EricD.

WH3MigrationPaper
Monday,May16,2016

Reds,WhiteandBlue:TheRoleoftheUnitedStatesin76POWs
AttempttoEscapetheColdWarConflictaftertheKoreanWar

ReverendHiDongKangwastwentytwoyearsoldwhenhewasconscriptedintothe
NorthKoreanPeoplesArmy.Hespenttendaysinthearmy,andthreeandahalfyearsasa
prisonerofwar.1
Propelledbyideologicaldifferences,NorthKorea,backedbytheSovietUnion,waged
waragainstSouthKoreaonJune25th,1950.2SouthKoreawassupportedbyaUnitedNations
coalitionoftwentyonecountriesledbytheUnitedStatesinordertocurbthespreadof
communism.WhiletheKoreanWarlastedonlythreeyears,millionsdied,andmillionsmore
weredisplaced.OnegroupthatmigratedasaresultoftheKoreanWarwasNorthKorean
soldiersinUnitedStatesprisonerofwar(POW)camps.AfterthearmisticewassignedinJulyof
1953,thePOWsweregiven90daystodecidewheretheywouldliketolive:NorthKorea,South
Korea,oraneutralcountry.3Kangwasessentiallystuckinacatch22hecouldnotreturnto
NorthKoreabecauseheranawayfromthearmyduetoideologicaldifferences,buthealsocould
notmovetoSouthKoreabecausehewasonceintheNorthKoreanPeoplesArmyandfeared

HiDongKang,"ReverendHiDongKang,"interviewbyDeannBorshayLiemandJTTakagi,Legaciesofthe
KoreanWar,May31,2015,accessedFebruary11,2016,
http://legaciesofthekoreanwar.org/wpcontent/uploads/2015/10/StoryReverendHiDongKangFIN.pdf.
2
AllanRMillett,"KoreanWar,"EncyclopediaBritannica,May8,2014,accessedMay13,2016,
http://www.britannica.com/event/KoreanWar.
3
MonicaKim,"HumanityInterrogated:Empire,Nation,andthePoliticalSubjectinU.S.andUNControlledPOW
CampsoftheKoreanWar,19421960,"PhDdiss.,TheUniversityofMichigan,2011,accessedFebruary24,2016,
https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/89851/monkim_1.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.

persecutionduetostigmafrombeinglabeledacommunist.IdentifyingwithneitherNorthnor
SouthKorea,Kangand75otherPOWsoptedforaneutralcountryinordertoescapethe
communistandanticommunisttensionsthatseemedtobringonlydeathanddestruction,andout
offearthatneitherNorthnorSouthKoreawouldkeepthemsafe.4
ThisnarrativechallengesthecontemporaryunderstandingofNorthandSouthKoreaand
theUnitedStatesroleintheKoreanWar.ContrarytothecurrentWesternnarrative,Korean
migrantsdidnotfleesimplybecauseofanoppressiveNorthKoreanregime,andtheKoreanWar
cannotbedistilledtoabattlebetweencommunismandanticommunism.Instead,thePOWs
migratedoutoffearofoppressionfrombothNorthandSouthKorea,andthesePOWshad
ideologicalstandpointsfallinginbetweenthepreviousnecessarilycommunistoranticommunist
dichotomy.Furthermore,thisstoryiscontrarytotheWesternnarrativethattheUnitedStates
roleintheColdWarwasasliberatorsofcommunistslavery.5Infact,theUnitedStatesCold
WarlensfosteredcommunistresentmentinSouthKoreaandLatinAmericathatinturnresulted
inthepersecutionofthesePOWsandtheirfrustratedattemptstomigratetoaneutralcountryin
seekingrefuge.
TheUnitedStateshadalargeroleinfosteringpervasiveanticommunistsentimentin
SouthKorea.DuringtheColdWar,theUnitedStatesimplementedcontainmentpolicies
wherebytheypropagatedanticommunisminordertohamperthespreadofSovietinfluenceand
communismoneexampleistheUnitedStatesinvolvementinKorea.TheUnitedStates
wantedaleaderinSouthKoreawhowouldalignhimselfwiththeWestandfurthertheir
containmentpoliciesin1948,undertheauthorityofGeneralMacArthur,theUnitedStatesaided
4

MonicaKim,309310.
HarrySTruman,"RadioandTelevisionAddresstotheAmericanPeopleontheSituationinKorea,"address,
accessedMay13,2016,http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=13561.
5

SyngmanRheeinbecomingthepresidentofSouthKorea.6Widelyrecognizedasapuppet
regimefortheUnitedStates,RheewasstronglyanticommunistandpassedtheNational
SecurityActin1948thatrenderedcommunismillegal.7By1949,Rheehadimprisonedthirty
thousandaccusedcommunistsundertheact.8Withinstitutionalanticommunistlegislationin
place,theSouthKoreangovernmentthenissuedanticommunistpropagandafilmswith
equipmentsuppliedbytheUnitedStatesinordertomanipulatepublicopinion.9Soon,asaresult
oftheUnitedStatesefforts,communismbecamestigmatizedinboththelegalandsocietal
arena.
TheimplicationsoftheUnitedStatesColdWarlensisexemplifiedinReverendHiDong
Kangsoralhistory.TendaysafterKangwasconscriptedbytheNorthKoreanPeoplesarmy,he
surrenderedhimselftoUnitedStatestroops.However,duetotheUnitedStateslackof
nuancedideologicalunderstanding,thearmysimplylabeledKangaredandthrewhimintothe
POWcampalongwiththousandsofothercapturedsoldiersandcivilians.AsKangexplains:
...inthePOWcamptherewerethreecategories:thosewhoreallycaughtbyU.S.
soldierorSouthKoreansoldierthosewhowereconscriptedintheSouth
(becauseSouthwasoccupiedbyNorthKoreanarmy,manypeoplewere
conscriptedtogointotheCommunistArmy)andthosewhowerenotthearmy
soldierscivilians.Sotherewerethreecategories.SoinPOWcamp,therewere

"SyngmanRhee,"NewWorldEncyclopedia,accessedMay11,2016,
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Syngman_Rhee.
7
JamesCottonandIanNeary,TheKoreanWarinHistory,AtlanticHighlands,NJ:HumanitiesPressInternational,
1989.
8
DianeKraft,"SouthKorea'sNationalSecurityLaw:AToolofOppressioninanInsecureWorld,"Wisconsin
InternationalLawJournal24,no.2,62759,accessedMay13,2016,
http://hosted.law.wisc.edu/wordpress/wilj/files/2012/02/kraft.pdf.
9
DarcyPaquet,"SouthKoreanFilmsAbouttheKoreanWar(195053):AToolforReference,"SouthKoreanFilms
AbouttheKoreanWar,accessedMay10,2016,http://www.koreanfilm.org/warfilms.htmlParkHyeYoungandYoo
Sungkwan,"KoreanAntiCommunistFilmsDuringtheColdWar,"KoreanFilmArchive,accessedMay14,2016,
https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/u/0/exhibit/koreananticommunistfilmsduringthecoldwar/wQwcpMQ
D?hl=en&position=46,0.

threekind[s]ofpeople.ButAmericans,theydon'tknowthisdelicatepsychology
sotheytreatallequal.10

KanghadsoughtrefugeinSouthKoreaandinsteadwasdetainedasaprisonerofwarforthree
andahalfyears.Thesecampswereextremelyovercrowdedandthepersonalhealthofeach
POWquicklyandseverelydeteriorated.11ThousandsofPOWsdiedduetotherampantspread
ofinfectionsuchastuberculosisanddysenteryKangrecallswakingonemorningtofindthat
twelvemenhaddiedinhistentovernight.12Moreover,duetothePOWsrestlessness,the
horribleconditionsofthePOWcampsandharboringideologicaltensions,therewasoften
violencebetweenPOWs.13
Understandably,afterbeingsubjectedtosuchatraumaticexperience,Kangandmany
otherPOWsfeltdisillusionedbytheUnitedStatesandSouthKorea.Kangfeltparticularly
mistreatedsincehewassimplyseekingrefuge,andyetwaslabeledacriminalandared.This
senseofdisillusionmentwasonereasonwhyKangandthe75otherPOWsfelttheycouldnot
stayinSouthKoreaafterthearmistice.14
Inaddition,thePOWsfearedpersecutionduetocommuniststigmaiftheyweretostayin
SouthKorea.15Kanghadseentheextenttowhichthefearofcommunismcoulddominatehe
hadbeendetainedinthePOWcampwithoutasecondthought.Fromalegalstandpoint,the
existenceoftheNationalSecurityActwhichallowedfortheimprisonmentofperceived
communistswouldnothavealleviatedhisfearsofpersecution,either.Fromasocietal

10

HiDongKang,9.
MyoungSoonLee,MinJungKang,andSunHuh,"CausesofDeathofPrisonersofWarduringtheKoreanWar
(19501953),"YonseiMedicalJournal54,no.2(March2013):48088,accessedFebruary17,2016,
http://www.eymj.org/Synapse/Data/PDFData/0069YMJ/ymj54480.pdfHiDongKang,5.
12
Lee.,CauseofDeath,4 80.HiDongKang,5.
13
Lee.,4 81HiDongKang,6.
14
Ibid,9.MonicaKim,309310.
15
HiDongKang,9.
11

standpoint,therewassocialstigmaattachedtohisaccentandNorthKoreanorigin.16AnnRhee
MenzierecallsgrowingupinSouthKoreaduringthepostwarperiod:...itwascommon
understandingthatifyourfatheroryourbrotherorsomebodywillinglywentuptoNorth,that
yourfamilyissortofredflaggedorbrandedasredsorwhatever.17Furthermore,Kang
explains,
...manyofmyfriendswhostayedinSouthKoreamanyofthem,theyhide
themselves,thattheywerePOWsbecausetheyfearedthatintheSouththeywere
beingdiscriminated.Oneofmyfriends,hewasapastornow[of]abigchurch.
WhenIwasgoingtothere,hetold,YoucannotmentionthatIwasPOW.18

TheinformationthatonehadlivedinNorthKoreaorhadbeenaPOWwasenoughtogranthim
orheracommunistlabel.Inpart,thiswasbecausetheUnitedStateswasextremelysuccessful
indisseminatingtheiranticommunistagendainSouthKorea.
Kangnowfoundhimselfinaparticularlyunfavorablesituation:hecouldnotstayin
SouthKoreaforallthereasonsoutlinedabove,buthealsocouldnotreturntoNorthKorea.In
additiontohisownunderstandableharboredresentmentsofNorthKorea(becausehewasforced
tofightinthearmyforacausehedidnotsupport,andespeciallysincehehadaheartcondition
thatshouldhaveexcusedhimfromthedraft),hewouldbelabeledatraitorforfleeingthearmy.19
Stuckbetweencompetingnationsandconflictingpoliticalideologies,Kangandthe75
otherPOWsbelievedthattheironlyremainingoptionwastomigratetoaneutralcountry.After

16

AnnRheeMenzie,"ReverendAnnRheeMenzie,"interviewbyDeannBorshayLiemandJTTagaki,Legaciesof
theKoreanWar,May29,2015,accessedMay14,2016,
http://legaciesofthekoreanwar.org/wpcontent/uploads/2015/10/StoryReverendAnnRheeMenzieTranscriptFIN.p
df.
17
Ibid.,9.
18
HiDongKang,9.
19
Ibid.,10.

thearmisticewassigned,Kangandthe75otherPOWsoptedtomovetoIndiaasaninterim
countrybeforetheycouldmovetoneutralLatinAmerica.
However,theUnitedStatescontainmentpolicyextendedtoLatinAmericaaswell.For
instance,theChurchCommitteeReportonCovertActionsinChile19631973revealsthe
UnitedStatesuseofcovertoperationsinChiletoissuepropagandaandattempttobringcertain
peopleintopowerthatwouldfurthertheiranticommunistagenda.20AsrecognizedbyFulgencio
Batista(theoncedemocraticallyelectedpresidentturneddictatorofCubafrom19401944and
19521959),theUnitedStateswouldsupportanyleader,nomatterdemocraticorauthoritarian,
solongastheymetasinglecriteria:anticommunist.21TheUnitedStatesmilitarilyand
monetarilysupportedmanyrepressiveregimes,suchasBatistainCuba,theSomozafamilyin
NicaraguaandTrujillointheDominicanRepublic,inordertohaveananticommunistleaderin
power.BecauseoftheUnitedStatesroleinbringingthesestrictanticommunistleadersinto
power,manyofthePOWsattemptstomigratetotheseLatinAmericancountrieswerefrustrated
duetotheirperceivedcommunisttiesjusthavingbeenintheNorthKoreanPeoplesarmy
immediatelylabeledthesePOWsasredsandthereforeunfittomigratetotheircountry.22Kang
explainsthat,...whenwewerestayinginIndiafortwoyears,nocountrywaswillingtoaccept
us.Atthattime,howIcansay,ourmindwassoconfusingwithoutknowingwhereweare
going,wherewecanlive,andeverythingisuncertain....justfullofsomething,anxiety,notthe
hopeorsomethinglikethat.23ThePOWshistoryofbeingconscriptedintotheNorthKorean

20

U.S.Senate,ChurchCommitteeReportonCovertActionsinChile,19631973,Overfield,JamesH.Sourcesof
TwentiethcenturyGlobalHistory.Boston:HoughtonMifflin,2002.
21
DanielR.BrowerandThomasSanders,TheWorldintheTwentiethCentury:TheAgeofGlobalWarand
Revolution.EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall,1988:336342.
22
MonicaKim,313315.
23
HiDongKang,10.

PeoplesArmyandthentheirattempttoescapecommunismwasallovershadowedbytheirmere
associationwiththeNorthKoreanPeoplesArmy.Inreality,thePOWscomplicatedhistorydid
notfitthisoversimplifiednarrativepropagatedbytheUnitedStatesColdWarmentality.
Finally,aftermanyrejectedpleas,afewLatinAmericancountriesagreedtoacceptthesePOWs.
55ofthe76POWs,includingKang,migratedtoBrazil.24
ThisnarrativechallengestheperceptionthattheUnitedStatesweretheliberatorsof
persecutedpeoplesduringtheColdWar.Infact,theUnitedStatesinvolvementinKoreaand
LatinAmericaduringthe1950sand1960srenderedKangisolatedfromhisfamily,statelessand
condemnedbyhishomecountry,andcreatedtheconditionsforthepersecutionandfrustrated
migrationattemptsofthesePOWs.
Furthermore,thisoralhistorynotonlyexhibitsthefarreachingimplicationsofthe
UnitedStatesattemptstofurthertheirownselfmotivatedpolicies,butexpandsthecurrent
understandingofwhypeoplemigrate.Insteadofmigratingforbettereconomicopportunitiesor
inordertofleefromimmediatedanger,these76POWsmigratedtoescapeperceiveddangerand
psychologicaltraumafromthewar.AsKangrecounts,...Ithought,toliveinSouthbeingso
closetotheNorth,itwillbemoreunhappy.Icangotoacountryfarawayfromthisbusiness.25
ThesePOWssimplywantedtodistancethemselvesfromthehorrorsoftheKoreanWarYeong
BokJu,anotherPOWwhomigratedtoIndia,explainedinhismemoir,Iwantedtogoanywhere
far,faraway.Iwantedtousemyhandstocultivatelandwheretherewasneitherrednorwhite
[communistnoranticommunist].26Intheend,Kangandthe75POWssoughtpsychological
refugetheywantedtobeatpeacefromthecompetingnationsandideologiesthatseemedto
24

MonicaKim,313314.
HiDongKang,9.
26
MonicaKim.,310.
25

causesomuchdestruction.However,duetotheUnitedStatesroleduringtheColdWar,Kang
andthe75otherPOWshopewasrenderedfutile,astheColdWarlensandideologicaltensions
followedthemeventhousandsofmilesfromhome.

Bibliography:

Brower,DanielR.,andThomasSanders.TheWorldintheTwentiethCentury:TheAgeofGlobal
WarandRevolution.EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall,1988.

Cotton,James,andIanNeary.TheKoreanWarinHistory.AtlanticHighlands,NJ:Humanities
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HyeYoung,Park,andYooSungkwan."KoreanAntiCommunistFilmsDuringtheColdWar."
KoreanFilmArchive.AccessedMay14,2016.
https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/u/0/exhibit/koreananticommunistfilmsduring
thecoldwar/wQwcpMQD?hl=en&position=46,0.

Hirst,Monica,andAndrewHurrell.TheUnitedStatesandBrazil:ALongRoadofUnmet
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LegaciesoftheKoreanWar.May31,2015.AccessedFebruary11,2016.
http://legaciesofthekoreanwar.org/wpcontent/uploads/2015/10/StoryReverendHiDong
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Kim,Monica."HumanityInterrogated:Empire,Nation,andthePoliticalSubjectinU.S.and
UNcontrolledPOWCampsoftheKoreanWar,19421960."PhDdiss.,TheUniversity
ofMichigan,2011.AccessedFebruary24,2016.
https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/89851/monkim_1.pdf?sequence
=1&isAllowed=y.

Kraft,Diane."SouthKorea'sNationalSecurityLaw:AToolofOppressioninanInsecure
World."WisconsinInternationalLawJournal24,no.2,62759.AccessedMay13,2016.
http://hosted.law.wisc.edu/wordpress/wilj/files/2012/02/kraft.pdf.

Lee,MyoungSoon,MinJungKang,andSunHuh."CausesofDeathofPrisonersofWarduring
theKoreanWar(19501953)."YonseiMedicalJournal54,no.2(March2013):48088.
AccessedFebruary17,2016.

Menzie,AnnRhee."ReverendAnnRheeMenzie."InterviewbyDeannBorshayLiemandJT
Tagaki.LegaciesoftheKoreanWar.May29,2015.AccessedMay14,2016.
9

http://legaciesofthekoreanwar.org/wpcontent/uploads/2015/10/StoryReverendAnnRhe
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Paquet,Darcy."SouthKoreanFilmsAbouttheKoreanWar(195053):AToolforReference."
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http://www.koreanfilm.org/warfilms.html.

"SyngmanRhee."NewWorldEncyclopedia.AccessedMay11,2016.
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Truman,HarryS."RadioandTelevisionAddresstotheAmericanPeopleontheSituationin
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http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=13561.

U.S.Senate,ChurchCommitteeReportonCovertActionsinChile,19631973,Overfield,
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10