Catchy sequence and (rq) 6.2 subwequnoe that is onerget Show that (} must be converge 8. Compacnes ‘he oneal of commit an extension oft benef fo sna 2 cat proper nap st ar alogs of ropes fens thick Ee que vv Foren cer eae Sha Somer stsgane Tp gut tice hae mB at TODS SUS REM an te montero ines Hower Se ‘She Mien remain uch" ene by “oma” 441 Defeton. A subset K ofa metic space compact if for every calle thon Bf epen ast im X withthe property a KeUGGeM, there is ite number of sts Gy,» Gym sch that K = Gy 4 Oy ‘UG_ A collection of seis satisfying (42) i aed corer of Ks if ‘ck mcnter of le an ope et it is eal an oper cover of Ke Cleary the empey set nd all Site set ave compact, An example of & ese hG,= [el <1 Hp ten 2, 3g then {Gry Gaye} it a8 open cover of D for which there it no finite sieover. om compact et D = 443 Proposition. Let K Be o compet suber of Xs the: (2) Kis dosed; (By IF is closed and Fe K then Fie compat. nov pt So hs = Ket RNY Pe ton NE, ays AK ora 8 bac, ¥-A(s:8) snd sapne 94K Ten ich Gorman KS (6s congas 2” As: Sine cose a i ch a 1 prove par (0) let & bean open cover of F.Then, since Fis lsd GU (E=F} an open cover Of Kr Let Gyros Gy be stein ssh that KEGU.UG,UN-F) Chatty, FCG U".-UG, and so Fis compact. IEF 3 calletion of subsets of X we sy that F bas the fe inter section property Gp) it whee Fin Fae ooo Fal FAO Fx Fo 2L1AB cxample of such caluction bs {D-G,, B-Gy,..-} whore ests G, ae af the example preceding Proposion 43 44 Proposition. 4 ser KX 6 compact if evry collection of coed shes of K vith the fp. has ((F Pe FY 4 Gh Proof Suppose Kis compact and. is» callin of closed subsets of saving the fp. Assume that ()(F° Fe) =) and le = (CF Fes}. Then, (XE PLE] =X (Pee) ~¥ by the assumption: in parteula, 9 iam open cover Of K Ths, there are Fy FoF sac ht R=) 8) =~ CV a on hf © X-Kand since ech Fiat of if mt bit f= This Sonal te ip fi The ra ote cones seas an exe ‘roof Tis ollowseaty by applying the above proposiion and Theorem 7 46, Corley. 1 tr compact the eer infest ha mi pote in X: ‘rouf Let 8 be a8 infite wb of X aad suppose S hes no limit pols Cot fay ay oo-) be a sequence of disting points in 8; then Fe lan Atoyseee alos mo lit pos. But ia set has no tps it consis a Hs fis points and must be cosed! Thus, each F, is cosed ad (Fy n° Li has the Fp. However, sine the points ay as. ae distinel, (Fy + eontraditing the above proposition. 47 Definition A metre space (Xd) is sequentially compact every sequence In hav convergent stbsegpence Ww be shown tht compact abd wq¥entlly compost metric spas sre the sa. Tr ct the Clown nol A eben’ Covering Comm LN) is senate compet a2 Mae nce and he op of 1 te cercpen cover ofX thn thre ran € > Ouch hat if xis in X here 8 Ben mh BO EO. ‘Proof. The proof by contedicon; suppor tht i an open cover of X SIndto sche > O cam be fund, In parila, fr evry iter theresa is sequently compas he sa point x i X and a wubioqese (sy) SRS Sag, tt Gye such tht mye, and chow «> 0 SR tat Beg; © Ge Now it N be ch that yh) <2 fo all 2 Neat be any ip ager tan bth Hand 26 abd ey sn thay. Then le 9) aa sa) Asay 9) 2th © That BB Ing Ble 1) © Gy. comeing te chief mM “Tae are two common miinterpreations of Lebesgue’ Covering emia oe pls tat tye nothing ud the fer ha tsa 60 mck Sie # nan apen covering of follows hat each x in Xi oad ia Sot in wThus thew anc > Osh hat us) © sine is pe ‘Boca, homevers gies one «SO sh hat fr any Me 6) ‘Ml tsine mem of Toe othr miseteretton ff ele tht feetae 20 obtained inte mung, (rf comalned i ach 8 sich tnt x0. 449, Tare. Let (Xd) bea metre spe; then the following ar erlet (@) Xircompacr: (0) ery ite set has iit pot (@) Xr sequentaly compact (OX is complete and for exry «> 0 thre are a fie number of pots accenta hth tat ro {) asia 4 haderess.) (ve propery mentioned in (6) is ale Proof That (a) impli the satement of Corslny 4.6. “impos c): Let {el ea sequence in X and suppose, without fs of worn that the pints sy ross ae all istint By (the se (8, ery has Him point Tis thee pint y= BGs: Nearly, ‘eis am integer mr > ih x © BGs 2). Continuing we get integers ag eile tags HA) Thy y= Hi ad Ns seer {ly compa 1G) implies (@): To we thet X is complete et (x41 be a Cauchy seqtnce apply the definition of sqental eompactnes, and upp (0 Enenne 38 Now ite = and nny X.AP Xe) than we ar done; eter wise cine tp se), Agai A tse) Baye we ae de IFoo et xX [Bley U BG 3) this pres ever tops We nd a sequence (2, sh that sever {lmao Bu his imps that form 4m ya) «> O Ths 4} san Rave no Converge sbpegueer, cotati (a) implies) Tsp of he rot wil we a aan of he “gpon toe pipe" Ths pine ater that yu have moe be han you ave emia then at last oe replace mist old more thn one these Moreover, you have an iaeite sumer of pois contained in fine umber of tale then son all oni aly any poi So at (stat for evry > and any nits tore poi eX suc hat iy) counts nly may polo thst Let) Ne Zsoquece of esi pot There it's pouty an a siege CY of te) sch hat < ps Ao therein eit yi tnd a sacjuence (1) ofa) sch that (2) © Bg De Cong. fey ech inger = 3 tee ot In and a saeqense 2) oF (e2) tetat ffP) © ays Lat fasten dam F = 2 and F, > Fy >... By Theorem 24) = (re). We ean that 39 = S000 arn of 8 Ft eA tn LA ta coe fT pling ena pet 2 oe da temp ne vara coke nD yee het {Bsn dann hi hee hee ga ese Fah =U msd. Now forts wihereisaset = # wih Blase) © Gy ends X = {64 that (Gy...) Bite sabeover of 9. 440 HelaeBore Theorem. A subst Kof RC = I) compact iF Kisco (a bounded. Prof. WK is compact then K i totaly bounded by past (2) of the receding theorem. I follows that A must be elsed (Propontion 43); Sho it easy 1 show tt ftally houtded sti also bounded. ‘Now soppose that Kis closed and bounded. Hence there are cal umbers ard 800 By mb, SOER that K = Fob]. Lob ‘canbe shown that Fi compact then, Resse Kx lowed lls that ‘kw compet (Proposition 430), Since Rts complete and Fi closed it follows tat F complete, Hence. aga uring part (8) of the recess Theorem we need only show that Fi toualy bounded. This sy sinough smewbat “messy” to wnte down, Let<>0, we now wil Write F ty the union of nbmensonal rectangles each of diameter les Than Alter dong ths we wal ave BU) AL sed where eh heongs >Mo Space ad the Topo of fone ofthe aforementioned rectangles The otecuson of the deals of this ftatny i I tothe reader (Exes 3). A — 1h at opto 44. See Sr ge a tea om 0; we Exercise 2 to Rin P= “ show that there are rectangles Ryo. Re ssh tat F = () and diam 2B < efor cach k, I see Ri the it flows that Ry © Btn 0 ‘Show thatthe wnion of ite numberof compact sels is compas. 5. Lek te the set ofall Bounded sequences of complex numbers. That, Gajex if sup (luis n= 1) = co Ins G) and y= Qe define i) = nu neil yD. Show that for exch xin Vand «> 0, AC ©) ‘tot totaly bounded lthoogh ff complete. (Hat: you might have an sir tine fii you iat show that you ean assume x= (0 0,--)) 6 Show thatthe osu of totally bounded set oly Bounded. 85. Comtinity ‘One ofthe most elementary properties of ¢fueton is contin. The presence of contin guaranees a certain degree of regularity end sooth es without which td obtain any tory of functions on amet ‘Sree, Since the main sujet of this book i the theory of functions of a ‘ompiex variable which pots ddvatives (and so ae continuo), the sy of comity is basi 51 Defaon. Let (Xd) and (G,») be matte spaces and let fi X-» be ‘funciona X sad =, then emf) = wi for evry «> Other isa 0) < 8. The funtoa fis minuovs st eck poi of 48 > O such that p(/{3), «) < « whenever 0 < dt conta tthe point ai in fs) = fC) I X thea fa continous fiction from X to 2. 2 Props. Let f: (Ns d) (0,9) Bea fneton ad aX, = = fl0 The folowing ave equ statement (@) {6 comnuows aa (@) For very «> Of KBs) contains a bal with center a (9) «= lim ls) henerera = hi 5 “The prot wil be eta an entee Toe the reser ‘That was the st propontion converting onto of faetion at a point. From now on we wll conser aurslvs only with fonetions continuous fon all of 3 Proposton. Let f.(%, d)-+(0, 9) be a function. The follwing are alent raromens (@ Fs commons (8) 178 1 open tn 8 then “Hk opon 2X (0) IFT cased i 2 then f(D) 8 closed it Proof (a) implies (Let be open a. and et x f-"(B). AE =f) ten wi in'4; by dfnton, there an + > 0 with Bl) 3. Since fe contiguous, part (0) ofthe preceding proposition ses a3 > O with BW: 5) SF HBto: =) = F-"(3). Hence FAN is open (to implice (@) I 12 Ah coed then et A= QT, By (FMA) =| 2X-f-ME) Is open, 50 that") is lose (himples() Suppose there isa poit rin Xt which fis not coninuows. ‘Then thre an «> O ands Sequence {%) so that fC) JO) 2 ¢ for every while x — lint, Let P= O-A4/():0; then Pie loued and exch xcs inf (0). Since iy Ce) 1) is loved we have =f"), Bat {his ipies 5/09, Jt3)) = «> 8, a contain, “The flowing type of rst is probably well understood bythe render and so the proof is ef a an exerese [54 Broposkion. Let f and ge continous faction from X into © a let Bete Thon aff and fe ae both coninsin. Also, fg i coninaour raided (2) 0 for every» 0X 5 roposion Let > Yond ¢2¥-> Ze comics fnctons. Then gf Gohere Fof(0) = 1) fa continous faction fom Xie Z. Proof UIs open in Z then g°4(U) is open in Ys hence, F-*G"KU) = (2A) (U) open in 56 Delon. A function f (X, d)-> (0p is unformiy comics for very > Other is 8 > O(Gepending only ono sch that pC.) <4 ‘whenever dy) < 5. Westy that fia Lise fntion theres constant > O sch that f(x), FO) = Max) fo ll x andy in ici enn to see tha every Lipchita function fe uniformly cootiauous, tn fac fei given take 8 «fis even caer tae tat every unferay onlinuows funtion i continuous. What are some examples of such fae fons? WX =~ B thea fis) — x i continous but not niformiy omtnuous, IF = 2 ~ [0 I] thea f(x) ~ xs uniormly contiouess but ‘snot a Lisehiy fenton. The fllowing provigee a weally supply of sta © and; define he tance fram 49 the set Ay is, A, By AeA) inl sade Ab 7 Propeiton. Let AX: le (ade Ad ahs A% Mets ee and he Tople Was, aout: (6) ls A) als, Al) 5 9) forall x, y 0 X Proof (@)IPA © Bthenit cla om the dfn that as, 8) = A once dn, 4) 3, On the other hand + > there is pot pin A” sch that dls, 4°) 2 as, 9)~f2 Also there is pot ain A with {joa} <2 Bt sy 9) aye = diy) < bythe angle nual In parila, ds 9)'> aay) Ts es, he, A) 2 le, ame (ed) Soge can sebrary ax, A) a A, 0 tat (2) & proved iby iced then 0 = x 4) ~ lx, Now for any x i X thee i 1s milaiing sequence (a) la A sich that ls, 4) = Him as, 03) So if See a)= Orkin dea) 0; that x = im ay and sore A “gh Foran alsa) as, »)dLy, a). Hees, ds, A) ~ int (As, 0) aA) sin (As, 3) dy aha A) = ate 9)+40, Tis gives ds, 4) (A, A) = aks, 9. Silly dy, A) ahs, A) = As 9) 80 te desire ine ual flows "Note that pt) of the proposition says that fs X — defined ty flo) ~ de. A) fet Lipset faeton. IF me vary the set Awe gt Tage ‘uply of thee func. it's ot tee thatthe product of two uniformly continuous (Lipschiv) futons agna uniformly cominvs (Lp). For example, £0) ~ = {stipshite bn fs not even uniformly eoninuous. However both 2nd 2 re bounded then the conlston is vali oe Exes 3). “Two of the most importa propenies of cominvous fenton ae contin in the following es S88 Theorem. Let f: (Xd) -»(Q, 9) be a contous fcton GIP i coriact tho U0 i @ compact abet of (0) 0.4 te comected then JX) & o connected suet of 0 Prof To prove (8) and (6) may be rupposed, without los of pneality, ‘ac f= B. (a) Lat ou) bea sequence m0; then there for exch Io toa plat ayn ith y =f), Sie Xs compact theresa point Tein Xand a sublequeace (sy) such Pat x = lim ry But = fC, hes ‘he comin off gives thats ~ iw, Hence compact by Theorem 145.) Suppose 3 2s both open abd closed in O and that ® # Cl “The, teense fX) = 0, # £-1): ao, 1B) is both open and loses tosses continuous, By eonectivity, 7-40) = X and tht eves = 3 Thus, Os connected. 9 Caray, If fe X=» i comtinous nd K-& X i either compact or onc in thon JUK) i compact or comico, respective in 40 Conair. If > Rix ominous ad X is comet then UX) i “Tis flloms from the characterization of camveted sb of Ras ince ‘SAL Intermeate Vale Theorem. ff, 51~> Ris continous ond ta) = & 15 J) tha there ia pol a= ¥ 5B, with fO) =f 342 Coolary. ff: -» 18 iscominuous and K © Xs compet then there are potas xan 8K ih 80)~ 90 (xR) and fl) = Proof I= = sp (f(s °K) then in /UK) teense f(K) i lose and ‘bounded in R. Simlanty B= if UG): x°K) 8 inf). Ml S513 Coola. 1 = Xt compact and fs X->C continous then tere ire pont x ond yy te Kh Lite = sup (ft) = K) and) = ial (AO K Proof. This eorallary (lions fom the peeceding ove beause g(x] = |) ‘Sas 2 continsous fonction rom Hato 2 ‘514 Cooly If K 140 compat shot of X and x On X the thre Point yin Kviths,») = a, Proof Delve fs XR by $0) ~ As, 3). The fis comiauous sod, by ‘Cortlry 12, astumes 2 slum val on K. That iy there a point yi K wih) =f) for every 2K. Thi ps a, 2) = as, KM “The nen Eno theorems are eatemely imporant ate wil be ted e- peatedly throughout ths book with no specie fefereace to the theorem umber. ‘515, Theorem. Suppo f: X= conthwons ad X is compact; then J is form continous. Proof. Let «> 03 we wish wo Bad a 8 > O such that dc, ») <8 implies fl0) f0)) < + Suppose there is no soch 5 i pacar, each 8 = a Wil a to work Then for every n'= there ate pasa yy X with (sy. 39 Hin bat sa Fon) = «Siow Xf compact there 8 Sube feqlease (oy) and point 0X with x = in Sy lan, = tin 9 Bs goes tow BUL iw ~ fC, ~ ln fq) = i fp) 0 that «5 AM)SO)) 5 Hilino) +e fn) nd he it had sie ofthis inequality goes to ao. Thi i coneaditon Sind competes he 00 ne Tn fac sy) dy) +d thi tends to zero ‘5.16, Deion IFA and B ae subsets of X then define the distance fom Ate BAA, Bh by RA, BY if tha, ss ABs Bh [Notice tha if 6 the singe-ponnt set a them aA, 163) a A AE= Mie pce and he Tap of € A= (y} and B= (x) then ts), 7) = ass. Abo, if 4.0.8 # then di, B) = 0, but we cn have dA, 8) — O wah A and B join. The most popular type of eaample w to Oke A= fx, 2 xeR) ©? and Be (iqele re}, Nowe that A and B ae both closed and dsjint and su 4,8) = 0. SAT Theorem. 14 ad Baresi set in X wth B closed and A compat then dB) > 0 Pros Define X'—» Bylo) = da, B) Sine AB = Cand Bisclosed, flo) > Ofori aie A. But sce s compact thee isa point aio A such that 0 < fla) = inf L700: 26} = A BA Exercises 1. Prove Proposion $2. 2 Show that i fad gare uniformly cominuos (Lipschitz) funstions from Hino € then so inf 5. We my that fe X = is bounded if thee isa constant Mf > 0 with its] = forall x in X- Show that sf fad gave bounded uniformly otis (ipehi)Fortions from X into © thes 30 is 4's the composition of 9 eriformly eonieuous (Lipaci) Tunvons ‘gun uiormly svtinoos (Lich)? 5: Supone fi nfl contouoer show hit if (5) i Cauchy Sequence i ¥ then (f(a) sa Caushy sequence tf Ts thi il re if me ‘only nse tht fi comtiauous? (Prove or ive a coustetexa 1 Real the definition of 3 dense et (14. Suppose that Of complete mere space apd that f(D, 4) (0) s uniformly continuous, where D is ‘ors in kc) Use Enero St show that thee a uniformly comtnaodt fneton 2 2 wit ts) = fe) Tor every in D. 7 Let 6 bean open subuat of © ae et P bea polygon in from a 0b Use Theorems 1 and 917 to show tht there poiygon Q'& 6 fom to b which ir composed otine segments ich re parallel o eter che real ‘imaginary a Use Lebesgues Covering Lemma (48) 10 give another proof of Theorem sis 3, Prove he olloming conve to Eerie 2, Suppose (de # compact ‘mere space having th property that for every «> Dand for any pots Bin hare are points 2, in Nwith 2 025 = Band dy 5) < for] 2 k= m Then (id) eomectd. (Hint? Use Theorem 517) 10, Lis ang be continous functions Crom (4, d) 10 (Op) and kt D be face sttnet of ¥, Prove tha if f0) = 20) for xin D then f= x Use this o sow that he foetion g blaine ia Exes 6s unigoe 6, Uniform convergence et be st amd (0) sti sae atl SURPINE ff f= 8 fuowtoes om i the sequence fe emerge mini tof wisn f= voli fi for every «> Other isan igor NY (depending on « ‘Money ah hat pf) fo) < forall cin X, whenever nM. Hane, sup (A/C) fla): XE) 5 « whenever n= 8. “he first problem i his: IF isnot jus set bute met pace and each Juiscomutoes des it folow hat fs continuous? Ths answer sys 61 Theorem. Svpose fi: (Xd) (A, 9) Is conbwous foreach mand that Fm won fe then scones Prof. Fin in X am « > 0: we with to find a8 > 0 such that flr), PO) < eben dicg 2) © be a fnction sch tht (3) My for ery sin Xa np oan sty $a < The 4 uniformly convergent. “ Pr af) = (emf Th fon» (0-H = beste tnt 2, $, an torah Se converges, {fa} a Cauehy sequence iC. This heres a number fe wth = hf). Define fla) = fs this gives a incon fe Xn. Now Morro) =| wonl s S bals 3 Mi since ais comerset ony» Othersan ine sue tha ee My <'c whenever 1 2 N. This pve (0) fa} <« for all x in X whe Ne ersse 1 Let {fi + sequence of uniformly gontinuoas fuetons rom (Xd) inuo (ap) ad suppose that f= wim f exis. Prove that fs waiformly oainwaus Teach fs LipchieTuncion wih constant M, and sup ‘My < 2 show tha fsa Lehi Flin I sup Mf, — 2 show that sy flo Be Lipa.Chapter It Hlementary Properties and Examples of ‘Analytic: Funetions| 1 Power erie, Te thin scion the definition and basic properties of « power sce will be given. The powcr sein wil hen be sed to pve examples of anslie Functions. Before doing tists neces to giv seme elementary fats on infinite series in © whove statements for infite srs in sould Be well now 4 the reader. 1. n © for evnyw 20 then the srs § ‘conergeo if for every > Othaeis a intgerWsach hat | $a.—2&« whenever m 2 Whe sres So, comerzes osobety if S| conveaes. 41 Propsin. 1/ Sa, eomterges abolely shen Sy eancerge. Proof. et «> 0 and pit f= eter. ote Sine F fal comers thee a ine W sch that Sad < «Tha ifm > k= Me lara I$ als £ tad s “That is 2 Couey sguonce and 0 heres in © with > = im Hence See “Also real the defiitons of aut inferior and superior ofa sequen in BL a) a sequence in then deine limint a = iw im Lio dss 1m supa, = am uP fem se ‘An alurnate station foe mi and fn sup i ti yan Ta 1 1h, =I Gutsy) then () iva ceasing Suence Of real numbers, ot (~12}- ence tm inf anys exists atbough k may be 2. Sly lim sup a always exists although may be t=, A nurber of paper of inn and im supe ince in the esis othe secon, ‘power sre aboot eis an infinite eis ofthe form Fa One oF the east examples ofa power srs (and one ofthe mon xf is the eames 3 2% Vor which vals of = does this erie converge ad when does i diverge? It iseasy tose that I=z"** = (l=ay(Ltz.. 42) ota a2 1 | > 1 then ti [= co and the serie dverss. Not ony hi ret tn archegpe for wat happers tow geeral power sere, bt it an be wed 43 Theorem. For given pover series $a define the munler , Os Rewby 1 faim up, |< R, the serie comerges boty () [sma > Rte tome ofthe serer Become wnounded an 2 the ves doerges; (9 F0< rR thn the series conenges uniformly on {3 |e = Morcoer, te mamber Ris the oly number having properties (2) and) Proof: We may suppose that ate < Riewian wih per Thani Hc ae Rand he rit ine ene Le From the Btn of lim sup. tis gives iniely many integers» with y c 4 jag tttows hat az > ("Yama sie (") 1 hese terms come unbound The aumter A elle the ran of cuncergeme of the omer seri2 Exot Propet so ant of Arai Fass 14 Proposition. 1° (ea) 1 peon power erie with ads of com ergence Ry thes Re lim ladeesl hi int exe. Pro Ain asume th = Onde» ~ ine wih we oo ‘oe Senne that rand find an incr such tat < | for all n> N. Let B I?" then JayeslP*** = lage tert < sd Bena fsbo age P By coingwee ig" $ Bforalln = W. Batten Jat = lay? EL BEL forall = W. Sin r > «, then |a,! < rlaq, | For all m larger than sone imager HAs afore we bi lag”'S Bo Teg fr na 8 Tle hich approaches 20 as n does. Hence, J 2" diverges Consider the series $s by Proposition 1A we have that thi sx has rv of convergense o, Hence it converse at every complex number sid the conergecs i niflerm on each compact set of C. Maintaining 8 Parl wih calculus, we designate ths Se by (he exponential sere oft, Recall the flowing proposition From the they of infite ses (he roo wll ot be ier. 1.5 Proposition. Let Se, amd, be two abvltly comtrgen series nd put en Se tal coment th um aC). La Ronn to fea de e b oe e th ra thw pone sre lB eo ado ergenre 27, and Dissidia a hare reins of coe sb ects 3 Eleetdy enor = Lessa Zide-ar] Ledenel = [Zale-ar] [Phe a"] Sorted 0. “rhe od (0) For cach 1 the srk a Snr. cooks ade-or* as radia of convergence (©) Tne function ft ttl diferente om B(x R) ond frthemere, (2) peony the series 2.9) for all> Vand 2a & ‘, © form a7 Proof Resin seme that = 0 (G) Wefint rom thatif(anprove fork = then the eases = 2, sw otf at the sek canbe obtsined y apesing pat) Ft De Phthe eres ade at | We have that Re horn weveri 3 ican be shown that lim sup a! = R= Let)! stim nop fg": chen Rs the radius of convergence of Bara Faust Notts Patten Bahri & Reed tae ete = RA «Aa Poth E et Hand gh he rt of Co For Rpmst= Saco) Sa ann) =| 2. Fix polt w in 0 and wi © < we ws 0 thar eet and egal tt. To do this 8 > 0 be rb xp foe thn matton that Bow; 2) = (; (We wil terres 8 erin {he pot) La Fe Me; By then 0,0 tha in AHP 1, The rst wll follow rm rg LO _ 0 — gy] + 1409-0 Hats, PoOeBlO «$a ‘Since r < R,¥. layike*™ converges and so for any « > 0 there isan integer 1N, sich that for = M, paces} (emo), ‘As. fim iw) ~ gn 0 hee a ings Ne sc ba od < § lahooever + Ny Let nthe mate wf the two integers and Ny Then we can choose 8 > Ouch tat whenever 0 < |r < & Pung these inequalies togsher with equation (28) we have that for 0 < ew) < 8 That i) (© By a sraghorward evaluation we get f0) = 0) = og. Using 2.) (ora = 0) we get fO4O) = kl dts gos fools (7) 29 con te sere § 0h rai of comerece Ren oke-0" i omit ma 2 epsm Bo /o amt ia € Rl tare eaiig ‘exponential function and defining cos: and sinz, the folowing result must be proves, 2.10 Propston 1 G i ope ond connected and 1G» © te diferente ih ['G) = O for al =n then constant Proof tim Gand lt wy = fp) Put A ~ [€=G: fe) ~ we); we will Show that 4"= 6 by showing that ie both open and closed in @. Lat = G fad et (3) © 4 be such that =~ lim my Since /e) = og foreach n > 1 {and fis coninaogs we ge JG) = wr FF 4. Ths, Als closed ih Nowe ‘ain A, and te > O be such thi Blas) © Gree Bla; 9 st ge) fees (be, 0-2 1 1, Then aa =H _e~20)_ (inde ¥—ne ae +(6~ia Ths if meet os we pt (AAD, Appendix A) vn OH poe 4-H) That ig 16) = 0 for 0 5 <1, implying that is a constant. Heme, Fe) = s(0)~0) = fle) = vy. That i, Beas «) = A aed A is als ope INoW dileeaité/l2) =e we do tis by Proposition 25. This gv sat =o, ro- Se ibe Thus the complex exponen! Weton ft the ete propery its rea countertart.That an ee» Benny Proper a xan of Ara Fanon Put ge) = 2" for come fied ain ; then 1) = Ce“ 4-9 Hence @) =o for alls in © and some constat o. In particular, wing ni we gel e= g@) =e Then Cet met for all. Thus oP ce for alla and bin €. This also gives 1 @e-* which implies that #0 for any sand e-* = Le. Reming to the power series expansion of, ‘nce al the coficons of ths sees are Tel me hi pz In parlor, for 8 a cel number we pet jet? = ete = oP = L More erally = eet = OFF = exp 2 Re 2). Ty sp] ~ exp Re) We ses therefor, tht fs te sme properis thatthe real fection & has Apain by analogy withthe real power sees we define the functions ou andi by the power series esret- 5 wee Poe ae sore eT 4 Gt Hier te Each of the series ha inf rads of convergence and So cos Zand sin = se analytic in By ising Proposition 2.9 we fal that (Cos 2 = ~sin = fd (en 3) cos 2 By manipulating power sein (which Is jusiod ice these ses Converge absolute) ae cae terne saber 2s 08 1 parol if wo let = = real number 0 in G15) we get Hence, for Fin © cit. 216 Fe ile onhere Peres. Since e**=ete we have [e!|mexp(Re2) and arge"= Ime ‘fucton fi pei wit prod e i f(2+0)=/(2) forall? in he ise ponod of "then e"=e"*"= re" imps tate" =I. Since, Exphe(o, Ree) =0. Thus =i for some 9 in R But 'me* econ + ‘Stud ves thatthe periods fe" are the mules of 2x. Ths. we Siva he plane into infinitely many horizontal sips by the ines Im ORI}, Kany inoger the exponential function Behaves the sme ip Teh of these svn The open of penocity oe Which not presen in ihe rel expomential funcion, Notice that hy examing comes fone tom we Rave demoted 9 tlaionehip (218) heeweer. the exponential oncom amd te gone futons wh nan ot expeted fom oUF Aas fncne » [Now let us define log +. We could adopt the sae prosedue a before and le og be the power series expansion ofthe rea lopartn aBou some point. But tis only gives log = jm some isk. The method of deaing the Togaritho asthe iaugral oft"! fom 1 to x, #> 0, sa pouty bat oes tobe vky ad wnsaidhng inthe complex case. Alby since € 6 pat {one-one mapas inte eal eas, og = cao be Sind ae the inverse of, Wie can, however. do someting smile ‘We want to dite log w ro that ie sacs w= e when = = lg m Now sinsee? # Oforany weeannot define log 0, Thrfors, spose = w and ws f= xi) then =e andy ~ ag tek, for some Hence aur (log +a 2k: any integer) isthe soliion set for & = w. (Note tat log es the usual real logarithm.) 2.18 Defion. I isam open connected set in Cad fi GC 8 com tinuous fupeton such that > = exp 2) forall in thn fa Branch oF the lagarit Notice tht 0¢ Suppor fs & given branch of the logatithm on the connected st G ‘nd spon & isan inept. Lt ge) = /(@)-+2eki. Then exp a() = exp 2) ‘'s,s0 Fs abo a brapeh of the logarts Contercly, ff and ae both branches of logs then foreach zn , fl) — 2) Ze for some integer k, where depends on Does the same work foreach 2 n,G? The ase i plate 116) = SU a te be cman on © nd KO 2, the Integers. Since @ is connected, MC) must also be connected (Theorem IL 33). Hence trea en Z with fle) 2ekt~ a) fo al = THis goes 2.19 Proposdon. 1G < C open and connected end ft «branch of og = ‘Ghent trl of bron of og re the function f(2) 42k, k= 2, ‘Now ictus maufscture at ast one branch of log 2 0n some open conmectd set Let Gn cnte2 20) ‘that i “Sit” the plane along the negative ral acs, Clary Gis connected sand ech zn Gcan be uniquely epesnted by = = le" where =r < # < m For #in ths range, dete fre) = log r+, We leave the proot of on tint tothe render (Eerie 9) I follows that fia branch ofthe logan one. 1s fanatic? To answer this we int prove a poreral fk 2.20 Proposon. Let G and be open subsets of ©. Suppose that fs G-> © fond ¢: => C are commana anton such thet f(@) = 0 and tte) = = for alt sw G. gi ieee and ge) 0,J te diferente ed ao ruco ‘Bence Propet ené Bano of Asie atone Ug ic anaye, fis ana. Proof Fs ain G and lot h=C such that h # O and athe G. Hence @ = (fe) a 2 = a( so) mis Jl) fla A), Also 1 = Alle hnelfo) a _Wiety-eo) fase) feii=fa) [Now the init ofthe It hand side as k-> 0 ofcourse, 15 40 shen ofthe gh band side exits Sine fin le +)-/CO] = 8, sim tle) 20) Be pesn-1 ~ #0 Hence we get that fla+h)=f) sR exis sie la) #0, and = OIF "Phun /e) = Le te gi analytic thn i continuous ae eis vos ha 6 analy. ‘Wo designate the patil branch of the logarithm defined above fon C={2: 2.0) to be the pritepl ranch of she fogoitom. 1 ve wee fog £ a a funtion we wil vay take fo be she principal branch of the Togarton une otherwise Sate. Tifsa branch ofthe logan on an open corrected set Gand iin © is fia then deine g: G—- by (2) = exp). 1 san eae then I2) 22 In this manpcr we tne a branch of 2,6, Toran open cone fected set om which thee isa branch af fg 2 If we wole (2) = 2 5 furton we wil always undewsand that == exp (6 fog 2) where log = i the pripal banch ofthe loartns 28 aly ses fog = ‘Asis evident fom the eoniderations just contaded, comnssednes plays a nortan roe any fneton tory. Fo example, Proposition Bibi fae unless is eonteted, Tae nalogus to the role played by Fnterals clel, Beenie ofthis te convenient to nodes the tern “Teion” A repo isan open connected subset of the oan ‘Tis sion conclaes wits» dicusson ofthe Caueh)-Rismann equa- tion Let > © be arate and It.) = RefUC+0). (5 9) = 1 Sort for 43pm G. Let os evaluate the limit fee FC) Sin in two dierent ways, Pint ft Ao tough real values of A Far 7 0 afl). flesh+y)—flct 9) * # a HEH DMD) eb pats 9) + # Leting A 0 gives an Fon riZon [Now tet h0 trough purty imaginary values; that, for #0 and nea Hea) _jurayt Dubs. r) obey AW ebe.d ie + + “ Mena aos P= 12) + Fo gusting the real and imagioay pars of (222) and (223) we get the Cauchy Roman uation aa eS ant a Suppose tht w and o have continuous second partial derivatives (we wil yeataly Show that they ae ininely diterenieble), Dierentatog the (Cauchy equations agua we get Pu _ Fe yg MH Be wog OE a” ~ ae Hones, 228 ‘Any funtion wits continuous second derivates satisfying (2.25) si 19 bbe herman. Ina sila fasion,» is also harmonic. We will study ‘harmon functions in Chapter X. Tet be. repion in the plane and let w and be functions defined on wih comin paral denvatves, Furthermore, suppose that wand satiny the Cauchy Riemann equations, IP f(z)=(2) +02) thea fean be Shown to be analyie in To sce thi, Ie Gitar tate Bs) then Mets yO 9) = Mir 2 Hm POL ae 4H I Applying the mean vale thera forthe dsivatine of «function of ane ‘arible to each of these Waceted expressions elds Tae each +i in MO: 7) numbers sand, aie hat y= ad yl < and Jor terenMc yb aby eens 2m Tsar tieaion wtia bear2 ectry Proper dE of Ana Fusions Lewes Hoth sb rte Mle ea MT (2.26 phos ha 5s | sti "Hh ag(esyytt)—tso)]+ hy (tea tH) 99] Bat fy < et Ms Beth < tre ominous gives that fu) < Wa he Fact that way an tim © Woche 7s 9) = mle Hf IED tore sass (227. Siialy Hoes, 7+) = NEEL IHD whore isos 228 ‘Ung the et hat wae sat the Caney Ramana uations tise to sonst os teneeen te eof 220 and (228, fi diecniale ad fe) ~ vf) Shot u aio, te eomingan fs cominuous and 8 aac: Thee fol Se sumneried flows 1229, Therm, Let u and» be real-valued fncons died ona region bal mgr hat and hte contiuoun partial derbies. Then fG-» © Ta ipf) = da) +h anal If wand aay the Cauchy Remon tis. Hxample,[ 5 7) = log 0249" harmonic on G = C— (0)? The arse Frye Tis could be shown by diferntating 1 tose that I sates 225. However, itean als be son by observing tat ina eighborood ofeach Dim of Gis he rea pr an analytic fuion define in that ihr ood. (Which function? “Ane problem conceing barmoniefentons which wil be taken ‘pin moee dea in Sostion VI 3, the fling, Suppose G i region ithe plane and G+ in armani, Does hee ext a armani anton PG Roach than — nt rdeunalyie in? Maca fonction vex is Called farmonieraigte of If rand rate to amonie ene ftietben My) Get ir) G44) Beara on and ony takes on purely imaginary valves, It ftloms that two harmonic conjugates of & Farmoni fansiondiferby a consane (se Excrse 19 Reraing tothe questo ofthe existence oft haemo conupate, the above cumple 3) log [of barnoneFueton onthe region G = C— {0) bso armoni conjopte.ldood, td then would be possible ro dsfine an aalvte ranch of the logarithm on G and zis eannot be done (Exeroue 21) However, thee are some regions for which every harmonic Funtion bas «conjugate I price, wil now be shown that BS the ao when @ ay disk othe whole plane 2.0 Theren, Let G be cithr the whole plane © o7 some open dik. If toG-r ina harmonic fncin thor u haw harmenteconigate Proof Tocarry owt the proof ofthis theorem, Leb’ ruler dilerentiog Under the nor! sgnteeded (his stated and proved in Proposition IV. BILAG™ BO; R) 0 < R= %,anlstw G > Rbea harmonic funtion, “Tue proof wil be accomplished by finding «harmon anton te hat ‘rand ost the Caey-Remann equations. So define fe Dat ob) Diferenitng both side ofthis equation 3) = nd determine 50 that, = vith resect 10 ges slay = [nas are font aend ~ueag)-+ as 040) So it mus be that g(a) =~, 0) Ks aly checked that wand 2G) { pos do satiy the Caushy-Riemana equations. ‘Where was the fac that i sk oe © sed? Why can his metho of| proof be doctored sufiintly tht it Bol for general regions G7 Where {isthe prof break down when G = C~{0) and w(2)= lg [? exerts 1, Show tat fe) ~ |? = 2+? has a derivative only a che origin 2 Prove tht i by og are ral and pose and © 8 = ity. a = lin fp ay thon ab = him sup (a). Doc ths femal tue ithe eaurement of pouty dropped? SPShow dat im = 1“ erty Propet a xe of Ani Pantin: 4. Show that (cos 2° = —sin #28 (i ‘5 Dawe formulas (18. & Dasrbe the following se: Geo 2 =O), (ein z= Ob 1 Prone fetta for cox (4) and in (24 een een wes 8, Deine tans = 2 where this fuetion defied and analyte? 9, Suppo that cater 2 0) and =e 2 niet 2m Brove thai, 2 then By > and n> 10. Proe te following generalization of Poposiion 220. Let @ and 9 be ‘pan in € and suppose f and haze functions defined on G,g:S-r€ and Stppowe tnt /(G)e@ Suppose that g and hare analyte, ¢() 0 for any teat fir eomtinvoas, hinoneone, and tha they satisfy h(2)= Cf (2) for Pi @ Show that fe soalyic Give a formule for) it sippose that f Gore isa branch of the lar and that mi an integer Prove tht =~ exp (3) for all in. 12 Show that the esl grt of te function 2 5 always poste. 13 LAG = 6 (er 20) and len bea pose incege, Find al analytic functions f2 G» © suc that = = (fF forall 2G. 1M. Suppo f2 G+ is static and that is connected, Show tha if (fla) al forall in G then f costa. {snr wee fore ap(!)otne <<} sate wt 16. Find an open connetad ut G © € and wo coninvous fuetions fan dent on G sch that f@)? ~ g)* = 12 oral in G. Can you make maximal? Aref and g analyte? 1n. Ge the pop branch of JT=2. 18 Lets GC and gG > C by branches of and respectively. Show that feo branch of "and fig ta branch of 2» Suppose that (6) = G tnd) = @ and prove tha both eg and gf are branches of 2, 19, Let G bea region and deine O* = (2 FeG}-Iff: G->€ is anaiyte prove that 4: O* > C, dined by (2) = 7, also analyte Bp Letsy casos oy Ze becompen numbers such that Rez, > Gand REC, 2) > 0 for 12 Rm Show that log (%---2) = log 2+ =. + 1 3g ‘hse logis te principal branch of he logarm Ith restrictions onthe rate removed, doer tbe formula remain valid? Bi trove tha there no rane ofthe logarithm dined on G = C(O}. (Hint Suppose sock & Branch este and compare this withthe princi branch) 8 Arlt fnetion as mappings. Mobis transformations Consider th futon ined by fe) 22 AC2 wip and es of) then pentyl Bye Mee, the Bypbolas xt ye and 20y = ave mapped by fino testa ines es» One teresting fat is that for cand d ot zor, these hyperolasintrseetateight anges, jus as ‘hele imag d, This not an nated phenomenon and this property Wl, te explored in general ter in this section, ‘Now curiae what happen othe ines *~ cand y =o Fits consider x= e(yarbieay)f ape tiie into = ey" and = 2ey. Eliminating [Pweg thats cls apped ont the parabolas? == ac%Ga~e). Sila, Ytake the line yd onto the pratols»* = Ad"4d). These parbolas Inlet at (2, 42. It revantt pont out that es €=>O the Darsboln = —deG-c!) gts loser and cose othe negative real ani TFs conesponds othe fat thatthe function =¥ nape G = C— (ez =O) nin =" Re? > 0}, Nolin ahothat + = cand s = ~c(andy = dhy=—d) Ste mapped onto the same pataols Wat happens toa ele centred at he origin? I's = re then fle) = ‘Pelt thane ile of radia aboot the oni sapped oto the cle of adver in a toto one fashion Filly, whet happens tothe rector S(s 6) = (e: # < arg < 8 for 42-< PI is enlly son tha he age of Sta) he Seto Se, 28). The Tati off Ste) wl be one-one exactly when Be < = The above dscsson sheds some light on the nature off) = 2* and, Iikewne i sf to sudy the mapping properties other analy ancions Tn the theory of analyte futons he flowing problem holds «paramount position: gin wo open conneta sea G ane thre an analsti fonetion F defined on G wach that f0G) = £27 sides big iwinsclly intresting, {the sootion (or rater, the information about the exeace of 2 soluion) ‘ofthis prbiem i very wef fess tad Cc Ni i eee wt ay exists for << and thatthe sight and left side its exist for = 0 and (=b, reapectnely. Tai , of course, equivalent to saying that Rey and Imy have derivative (soo Appendix A). ‘Seppo y[a.b| -G s «smooth path and that for some ty in (2.0, s/(ghnd Then y bass tangeat heat tho point Ze=-() TA ine goes hugh ie pot Zin te rection f (the vector) 7) the lope of the ine is tacargy()-E abd yy ate two swath paths with slid zeand 71090, 42970 the define the ange enween the pths seated aanyite“ Broa oper a ap of Anne Pc Suppose isa smooth path in G and fC is analytic, Then 0=/+y isso a smooth path and 9()=J'y)yO, Let y= G0. an8 suppose that /G)#0 and fCEQ#0: then e%)#0 and argo )=ereh argv. Tati, aa argo) arey tara cod Now let», amd y; be smooth pats with (1) = yX09)=*o 8 le) Oe yf); let =, ard ayy. Also, suppose thatthe ps7, ad sf oot tngent fo each other at: that suppose Ye rile. Egan tion 82) ies a3 see 7) are.) = ago) ~2re et. “They that given any two phe throvgh Zp. f maps these ats onto so puthsthrough og ~ /zsand when / Ga) #0, the angles between te curves {preserve bh in maptade and reco. The summarizes allow 34 Thearem. If: GC it nape then f presser ngle 2 cack point raf G mre (2) #0. ‘Afenation :G» C which has the ale reserving property sd also hae ne =fta iting td contra may aa ad 0) # foray Ef) = than fs confor thoughout C; et ws ook at He por ental faaion more cy. It = ey wher Bue thon 2) = for r= € That if epe the line x — onto the cle wil comer at the ‘rign and of raion e= Als, f maps the line y = d ont the infie ay tender oh We have lea seen that sone any viol tip with tela fe owe dimes ah Then fG) ee Dysahe {inaps theyetcal wepnens [2 64), —w <) < #) ono the part ofthe Grek (ee: ww <0 7 is aso. Hence, the set of Melis mape forme 1 group wend composition. Unies oterite sated, the onl ear factional transformations we will consider are MBbius tansoemations. te 5) = 5 aay ms ee en (= ODO (or +00) “That i the coeicents,b 6 dare not unigue (ue Exercise 20 "We may ano consider Sar defined 08 C, wth S(=) = afeand S(de) = ©, (Novice that we cannot ave a= O™= € oF ‘ince eter Staton would contrat ad™Be #0) Siac S bas an averse it mps C., ‘onto Ca TSU) = ze then Sis cllod transla; if S(2) a2 with «4 0 then Sis a leon f S(2) = ef then It rotations aly if S() isthe krsion [36 Propsion. IS 0 Mus ransformation then Sls the compaston of inet dations, andthe Inersion. (OF cone, some of these ay be mssng) Proof Fs suppose ¢~ 0, Hee $2) 50 Now lt ¢ 4 O and pot $2) = = le, $0) ~ MSS S4e) = tale, Toes $= S.0 S40 Sy 5, Ml ‘What ae the fac pons of $9 That, what ae the poins sting ‘(ay = =F io his conton then deb sus (de +40) 0 i Si) = aid, aed then Spe 5, = 5 and we ce dove emai) =,* een Propet a ape of Ashe Factions ‘Hence, 9 Mébius transformation can have at most to fixed points une SG) = 3 for az "Now lt S bea Mibics transformation and et 8, ¢ be sin poms in C, with « ~ S(a), B= Si) y = S(0)- Suppose that T's another map iw is property. Phen T+ Shas o, abd as Sie points end, tere fore, T""= $= ~ the Sent. Tha ST. Hence, a MODIOS ma i tigelydiermined by Ae ation an any thre give pints in Ca Tat Za. 21 be points in C, Deine S20. ->Cy BY vo-(Ee Tnany ase St) = Le ‘ion having ths prope. ‘87 Defnon 2, © Cx the Ey 225 £4): (Te ros rai of 2323 and 2) the image ofr, ander the unigue MBbivs transformation which fakes #101, 5 (00, and z, 10 <2. For example: (3.5.23. ‘Mabius map and ws are the ini ich chat Mr = ing = 00 ME = Gy Hy ‘38 Propostion 2 23,24 oe dint points and i any Mobis tran Famation ten 2 Alo, fA sary i Mes 8, Gey 35.20.20 = FR Ts Tey Te) {or any point Proof Let $2 ~ (3,20 25 20 then M(Ts,) 1, MCPs} 0, ACTE4) Toy, Ta) forallz nC. paula, 9 Proposition. If: 2524 re dint pots In Ca and ww, 04 a ao “inict poini of Cus thea there i ne and only ove MBL teansormation ‘ich thor Ses = wy S2y = oy Proof Let Te = (2525.24) ME m (2, en. au) and put $= M>*T. Chery Shas the dese pops. IF Rie another MBbias ap wih Ae, = seyfor/ = 2.4 then Re" Sha te ned pits (2,2. 2). eter RUS o hor S= Rm Wis wl known fom ig cl poet a tec psi in the pave skecrine cle, (Recall ha cine me, ping tr» corpo Covet fine i €- The hee sc He preva ten S ies Mobius map, IF M = ST~! ni hence, ST'2 = (Tos, he desires lows ‘eat the word “son-oliear) A sraight line in che plane willbe elle a Circle) The next fsul expats when four pois io a ele 3440 Propotlan, Let 2 3, 23.24 be four distinct ptt in Ce. Then ) fra ral mabe ial ftps He ona cree. Proof Let S:C, > Ca be defined by Se = (20.2424): then $18) ~ the fet oz suc that (2 fy 20 al Meno we wl bo Haske if we ean Show tha he igs of under a Mis transformation is ace Les: 57%) hen = So imps that rose mlipying ti gives BAL (28d)? ad Bers (88d bd) = 0. 1 af is el then ade » 0; patting « = 2adBe), = bd Be) and snuliping C10) by fives ai Om Im (aey-8 im (ew A since sel, That, ison the ne determined by (12) for ted wand LHF a pt veal the (3.11) becomes IP +f0470-8 = 0 for some constants y in C, 3 B. ene, aus bin- where sear Since yang are independent of cand since (2.1) the equation of irl, the poo is bed. A S14 Theorem. A Mabie tranormation takes cles ono leks. >o. Proof Lat be any ctl iC. and et be any MBbivs transformation, Leta sp 2a be thse distin pots on Pan pt; = Se orf = 23,4 ‘Then oy, oder acl 1". We claim that StL) = 1 In fc, forany tin. aus Gory 20 © (Shan eed) by Proposition 38, By the pricing proposition, i = on T them Bote dee of (15) ae rea But dis say That Se evo in and tery. cys Reagan SU Seo (rege anye oh Then Ps SR maps* epenay Pope a ample of Ari ncn P oto 1 I acy Tey ~ wy for J = 2, 3,4 and, a8 inthe above pro, it fotos that 30) = ‘346 Proposition, Far any given ctl P and 1 tr Cu share Uso Mabius ‘eaifrmation T such ht TU) ~ 1", Furthermore we can spec that T ‘ae any thre pis on onto any trae pos af If we do spy Ts, for}, 3,4 dine! 2, nT) thn Tis nine, ‘Proof. The proof, excep forthe wiguenes statement, ete in the previous paragraph. The vaiguoess part iss tril exerci forthe reader ‘Now that we Leow that 4 Mabius map tes eles to eels, the next gossion is: What happens tothe inside apd the outride of thee icles? ‘To anewe this we itedace some now comets SLIT Debition. Let bem ciclethroueh points 23. £5 x Te pots 2, Fin Care sid tobe syne with espe to if a8 (sntntd~ Gini [Ast sand, this deiation not nly depends on the cre bu ao on the eins 2524 tis ef asan exer for he read to show tat mney |S indpeodent ‘of the pois chosen (Exarcse i). Iso, by Propsiion 3.10 is symmeee to fuel wih respect to F if aud oaly iz eT- et ue invenigate wha i means for 2 and 2* to be symmeti. IE sa stright Tine then our ngs prejudices lead ux to elev that >and 2 fre synmetrc with eset to Pi he ine ough 2 and" perpen af the sme distance from but on oppaste eso “Tis is indeed the case Asai anos maps Mis nsforatons s fd 2 are oqidizant from each point on FA tained by TH now folows that, *] perpendicular to T- (Now suppose that T~ (2 |rme) = A} (Oe Re 2) Le zy 25,24 be points inl wing (18) and Propostion 38 for» number of MGbiss aas- Formation gives e. = Fanman end -( ome 0 that 2 ls onthe say fasta): 0 < 1 < a} rom a through =. Using the fc ha a [el = B we can obtain 2” om 2G is side T) avin he gue below. That ie: Lat Le the ray fom a through 2. Construct ‘tne P perpendicular to La an atthe poet where #inesets con- ‘heicthe tangent fo The pois of attsecion ofthis tangent with the pitt Thos, the points 2nd 2 ae jmmarc wih respect 1: ‘319 Symmetry Principle. If « Mabias ionsformalon T taker @ cee Py, fon these then amy ps of points symmeri with reper 2 ‘marpo by Tent «pai of pons symmetric with reget tyProof. Us 2 it follows that i= aod 2” ae symmetric with respect to then (DE Toy Tey Tea) = (2020020) by Propsion 28, Hence Tot and 7s are symutle with espe 0 Now we wil dose oventation for eirles fC, this will enables to ising botwees the "laude" and “outs” ofa ite ia C. Notice that on €» (ihe spher) the no obvious choice forthe sie ad ouside ‘3.20 Defsiion, IT saci then a8 orienta for Tis an onder gle ‘toi ey fy £3) sch Eat each 2 ein Tntuiely, these thee points give + diction to T. That is we " fiom, 19,1025 If ony two pont were ven, ths woul, of cous, Be ambigioes, ate eed Sine 7{Rq) = Ri follows that 8 ean be chosen tobe real mums (Gee Bxeebe 8), Hence, Lat = Rand ety 20.25 0 or (adhe) <0. (Noe tat abe the "éeterminant” of 7) Now lt Te airy and suppose that =, 2125 a on Ts for any Malis tuaformation he have (by Props 38) stm, 34.23,29)>0) = Sa.5: In prolif $b hose 90 tht Sama # onto Ren {2 I Zsa) Of equal io 8! of other he upper wer al pe le sz) cotton them we tne the Pgh i of Aoith pope topes Sinialy, we deine the left ie of T to be 1m (2924523) <9) The proof of he fllowing thor ie eh a6 an exes ‘321 Orientation Prag, Lar, and Pe eo cles Cu and let T be 1 Mobius ravformation sch that T(D,) ~ Py Let (ry 39129) be a ke tion for Ey. Thon T takes the igh ie ad the lf side of ont te ght ‘ide and ih side of with egret the ortotton (Te, Tes. T=). ‘Consider the orientation (iO, c) of By the defini of the tose ati, 1.0, 2) = 2 Hence, te ight side of with respect 10 (0,22) Js the uppe Bal plane. This its oa intton that height side lies on our Fight as we alk along from 190 ©. ‘Asan example conser the fallowing problem: Fisd an analyte function £2G-~Cwber @ = fz: Rez > 0), such that (G)~ D> (er) <1). We Solve ths probe by fndiig a Mobius wansformation which takes te lnsaginay ais otto the unt ece and, by the Onenation Pisip, takes G onto D (ats, we mast choos this map caefly Order that i dows no send G onto (2: > 1D, me give the iaginay axis the oventaton ( ison the nght ofthis axis Int, 10.) than (2: Re => 0} oo-2 ) Hence, (: tm ( “4 0, i) > 0) = (e: Im (2) > 0) = (2: Re 2 > 0) Giving Pte oretation (=f, I, we have tat be onthe right of F, ‘No, so, ot w-( ‘hen 7 = R-'S maps G oma D (andthe imaginary axis onto 1 By sletrae ‘manipulations we have Combining this with previous ruts we have hata) maps the tne strip 5 hr 2] < 23a te open i dk D.C woth et wing that) tanh'2194 ‘Bemeny Prop ae of Aric Faso {Let Gy, @ be open connate set! to ty to find an analy funtion f such hat (G2) ~ Gwe ty wo map both G and G oto the open unit isk Iihis ew be done, /can be obtained by taking the composition of one faction with dhe inverse of the oer. Asan example tbe the ope imide wo crs Pander sesngat pint cand (228) Let L be thee posing hough an sad give L the orientation (ce, a, 6). Then 12 = (2 <0, a 6) ( 4) map 1 onto the ea axis (700 = 1, Ta = 0, 76 ~ <2). Since T must ap ‘Graton cites, Tmape and Momo ces trough O ead Thats Ser) and TU) ate steht lines. By the woe of orientation we hae that TG) = toe 2 ath w «al for some « > 0, ofthe complement of sme eh dod sci. By the use of an appropiate powcr of = and posi @ fetaion we can map this wedge onto the rigt half lane, Now, composing Winthe map 4)" gens mapofG one D =e: 1< Us xercies 1. Find the image of {e: Re £.<0, fm =| <#} under the exponent faction. po eteren forthe at: [lm 2 < = 2), 3 Duss the mapping properties of cov and in 44 Discs the mapping poprtin of "and 2" form = 2. (Hints se poe ‘coordinate Find the fied pot of dation, ansation and the intersion on C.. & vale the Following cos ratios (a) +1, 0,09) (0), Fh LL ) heh, 1110. 1T = E14 tnd 2 za sin ern oF ea Suc tat == Aste oss mngngs Mobis vassomatios ss Te SE show that 7, 81672 = SEE show tat 72.) teal unten 9.1rts= 25, nd necesary and suficien comitons that 7() =P wee ite nt cl: EL = 1. Inter Dw Gre <1) a ll MOMan wnsormatins Teh at To). Ti Stow tat te dean of symtey G47 das aot denen ob te hae opty 2p Ih obw hati. wy oy asta a Fhe union (21 de oy wy, ) = Goer) Un Breese) i ve Toe 34 1h Gea dacton of the mapping) ~ X41. U4. Sapo tat one cle comtaed ne noe ad ha hy ae ‘Magen te pom La 6 be he repon between he oo ean ‘ap cofoaly onto te open ut dk (Hine Ta ty (29) ") 1San you map open unt conformal om (<4 1h Mop t~ Geet ea on thon ti 9} tame Tipton fC be one? TH Let ten elo ad gps hat fC» Ci anaes hat isa ci Sow tat oa We Ue me crc b< edi r= Ee he i y= tm =, fy= (eIm 29 a Ly Ro 20) Dare ‘iain € bt aie upc Monte tegom Un). Woe Zin Pe, Foe Fear 19, Let and Mf be asin Exrche 18 an et og be the piacipa beasch of he logarithm,(9 Sow that oe) nd as ez =f 56 Band {Fe} ~ In og Ms] then 0-< M2) (@) Show that log He) ind for Re => O and any real number: also prove that lm fog (2—2)] < Jif Rez > 0. (© Let be as in (a) and prove that M2) = tm flog (—He)—o (2~i (@) Show thet og ei) 10g 2-0) (i: Uae eal Te of a Cees ater scan (2) anon (23) n= [arene nov laeae (0 eget prt (©) pometiealy and show that for Re = > 0) he Sale pd inthe Bete there is anon eo comple number A sach that «= Re, B= A, y =e, 8 = Ad 21 Lat T bea Mobs iransormation wit Gud pois = and =p Sis ‘Moin tasformatcn sw tht 8 T7Sthas ed pts 8 ya". 22a) Show that n Mon (apsformation has and as ss fined fine AT ciation Asi con at aping: Min formation s () Sow that» MObivetransormation is = as ie only xed point it itica tanto, 23, Show tat a MObiustramformtion T satisfies 70) ~ co and Tle) = 0 if Te = a2" for some aia. 24, LecT be a MObius tatsformation, 7" the identity. Show that & ‘Mabias tassformatin $ comes with Tf Sand Thave the same fixed pola. (Hit: Use Fsercss 21 and 22) 35. Find ll he abelian subgroup of the group of Mobius transformations 36 () Let Gla{6)~ all tverible 2x matrices wih ents In © and let be the group of MObiue transformations. Deine g: GL(©) =u by 2B Show that pita group homomorphiem of GL(C) ota A. (oy Lt SL) bbe sabon of GL) consi ofall mais of SClrmia haw ta the nape of 31560) ir all of What fash hero yin SEO FL oaoopaninasshpoupthen isda be womal dep of af $"rse where Te and 5c9° 8 a see np te Qnty nora! iroup of 9 ar] Um the ety of 9) and Het rove th the pou of dh tanormatons simple Bou. Be Daca ha mapping property 58. Forcompio mute on wt [#18 ani : 0) EB andi Uo [ngs HAF=t saat SB (sacle 2F=1) (2) Show tat Ui a group under composition () 1 SU, ithe set ofa unitary entices with determinant 1, show that ‘SU; ba group under matrix mulipicaion and that for each 4's SU; fete are unique complex mombers a and f wih loPr|Ai=1 and 53 (@ Stow a ( 2 Bates is an iomorphiom of the group SU: Stor ( Osh tat for any partion P= a= "5 C be of bounded eration, Then (WP ond Q ore parton of (eB) and P= then ys P) Oi given we an os > Osc ht r&b plan tay) -y | A Sey chobe 6,» O uaa Pata toc hienceety = 6h and WPI = max (t= tay) 1S Sm} < 4; then : jrna- Eveaarnifee ‘whore samy point in Pay fh Hence Joowees Evrae Preod wor 5 f were 4 +§ fre 1 NP < 8 anin(d. 8) then Wea) YO} Osh that when P= Uo fy 3, > By >. sch that if ft] < Be In off, 2 with IPN < 83 99 > P,> - Fialy define Fy v0 be the ‘one ofthe st oh 1 Lets show that ths will Compl the proot If «> O'let m > (2) VG} then « > Qi) FO) = dam Fe Sir Pe Fas Eye BU, <), Ths, Hf 3 = 8, the theorem is proved ‘Naw to prove (16) The fac at > Fy > follows evil trom 2 the fc that 9, > Oy >... «To show that diam Fy < 2 V4) it sios to show thatthe diameter ofthe st in (1.5) 8 © 2 VG), Ths done in 0 stage, cach of which cay aough te fit teins wm throu pote mill deve by 8429) 38m foun Sttudytah where ts amy pm wa Fix mz 1 and let Pe @; the fs sep willbe to show that f 0 and choos: 8 >Osuch that if hind bas [PI <8 then 110 fy ~ & Redhead <4 os un [forma § soared ener) «te for any choise of ren faust HF me apply the Mean Value Thooren for sve eget hat tere i yi ge fa 7m) G44) ~ 3) Gentiny) te (Note thatthe fact dat is eal valued i oeeded 10 appt hs ‘Mean Vaive Theorem) Thus, E Aeatad-vs-a = Fs = t-d. Combining this with equates (1.10) ar (1.11) gives fe froin Sine « > 0 was arbiery, this completes the proot ofthe theorem. "We have aed dein «path as 2 continuous fonction y [2,8] ~C. y:[a, > Cia path thon toset fsa 1 b} cae te race oy is denotd i by [Nous tat the trace a a path always a compact fet y ba veiiable pathy ta fancion of bounded variation. Wis a Dorion of a6 then oy; ) exactly the su of lengths o ine segment onnosting points on the ase fy To ay thay setae it say tha {has finite length and ie lng is VC). In price fy 6 peevise Tino then rete adits eth is fd Wy: la = 6 i a restfable path with 1 © © C and fe Ee in continuous fonction then f= #8 continues function (a, A. With iin mind the following debston makes Sem ean et ° 1 bettie 8)-r€ i rete pth and Fi con Sane acoaaboste st fy sete i) eof ay froma “Tie ine tga is ls dete by f= ffl) ‘As an example let us take [0,26] °C to be x0) sod ete fe)=! or 20 Now 7 aoe, Thee 19 we he de Bey dw at ‘sine he te eft fy and sting me ay ner 0 gs [cee lame oo ent ane cm = stn tam0 Now it nb Cand put yo)—08 4 (1~e or <1. Then v1) a and ong the Famtunentl‘Theret of aku we tt for 20, fy 2 = (Oo) BUDE at = Le tet, “hee ar morc inthe exis, bi ww wl prove seri “ini” ret icy bs ing itl computation, oa the ‘foro dcinitn of ce Tey fsb € sta path and gel x xine sonrdareing fonction one as nal oe A fis = a ki) = Ht vosledl-»Ciraph nthe sme tae a. Move ‘etme tw he aeeay ecivene den 6m eS 5 einra pep = bina pation ofa He Barrie = 10) that Fyn) Ho) < 0.50 1J coma oo ) = Uys) tea Pera dn LL Pepto fbi rele pt nd fe ha i cota non tn ih) = a) © te tp ‘cn feta or poy Proof Let « > 0 and chow 8, > 0 sich tht for [op <4 Osh tha if fry <4) << 4) i 8 pariton of fos Dah yma) © Aya gg then1s [Fro weo-r0 < te But gis uniformly continuous on, hence theresa 8 > 0, which ean be hostn wh 32 By sus ht fo) fe) = By whenever jo—r 1 < 5 Sof fee oyecvee a) fea partion of [ed] wih Gynt) <8 = 5, and eh then fg sites fy) i 8 panon oft Bh with (a=) aaa, oy 2 4 and m= fo) then both (114) and (L19) fot Morcoveibe ight hand part of those two ilereness are equal! lows that IL Since «> Oma atirary, eq i proved A “vs ish defn an egal laon on the calection of rctiable puss tht cat ber of an ules cas hatte same tae and ‘that lnc tga funtion continous om th ache se or Sochaihin ie cunt woul ee hat we shld dee o and yt be SheMat itera y-op for sme fnetion pe above, However, thi 01 tegeleee aon! 1.46 Debnion, Leto: fd) € a0 [81> € be reside paths tie pane tno 1 yi thre anon [ee] (ews Conidmns,stetly ince, and vith gf) =n 2) = B; sch Cat ip We cll the uncon ya one of paren. “Yale han egies cla of pth YHe an of crv i the tse of anyon ofits iscontngoas on ttc fhe eure he Snap off verte care tent off ovr any eter ofthe eM "Rear smooth (pce sooth) an only some oe of fesentaine i moot ces 08 "=P Fentormrds mel oak he Gini between curve ads repcnatve. In face expres such a8 7 be the unit cc ‘hut ont in the coaterclskwie diction” willbe wed to indie “Soe thc vender aed fo rn tat aan fr cares Whi i {rut only about pats wi sot be sated Tet yl fh n€ be a stable path and for @ verte thas fe bit hh be vier= sa §, ent tte pin tf tery fl is incresing a 4 a, 8)» © of bounded vation. Fis eonauous on fy) daha Joes» Froumanin Wy eta corse hen de by phe sme dened by (>) Reman ca 6 1-1) for ~b <1 —a, Another notation for this is y~', Also if = Ix y-te droote the curve dein by (y-+e) () = +e. The following propostion gives many base properties OF the ine itera 1.17 Proposition Let y be «recifale curve end suppose the fa fancion continuous on) Phen @ bf = Sah ©) fis Sif el = vonseptipeos2© on (9 Hee€ then J, fae = Jef de “The proof is lef as an exer. “The next owl is the analogue ofthe Fundamental Theorem of Caeuss for line ima 118 Theocem, Let G be open in Cand let be restifiable pat bx with ‘tial and ond points « ad expects If G > € ka continuous ction ‘wth a primive F: >, then Jr=no-F0 (Recall ha Fis a prime off ten p ‘The following sel fact will be needed inthe proof ofthis theorem. 1.19 Lemma, 1 isan open st in C.y:l0,b)-~G i a ectiale por, ond $06 i coniuous then for every ©>0 there 83 pelgenal path 1G ch tha Ta) ye), F(O)= 10) on |, F~ fede Proof Cate 1. Sagpare G #8 on open disk. Since [y) it = compact set «dds (9), d6)> 0.1 follows that f G= Beir ten (4) = Bio) where pura sac the rason for posing fo ths aloe dik that fo union ‘continous in B(eip)=G. Hence vrthout los of peneraiy st can Be assumed that J i uoxforly continuous on G. Choose 8.0 such that Mle) feh ce whenever [rw b. It y-[a,6}o6 then ys amformly ‘continous o there Is parton fit, 14) of [8 such that Las heo-veniD suc that [7(3)~ (0. < when 1 < BU Pa (gene. ee) m8 parton of [a] with [P]-<8 then rata ae for srs 4 That lyf ]-26 dined by =U) thew (y] 2 BU yl, 0) for 1k S, By Case I thee is 3 polygonal path Ty (e,-ytb=BG ir sch that Fa =U Fytaymrda and yf fa e/m HPT 90 fh en Fas the reguted proper. Pro of Pheer 118, Cate 1. [ab}-+€ 5 poerise smooth. Then fof = owe = GeO Od = Lyd = FoO)— F(qia)™ FCA) F(a) by the Fundamental There of Caleb (Case 11 The General Cae. €>0 then Lemna 119 implies there 3 polygonal path from a t such that |/,J—Jr-) Ci ani to be closed fa) = 10) 122 Corley. Let. 7, and fsa the same hypothesis as in Thre UR Uy ire cored cure then fro Renan Serie o ‘The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus says that each continuous function bas 2 pile. Tas is fr fom being woe for fonctions of complex variable. For example fe) = [22 = 48. I Fis a primitive of thon F is analy. So i F = Usi¥ then 47" = Fs). Now, ‘sing the Caehy Riemann equtions, wow wav Bape eer a SA ‘but = Opis that Us, 9) ~ of) for some dfeeniable function aes 4? = 2 ar oaaitn, Aner ny Re retry ema pa ee 5 Baers 1. Lety [a8] +B he non deresng, Show that yi of bounded variation sad 70) = 0 r0 2. Prove Propostion 1.2. 3 Prove Propontion 1 Prove Proposition 1. (Use indveton). 5. Lett) — exp (14/9 #) for 0 <5 1 and (0) = 0. Show that y ix 1 vetabe path and find VQ). Give a rough skate ofthe ace of 6. Show thai; [a 8} C i Lipshitefancuon then y i of bounded 2 Sow a 111-26 hl 00148 4 10 raha tn ht a ee eee et eT ey mtn pa Pn OS 2" otic t= Cine onset, tec) Soe | ate fo ine bet gs en trey wae ET a OE ESET TR Paw Show ato [ fate alo cdtet n= 13. Find, 2° de where: » isthe upper RP of the anit cic from, Le (bythe homer athe anti fr 4110 =f14 Prove that if 9: fa, A] ->fe is continuous and gf) ~ 6, 8) = then pis as-one if yf stil inreatng. TS: Show tt the rltion ia Denition 1.16 1 an equivalence elation 16 Show that iy and o ace equvaleatretliabe puts then V6) = Vi 1, Show that [a |r isa path the there i an equivalent path eH) Ta. Prove Proposition 117, TB. Inthe proof of Case | of Lemm 1.19, where was the assumption tat y Is in nk wed? Do tet) = 1 focO = £2 De and ind e419" Bh Le) © defor ww 21 2 wand hd (= 1) de 2. Show tht i Fy and Fae pamies for J: —r © and G is consented then there fsa constant cau hat Fi) = €4 Fx) fox each «in G: Bh katy bea elsed retfable cone in C and eg G. Show tha form = 2 Je-arrde =o. 4a" prove the following ineprtion by pats formule, Let and ¢ be ante ind andlety bea recibable care froma io bi G. Ten ff" = 0) fowo-5 Fe 2, Power serie representation of eat factions fn this section we wll that «function fanatic an opens hast pomcr sis expansion about each point of Gn part, an analytic function intel iret, “We tenn by proving Lani’ ule from Advancod Cael 221 Proputo, Let: fab) > © Be a conimove fnction and die Bled oby 22 w= fonds rhe como, eee et nd tne fin (uel eng como eed 5 ro- [Zaoe, Proof The proof that gs continuous is left ata exercise. Notice hat if we ‘rove a is iferenible with given by formula (23) then i il fllow Git ot pe ttt 2 une To eed ony very formula (23). tym tetra sins one Tas e282 © such that jG", mG, O] ce whenever Gms aet <8, In percular 24 6.003610] <« ee in| <8 ad a 545, Tb hes ta for ffl <8 and 2s [fee rvs cana < te But for aed + in fa, 61 (0 ~ 0,9 —tos, tis primitive of ft, = ‘pas tol By combining the Fondmmental Tasocem of Calcul witht Equity (29), follows that Is Delete) Utes 5 elt or anys when tol <8 But fom the definition of ¢ this ves rieiodl <0 when 0 ltl <3. “This ret can be tse to prove that ee ‘differentiable because |z| < 1.) Hence (1) = {3° vfs, ) dr is continuously ‘iterentiable. Aso, (0) = 2r so if ean be shown th gis a constant, then Bw al) std the dosed result obtained fed sts 0 « = 2m; (Note that pis contnuouly soe |e but for 1 fad, 019) = Ke" 1 has (9) = =e) sete" 14 Hence (0) = O2n)- 40) = 0, 98 mnt be constant‘The nett ret, although very important, tanstoy. We will ee «| ‘ch more pneal result Us tht —Cauchy’s Tage! Formula; 2 formula ‘which ison of the exten acs ofthe theory 2.6 Propetion, Let. G>€ be analytic and suppose Ba 1) © Gir > Wx) tre 0.3 1 Dn, hen 1 ff f= [eo fort ty ang = {a sche in = 12) we we that, without los of generality, tnd say be ausumed that @= 0 ‘That is we may sume tat BO; 1) © ©. ies e| < 15 must be sown hat ah [fin y= ff aw 1 free a) that i, we want show th We wi apy Leiba’ re by leting fetHer—2)e" a1) LEONE 9, for OS #5 1 and 0.5 #5 2 Sine [r+i(e"—2) = [AD 41e"| < is wall detd snd i continuously diereniabe Lat) ~ fF of6 1) ds: fog ass coninuous derivative “The proposition sel be proved ist can be shown that) = 0: hi dove ty showing that (0) = wd that gi conn. To ee that (0) = 0 Power sa cto of sae fons ” a0) = { he) rola =o | faa loge we showed that, t= 2r prior to the satement of this pro postion “To show that is constant compute g'. By Lebnizs rule, «(9 ~ f* ee ds where ple = ef e41ie"—2). Howose, for 0-< 12 1 we have that 9) = i" YietH(e—2) Is a primtive of x5. $0 £() = 02)-00) ~ 0 for ers 1. Since Continuous we have = 0 and g most be a const. ‘How is his rest usd to get the power seis expansion? The ansuer is that ye wea geomet series Leta) <7 and suppose that w son he cite wa) =r Then singe [2a] Os then teri an integer N such that (0) FG] < «!¥6) forall won fp) and m 3 Bat hs ves, by Proposition 1.170, yr laeley [FO -F(09| aut whenever n= - - ine) < Rhee ag = fa and thi eres as rads of concergence > R Proof Lat << R29 that Bo") © Bla; Ry My) = are 0.5 1s 2 then by Propostion 26, so= 3, [the tr fo ut, sine ea € se aaytic then fi foie diferente 2A3 Corals ff: € ts analyte and Bla 1) = G thor reo Sloe where fi) = are, 05 #2 Ie 2.14 Caney’ Estimate, Let fb only in as R) and suppote Ut) <= Me Gorell sn Be rca 5 ME Proof Soce Corohary 2.13 applies wih + < R, Proposition 1.17 implies el Sioce r< Ris arbitrary, the rest follows by keting rr R= "We will :orclade thi seton by proving 2 propention which # special ase of more geeral esl which wil be prevented ae in this chapter. 2.15 Bropason. Let be ana tn he dik Ba; R) and suppose that» isa floted resale cree in Bla R). Then fro. aM Proof This is proved by showing that fas a primitive (Corollary 1.22) Now, by Theorem 28, (0) ~ Jafea" for [nal < R. Let -oS(s)ew Since lim (241) = 1, it foows that this power serie has the same rio of convergence as Fa(2—o). Hence, Fis deed on Bla: A). Moreover, FQ) fle)tor ea) Exeraes 1. Show that the fanetion defined by (22) i otquous 2. Prove the following unalog ot Ueibirs ie (hs entive will heFrequently wed inthe later sections) Let @ be an open stand let 7 be a teciiablecur in G Suppose lat (9)G-> Cla continuows fetion nd dling! > C by 1) [ne en coin Etch 2) x acme then is nai and (=, se [Bee 3. Suppose tat ya rectal curve in © andi eine and continuous ‘fy Ue Exercise 2 sow that = [the ie analy on C~ 7 and Pao 4. (Prove Abels Theorem: Let, (2 have radios of convergence 1 tnd seppoc tht Fo, conver to 4. Prove hit, stim Lar = 4 (iat Find 2 summation formule which & the analogue of integration by pens) {Ute Abas Theorem to prove that og 2= 1—3+)— Give the poe seis expansion ofog about z= Jad find its adits of convergence Give the power series expansion of about: 7 Use the results ofthis section to evaluate the ftloming itera = 1 and ind it mio of [ge wore, Osts tn Osten A Ost e de WO Tee Oe rane owes romettion fa {Use a Mobuis transformation to show that Proposition 2.15 hols i the disk Blas) i eeplaced by a al plan 9. Use Coola 2.13 0 vate the following itil off where nis.a postive incper and yt) = 8, 0-2 4 where mis. pov inepe and yf) = 6",0.5 1 = 2es vy “incans of patil fractions); (6 [BE ewer no) = oh 0.2 1 2 0 [Shawn =ieytosesm 10, Evatt | de whee 1) = re + <2 forall posible a < 1 posit values of ,0'cr < 2and2 << a, Mi Fied the domain of ansiticty of 09 = j0e(22): (les fis «branch of acta 2), Show that sso, show that an 1) Sev eect (lot: sce Eset I. 3.191) 12. Show tht & Ex Zan! “Thee mumbors are sled ole’ costs. ‘What tthe rcs of contrgence ofthis serie? Ue the fact that I= es see to show that Fen (9204) Banta?) fe et Hn oreo Tvahate Fa: Ba Hie for some connants Ei, Ea SH and ig IRIS,* Cone ton et 13, Find the erin expansion of ©! about seo ad deermine isso, converte. Consider) = 355 and et fo- 3 be fis power sresexpasion abot eo, What the reius of convergence? Show that om ase (*ar+(l ‘Using the fact that fle) 4 an even fetion show that a= 0 fork od tnd k > 1 Temumbers By ~ (-1)™"23, 28 called the Beraoll ners form 1. Caleaite Be Boo-Byo 1M Find the power serie expansion of tam = aboot 2 ~ 0, expressing the cout i orm of eoull numbers (Hint: use Exerse 13 and the formance 22 = 4 cot rf tan 2) 82 Zevon of en analyte faction 1 p(2) and (2) are two polyoomlals then it is well known that ‘bfe)=S(2aie) +e) whet 2) and 1) ae so polyols andthe depee Sr) tes than he depres (2) In partic, as such that (a) ~ 0 then choose (a) for 2). Hence, p(2) = (2a) #72) aad 2) mest bet conwant polynomial But feting = — a ges 0 ~ pla) = ea) Thus PO) ate ae). It we abo have that Xa) =O we can factor °=0) fom oh. Conining we bet 2) = (a He) where Lm = degre of 1 find @) polynomial such that a) #0, Abo, degree 12) = dears ate) 1A Defhion If: G+ © sana and ain satises fla) =O ten @ int sere of fof mulity m > Vi there i a analyte faction g: G—> ach that /() = GaP a) whee ao) + 0 Returang tothe dsctsson of plynomii we have thatthe miplisty ‘of a sew of polynomial must be less than the degre ofthe polynomial Inthe dep ofthe polpnonial pe) and ay => 4 ar alle distint asso) than 2) = (2) 2) wea) isa polyol ‘ith np anos, Now the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra sys thal ¢ polyoomil with no zero rcomtant. Hence if we ean prove this ret we ‘lave suecesde In completely factoring 2) 10 the product of fest ‘Segre polynomial The sear might be petal surprised to know tht {tee many gears of udhing Matbematics he right now om he threshold ff proving he Fundamental Theorem of Agcy hut st ts assy 10 pve wfamoos result about sali fonctions, 1 ie al conven {0 Frode nome new teil ‘42 Delton. An entire fiction i a fanetion which i ined aod analytic. inthe whole complex pane C (The erm “nepal fonction” i also vsed) “The following reslt follows from Theorem 28 and the fact that C comtins (0: A) for arbi Irge R 143 Propaiton. If san entire faction thon fh a power sves expansion R= Sar th fiers of comergece Tn light ofthe preceding popostin, ene Zunctons can be considered as polypomi of “ifn degre So te question ass ean the thse) of polynamite be generalized toca functions? For example can an exe Fation be factored? The anewer to this le dil and i postpoaed 10 Section VIL Another peopety of polyoma that fo nom conant polynomial is Sounded. Indeed, if (2) = 2g zr! Fee tay thes fim pa) = ie 2 [Ure P4092] = ce Th Fak that ts Folds fr eie functions i an extoniely uf ru. 4 Lowe's Theorem. If isa bounded ene fnction then fi const Proof. Seppe (ft) = M far all sin C. We wil show that f(a) ~ 0 for Az in C. To do this use Caely’s Estimate (Corry 2.18). Since fis natin any dick Ble, ve bave that (2) = MYR. Since R was teu, it flows that f(@) = O foreach = fa ©. Tine reader should sot be decid ito thinking that this theorem is insignificant Yeeae it has wich short peoot. We have expended a pret deal of efor building ap machinery and inerening or krow ledge of salt Futons. We hve plowed, pinta, and ferlined; ne soln’ be snp i, censionally something f avalabe for ea) picking. ‘iowvile’s Theorem wil be beter appreciated in the folowing applict- ‘35 Fundamental Theorem of Algebra. If p) is non content polynomial the there tea comple: mambo wth pa) ~ 0. Proof. Suppose pe) # 0 forall z and et fe) = [kes then fe an ene acon. Ip # ot constant thea, ay was shown above, lim A) = 23 slim f@) ~ 0 In particular, there is a number R > O such that [| < 1 if 7S. Batfiscomtinuows on AO; R) so there sw constant such that If) © Mir = R- Hence is bounded aad, therfore, must be constant ‘by Liowil’s theorem. I follows that p must be conan, contradicting out assumption. ‘36 Corts 1 (2) 8a plynomia and a having mits &, then 2) ~ 2a)" (ad hyde Pie the gre of Returning wo the analogy ence emits futons umd polynomials, the vets sores wlth a, sh for some conan ¢rene shouldbe warned ths this cannot be taken too fr, For example ip St pomomil and aC then tere sa amber = with) = a In fat {bit follow fom the Fundamesal Theorem of Alga by considering the polynomial Ao)~-a- However the exponeatial funtion Tals to have this Property nee doesnot assume the valu zr. (Nevertheless, we ae able {o tow that ths isthe wort that can happen. That «funtion analyse Im € oma at most one vale, Thies kaown as Piers Lite Theorem ad ‘nthe powed late) Morove, no one should begin to make an analogy Tetwessaragti unction ina open set Gand a polynomial p defied 08 {Es ather you should only think of the polynomials as died on G- ae =(2) sess an b= i < Homo = Re» 0, Tees of fae te pins (ETE: wie of o,f as infiely many 208 However, es nrc the zeros approach I which is notin the domin of fnulyay This he sory forthe most peneal case 131 Theorem, Let be a comected open stand lef G—> © bean analytic incon Thon the foloieg re eguolent statements Fao: (0) are sa point an Gok ha 0%) = 0 foreach m & 0: {0 Ge0: fe) = 0) hava lint pois bn G. ‘Proof Cleey (0) implies both (9) a4 (9) implies (8): Let a= 6 and 8 Tit pin of 2 ~ (2+ 6:12) = 0) and let R > Obe such tat Ba; 8) 1G Sins oh it point Of Zand i continuous follows tha (2) = 0 ‘Scopon tere an integer n= sch that fla) ~f(@) =~ FM) eeTand fe) 0. Expanding fin power see about pies that ate-at for|ed < RAF so fae en me ms f= Pree sete sane TR inp 7 ee eae ooo pear fa oo Oat) SEU Ti Leas wats care en es Setar net as aa: PY) <9 at Foe and (0) = a # 0. Since Wj acean fnd ann 0-< F< 2s oa amen > and closed in 0 by the comets of Git wil lw that A mst be G nd sof 0 Tosce that a dod ez Oe sch at BR) & Then fle) = Ea{e—a) for j2~a < R where 0, = 3 Me) = 0 foreach 1 0. Hence) ~ 0 for ain oR) at cong, eR) < A Tite din ope nd hi compte Se poate een 3 Cory, fend g ar nate on 2 vepon G thn f= UF 2: Fe) n0) hs pot to uk alow by apiing te pecating theorem 0 the be 39 Coralia. 1 ana ova pe comected st Gand ot ent cays fr cach wih fe) =O a ge nad on nat fn» © uh sa gC) #0 and fl) = aa) fora TING Thar each eof has at muti. Oe ‘Pref Lt sls ine (21) se ha 9°40) = 0 a de 0) =n Yeon: 7 oanted ~The gis ces nic in G— (a; ose tha g isa a Ged oly be show to be asi in neghtrioo of. This somite by ig he hod ft root al pis inthe eres 310 Cory 1:6» € 1s aac nd nat constant, and fi) = 0 inet herelon R'> Crack a: ®) © Can) ¢ jerO fal < Re Pref By he above tore the rn of fr le sie fnation Thereis oe instance wae the analogy between polynomial and analyte Suetions works in revere. That's thee i propety of analytic Feations hich is wots transparent for polyoma 5.11 Maxiaum Modules Theorem. 1/6 ita region anf: GC sa nace ‘enh a rsa pan wn = UE fr all, he Proof Let Ble: 9 < 6, 4M) = ate! for 0 <1 = 2x; according to Pro- positon 26 range wt fmmewe ff venta i <1 or This gi at ~fivior-iervenas bot sce ts negrand i onsen i fows hat = os fe Move ser sty we ve at fap edt nate ee = wher 2 ta) Bu imo a aero Bes B) (rece M31 pra fa) = +" ea SE Amodng o Cola 98/3 4a tn ania Sd Men. non cosas ay uncon oregon cana ue mami modi thie fiom Shes cen in the ce of pnomn. The ones of hs ema eahng so of Salon witha dr xaraon of shies ols ren, are psn In Chap VE. (ctl the ear fh pin cn sed fo Secs Vi and V3) vere tas Man 8> 0 1 Lt ean ete anion and spp acon lo'timep 21 sch hale for a) > Re Show ha 76 yaumaletdepee =n FU an cumple to show that G must be assumed to be connected i Theorem 3 Pn a oti ata ha 70) = 4 Povttanes+ ey sping Cora SPOS MAS sar) conscesh ana snd by ania Cray 28 STS RNG: 2a cpm to € amie and ae @ eh Se Ge eboc als Show tat tera) = of Fv cose FOS Metary prot of he Masimum Modalis Aor foe TSU ea eon a tnd be mv conto Gh a (Nee) Sion. Sw a sber = Org = FM Oats chumons ncn sth tt CU) 2 0 forall in C3 rove as Uw sot Th Show tang was onions ona epon sch ht ft SA. The inde of «clase carve We have already sow that jc Mem am a inmate cays ren a ‘Ppt 711-0 ad ate cc an (he : aa Prof. This is only proved ender te hypothesis hat y is smooth, fn his se define 10, Pot by Hence, (0)=0 and g( 1) j,(2—a)"tde. We also have that 1) FO foe 0421 Bur this gives ere ety Getemanety—vet(y-2) Ly-10-0"o-0)] =o $0, ¢-H-@) isthe comsant tmcion ¢“M4y()~2)= 102 e-#(y(2)~2)-Siace (0)= (1h we bave tht e~F” =I o that g)= Sk Tor some integee fm 42 Defines fyi lord retifialecusve in € shen for @# {y) nave fi is called the ider of y with respect to the pot. I also sometimes Called the minding muber of yarn a Recal that iy, I}~Cisa curve, ~y oe! the curve defined by (ihm 11-0) iss actualy a separametizaon of the orginal ‘etinsion). Abo iy and e are corves defined on [0 1) with 9(})=0(0) then +0 i the curve (y-+0}()= a1) if O51! and (7+ 9X0)= 011 21) if} £11. The prot ofthe fellowing proposition is ef othe reader, 443 Proposition. If ond 6 ae coed rectiale cores having the same Initia ptt her (0) atycaye = m(~ 0) for every a (1): (0) atyorajmntyeay nto Tor exe 24 (ula) Wy is a(yea called the winding muterof'yabout As was said before qu) sute™ for DS 11 then ntysa)mo- In fat (be ebel fen mty:blen and al = then aty:by=0. Ths can he shown Airey ve one cin invoke Therein 4 Bea Soa Test i the ee ft) eases the number of te y rape snd = wh heme2 compere ‘The following dicussin is inuitive and muthemaccaly mec [Actual with ite more sophistication tis disusion ean be coveted ‘End gives iasiht into the Aegument Principle (V3) ir smooth then 7 eee LO Sern Lat “Ting inspiration from cles one is tmped © write [y(2—a)-as= loglrths air, Siace (1) =) this would avayy give sro, The dif Ui ste face shat) "9 compte ated vd wes =a is {na regon on which a branch of he lost can be defined, the above Inspiron ura out fo be ony so uel hoa. In fac if 7 wraps around Upon then we cannot define lou) a) since thee i 0 salie ‘ach ofthe ogi defined on CC) ‘Nevrheles there isa corest interpretation ofthe preceding dsea- Sion, we thnk of loge =Hoge+ arg? a dtd hen fle 0) de=o9{1(0)=2} to 90) {Hoe (1)~ aYoir()~al) +4 (aa 71)~@] ~arefr10)~a)). Since the diicuty in dfiog lo isi choosing the comet vale of frp we an think of he ral pat ofthe st expression as equ fr, Since (lye 0) it most beta ven with de ambiguity im defining ange, Sn)-alcary(0)—a] an equal an imegal multiple of 2x. and Turtermore hs integer cow the number of times 7 wzaps around Ter be a closed recitable curve and comidr the open st G~E— (7) Stee (9) ts compact (2"e1> Re Gor some sulfceaty barge R ‘Ths Gye dat G has one, and only one, unbounded component. 44 Theorem, Ler y be a clsed reciale curve in C- Thon natn Jor banging to 4 companont of G~ C- (1). Als. a 1 elgg to the Bounded component of G: Prof Deine fa by f(a) Cra). Ke wil shown that fs contin ‘ts if this is done then Ht Talaws thar f(D) i coaseted for each Somiponent D of G. But sine f(G) is coatained in the set of integers foliaws that f(D) reduces to single pount. That ss constant on. "Tosow tha fi somtinooon real thatthe components of G ate open (riconem 129) Fie in Gand tet r=d(a,(4)). Ht Ja=#]<8< fr then le) Hb] ye] fear ey ‘Jal ‘CachysThean s But for Ja~Ol jr and le bl> fe I ftlows that [f(0)=4b)}< 2 Vey), So if «20 is en ‘thea, by choosing to be smaller than {+ andl (nr2)/26V(y) we see that ‘must be continuous. (Aso, ee Exercise 23.) ‘Now let U be the unbounded component of G. As was mentioned before the theorem there is an R>0 such that U>(z:|z|>R}. Ie choose a with |a|>R and [2~o|>(@x)'V(y) uniformly for 2 on {7}: then [n(x 0 be slficient large Sather mn nS] R) (= RED =a at for any FE gem aein I pt) 41 Fic w7e#0 and let y bea eciabe pa in C~ 0) from U9. Show tha there pan integer & ch at j,2" ie logr 8+ 20, 15. Camchy's Theorem an Integra Formals We have aeady proved Cauey’s Theorem for functions analytic 2 dak: 3.6 isan open disk then jf=0 For any snaye funetion fom G and ‘ny closed resale cure yin'G (Propostion 2.15). For which regions docs this result romain val? There are repos fr which the res is false, For example, if G=C~(O} and fc) then =e for O51 = 2e gives that /=2. The dfcalty with C~ (0) ihe presence of hole {eamely(0}). lathe next seston a wll Be shown that ,f=0 Tor every Snalye fonction f and every clased rectilable cure yin Tegons © that fave no “bales” Ti the pest section we adopt a diferent approach. Fix a region @ and an analyse function fon GIs thee a condition on a dosed rciable ‘curve soc that (-/=0? The anower furs by the index of 7 with respect (0 points Ssde G Belore presenting tus result we peed the Following lemma. (This has already been seen ss excise 23) 51 Lemma. Ley We o recifaie cree and suppose @fnction defined (tnd continuous on (1). For ach = 1 let Fate) yo nXe 2) for E491. Th rh Fg 8 una o © (9Y and Fle) i) Pro We a cara that each enti, 1 at his lows ia the ‘Theorem 44) One nec only tsetse That once |) © commute gs‘bounded here: and use she fotrization L)S_ wal =) way" w= a0=— | ‘The dea are fl tthe reader, 7) and let = € 6,200 follows from (52) that Hoon a)"" ebeienay-" =f tera fH "ae Sear ‘ Since a (7), glu ~in G deine F(2)= pail. Fit 219 Ge he Toe any point? in G the hypothesis gives at Fant! * nal Hence ioe FOF) _ gga! (fle Ly [enna casey Tce a Bot by tking absolute values Which show hat Exercises 1. Suppose f:6->C saab and define ¢:GX6-€ hy g(e.8)=L/) w fooenn) tits mand g(es)=/C) Poet bconiauee ond fotearh ned w, «pte sabe 2 Give we deta ofthe pet of Theorem 56, 3. Let Bo B(2 ef), OM BO, 3)" (Dy UB). Let tery be coves howe tase ae His stints and [eR vapecivy Gee re toy enentaton sch ht (yw) mC 0) + ays) =O foe a ee {© Show ta the Integra Formula follows am Cans Theorem S Laty bea cond rub curve Gand g¢ (7), Show that ora? ena) "demo. 6 afte aii on D= (G1 and suppose for al <1. Stow ios Deviate! for 01526, Find (<5) for al postive teen BEG be a replon and suppose f.:6- is ane for etch n2 1 Suppose at.) conve unary toa fncon “0-46 Show that / eames 8, Show at /:C-+Cins cominsus function sich ha an tf (i ten ies sac etn to, Use Cauthy’ Intel Forbla prove the Cayey-Hasion Theo- rem: If san nxn mato oer C and 2) =de(e~ 4) athe carci {ie pabomil of 4 then ft) =0. (Titer was an ra © pape ELA MeCarhy, Amor Ma Monty. 82 (193), 390-29) 16 The homotopic cersion of Cauchy's Theorem and spe commetvity This section presents a condition om a closed curve y such that /f=0 for an analyte funtion. Thc ction less geaeral bu more potetnic thin the winling nore condition af Theorem 57. This condison flo sed to induce the concen of simply connected repon: in a my ‘onesie repon Cauchy Theorem ss vad for every snaltic faction and every coved evtable curve. Leto allosate thi condom By® es eon onsirig a coed tsi coven sdk region where Cac’ Thee falens val ropston 219 Teng Bt R) aod I-06 be a sed ectiiable ane. srt and 0s21 and ve put fa Uy) then hes on be Sau ine segment fm oY) Hence? mate i Let 1 Mepyty br Oss et and Ove LS yy and y; Ge one Shay aul wo ican, re vomeeher ia betcen We wre Shee daw’y down iow eee here wee wo hl ts pote store ming Vom © tag nck prong op ote dk wth i irc me ea ay ast woul geet o he hol nd coal 64 Deflation, Let [0 H++G be oo closed retifiable curves in ‘gion G then ys Romo wy, in Gif thee is. continuous function TO, 1x10 3G sch the (eae and TE.)=1) 5951) Fa=F(1) @ses1) So if we define 1,0, IHC by (0) To) then each, closed curve and they foram continaous fay of curves which stata yan go fo yy Notioe however tat here 1s 10 requement that each y, be feetfable In practice when yy andy, a7 retfabe (or smooth each of {he wl aloe rettiable (or smoot). Iigcis homoropie to yin write ye~Ys Aculy a noution suchas “te 1H6) should be used because ofthe role of GI he range of F's not Tega to be in then, as we shall see shorty, all curves would be homotopic However, lee tere i the possibly of confusion, we will ‘only wre yo~ rs eis exty fo show that “~" i an equivalence cation. Carly any cure ishomotopie to ital. yyy, 400 P11 (, HG sais (62) then deine Mri) =T-1—1) see that yim Finally if yy, and spots wih suing (62) and A(T]. Ii-+G sabiying AU )= 62 cay Thane » 1G) Maity=ple) and AMD ACD forall © and t define 40, 1%. [etlociy aoye[M29 — Hosest Ms2e—1) it }srst Then @ is continuous and shows that 147s {63 Definition. A set Gs comer if given any two points @ and b in G the line segment joining a and 8, [a,bh les enicy ia G. The set is ar sped f here point an such that foreach nC, the line segment {a2} lis encely in. Charly och converses sta shaped But the Snverse i just as clearly fake. ‘We will ay that is star shaped if as] = G whenever # « G18 Gis «star shaped and 2 and w are pont in @ then [=a.4] 8 3 polygon in @ connecting and. Hence, cach sar shaped sets connected (64 Prapoon. Let Ge a poset whichis a= or shaped. the are wich iconanty equal toa thn eer led reciiblecuce in Git amp 0 Proof Let, be a closed rciable curve in G and put Fs.) = ey+ = a Betause Gis > star shaped, 45.0) 6 for O55 1 Tes easy to sce that Panties (62) “The stulon in which a curve is homotopic oa constant curve is one ‘hat we wl often encounter. Hene iv convenient to introduce some Bey ternal 65 Definition, I is» closed recifiable curve in G then 7 is homotopic to sore (y~Ohity i homotope ta constant cure {66 Cauty's Therem (Second Version If/-6-+€ is an anaptiefrction and yt ele rectifiable cure in such that yO, then [so ‘This venion of Cauchys Theorem would ftom immediatly from he fist version if it gould be shown that a(y:w)=0 for all w in CG whenever y~0. This can be done. A plawible argument proceeds as ety = and let y be constant curve such hat y,~Yp Let Psat (6.2) and define No) = ny: 09. whew (2) Tee for Or? 1 and Fixed in ©- G. Now show ta he eostinuna on (1 Since is integer Valued and (0)=0 i must Be that A?) =O. parte ;)=0 fora wine -G, The only point of dfculy with tis argument x that for O 0 ‘an theresa integer mach tha if 0= (00)? Wa then enter Gy TEM, if O, {hen y~'y- (Hla: connect aand by 3 curve) 2 Show that if we remove the regirement "F(, 2) = FU, 4) for all ‘rom Defirison6.t then the cane y(t) = e021 © I, i homoopie to the constant curve y() = |i he region @ = C0) BLLa€ = all reciable curves in Going 0nd show that Deftion BT gives an equivalence ration on. 4 Let G = C= {0} and show that every closed curve in 6 is homotopic to a ehsed eure whose trace contained im (2) Th: eee $ rane nt oh y= tr 0 6. Let H1@) = 00! for 0s 05 Iw and (0) = 4-6 for 2w = 8s 4m ln (ot. Let fl) = [2-3-2 1-$) (E14! ad ety be the polygon 0, 2, 2424 26 O Find ff 8, Let G = €—(a,b), ab, and ety be the curve in the Rue below. (2) Show that my @) = 9) = 0 (0) Comics yous Tt ot homotope tar. (Note hat she sro “poe Cn so poe) Noes ht ‘amstsws tat spose to ate teed eve pin reo uch SMiorgr a) 2 ofr alts notin © without Belng homeo ote. Tat inthe mere to Corlary 610 fae. 9, Lavo bea pion and lt, and 7, e two coed smooth cures in 6 Saprse recrsamd [sts (62) Alo soppse tal 4D") Sebo each It we OG define ht) ab Sow that {0 tin2 contnuous ' 10. Fd a ponte eae (3° whee any ced eine carve in not passin heh = Ii Brune [ "=! whee 7 is one of he cures dpi tlo: (asy your she) 97. Counting zeros; the Open Mpping Theorem In this setion some applations of Cauchy's Integral Tacorem are sven. ICs show Row to count the numberof aos inside a eure alo, ‘Sng some information on the eence of oot ofan analytic equation, i wil be proved that a non-constant analyte fuaction on felon BPS ‘open sts ont open Tnsection was shown tht fan analytic function fhad a ero at = a we could write fl) = (@—aF eC) whee is aalyticand go) #0. Suppose ‘Gisa rezion and let be analsticinG with zeros ty ty (Wher some ofthe 2, may be repented according tothe multiply of the 220.) So me an wate) = (ay) (2a) ---(e—aghes) whee iranalye on G and £2) # Oe any = in G. Applying the Formal for siferentiating a proist ver x ™ Fe) 4H #) for = #.a---sde Now that this is done, the proof of the following theorems seaihforward a 12 There, Let G bea region and et f be an arate function ov G with 2eratay-- a repeated acoding to mules). fy tea elased rectal ere iG which des mops through any pono ard fy =O then A [lO eo F aye, aft Sane Proof at) # Or any 2 in G hen gy) analyte in G; since y ~0, ‘Cauchy's Theorem gives fe = 0. So, sing (7.1) andthe debition of ) the ine, the proof of the theorem is finished. i 13 Covelary Let f, Gyan eatin the preg theorem except that ad ae the pn in that si the auton te) =a then LP LO a ¥ asad ai] faa Zr can ED ae where 7 is the cde Ava matin, et wate f '=2-Since the denominator ofthe inesrnd factors into (2~w) (¢— es) Wher, and wy ae the nana! eubie rots of 1, Theoret 7.2 gives [aom Cre net As anoter istration ety: [0. 1}-+G be a closed recifiable eure in ©. 20. Suppose that fis analytic in G. Thea y= isa closed rectifable curve in © (Exercise 1) Suppose that ais some complex number wih ‘24 (0) f(y) and let us cleulate (oe). We et ue = [foe di) Aay~e' We = Sunn ‘where a ae the points in wit f(,)~ a. (To show the second equity stove tikes ite effort altho fot amo it easy. Te dead are Tet othe ender) Note. Itmay be that there ae inintely many poins in tha satis the ‘eation f@)—a. However, fom what we have proves tis sequence rust coveige othe boundary of It elloms that ny: 3) 20 for at mst ‘Tinie numberof soluons of (2) a. (Bee Exercise 2) "Now if # in Co} belongs to the same component of © (a) as des a then mesa) nas By 08 Pain) = Foose4@) where 2) and 24) ate the points in G that satisy f(e) =a and fh 8 Fespecvely If we had chosen 30 that n(y:z))=1 foreach k. we would have that /(G) contains the component of Cf((y} that contains ‘2 We would alo have sme information about the nimber of slutons of ‘ey B. This procedure i wed to prove the following result whic, in dahon to being of inere Ia ial, wil yd the’ Open Mapping ‘Theorem sa coneequen 14 Tiworom, Suppor fix antic Ba: an et ser of onder mat 2a then thre isan > dd 8> 0 sch that for Teal <8 the equation fe) ~ (has exactly snp route Ba A singe root of fe) = (a wero of fe) bf mpi 1 Nee that ‘hs theo sa that Ju) Mx: 9. Aso tbe eo tha Je) havea sera rite mie gasramecs Mat J mo ent Cone te ro . reff TS no af a isan He dw SrQneyy acre ie geo anata Bach neearect Oca Wastin rei tate ctetn Qin acta pase te BUTE laa Ge Caco is Sept npin atc atic homeb cesar ee Sh sn ebro eh there are exactly solutions tothe equation fe) ~ { isde Bla 2) Since £42) 7 Ofer lea) < ey cach oF tes 008 fr § # 4) mst e simple (serie 3. 15 Open Mapyag Theorem. Ler G be region and mupose that 8a nm oman analyte funtion on G. Then for any pen set Un, XE) i open Proof IU € G is open, then we will have shown that WU) i open if we an show that foreach in U there isa 8 > Dish that Ala: 3) fC), svhere« = fle. Bot ony prt ofthe strength of the preceding theo: i ‘ese to find an > Oars a8 > Osuch that Bla ) © Vand fla) > 5. if X and ae metre spaces and f: X has the property that /(U) Js open nt whenever U is ope i X hen fis cled a open ap. I 8.4 ‘onesane and onto map thea we can dene he imvene map f°: =X by sa) ~ x where fl) =u. I fellows that J is continuous exactly ‘when 8 open; fa fst, for US XM) = AU) 16 Corley, Suppone f. GC Is onene,aatie and f\G) =. Then FR is anaytc and FY) = [FEN where = fe ‘roof. By the Open Mapping Theorem, J~* is continuous and is open. Since = = /1yte) for each 2, the Fsult follows from Proposition Il 220. xeriet 1. Show that (6-00 is analytic andy i restiabe curve in G then Joy ' also a recfable curve. (Fit sume Ge dik) 2. Let G be open and suppose that ia closed recfable curve in @ such that y=. Set rad((y}-dG) and 17=(2 «C=ntyiz)=0}, (a) Show that 4s. 86)< $7) 11. (0) Use pat (a) to show that [C8 analyte hax at most 9 finite number of solutions > such that myicieo, 3. Lee amalytic in Bt: Hand suprone that fc) ~ 0, Show that ais & 2210 of mlitity EJ" Ma) si) = and fe) #010 Conse teen 4, Supp that f: > fe aralytic and onesne; show that (2) # for myn. 5 Let and be metric spaces an suppose that X > is onesne and ‘onto, Show that fis am open sap if fis closed map. (A fonction fis @ ‘losed mp fakes lon sets onto else sts) Let PCR be defined by 72) = Rez; show that P isan open map but not closed map. (Hint: Consider the set = (2: Im # = (Re 2)" sod Rez #0}) 7 Use Totem 72 10 hve anther proof of the Fundamental There of Algebra 8, Goura’s Theorem Most modern books define an analyte fation a8 one which is difeen table on an open at (oot suming the contin ofthe deveaive. In chs Section its shown thatthe dfnition i the Sams a8 ut Gear’ Thoorom. Let G be on opr et and let f: G+ © bea ieee Fanci; ten fi analytic on G: ‘Proof We need only show that fi continuous on each open dik containeé in G20, we may aasume tht Cs tel an opea disk I il be shown that is aac by an appicaton of Morer's Theorem (3.7) Tha is, we must ‘show that f= 0 foreach tanga path Tin Let 7 = fb, a and let Abe he close et fred by Ta itis, [Noise that 1'=" 8. Now ssng the midpoint of the sides of Fer Toor Wangs By, Gy, A inside A and, by giving the boundaries appropriate XS sicetios, we have that seh, = 2 6 a wang path and aL I fo i ‘Among tse four pats there one, eal 74, such that fre] fn] for) = 13,4. Note that the length of each 7, (perimeter of 3) denoted by AT)-w AAT), Abo dsm 7, — 4 iam 7, Analy, wing (0) eal "Now perform the same proces on 7°), eting a tangle 7) withthe nalogour properties. BY induction we gett sequence (T°) of cued te fngular phe such thas Hf 3° ete Inside of 7™ slong with T™ then; 83 WA s aL Ae a Arey = 47%; as diam °° =} iam a, “These equation imply a self As o Ar) = (ye shee = 40% a diam 36 = GPd whee d= dam Since each A is closed, (82) and (88) allow us 10 apply Cantor's ‘Theorem (H. 56), and get that (| A consists ofa singe point = Let « > 0; since f has a derivative at zy we can find a 8 > O such that Megid) < Cand [Aca — py whence 0 < [e—29) <& Abertay, feof bene le=zs) < 8, Choose m such that diam aM — Gd < 8, Since Tye ths ges AW! © Bley: 8) Now Cauchy's Thsorem implies tht O° Sr = frm ze Hence as Derzal < ele [A= | 0-reo-reate-sone fi ensal le 5 efdiam 3979) wnirBet sing (8.5 thie ges PAs anay = eae Sine wa tity and 0d Care Bed f= OM Comes teen Chapter V Singularities Inthis chapter fonctions which are analytic in a punctured dik (an open ig wth te ceater removed) are examined. Foe aformation ou the tetanior ofthe faction near the ener ofthe di ber of intersting nd uel rests wl Be erved. Ia particular we wil ue These ols ‘falate certain deft inepals ver the real ine which cannot be evalated bythe methods of eae WU. Clasifction of singaarties This section begins by studying the test behaved singuanity—the removable kind {LL Deinin. A function f hsm oot singularity at za if there isan R>0 such tat fi defined and avalyuc in B(a:)~ (a) but aot ia ‘B(@:R) The point ai called a rmoablesnglany there ia analy Tunctiong:2 er R)-=€ sich hate) =P(2) for Oc eal R However, oly 8 has a removable singularity (e Exercise 1) Hise 10 the red to we thatthe other two Santions ds not have semovabe Singin. How can we detrmine wien singular removal? Sine te unetion tas an analteetnsion to Aas, ff 0 for ary closed curve i he puncture dt but tut mayb el o ap An ust happen tat Hits) exit This eae ven, boa mich weaker ereron i ‘vaiable. 12 Theor If hs on ioe singularly ot @ thn the point =~ ob removable ses lim te ayfte) = Proof. Suppose is analyte in (et 0 < lea) < R), and deine (2) = aye) oe # # a and gla) = 0. Suppose im (2-0/2) = O; then i clea contnvous fanction we can show tat is analyte then it allows That a fea romovable singlariys In fa Hg analy we have 4(2) {=a)42) for some analyte foretion etined Om Ba R)besave go) ~ O {Iv.-49) at shen Wc} and (2) mint apne foe O = se] «Rn ato, hy tintin, a remuvable guns,"To show that g i analy we apply More's Theorem. Let Tbe a wiangl in Be: and et be the inde of Together with THe 8 hen Poin Gr < fea < R) and 0, fog ~ 0 by Cauchy's Theorem, Iho a vesten of T then we bave T= [8 60) Let elo, andy 6, and form the angle 7; = fa, % > I Ps the polygon x, 663 then fram fputt hea frye snc PO inthe pancured dix Since «is etna and) ~ 0: for any ¢> Ox andy can be chosen sch that [ges ofr any 2 on Ty where ¢ the rath of 7. Hence rat Tees ec aioe «was arbitrary we have fr = ic hand 7 = Le 3, 22] hen conse he tangs Ty ~ 90, Tyne e.o 9h Ty = be 02} Brom the preceding paragraph fe ~ 9 for) = 12,2 and 80, fre = frartfnat fre ~ 0. Se this evo al posi must te aye by Moers There Since the omer Soon x post othe ewe AEP “The peedng Tiere pote Ou aoae sank diference betwen funnel aaa nts cong ale The con iO be aot dierent Becaise has a “corer” atx = ‘Soka ttaton docs not ccrin he complex ce. For function 0 have an vest singularity (ce, 2 snrremovale on) he Fnetion mit beave hay nthe wnt of hepa That ete become nie = earth pint (and Jos ut enw ely 25 (2-0) oF) Soe tive ny tw me Cao singin 1s 1.3 Defi. 11 = a yan Bolted singularity off then isa ple of f iim [fey = 2. That for any > Othere a suber « > O such tat L1Gil = ar whenever 0-< 2a) < « Han isolate singularity nether & pole nora removable singularity i elle an sensing, Te iseasy tose that (@~a)-™ haga pole at 2 =a for m= 1 Ale not dificult se that althoagh ~ Osan tclitedwnglaiy of exp itis neither a pole nr a removable singularly: hence iis an eset singh Ing ‘Soppne that has apole at = at fllows that (2) has a removable singularity at 2 a. Hence, Me)=(/e)" for 2 a and Ma) = 0 is Analytic in Bia; ) for some > 0. However, since Me) =O it follows by {CocliaryV. 39 that Me) ~ (2a) To some anal anction by with ‘a(@) Oandsomeintegerm 2 1 But this pes tate aPV) = fc ‘asa emovabie singularity a: = a This summarized a fllons. 14 Proposion 1G i @ region with an G and i ft anastic on Of) With a polear:~ a then there isa postive integer mand an analyte fron 0-7 meh der 1s a) f= ae 16 Deftin ,7has. a poe a =~ a and mis the salle postive integer Scrat Forde mses ‘Node th fm he odor 0 he pole at say 1) ce sn 0,9) is/imes ple fri m at = 24nd pul) sisandyicin dnt By Dit hss pone seer xpi abou Lat 7 hata remouablesnglariy at = then fas pole and g is chosen #0 Mat ha (Ema A ar tetena £ afe~at. Hence 4h ear tea where gy Isami in Ba; and Ay #0. Ww co +20) 18 Defaion. ff ba a pole of ort m at «and f sates (17) then waynes Ayle—a)* iced the singular port of faz ‘As an example consider a rational fonction) = eva), whee (2 and (2) are polynomial without common factors, That they have no commun zeros an consoqocnl the poles of) are exactly the er of {(2). The order ofeach pote a 2) the order ofthe er ofa) Suppose ‘1a) = 0 and tS) be the uinglar prt nf 2) st Then 14S) and rte) rational ontn whan pve an poe‘over, snot fll 0 sce hatte singular par fr) any ofits pols {abo the snglar part ofc) tat ple, Urn induction we area the following: f'ay.-as are the oles of 1) and So) the agua Part of syats = ay then seer) Where PG) sa rational function without poles. Bu, by the Fundam ‘Theorem of Alba, a ratnal function without pole sa polynomial So Pts) sa pobmorial and (13) song eke Bt the expansion of aio Faseton by parol fotos. ths expansion by paral factions (19) pecs only to rational antics? Cranky tf we reuize PI) in (LS) tobe a polynomial But ite allow PC) to be any smalve function ina region G, then (19) vali for any function r) analyte in G except for a nite number of pas Suppo mene «function fanye in except fr infil many pols (Gec/) = (oor) jean meget an analogue o (13) where we reac the Ste sum by an infinite sim? The atawer to tis yes and is contained in DMitag-tefers Theorem wish wll be proved in Chapter VI "There am analogue of the singular part which 1 sald fo eset singularities Actually we wil do moce than (hs as we wil ivesiate functions which are analytic in an alos, Out Sint, a few defaitons. 110 Deft, IF (5 0 = 0 £4, £2...) dou nite segue of fs abioaety comergem if both $. 20nd 3 ton compies nantes, 3 are absolutely convergent. In this case > set yi funtion ona et $f 6, thee and Fo) absolutely coerent Tor ech +S then the consrgnes i aform over Sif both. wand 1 converge wniformly on S “The eon we are liming ores to absolte convergence is thst his is the typeof convergence me willbe most concerned with One ea deine convegeoe of $y but the defnition is not thatthe partial sums $= conver Inc the series, sss this ritson bat its ety nt 4 seis we wih co have conerpent. Oa the oer an if $i abecely im $s 160 R, < Ry © «@ and ic any complex number, define ann: Ajyn le By < Lema < yl. Note that aan (a, O. Ry) 8 8 pintered oa. convergent wth som = then ely follows that. Canin of pate w ‘LAL Laurent Series Deveopmnt, Let fhe anaes annus ann (a; Ry, i). Then so~ $ ater where the conergoce is abso and ifr ove ao (i 13)” Re < ry ery Rp Alto he coecons 0, are geen By the formula a where y ithe ce fed = efor any r By € Ben byte ra <1 [ Sa where 2a) K,) Den fi:6-+€ cetined by uu af Mm whee |e» ry and Ry Mtn et 2) = tC) where Cs te le (oral rlrabo put A= nae {ffm we C). Then ford > 7 titel < 25° as f= But lim a) ~ 25 40 dat ' rye «tiny (o+!) wn we 0) = en aa BO VR ue w= Eo tats erie capni a as ti ta ha~ Bet ce ded (0 a oe id ye (er Abo i omen opi) nS ‘(zo converges broly und uniformly on properly smaller annul ‘The unigusness of thi expansion car be demstrted by showing that wre Ba annul then the coefficients 4, ast be given ry the formula (1.12) ab 12a converges abtely amd uniformly om peer Canicatn of nese ‘We now use the Laurent Expansion to clas slated singulaits. LAS Cory, Let: = a be an tlaed singularity of fan lt f(3) = fea be ts Laurent Expsion ina (a0, The (2) == 0s a remorablesnglary Uf 4 = 0 form = =| (0) 3 = eis ape of order mf dy # 0 tnd = O for n= ~(nt 1) (9) = ais an eset singularity if 0, # 0 for infinitely many nega Integers Proof. @) If a, 0 for mz —1 then let g() be defined in Ba: R) by (2) = Safe thus must be analytic and gress within the pce tared dik. The converse equally a a. (8) Suppor a, =O for mz —Umt ly then (2 Expansion which hes no negative powers of (2). BY part (O, (2a) basa removabesngulanity at =a. Thus as ple oferderm at? = ‘The conver follows by retracing the sep i the preceding argument. (e) Siacef has an etenial segulrty at z= a wen it has neler removable singularity nor pol, pr (follows from ars (3) end ‘One can ako caslyolaesnguaries by examining the equations ws lea a) = 0 Ma) has 9 Laurent a0 lim eat te] ~ = where some real numer. This i outlined fp Exess 7, 8, apd 9; the reser i sronglyencouraped to work thus thse exer. "The follwing ives the best information which un be proved at his ime concerning een singularities We Know thats a esentialsnguisy 2 — awh im 2) fils ext (exiting plas the possibilty that the limi in, This means thas a z approaches athe values of 2) tmnt wander through C. The ex theorem sys that at only d they wand, ‘ut = approaches 2) comes array lowe to every complex number, ‘Actally thee is rule du to Prd that sayh that (2) assumes each comple value with at most oe exception, Howser, this not proved until ‘Chapter Xi 1.21 Cavorat-Welrtrame Theorem. If ha an ese singularity at = then for etery® > 0, (f(a a0, 3]}~ = ©: Proof Suppose that fs analye im ann (a; 0, Rt mst be shown that it Cand e> 8 ate von then foreach 8 > 0'mo can fad a2 with [tol < and [fe)me) = «Assume so be fae; that i, assume there fa fe fand «> O auch tha I) <| «foe al: in G ~ ann (a; 0,3) Thus lin = ce, which implies that (2 a)-"J(e}—2) bas @ pole fm the under of ths ple then bi [2~ol=*"/f(2)~=0. amine ae[eal /(e)0 since m2, But, according to Theorem 12, this ‘pves that (((2—0)" has a removable singularity at za. Ths com {nadie the hypothesis and competes the proo of the theorem. Ml Evers 1. Fach ofthe following functions has an ilatd singularity at =~ 0 Determine its natures if iss semowable singularity dfn 0) so tat Fs aoafytc at =~ 0; fit a pole Bnd the singular part fi an eset tingly determine fe! O | 8) fr sebtrariy small vals of 90) 0 109-5 @ se) =e") 6 19-200, een G=P 1. Give the details of the derivation of (1.17) from (16). i 4, Le fo) = ton the Laurent Expansion of (2) in echo Al = EH (2) in each of the following anal: (2) ann (0;0, 1); (sna 0; 1,25 (6) (; 2 ‘5. Show thit 2) = tan = analytic in C etcpt for simple poles at 2. Give the partial ration exunion of 12) 4 +m foreach inten Determine the snguar pr of a each of these ples (6M G->C is analytic exept for poles show thatthe poles off cant, havea lini pint in @. 7. Let fave an lated singulry at = ~ o and suppose f #0. Show that if efter (118) 0 (1.20) old for Somes then thera lng such ‘hat (119) Bold ifs > mand (120) holds ifs < me , Letj- oy and m be asin Buco 7. Show: ) m= OUT = asa temor. ble singularity and f(a) # 0; (0) m < O1 == aia removable singularly nd fhaas zero at 2 = a0f onder —m: (6) m > 01s = asa Pole of fo nde m. 3 fuetion f hasan eset singularity at = if acter (1.19) aoe (1.20 hak for any reat number Canisaon sates m 10 Suppose that fas an eset snglariy at: ~ a, Prov the following “Htenghenes person of the Casora-Welestass Theorem, If ¢2C ad 0 re Bien then for each 3> O there atamber sy fe] <6 soe that fe)» fas infiitely many solutions fo Ba! 8). "1 One de tut sa dope 7) 0°): 8 eneraliz this est? Tar) Let 2eC and show tat oofo(3} for 0 < ol < 2 where for m2 0 © Simi, show col -3f> for 0 < [ol < cymhere Lfante-neene 13, Let > Gand @ = {2 > R]: function f GC has a remosabie ingot, poe, an eset singularity at ifiy fle") has respec tively a movable singly, a ple or an esental singularity at = 0, Uy nas a pole a 2 then the order of the pol isthe order of the pole of fea {a} Prove that an entire Function has cemovabe singularity at infiity Aritisa consume. (@) Prove that a eat function bas a pole a infinity of order m if iis a polynomial of degree m. (6) Charcteree howe atonal Functions which have 2 removable singularity (G) Characterie thove rational functions which kave a poe of onder mat nba 1A. Lat @ = (2: 0 < jo < 1) and lef: G-—> € be ana. Suppose that {iss closed reciable curve ‘whats fof? Why? 1B Let foe anayic fn G = (2 0 [sal 1 and let be the closed path wbich i the Boundary of tne upper ha of the dk of raion R with center zero, traverse in he ounerclckwise distin. The Residue Theore gives Ne Bs ping the ttn of eit For 01x, 1+ R'* les onthe circle centered at | of radius hence [ERA 2 RI, Therefore 2.7 Example. Show — 5 The funtion fe) losedcure that is depicted inthe ajoning See, Iefolows rom Caush’s ‘Theorem that O= ff Breaking y int is pisces, fas [tae tafe wr yan athe eins fom Rio Rand =116 ree He pornre Saptin flespaRen|ae = ferns at Dy the methods of cael ne ae tat, for 8 > 0 sulle smal th Inge ponte value of exp (“Asin with 83 8s wh exp tind, (vet 9d not pend on RA is agra 1) Tis ve at [ee}ems Poncnsna 2 Biwenp(— Rand) Ite > Of given the, choosing 8 < fe, there isan Re suc that exp (—R sind) <& forall > Ry. Hee 4 > osha ator < Hens len SoM; su [= nee that So,it we lt r->D and R-> in 28) ir Notice that this example didnot use the Residue Theorem, In ft, i could hive bee presented after Cael’ Theorem. twas saved ual now because the methods ted to evaluate thi integral are these a the methods wed in applying the Residue Thee. 29 Bsa Sow hat fre» ae wen" TT Mev etbnt= Laie acon B ‘feeiern ere ef 1 Bu 8420241 = (0) 6) whee «= sD (et Sie o> 1 foe that pf 1 tad iat by the Reside Theorem & Fite by combining this with the above equation we arive at [fees 240 Example Show that ‘To solve tis problem we domo we the principal branch of the logit, Instead define logs for: belonging the reson a wh G={reCis 4 Ound —* < ar fosessvomi-tue Sepsutin ie F< 0 tet em tg elt Lt 0 then fee 28a fw opel, et Thal * aati ling» =O 0 p>, thei of this exprension is er. 212 Brample Stow tat [*" dea "ito ce <1 evaluate this integral we must considera branch ofthe funtion: ‘The point = Oi called 2 branch point of = and the procest aed (0 ‘vluate this negra is sometines called integration around a brah po, LetG ~ (:7 4 Ognd0 < aig < 2e}sdefnea branch of he logan fon G by puting fre") = log r48 where O23 <2", Fors in @ put Lo) = exp Af 50 fis branch of +" We now select a appropiate curve yn G. LO 0. Let Ly be te ine seument 1748), Re i the part of te cre [| ~ R irom R46! couaterlockwie to Rob; L; the line segment [Rd r~i]s andy, the part ofthe ie wr from r~Bi cock to r+ Pot 7 = Latoq la 7 Since y-~0 in @ and Res (fe) (HF2) % “Vf the Reside Theorem gives an [ieee Using the definition ofa line inter Le) 4. hei) Tet | Tara Let g(48) be defined om the compas er [0.2] by acca et then 80 and 1.0) 0. Then g i eunbinous and hence uniformly Somtinwons Pe £0 then thre we Bp sich thal FFAS A ew TAB) RUE B'Ae 4 / Hn pt, g12. 896 /R when Pono Sage and 8< 4, Thus [fsws)dese for 8<&y This implies thet ory NE ae Now the valve of the integral in 2.13) doesnot depend on 8. Thee fore feting 804 and wing (214) and 215) ges 19 an [ft ! fe) nis mee acine [ES Tee sti Since tis extmate i independent of 8, (2.16) implies wey ae sort Bao bm atiem fe fae a but as rt and Ase he hand ie of hi a neat ‘Siw nse one fa Inte Erect 1, Catelte the felling integrals Fix fos. oa | aap there To tacose: asm ° [Fiemisatene <1 of 2. Verity he following equations mae 94 ee 0 [Spa DE ie amo: (9 [oes a = 4 fogs at = tel 5. Find al posible values of jjexp2"!de where y ic any cowed curve not passing hough 20 4 Suppose that /has a siple pleat z ~ a an eg be analyte in an open fet containing Show tat Res) ~ aa) Res J. 5: Ure Excre to show that f iva region ands analy in G except for simple poles at ey, and IF x ana then 1 Fay [oe = S mri aptad Rothefor ay cloud rectiable cure y not posing trough a, ay such that ya ing. 6. Lety be the ectanglarpuhfe-+}-tn ~no$tnh nodal tha leaden and evaluate he ftgrljn(ea)"> cot wide fora an inte. ‘Show that fim f (e+)? cot naa = O and, by using the Bt pat, dedice ot (Wine, Use the fat, that for sec, foesP-eon xtsinh? y ond Sinsl'=sin's+sink? to show that otee| 52 for 2 om y if as fulciontylaree) 7 Uie Exerc @ to deduce tat en 37 Bai 6 Letyetie polygonal puthdsnedinExersneandevalate (2°! fot wae fra 2 am inter, Show that im f (22°)! eot ride = 0, and ide fora # an inezee 9. Use methods similar to tove of Fxeries 6 and 8 to show that Sac fnew at 2a fo aan itger. 10. Lay te the circle [| = 1 and lot mand n be nonnegative integers Show that, Cynrant PU tm 2 2pm, piarar Mme? 0 there 11, in Exerc 1.12, considera a 8 8 funetions ofthe parameter and {ue Exee 10 compute power tres expansions for 8) andl ,0}. (6,0) called Bessel funeion} {2 Late analyte inthe plane except for solated singularities ate, 0. a Show that roifea = E ratten "Te Arran rile ns (Rf doe dof eat m0 Easy Ke e—erfahin pee 012 tien ae 8) iieafieteeefathnsnd eh’ Casha Raa C. by sing fz) = whencver 2s 2 poe off It easly fllows that fi ‘continuo from @ into ey (Exeree 4), Thi fact allows ut to think of neromorpie fonctions as analyte fonctions with snglaries for which we cam semove the discontinuity of although we cannot remove the n00- Aileen off ‘34 Argument Principle Lt fbe meromorphic in G with ple Ps Paes Pe land 20s 3 yn 2, ceted according to muliplicy. If 8 ered rectfabe curee in G with y= 0 and not pacing truth Pue-e-sde Lr, § ae as aa e~ Smeien~ Fase. Proof By epatedapptication of!) and (3.2) ra St St yee rey” Rema” Peony aema Sepits ‘whee gis analytic and never vanes iG Since this gives that ei Unalyuc, Cones Theorem ge he esl Wi this called the "Argument Prscipe"? The answer fo this isnot comple cbviows, but i suggested by the ict tha if we could define Ton 2) then it would be a peice fox f'. Ts Theorem 3.4 woul give that as ge around y, og) woud change by 2iK where Kis the ites tn te right hand side of (25). Since 2K is purely imaginary this would ve that Tm log J) ~ age) canes by 2ek. wp couse we eat define lng fl) (inden if we could then f, ff = 0 since fits primis), However, we ean put the discussion in he above ppragrph ona slid lpi bas Since no so or poke of / es ony there [Back Ble; fr each ony) sch tata branch flog) ean be dtd fon Be) simply selec sien mall that fc) #0 ore in Bt) The tls Orman open cover f(y}; ana, by Lebesgue’ Covering Lema, there isa postive number « > sch that each ein) we cin define & bench of loge) 08 Be: 0). Using the uniform coatiuty of (unpose that y is dened on 9. IDy there fa partion O= fy < ty <= fuch tha AD © BG{E)- 5) forty, £ ts tyand 1's J 5. Let G bee branch of og f defined on Bot a): for 1's J sb Aso, since the th find Us Hat aphere Both conta 9) we can hove nm, 30 ta GUAT) = G64ED, EAD = LOAD atl) = AOU Ds ‘ys hepa tested oy, fen, sine = FU, i for 12 /< k Summing both sites of this equation the righthand side tlacopes" and we ative at [= -soneta Cpa) where a = 40) = A), That i, f(a) a) = 2K Because iki purely imaginary we et Ion (0) Ife) = Bek. This makes presie out co0 tenon tat a= traes out y arg) changes by 2K i “The proof othe folowing pteraiation ft the reader Exe). 246 Theor. Letfbe meromorphic i he region G lth 2708 20-0005 and pols pss counted orordng to mull. 1 & ts analytic in G tnd yi cased ecb cre G with % and not passing thogh ny 20r,then wifes = asm Eixeroim We sleady Koo that omesne analyte funetion fs a ani Jnyene (IV. Ph) earmark act that There can Be ne 10 RHE “Te Arne rie ns «formula for culating ths inverse, Suppose R > 0 and that fis ane land one-one on Ba: Yet = {B(a: Ara! < Rand é = fee {hen fo) has one, and only one, 20 in Be; IF we choose a)» m, ‘Theorem 18 ges 1 fen) mime 1 R.Bat =» f°"; this res the following 217 Prpation. tf Be oye on an opens conaing Bo ) and Inport fs once ow Be 70 fi andy eee 1 te fe) dd fr each ye mae Lyre afro Se) “This section closes with Rove's Theorem. 38 Rouehé’s Theorem. Sigpar fad gare meromorphic neghboreod '9f Blas R) with no seo or pols onthe ile y= (ele ~al= Rell 22, (ep Pe) are the numberof eres (ples) of and g ide y cowed according to hes mips and Wed +e(e< ised oo ees 2, hatl0. Define p: B10; 2-0 by 1 f#e J TO-8 where y i the circle |=, Show that g is amajtic and discuss dhe Properties of Fifyis meromorphic on @and [6-6 is define by fe)=c0 when ze 1 poe off and /(e)=/() olkerise, show that Fis contiouous ‘Lette cromerphic on G show that nl he ples aoe the 205 of Inve lait point In. {6 Let G te aregion and kt H(@) denote th et fal analytic functions on 6. (Te keter “stands for holomorphic. Some sabor eal a dferendabe fonction olomorpie and cal functions analy if they havea power ei fxpanson about each point of tr domain. Others reserve the tre atic" or what tan cll the complete ana Foneton, which we wl not deere ere) Show tat H(0) isan integral dora: that, (0). Commutative ring wit no ser visors. Show that (G), the eronotehic functions om 6. Hels "We hive sod that snayic futons ae ike polyaomis sil rmeromorph Functions ae aakogues of ftionalFonton The ein Hl sis, is every meromorphic fanction on G the quotient of two analy funtions on G7 Alternately i (6) the quien fed of 1(G)? The saver {se bat some atonal tory wil be regula before this answer can Be prove, 4 State and prove a more georal version of Roaeh's Theorem for curves ‘ther than een in, 8. Isa nonconstant meromorphic function ona reien Gan open mapping (oF Gio Cr sit an open rapping f G into, 5. Let > L and show thatthe equation A—?'-e°* — 0 has exaciy one solution in the half plane (2: Re: > 0}. Show that-shis solution mst Se real. What happens fo the souion as => 1? 10. Le fbe analytic in « neighborhood of D= 5 1). If |f(2} <1 for Jct eshow that theresa unaue 2 with 2| a. To sate this anoter way, ‘etea pint ini with a] = foreach én the se then belongs to. 11 Maxinam Modulas Therea—Fist Version. Iffts analyte ta region G andaisa pore n G with ta = [Ae forall: nG ther f mast Be a constant fincon Proof et Q = (6) and pu » = f(@). From the hypothesis we have that [el = [flor cach € tn 0; a inthe dscasion preceding the theorem =i in 20.70. npatculs, the set Oeannot be open (because then 9 20 =). Hence the Open Mapping Thre (IV. 7.3) sys that mis Be constant. A 1.2 Maxim Modelos Therem-—Second Version. Let be a unde open et nC and egpoce fio contac anction on wich aay in Then max ([Ae: 226°) = max (Uf 2# 6G). Proof Since @ ix bounced there ita point a G~ such that Le) > It forall zn @” Ife constant fneton the contin i trivils t ‘coneant theo he reel flows fom Theorem "Note thi in Theorem 1.2 we dd not aeume that G x connected 8 ia “Theorem LI, Do you understand how Theoeem 11 pts the fishing toc ‘oa the proof af 127 Or, could the assumption of connectedness in Theorem 1 be droped? TAG = fe = xh —fo << do) and pat fe) ~ exp [xp #1 Then fs contiouous on G” and asic on G. Ize 20 then 2 = x2 it 50 [sto = esp (te) 1. However a8 goes to nity through the rel Bumters, fs)» 00. This does not contradit the Maximum Modulus ‘Theoram deca ls ot hounded Tight ofthe above expe is impossible to drop the assumption of the boutdelness of in Theorem 1.2 however ic can be eenaced. TRE subi isa grovah condtion on [2 a8 = approaches infinity. In fet, {tis abo pase to omit the condition tal fe dered and continuost of G7. Too this, the flowing debnitions ae nede, 13 Detain. If: G+ Band <6" oF a = cy then the lit sperir of ‘Ila 08#epproaches a, denoted by lim sup foe dened y ):2260 BN) (a= es te alin emai oC) Silay. ear eff) 05 eproaches a, devoted Wy li iff), is ened by insu /) = in wp lim nf 76) = i ink Le): 2 6 9 Ba 2 ets and equals «if» = ie ey tose that min . G- 0 be arbivary and put H= (226: theorem will be demonstsed i Hf proved fo be em. ‘Shoe [/| continuous, Hs open Since tm sup |f()] MS) The eect 1. Prove the following Minimum Prince ffi & non-constant aoaytic Tunctio on a bounded open set G and vx continous on Gi then either has a aero G of] ascot minimum vale on, (See Exercise IV 38) 2m G be bound region and suppine / cominvouy on Gadvo ‘The Minus Moe Taso analyte on G. Show that i cee isa constant e> 0 such that [f= forall: onthe boundary of @ then either fis a constant fuetion orFhas& sroin 3. (@) Le /beetire and nonconstant. For any postive rel number esbow ‘atthe lost of {2 [M0] o} the st (2 TEN = 1) Leip tea polyromial and show that each comporet of (19) =) contains zero ofp. (Hint: Use ere 2) “Hep isa polyromial and c> 0 show that (| = este won fof ste numberof closed paths. Discus the behavior of these pat as AL 0 Ouch dat for ech peyeoma sup (K-Fed) 2 “This says hat =~ sot the uniform imi of polaris On A S.Letf be analyse on A; A) with (2) 2 M fee 2 Rand \fO)] = 1 > 0.Show tht the numer of mrs of fin (0; ess than or sa 0 Te) ete sono, Rc hee o-woff(-3) snd na at 40 = (ato f= a0) 6. Suppose that both fand g are analytic on AKO; R) with [/(2)| = |e) for SOT RN Me Soe thle PENILE, w menos ate 0) = MSE S Seu ev artans abt sey me ERR ivigie.0 ci amie wt acm sb Se Ciena we i a STG T atte ied Tien (2. Selwar's Lemna 24 Sclares Lemma, Let mh (9) fo) = torn, O0~ Than} 0) = Vand fle [efor al in the sD. Moncorer fif(O) = 1 ‘or ft — [for some = 4 Otho here emt ee 24h that She) = en forall w 0D. fel <1) and pone f ts analyte on D sete ee bt Proof, Beis @: De by a¢e}~ 12 fog 240 and (0) = 40) thee gi nly in D. Using the Macias Moduhis Theorem, |(2)'= for leis acd 0 D bea one-one anti map of D ent itself and (Then therein complex mamber ei f= 1 sch that oe and onto there isan seaytie function g: Dor D i < 1 Applying seguaity (23) t bo fand g and (0) [a (ince 0) = 2). Bu since 7, Applying formula (24) we have that res a = (I-Ie? P= sO. a) = 0 Po eye for ome [el Exersas 1, Suppose [fe <1 for [x < 1 and fis analytic. By considering the funetion g: DD detoed by fie)~ Oo ge where a — 0), rove that WO oie, « MOH Pap it ©" rp forthe 2 Does thee exit an analy fnstionf2 D = Dow 9) Hands ? 5 Suppose f: D-+ Csaises Re fl)» O for all a D and suppote that Sinamay, (a) Show thar Ree) > Ofor azn D. (@)Ry using an appropriate Mobi tensformation, apply Schwar’'s ‘Lesumafo prove that (0) = I hen ben s tlt A for |e < 1. What can be suid if/0) 17 (©) Show that /alio sats aici ele Te (Hint: Use part (a. 4 Prove Caratigodony’s Inequality whose statement i 28 follows: Let be soalyde on BG; R) and let M(o)—max((/( |e) 7). A= maxi Re/(2:2| 7): then for is comes f Tor any two points, and x, inf, 8) fest) s flsde0—nfted) wheneier< 1 © 1 A subset A © Cis conte if whenever 2 and wae ia TAetze(I—fhe iin A for O's <1 that iscomvex when for any two oins n ae line segment ining the two pits is aso in A (Se TV. 43 tnd IV. 4a) ‘What the seston ttn convex functions ard come ses? The answer tht futon i convex if and oni the person of te plane Tying above the graph of the function Is a conve 12 Propoton. A futon fa 8}-> Ris conte if he set Am (Gye s x bandfte) <9) Proof Suppose f(a, 8)» Rita convex faction ae et (2.91) and 33) to pointe tn A, 0 = 1-21 then, bythe definition of conver unstin, user(s) s fe) ¥1~1for) = Bee(l—My This ea 724 (1-0 (ou 99) = (eat (l Dey H(A is in A: 80 is conte, ‘Suppose a conver at Sad let A, xs be two points i a, Then lexgalte ty, fer) fee)) ia Ah O-s te T by vie of ie convent. ut the debniion of A pves that fley H(l—Dxy) = ea) (festa iss comen. ‘The prot ofthe next proposition i It to the reader. 33 Propeldon (0) 4 fonction f: (a, B1—= 8 15 concex Uf for ny poner i eB) and real manbers ty. ty 0 with Sty = Sve. (0) A set i comes if for any poms 24.00.24 in A andre mbes ty oot % Oe $0, — 1, Soy belongs 10 A ‘What te he vetoes of convex fuetions aed sts? We have already seen the convex et uted In connection with coniple gration. Als, the oct that dks ae convex see fe paved a dei rol, although tis ay not hve bron apparent since thi fact taken for asst. The use of conven Fenctons may not beso fanart the reader; however should be. frst course of caeuls the fat (proved below) that fs convex when J” for-repine fused to obtain foc! minimom ala poi fy wieiever Pita) = 0. Moreover, conven functions (nd concave functions) a wed ( ‘Stun neu, Hu.» is convex tho tates fom Proposition 32 that fe) = {fh} Foe al ina Bl We mow give a HES ‘ont fr the convent of Tanti Cover tes nd Hanan Tha Cc Tero as 3.4 Propetion 4 differential amction fone, convex WF i ioreag. Proof. Fes astume that f convex; 10 show that f* is inerestng let ag cy and suppou that O << 1 Since O © (I-eiet tyes {92 the dtntion of comity gives that ‘Aner fe) «=f oy pe Leia > geht as 109 «OL Sion ne te at hat 0> (ety = (1-9 4-9) am tng ro peste a6 £0) OLY fo, cones) and, wave ha ingen pou tna eens tnd a ay te Maan vote en own fad rand vnc ePe wey ao 1 AOL ant ropa fda i= Since (19) =) this ges that Lado) < F=f) Wwhenevsr x cw < ys In particular by letting w= ore iether where = LO=f0, 10-9) © G=90-9) and basse (910) -/00 = 70) ~F0 “Thi shows tht f must be cone. Ta actuality we will mostly be oncerned with fonctions which are not ‘only conve, but which re ogra cones: that log J) conve. ‘OF course this assumes that te) > O fr each =. It nea t0 tee that & logarithmic convex funtion i conver, but ot conversely, AT Theorem, Let < Band et 6 be the vet sip (vt iy a x‘Sippose f: G" > € is comin and ft anayte tO. If we define M etl R ey M(s) = ap (et): 2 O et gfe) = [eee foreach = fa O°, Then fr Partiing” led] = etl +de~al* = (hde-ar* So for zn 26 [fede < 1 Abo, sac fis bounded by Bin G, Mage = Bile 2 Mlle Seif R= (ety: a < x Blethen (211) gies tat [ER ‘2. The forall? a aan [19] = 142-0). “Leting « approach aero the desired esl flows Prof of heorem 37, First obere that 1 prove the theorem we ned ony csttsh Map? = May MOS for #-< <8 (0c (3A). To do thi recall that for a constant A > 0 {A= exp og 4) an ene ution of with no zr, So) defined 1) = Mayme Isentre, never vanishes, and (eae [4] = 40) fore = aby an ical = aga oman (lt i assumed here that Ma) and (0) # 0. However, If ether 34(2) -M() is zero then f= 0) Since the expresion onthe (G.12) is continuous fr xin [a] and saver vats InG Also (ei) ~ M(a and 61)! = A) so that |f) oe in 2G and fg sai the bypothsi of Lema 3.10, Thut Yes lel), 2°6. Using (8.12) thi gives fora and soppone that f(x) > 0 forall and thal bas = continuous second derivative. Show that fs logarithmically coaver if PML = 0 Tora 2, Show hati (6b) > Risconver then fis cominuoas, Does this ean {eae t7 i dtned om the cond interval? 53. Show tha a function fe, b> convex HF any of the Cllowing ‘uivalee conditions ti ray vasa (1) 0 no toesWasxcwcys beef) fe Wasxcwcys bens £0) Inert thse conditions seometizaly 4'Supply the details in the proof of Hadamurd's The Cicl Theorem 'S. Gie aecemary and safiient conditions on the function f such that ulityossure i the conclusion of Hadamard’s Thro Cee Theerem {rove Hardy's Theorem: Ii aralyi on 8; R) and not constant then w=} [vee is sry increasing ad log 10) isa conves function of log r. Hint: If Den cre fnd a continuous function ¢: (0, 2e]->C such that wiyfret = [fee and corsder the funcuon Fi) ~ 8 sce (Oe {Note that Sted 20 9 my depend on r) yo tet be analy in ann (0; Ry R,) abd eine t= fw 4. The Phage Lindlf Thorne ‘This seton presente some ret of E, Phage aE. Lincl (pub- lished ia 1908) which extend the Maxim Price by easing the eae ‘ent of Houndedness on he boundary "The Phragner-Liedsst Theorem bears a ran (© the Maxinua Mods Theoret whish ie analogous to the relationship ofthe flowing esa fo Liouville’ theorem. fe entre and [f= 1s then fie ‘onsant fansion. (Prove it) Sos not necessary to assune that a ene function is boanded in order to prove that i constant es sufcint t0 tssume tha te growth a8 > 2 rested by 1+. The Phragmen- Lindeit Theorem placer a growth restriction on an analytic faction foG Cas meats a point on the extended boundary. Nevers the ‘Concason, ike tha ofthe Maimam Modulus Theo, that is bounded 1 Porapmen-Lindlf Thaorem. Let G be a zips comected reson and let “Phen analyte fancton on Suppose there ion anit faction gG> ‘hich ner onthe and bound on If M ra costant and 0,0 = AB ih her (ay fr err a A, sip FC2H Phage Thro » (© for eer tn Bandy > 0, in spf) = Ms then [es Morals m6. Proof Lt) < forall in G. Alo beaute Gi simply connected there is a analyte branch of og g(2)0n G (Corollary IV. 410). Hence g() ~ xp (Glo o(2) isan analyte branch of g2P"for 4 > 0; and le) = lee Define Fe G->C by Fe) = f(s"; then Fis atalstc on 6 and FL (7) since i) = w or all in G. But thea, by condone (a) and (0) on 2-6, F sane the hypothoss of Theorem 1. Tut TF(e sax (f° *M) for al in G. This gives Lite = etna tM) for all zn G and for al > 0 Leting y= 0+ gies that |e = M for arin cm 442 Corry Leta = $ and put of lores! « =} Suppose a fs analyte on G and there i contd M auch that li sup [WG] = M for eit in 86. f here are positive constants P and b < a.such that «a Wel = Pexp cet) for al: ith el suey lrg, then Proof. Let b< c-< a and pat (2) = exp (29 for sin G. IE x= re, DP) = we. then Re 2" =r cos Sofor in G i = e9(-r* con 6) when: = re. sine ¢ < a cos = p> O for alls in G. This goes that is Bounded oa G. Ato, if y> 0 and #~ ris sulin large, 2 M forall: mG 1 2 «Pex Paco) = Pexprh—or'n) Bat Anarp = ret typ) Since B <6 7 Pontes ee akr co Thar in sp [2 DP = 0 Hence, f and g sty the hypothesis of the Phragmen-Lindelaf Theorem Sothat{/(3] = M for exch zn G. Noe that the size ofthe ange ofthe sector Gis the only relevent act 1m hi coor te poston inconegusntial Sf say econo ale lathe conciion romain vals. 204 as ro 40 that44 Corotry Leta > 3. o-fe twee < Zh. nd supose that for every wi Gin sop (| = M. Moreoer asa tht for ecry 8 > O there is constant whch may pend on 8) sch at 4s tay = Pex 2) ‘for: G ond sicily arg. Them (2) 0 abirary ss and’ sehosn wih < 8 then ther sa constant P with |) = Pespl(—o4 But then [F()|-+0 a8 x22 in 8; 0 My ~ sup (FGI O< x= 2) fie, Deine My = 0 {Bly M) ad Hi, ~ (220:0< ag? < eal, B= [e0G:0> arg > —0?a}s thee im sup fe) 5 My forall zn 824, and eH. Using ypotbsi 43) ‘Corcliary 42 gives [F(2}] = Mz for all 2 in Hf, and #7. hence, |F3)| = My forall in ‘Weim that My = Me In fc f My ~ My > M ten 7 asses is maximo value In @ at some pot x, 0-< x < 2 (Gecause [FC] —>0 a Dover and im sp Lf) ~ im sup (FG)] 5 M and get tell = Mf forall sin 6. Lec tert #0 and lag < vt) and le fe) = exp (29 for 2 6. ‘Then [fo] = exp (el os oh whare # = arg = 80 for? in 96 fe) = 15 ‘ut fe) in cleary unbounded in G.I fat, on any ray in Ge have that I7eilc> se This shows that the growth condion (8) Is vey dla and ca be ingeoved, Io the statement ofthe Pagmen-Lindl6t Theorem, the requirement that G be simpy connected not necesuy. Extend Theorem 41 to region with the propery tht foreach # Ini there is 2 sphere ¥ 8 ce treered ats cach that PG simply connected, Give some ‘Stimnlesfreqions fat te mt campy comet bot have the property Sind we wich don Tee Pngeen Lindl Teen 1 2 In Theorem 4! suppose dee are bounded analytic fonctions 9. th, 08 that never vammhand 9G= AU Biv, 0B, such tat Sono (3 sesatsed and condition () lo sated for ens, and 8 Prove that (2s M for alli 6. B°LeG = (= jl 2] © $e} and suppose f:@ Ci analytic and im sp Uf Moe win £6. Aso ippons A < anda < 1 can be found such Me < exp [a exp (eRe =) forall in G. Show that (2), = M forall 2 in G, Examine exp (xP 2) 10 ses that thie the best por growth condition, Can we ake @ = 1 above? 4. Let: G» C’be anayti ad suppose M fa constant sch that lim sup Lita = M foreach sequence {) in G which converges 4 pot in 2.6. Show dat fo) = Me (See Bets 18). S.LefG-> be analytic and suppose that G is bounded. Fix ze in 26 and suppose that lim sup [A2) 5 M for w in 8G, w oz. Show that if i r= sat (3) = forever «> 0 then Lf Mfr evey =i 2. Gee: wae, comidee 9) = 2-29) 2") 6. Let G= (2: Re => 0} and kt OC be an analyte function with ale M for wine, and suo wuppose tat for every 8 > 8, de re I< He) = 0 ‘Show that (| 0) and lef: G —» € be ansytic sch that 1) = 0 li sap fe tn uch tha im sup 2) Mor w in. Ao, supose tat fo every 8,0 8.6, there i a consent P such la s Pexpdet Prove that von asa (mnt)Chapter VIE ‘Compactness and Convergence in the ace of Analytic Functions In thi chapter a mire pot on the set of all analyte functions ona fod reion Gand compacnes and conversece In this mete spaces issued, Among the appliaios oblained i a proof of the Remaan “Mapping Theorem. ‘Actually some more goer sus are obtained which enable us ho study sce of eromorpieFsetions 1. The space of contnans factions C2) In ths chapter (0, ) wil alvays denote a complete metic spt. Although mich of what i std does ot est the completeness of , thos eve hich old the ros intrest are nt tri (0, d Got assuned 10 be complete Dfion 16 is an open st in © and (, ds a complete mete suse 12 designate by C(G, 2 the st oF all continuous functions from G to. These C(G, 1) stave empty sie ft always cooans the constant factions However, it posible tat C(G, 2) contains only the constant functions For example, suppose that G i connected and 21 = N = (1, sey ais in C(6 i) thes (@ most be connaced ip and, hee, ust rede to point However, our pricial concern will be when 0 is elther C of Ca. For tose two choles of, C(G, 0) has many now conta clreats. fo at, tach ama funtion on © isin (GC) and each meromorphic funtion (on Gis in CG, C.) (oe Exerc V. 3.) ‘To pues mets on C(O, 4) we tt fist prove act about open subsets of . Te thé part ofthe ext proposition wil notte used ut Chapter vu 1.2 Papo. 1G pen © the there sence (Ky) of eomrat nbsets of G such that G = () Ky Moreotr, the sett K, con be cto 1 sty the flloing condi: Ke ky (8) Re Gand K compact implies KK, for sme (6) Beery componcat of Ky rtane component of CG. Proof For each postive iteger let ke et ennfearc-o sloce Ke lery bounded aod it ste interacion of smo cloned subsets (OF Gy Is compact. Als, the st h} ‘is pen, cootaos Ky and is contained in Ky This ies that (a is ai Since easily flows tat G = (]&, we aso that @ = () Sint ey 20 is «comput subset of G the as fet K,) form an open cover of K. This eves part "To ses prt (note thal the unhounded component of 2 —K,(>C-—@) rust contain so and mus therefore contin the component of CG which conais ©. Alo the unbounded component coaals {e::| >}. Sof D's « bounded component of CK i contains @ post + with : 4:.0-0)< 5, Bot by anton is pres a pit w in C0 with pos) 0s geen the thre Ines.» Oia a compact set Ke G sch hat for and xin CW, 2, 18 sup [Af2, a0): 2K) < B= ie) <6 CConcersly, [8 > 0 and «compact set K are gee, thee ison «> 0 sock that for fad ¢ C16, 2) 1 Ha) < eo sep ASE) DEER 0 is fined tet p be a posive integer such that F: (* < de andput X'= Ky Choose > Owehthat << 8s; < de Suppone {fad gare functions im C(G, that sty sup (A/C), 30): 6K) < 8 Sine Ke Kym K for Lins wha) < Boe 1 Sm 5p, This gives Mod Td) <* for 1s < p. Thee aioe § onto ~, 5,0" ‘Tha i (1.8) is sted e Now suppose K ard bare ge, Since G = () Ky = (nt K and is compact there isan integer p = 1 auch chat KE Ky, ths ves Af = dfn 092°8) Lacs omdomn ots0 <2 tani «fein 5 <2 od) Ingen < 8.80 it ia) Och thar 0 ota sengten © 20 KY ‘The spcs fominous ton 162) ws (6) 4 sequence (f,) i (C(G, Op) conerges of.) conerge 10 ify an al compact sists of Proof I © is open aad f<€ then for some « > 0, 0> Ug: kf.) < 0 Bat ov the Sst part ofthe preveding lemma sys that there 2 8 > 0 anda compet set wih the dosed propersn Convers. sf © has the State propery and fe € then the second part of the min Gives ane > 9 fc that ©'> fg: fg) «)s ths means that Cis opm. ‘The prot of part () wl be eft othe eeader. 1.3 Conair. 18e colt of apo ti ndpendnt of the che ofthe Jets (B-Tht iG ~ UK; where coc Kes compact and Kz =i Ka nd fit metic defied bythe sets (then a sei open (C(G, 8). 4) Uri open in (CCG, 9). Proof This is drstconsoquence of pat (a ofthe preceding proposition since the bnracerzation of open 5 does ot depend on the hie ofthe sets (K) Hencfornad, wheasver we consider C(G, a8 metre «pace twill tbe assumed tha the mete p pven by formate (La) for some sequence (A) ot compact sts such thet K, © iat Ay and G =O) Ky Actual, te requirement that < it Kye cin be dropped andthe above resus wil femain vad. Howcter, {0 show this quires some extra effort (ed oe Baie Cataoey Theorem) whch, though interesing. would be detour "Nothing done go far ha wed the esumpton th fs compte, How ever, 18 aot complete then C(G, A) i not complet. Infact (on) 6 {aomonvergent Croshy sequen in 4n8 6) =m for all =n G, then Uh is a nomconvergent Cauchy sequence in C(G, 8). However, we ate suming tht 2 complete and is ges the Flowing 1.12 Propaston. C(G, 0) ir complete metic pa Proof. Resin wie Lemma. Supose|f, isa Caschy sequeceinCIO, 2, ‘Tren foreach compact st K'© 6 the resections ofthe funtion fo ives a Cauchy sequence in (K€). That i for every 8 > 0 ther i an Inger sich that a sen (A) fe) 26K) < 8 for mm > N. In partite (2) ina Cauchy sequence in 0; so thet sa point ft) in such that 2) = im ff). Tis esa function J: G => emus be sown that fi cominuous ed of > 0 Tet K he compact and fa 8G; ehoove N30 That (113) holds fra sn = A-MT> fatty A ot Hae then here a tego > N30 pe, f4e0"= Bl then annentgen = 2ra omc nd Conemee for allm = N. Since V doesnot cepend on = this gives sup (Af). 2 °K 90 a5 > ce. Thats, {converge ta fuiforly on every compact sin. Tn pareve, the convergence anfore onal cose tall oatined it 0 This gives (Theorem Il. 61 tha fs continuous at each pout af C. Alo, Proposition 110 () gies that 9 -> 0M "Phe oextdefniton te deived irom the anil origi of this abit, ‘Acusly sould have been omitted wthootnerfrng with he development ofthe chapter. However, evn though there is te in mainiiing ao» {up of desta o theorem, the sata em widely xed should be known by the read, LMA Detnition, A sot # © C1G 2) normal each sequence in. as @ ‘subsequence which comeras to fneton fin C(G "Tato couse loks lke the definition of sequerially compact subsets, but the it of the subsequnce isnot required o be inthe set 7. The next roo et to the rade. LAS Proposition. A set © C(G, 12) i normal if else compact, 4.46 Propostion. 4 ser F< CCC, 2) ix normal Uf for evecy compet set, Gand 8 > 0 there ave frctins fu. foi F such that for fn there tet lar one k's km ie sp (AC). AUD: Ee HD <8. ‘Proof Suppote & ie normal and lt K and 8 > O be ginen. By Lemma 1.7 fee ane > 0 sich tht (1.9) holds But since > compact. is totally Bounded (aetaly there aren few deals fo fl i Hee). So there Sr fa-ofi F such ha Fe Quan Bot om ihe choi et Fe () wanennen 1 and let = FX, be cheir aar 148 Poin (fo) whe i dtd (27, WO (thts in =f tm on b= Oh for ch A ah ci en cope roof Ta pt Oa dca ti other Spa A 05 fie «nae. ‘we have that ~ tim ee nd Bias) “This gies that of > x foreach m > 1 The proof ofthe converse is et to the reac. [Now suppowe that each (Yd) is compact. To show that (dis com- ‘ct sues to show that every sequence hat convergent aubsequence, {his saccompised by the Cantor dagonazation poses Let fe forenchk = 1 and corse the Sequence of theft ens of the that 18 conser (x)f-, © Xj. Since My in compact there a pot x; in fy And a subsequence of (f) which converges tot. We ate ow faced with & problem in notation, IF ths subsequence of (+t}f, i denatod by (04/24 ‘here itl confsion atti stage, However the ant tp in the proot 0 ‘consider the eoresponding subsequene of tecond eis (x4) and tke 8 subseguee of thik, Furthermore, i i naesary 0 continue this proce forall the enres. I easy co se that this 1 opeing ap a notational Pandora's Box. However, thee iam aerate Denote the converge! subsequence of (xf) by (of: A°N je where hy an infinite beet the Dost integers N Consider the sequence of Seton eis of (@ = ‘Then there is point x, in Xy and an insite woset Ny © Ny sich that fim (35: KEN, = x. (Note tha we til Ravel KEN) = ay) CConining tit process ies e decensing sequence of inte subsets ot Ny > Neco and points a inst, sh that ry Him (2 EN) = ‘Les be the th iteger in ed comvider 16; we clin that (= = {es} = 2, Ta show the ligt show hat 120 tin