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uwv|~s2nu v {
=
a(u0)
=
au,
n
ks e u u ~ qFv| Fv 4{-9 }w|4v x
}w|
ks a0 = 0 w
x
2
354}6)798 ;: 7=< ?>:th 7
Z('~U`R^`_b^`_ba2\abU`^`^`_b WY;YWx n=nqFv v u v V a

e (1)v = v x
e } au = 0 ~ qFv | 4{ a = 0 v u = 0 x
}r}r} x F au = av Z J a 6= 0 DJ]QS@J Z Dx u = v
}r x .F au
Z @J u 6= 0 DJQS@J Z Dx a = b
= bu
bK
v { qt=n
gf e (a)u = a(u) = (au)

fRe
= (u)(v)
fR e (uv)
DXQ Z
uu = 2u uuu = 3u
{F t k
s qFv n {#4{ q=n { o9Fvgo9} 4 n 94{# v 9 o ~j9~ 9 un 9j }w|~}w
unvgo =ng|~}w jo*vguwvwk
s e{ synur} 9 u {Fe qt} ~j9 ndqFv v yx xx
Z(~' UkX]Hiba\UU`\V]HP9^`_ba2\w* U`^ySVaR_bPjibU`\fY
lyx
o9 |~} { n
|4v a K} |4v un { vgo =ng|~}wv j4{ s { s2nu 4{9

{
9~j {0
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yx x
n v { { n v {
`s e{ } u, v K n u, v { v 9 un vgtn u = (b
1

o*vguwvw
ks p
b . . . b ) v = (c c . . . c ),
Ks9nn= {(a1 , an 2 ,n . . . , o9
aFnv )
2
@n
ks9p {F vg {F tynw
ks e{F |~s9o9u undu ~9 un| t=n s9=n x
| F|Vn 9 u| Fv x
z u u ~ qFv e v 0 9 K n 4{ un ~j n n 9 | Fv {l 0 = (0, 0, . . . , 0)
def
v+u = (c1 , c2 , . . . , cn )+(b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ) = (c1 +b1 , c2 +b2 , . . . , cn +bn ).
| F|Vn 9 u} { v
n=ndqFv v u K n, } { q
q=nu$
ks { }
{z
n
u0 = u
u = (a1 , . . . , an ),
x
u = (a1 , . . . , an ) = (a1 , . . . , an )
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F|~}w|~}wvundo9ts 2n 9e urun {Vx
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9
k4{ q e4
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1
n ) = (aa1 , . . . , aan )
g|~}rur 1 ,~a 2q , .
`. .s , aau
9 n@
`s9p {F vg ={ au
tgn = a(a
x
Kn
def
354 qr6/78 ;: < ?>:th

mvgB9} n j vdun { v { vgo =ng|~}wv j4{{F
`s Q{F
o9Fvgo9} 4 n 94{ 2|4v |~urs Tk~j v {F `
s K 4{ s yx xx
|~s9o9u ~ un {09 {
xz &u |4v s qFv 9*2 |.+2n {

{ vg9 s o9un v|4v vgt}r ~ |4vg 9 2ntvun {
vgo =ng|~}wv j4{ s { s2nu 4{ 9{ s9n i u ~9 uKo2n=nu uwvgy=n v j s9urqt}ro9ur}w|Vn
|~}w o;vgs X/ Fv|4vgo9u v
i xz{B } 9~ q
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vgo =ng|~}w { s9n {F |~s9o9u unu z~=|9 z u|ne| t=n s9=n un { o9Fvgo9} 4 n 94{
|4vgt 4{ o*v j } ~ q 4{ n k4{ q=n i qt=ng| [ *2 .| +2n {&~ s o9un v|4v vgt}r ~ |4vg 9
no9urd}
ks unDu ~9 uo2n=nu uwvgy=n v j x
ns9urqt}ro9ur}w|Vng|~}w "9 s n *2 .| +2n o*vg
s ) Fv|4vgo9u tv z =
4{ } q 4{ n q qFv n u
ks #nu nur^} uTn 4{ q=nvgo =ng|~}w | z |
|nzs9 | ei q=nv } } s
~
{ f unn }rqts 9 un *2 .| +2n ei Fvgq=nvy}r=nn
un *2 ,| +2n ~ s ys9uwv |4v 4{ o |~qFvn { sXo;v { }w|~}w } }w|~}nuo9s 4{ qFv
ks un yun 4{ q= n n@(qFv n { un { o9Fvgo9} 4 n 94{ |4v 4{ o |~qFvnuo9Fv

v
ks u;|4v s qFv 9 *2 .| +2n { n q 4{
sj|~qFv {= |~s9o9u ~ g|~}rur ~ q yx2 vgKuwP
~ |~}wv n v 4{ s yx x9{ vg9 uwv { |4vgo9u tv {Vx
3
@x v {
|4v
o;vg
;o vgur} vg}wv { |4v

un { vgo =ng|~}wv j4{
4{ |Vnun 4{ vgtn
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s { s2nu 4{Q9B{ s9n 9 o*vgur} vg}wv {Q
s9urqt}ro9ur}w|Vng|~}w
s yx x9{ vg9 K x
3
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|4v
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0
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nu 4{
+by
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s
4{ |Vnun x
v
ks B u(|4v s qFv 9D{ vgursj|~}wv j4{ |~s9o9u |4v un
| t=n s9=n@
z{ |~unF
n
ks { } { v { vgursj|~}wv j4{9 un |~s2ng|~}w + q=nB9} k~
4{{ vgursj|~}w 14{ q=n 2 urqt}rnn tng|~}w {F vg {F tynnu { s 1{ qt}rqts9}r2 +

~ un |~s2ng|~}w no9ur}w|Vnun 9 t}rgng|~}w |4vgt 4{ o*v j } ~ q &un {19 2{
o9Fvgo9} 4 n 94{ |4v 4{ o |~qFvnDun { s9n {= |~s9o9u ~ qtt}r}nur ~ q yx
mv 4{ o |~qFvnu9o9Fv sj|~qFveo;vg#s 4{ |Vnun { }
4{#{ vgursj|~}w
9 un |~s2ng|~}w v {
ks s q=n9} k~4{D{ svgursj|~C}w { 1s { qt}rqts f~j v
1
~ un |~s2ng|~}w v { n
s
1
(s1 )00 + a(s1 )0 + b(s1 ) = s001 + as01 + bs1

= s[001 + a01 + b1 ]
= s0
= 0.
n {9 { o9Fvgo9} 4 n 94{ |4v 4{ o |~qFvBnuo9Fv sj|~qFv { v } 4 } nq=n {Tx

gv &q=n qFv9 u|4v s qFv 9 { vgursj|~}wv j4{9 un |~s2ng|~}w } ~ |~}nu 4 { s
yx x |4vgo9u tv x
3
354}6)798 ;: 7=< ?>:th 7
xz u2|4v s qFv V = {0} uj|~s2nu2|4v j{ } { q 9 s { vguwv u ~ qFv9`|4v unvgo

=ng|~}w s { s2nu 9{ s9n o9Fv sj|~qFv 9 s u ~ qFv 9 K o*vg| Fv 4{ s
yx xyx
xz uH|4v s qFv 9D u ~ qFv {e9 R2
ks o9 4{=~ q=nno9s qFv {
`s D{FD~@
|~s ~ qt=n
{ vg9 s n |~q=n%
ks o2n { no;vg ujvgt}r ~ f2ntvun { vgo =ng|~}wv j4{
s { s2nu 4{9{ s9n 9 o2n Fn { o9Fv sj|~qFv 9 s 4{ |Vnuno;vgs no2n Fn@
vgtnds yx x
v { qt=ng|~}w n
e
V = {(x, y) R2 | y = x, = cte.}
{= t v {
n u = (x , y ) v = (x , y ) V, o;vgo9Fvg2nB
`s
2
2
n v
{ 1 1
V,
u+v
u + v = (x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 , x1 ) + (x2 , x2 )

= (x1 + x2 , x1 + x2 ) = (x1 + x2 , (x1 + x2 )) V.
e
{F t v {
`s e{F |~s9o9u undu ~ |4v Bs9q=nqt}rgn
n u = (x , y ) v = (x , y ) V Vo*vgo9Fvg2no
`s
2 2
n v { 1 1
u+v =
=
=
=
u+v = v+u
(x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 , x1 ) + (x2 , x2 )

(x1 + x2 , x1 + x2 ) = (x2 + x1 , x2 + x1 )
(x2 , x2 ) + (x1 , x1 )
v + u.
e {F t v {
ks e{F |~s9o9u undu ~ n { v|~}nqt}rgn
o;vgo9Fvg2n
n
, y ) v = (x , y )9 nw =
(x
,y ) V
`
s uu+=(v(x+ w)
v

{

= (u + v) + w
1
u + (v + w) = (x1 , x1 ) + (x2 + x3 , (x2 + x3 ))
fg e
fg e
=
=
=
=
(x1 + (x2 + x3 ), x1 + (x2 + x3 ))

((x1 + x2 ) + x3 , (x1 + x2 ) + x3 )
[x1 + x2 , (x1 + x2 )] + (x3 , x3 )
(u + v) + w.
z( } { q ~ |~}n 9 u u ~ qFv| Fv ~Dx

z u u ~ qFv (0, 0) R2 q=n9} k~D4{ q= ~ n-
ks
o*vg&uww
v
`s o2n=ndqFv n u = (x, y) V
(0, 0) = (0, 0)
z( } u{ q +~ 0|~}=n 9(x,
u} x)
+{ v (0, 0) = (x + 0, x + 0) = (x, x) = u.
vgo9Fvg2n
ks e{ } u V } { q u0 V @q=nu&
ks u + u0 = 0 x
354 qr6/78 ;: < ?>:th

353
n u = (x, y) V #o;vg uwvk
s u = (x, y) = (x, x) =
q=n9} ~k 4{ q= ~ V
(x, x)
u + (u) = (x, x) + (x, x) = (x + (x), x + (x))

= (0, 0) = e.
e
mv 4{ o |~qFvnDun vgo =ng|~}w o9Fv sj|~qFvo;vgs 4{ |Vnun

{= t v {
ks o2n=ndqFv v u = (x, y) V a R,
n v {
e
au V,
ax) = (ax,
V.
o2n=x)
nqFv = v (ax,
vax)
au {F= ta(x,
v y){
k=s a(x,
u
=
(x
,
y
)
=
(x
1 1
2 , y2 ) V

n

a R a(u + v) = au + av
a(u + v) = a[(x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 )] = a[(x1 , x1 ) + (x2 , x2 )]
e
=
=
=
=
a[x1 + x2 , x1 + x2 ] = [a(x1 + x2 ), a(x1 + x2 )]

[ax1 + ax2 , ax1 + ax2 ] = (ax1 , ax1 ) + (ax2 , ax2 )
a(x1 , x1 ) + a(x2 , x2 )
au + av.
{F t v { k
s o2n=ndqFv v u = (x , y ) V
1 1
@ n v {
(a + b)u = au + bu
a, b K
(a + b)u = (a + b)(x1 , y1 )
fg e
=
=
=
=
=
=
(a + b)(x1 , x1 )
((a + b)x1 , (a + b)x1 )
(ax1 + bx1 , ax1 + bx1 )
(ax1 , ax1 ) + (bx1 , bx1 )
a(x1 , x1 ) + b(x1 , x1 )
au + bu.
{F t v { `
s o2n=nqFv v
n v {
a(bu) = (ab)u,
u = (x, y) V
a, b R
a(bu) = a[b(x, x)] = a(bx, bx) = (abx, abx)
fg e
= (ab)(x, x)
= (ab)u.
{F t v {
ks o2n=ndqFv v
n v {
1u = u,
u = (x, y) V
1 R,
1u = 1(x, x) = (1x, 1(x)) = (x, x) = u.

3
}(9} ~4{ |~} tqFv

ks B u#|4v s qFv 9D u ~ qFv {9 2
ks o9
F{ ~ q=ndno9s qFv {
ks 4{ q= { vg9 un |~q=n y = x vgtRns yx x v
qFv vB|4v s qFv 9 o9s qFv {
ks K4{ q=
{ vg9 s ne |~q=n vgtns
yx x
2nv un { vgo =ng|~}wv j4{9j } n {&~ R2 x
3q
354}6)798 ;: 7=< ?>:th 7

z{ |~unFv
`s o2n=no9Fvg2n
`s s |4v s qFv 4{ s yx x{F
ks9}
|4vgo9Fvg2nuwv { }
u n }wvgn {9 un 9j }w|~}w ~ s9qts9=n {
9 v { qt=ng|~}wv j4{ { guwv {F |4vgo9Fvg2n= n@2k
s uruwv { n }wvgt n {
`s o2n
uV|Vn ~ v {K } 9~ q 4{Tx
xz u0|4v s qFv 9 u ~ qFv {9 R `
s o9 4{F~ q=nno9s qFv {{ vg9 s
o9un vzk
s o2n { n
o*vg u#vgt}r ~ ;2ntvun { vgo =ng|~}wv j4{ s { s2nu 4{9d{ s9n
9 qttpn n { o9Fv sj|~qFv 9 s 4{ |Vnuno*vg&s nDqttpn n@ vgtnDs yx xx
v { qt=ng|~}w n
a
V = {(x, y, z) R3 | y = ax + by + cz = 0, a, b, c R, fijos}
z ung|~}w nDun { s9n x

e {= t v {
n u = (x , y , z ) v = (x , y , z ) V o*vgo9Fvg2nz
`s
2 2 2
@ 1n v1
{ 1
u+v V
k4{ q=n 4{ s nDqttpn np
ks e{Fe~ |~s ~ qt=n ~
nw
`s
u + v = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) + (x2 , y2 , z2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 , z1 + z2 )

V
a(x1 + x2 ) + b(y1 + y2 ) + c(z1 + z2 )

= ax1 + ax2 + by1 + by2 + cz1 + cz2
fg e
= (ax1 + by1 + cz1 ) + (ax2 + by2 + cz2 )

0 + 0 = 0.
o;vg
n u = (x, y, z) V, u ==(x,
u o*z)
vgvgqt=n
v 9 y,
{ s9n 9 qttpn n {{ n v { ks u 4{
y, uKz)} = { (x,
o2ntq ks v { vg {F tyn { } u { nqt} { ng| un |~s2ng|~}w X9 uo9un v9
uwv |~s2nu } q
&
4 {K 9~ yx
uo9Fv sj|~qFvo;vgs 4{ |Vnun x
e {= t v {
ks o2n=nqFv n
@ n v
{
u V
u = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) V
P
w
u
|~s =qt=(x,
n vg9y, z) u=o9un (x,
v9 y,
n kz)
s
`k4{ q=n 4{ s nqttpn n

`s
{F~@
nBo9ts a(x)
n }wvg=n (ax
v = F0
|~}w|~}w=vn0.u*u |~qFvg x
2n 9 +uwv b(y)
{09 + { c(z)
{0{F9+ FnDby|4vg+ cz)
} 2ntfv vBqFv v { uwv { |4v s qFv {09 R3 /
`s o9 4{F~ q=n no9s qFv {
{ vg9 s o9un v9 vgtn s yx xx
xz uK|4v s qFv 9 s |~}wv j4{ |4v qt} s2n { W, 9j } n {{ vg9 u} q tgnuwv
92ntvun { vgo =ng|~}wv j4{ s { s2nu 4{&9{ s9n 9e s |~}wv j4{K o9Fv
[a,
b]
R
sj|~qFv 9 s 4{ |VnunK nuo;vgs n s |~}w vgtnDs yx xx
v { qt=ng|~}w n F, G W R { n v {
`s p
(F + G)x = F (x) + G(x)
(F )x = (F (x))
354 qr6/78 ;: < ?>:th
31
e {= t v {
`s uneu ~ 9 un| t=n s9=nD|4v 4{ o |~qFvDnunBn }w|~}w
{F |~s9o9u nP
ks un { s9n 9Q s |~}wv j4{ |4v qt} s2n {Q4{ |4v qt} s2n x
fg e s 4{ qtFv u ~ qFvd} 9~ qt} n 4{ un s |~}w | FvBq=nu
ks 0(x) =
x
0
fg e z u} { v 9 F 4{ F q=nu
`s w (F )x = (F (x))
n {K9 { o9Fvgo9} 4 n 94{{F t} |Vn g|~}rur ~ q yx
xz u|4v s qFv 9 nqtt}w| 4{9 r ~ yuwv j4{ s |4vgurs9 n {{ vg9 R { }rB*v

ur}ûTn vo*vg M (R) y2ntveun { vgo =ng|~}wv j4{ s { s2nu 4{9K{ s9n 9 nqtt}w| 4{
o9Fv sj|~qFv 9rs s 4{ |VnunKo;vgs ndnqtt}û|4v j{ qt}rqts f s yx xx
Q v { qt=ng|~}w j n (a ) (b ) M (R) R { n v {
ij
ij
rs
ks w

ks
x
def
def
(aij ) + (bij ) = (aij + bij )
(aij ) = (aij )
mv 4{ o |~qFvnDun { s9n
e {= t v {
`s un
u ~9 | t=n s9=n {F |~s9o9u qtt}rk}nur ~ q 9
un 9j }w|~}w 9e{ s9n 9 nqtt}w| 4{Vx
fg e z u| Fv|4vgt 4{ o;v j9 n@n
`s urun
nqtt^} u 0 Mrs(R) |4v j{ qt}rqts9} n
o*vg| Fv {Vx
uo9Fv sj|~qFvo;vgs 4{ |Vnun
e {= t v {
ks un u ~9 un | t=n s9=n {F{ }rys B9 un 9j }w|~}w
9 o9Fv sj|~qFvo*vgs 4{ |Vnun x
n {&9 { o9Fvgo9} 4 n 94{&{F t} |Vn g|~}rur ~ q yx
Z('~U`R^`_b^`_ba2\acbU`^f^k_h*"WY;Y
z# uwv {B{ }rys9} ~ q 4{ o9Fvg9u n { 9 q t} j |~s2 j v u|4v s qFv n v 4{ s
yx x ~ |Vn { v 9e v {= tuwv9 {FX W nu uwv { n }wvgn {
ks v {F |~s9o9u ~x
lyxz uK|4v s qFv S = {(a, b) R2 : a 0} H2ntvun { vgo =ng|~}wv j4{ 9
{ s9n 9 o2n tn1 {& o9Fv sj|~qFv 9 s 4{ |Vnuno*vgKs nDo2n Fn x
xz u|4v s qFv S = {(a, b) R2 : a = b} 2nvDun { vgo =ng|~}wv j4{ s { s2nu 4{
9{ s9n o9Fv 2 sj|~qFv 9 s 4{ |VnunKo*vgs no2n tn x
@xz u|4v s qFv 9 nqtt}w| 4{ }nfv nu 4{9 n n @2ntvunvgo =ng|~}w o9Fv
sj|~qFv 9 nqtt}w| 4{K o9Fv sj|~qFv 9 s 4{ |VnunKo;vgs ndnqtt^} u x
jxz uk|4v s qFv 9 o*vgur} vg}wv {H9 y=n v|~} |4vK2ntvun { vgo =ng|~}wv j4{ s { s2nu 4{
9{ s9n 9 o;vgur} vg}wv {K o9Fv sj|~qFv 9 s 4{ |VnunKo;vgs o*vgur} vg}wv x
xz u|4v s qFv 9 o;vgur} vg}wv {9 y=n v|~} |4v|4v q k t} v} j9 o ~j } ~ q
n vg!
ks | Fv992ntvdun { vgo =ng|~}wv j4{&9 u F|~}w|~}wv jx
xz u|4v s qFv 9 o;vgur} vg}wv {9 y=n v|~} |4v|4v q k t} v} j9 o ~j } ~ q
}rys2nuHnd| Fv992nv un { vgo =ng|~}wv j4{9 u F|~}w|~}wv jx
xz uH|4v s qFv 9 s |~}wv j4{ |4v qt} s2n {e9j } n {e~ u} q tynuwv| t=n v
q=nu
ks { } f 4{ s n 9 urun { |4v f (a) = f (b) = 0 2ntvun {
[a, b]
3S2
354}6)798 ;: 7=< ?>:th 7
vgo =ng|~}wv j4{ s { s2nu 4{e9d{ s9n 9B s |~}wv j4{ o9Fv sj|~qFv 9 s 4{ |Vnun
;o vgs n s |~}w x
xz u(|4v s qFv 9B s |~}wv j4{ |4v qt} s2n {~ uH} q tynuwv| t=n v [a, b] *q=nu
ks d{ } f 4{ s n 9d urun { f (c) = 0 |4v a < c < b *2ntvun { vgo =ng|~}wv

j4{ s { s2nu 4{Q9B{ s9n 9 s |~}wv j4{ o9Fv sj|~qFv 9 s 4{ |VnunQo*vgs n
s |~}w x
xz u|4v s qFv 9 o9s qFv {&~ R3 { }rqts2n v {{ vg9 und |~q=n
0},
2ntvun { vgo =ng{3x
|~}wv j4{ ys { s23nu =4{d09
{s9n y 9 3zqttpn 3n =
{d o9Fv sj|~qFv 9 s
4{ |VnunKo*vgs nqttpn n x
lV@xz u`|4v s qFv 9( s |~}wv j4{ |4v qt} s2n {Q9 t}ryn9u 4{~ uy} q tgnuwv| t=n v
22nvun { vgo =ng|~}wv j4{ s { s2nu 4{9{ s9n 9e s |~}wv j4{ o9Fv sj|~qFv
[a,
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3
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v { qt=n v {
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6
ij
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11
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2
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2
a3
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a2 = 0
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a3
=
0
a
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2
xch v { qt=np
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9
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354 2o ~ 8 ~ * 8 ~~~ Ng~}9 7 7= * 7 ;t

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1 + A2 )v = A1 v + A2 v
x (A
(aA1 )v = a[A1 (v)]
4{F9 urs fvnXunno9ur}w|Vng|~}w v u ~ qFv| Fv 9 V ~ W, unXo;v 9 v {
v
ks nqFv v
uwvn j nnu| Fv 9 W t 4{ q
9j }rV|4vg v@n
`s u#no a
u ~ qFv o;vguwvd ~j =nu {Fe{ }rB*vgur^} uTno*vgv Ox V
u u ~ qFv} { vn }rqt}rfv 9 s nno9ur}w|Vng|~}w A : V W uwv { }rB*vgur}
uTn v { o;vg A @q=n$u
`s A A = O x
v
ks ve2n { q=n 9j }run { s9n D ujo9Fv sj|~qFvo;vg#s 4{ |VnunV 4{
4{F9 urs f
j | 4{ nt}wvd|4vgo9Fvg2n
ks un { s9n 9 no9ur}w|Vng|~}wv j4{ ur} j nu 4{ u*o9Fv sj|~qFv 9 s
4{ |VnunHo;vgs nQno9ur}w|Vng|~}w fn { pk|4vg v u@| Fv B uk} { v 9 s nno9ur}w|Vng|~}w t { v
no9ur}w|Vng|~}wv j4{ ur} j nu 4{ n 9 {9
`s D{F |~s9o9u ~ u( 4{ qFv 9 un { o9Fvgo9} 4 n 94{
ks B9jj~ s yx xx; u 4{ o2ng|~}wv |~qFvgt}nu 9 un { no9ur}w|Vng|~}wv j4{9 V ~ W {F

u e{ }rB*vgur^} uTno*vg Hom(V, W ).
|4v qt} s2ng|~}w o9Fvg2n v {
}
A1 , A2 Hom(V, W )
~ qFv | 4{
(A1 + A2 ) Hom(V, W )
q4 #8 ;:t~ 7 g~ 7
v { qt=ng|~}w n
u ~ qFv { |~s2n
W) v ,v
u 4{
ks9} =n 9 V a K x` vg0Ao9Fvg2nAk
s Hom(V,
(A + A )(v x + v ) = (A + A )v +

`s (A + A )(av ) = a(A
+ A )v
(A
+
A
)v
v|~s2nu {F |~s9o9u nP
ks p
1
(A1 + A2 )(v1 + v2 ) = A1 (v1 + v2 ) + A2 (v1 + v2 )

= A 1 v1 + A 1 v2 + A 2 v1 + A 2 v2
= A 1 v1 + A 2 v1 + A 1 v2 + A 2 v2
= (A1 + A2 )v1 + (A1 + A2 )v2 .
`
s
(A1 + A2 )(av1 ) = A1 (av1 ) + A2 (av1 ) = aA1 (v1 ) + aA2 (v1 )

= a[A1 (v1 ) + A2 (v1 )] = a[(A1 + A2 )v1 ]
= a(A1 + A2 )v1 .
Z('~U`R^`_b^`_ba2\x
e Fvg2n!
`s o2n=ndqFv n
aK
A Hom(V, W )
~ qFv | 4{
e (aA)
`s unnWo9ur}w).|Vng|~}w v u ~ qFv 0 Hom(V, W ) x

Fvg2n[Hom(V,
e Fvg2n[
`s u} { vn }rqt}rfv 9 s n no9ur}w|Vng|~}w 4{ s n
no9ur}w|Vng|~}w
ur} j nu x
}9} ~4{ |~} tqFv`
s
4{ s yx x 4{ } j{ qttsj|~qt}rfv 9 q t} nen
uwv ~ v { s n2n {F un }rHom(V,
~j{ }w W9&) }w|.+jv 4{ o2ng|~}wv9n q 4{99 q t} n k4{ q=n
9 v { qt=n v { u { }rys9} ~ q u n
`
s 4 nX|4vgo9u q=n ~ q
UPx & n no9ur}w|Vng|~}w ur} j nu
9 q t} n n|~s2n j v {F |4v v| ~ un { A}r Hom(V,
~j4{ 2nvWA) 9 s nd2n {Fe9 V x
Q v { qt=ng|~}w @ n v { k
s 4{ q=nn tng|~}w 4{ |~} tq=n x n } s n
2n {F9 V A Hom(V, W ) q=nu&k
s |4v vk| v { {A(v ), A(v ), {v
. . . , A(v )}
o;vguwvBk
s v V v = a v +a v + +a v A(v) = A[a v +(a
v + +
x
a v )] 0 a Av + A(a v + + a v ) 0 = a Av + a Av + + a Av
s 4{ qFvk
s |4v v| v {
4{ qFv { }r } |Vnk
s |4v vk| v { uwvk
s
2+ ng| A nD|~s2nudk
s9} u ~ qFv {A(v
9 V)}|4vg vDs nd|4v j{F |~s ~ |~}n 94{ q 4{ s9urq=n v
q ~j v {
q=nuok
s
|4v i = 1, 2, . . . , n,
}q=nB9} ~
) = B(v )
o;vg uu n n q Bt}wvg Hom(V,
{F }ro9ur}w|VWnp)k
s A = A(v
x
B
n
i i=1
1 1
n n
2 2
2 2
n n
n n
n
i=1
1 1
2 2
mv j{ qtts n v { n|4v qt} s2ng|~}w s nd2n F{ 2o n=n u|4v s qFv 9 no9ur}w|Vng|~}wv j4{
n j n u ~ qFv {9 V ~ W x
n 2n {F
n {v }n s n2n {F9 V {w }r s D
9 W q=nu&
ks w
ks v {
i i=1
11 (v1 ) = w1 ,
j j=1
21 (v1 ) = 0 ,
...,
n1 (v1 ) = 0 .
q4;3 S~~;:t~ 7
13
11x (v2 ) = 0
x21 (v2 ) = w1
x n1 (v2 ) = 0 .
11 (vn ) = 0
21 (vn ) = 0
n1 (vn ) = w1 .
12 (v1 ) = w2 ,
12x (v2 ) = 0
22 (v1 ) = 0 ,
x22 (v2 ) = w2
12 (vn ) = 0
22 (vn ) = 0
1r (v1 ) = wr ,
1rx (v2 ) = 0
2r (v1 ) = 0 ,
x2r (v2 ) = wr
1r (vn ) = 0
2r (vn ) = 0
xx
xx
xx
...,
xx
xxx
xx
0
wi
n2 (v1 ) = 0 .
x n2 (v2 ) = 0 .
xx
n2 (vn ) = w2 .
...,
xx
o;vguwvdq=n qFv+ v { |4v j{ qtts9} v

ji vk
xx
nr
si j 6= k
si j = k
nr (v1 ) = 0 .
x nr (v2 ) = 0 .
xx
nr (vn ) = wr .
qt=n j{ vgtng|~}wv j4{9 un vgtn

con j = 1, . . . , n
con i = 1, . . . , r
= wi kj
n v {
`s q=nu 4{ qt=n j{ vgtng|~}wv j4{ vgtn s n02n {F Vo2n=n0uwvK|~s2nu j | 4{ }rq=n v {
o9Fvg2n
Fz{ q=
F9F ~j =n
F9F{ v xx
v { qt=ng|~}w
F
|~s9o9u qtt}rk}nur ~ q o;vgun vgtn ~ k

s d4{ q= 9j } n { n 9 {e9
4{ q=n9} ~9j } n {Vx
Q v { qt=ng|~}w F9F
nd|~s2nud
ks9} A Hom(V, W ) { }
v {
2
A
ng|~qts2n { vg9 s n2n {Fe9
P
A(v1 ) = a11 w1 + a21 w2 + + ar1 wr = rj=1 aj1 wj
P
A(v2 ) =x a12 w1 + a22 w2 + + ar2 wr = rj=1x aj2 wj
xx
9 q=nun j
p
w
A(vn ) = a1n w1 + a2n w2 + + arn wr =

=n `s Av = Pr aj w
k
j=1 k j
xx
Pr
j
j=1 an wj
@q ~j
1q
B=
Pr
i=1
Pn
j=1
q4 #8 ;:t~ 7 g~ 7
2+ n` v { uwvng|~qts2n
a
i j
j i
B(vk ) = [
r X
n
X
aij ji ] vk =
i=1 j=1
n
r X
X
aij ji vk =
i=1 j=1
r
X
{ vg9
r X
n
X
vk
=
`s 4 j v v {
(aij ji )vk
i=1 j=1
n
r
XX
aij wi kj
i=1 j=1
aik wi
n
`s Av = Bv }ro9ur}w|VnP
`s |~s2nud
ks9}
un { n r nko9ur}w|Vng|~}wv kj4{ ur} j nu 4{9 un vgtn
i=1
A Hom(V, W )
{ij }i=1,...,n
j=1,...,r .
4{ ~j =n vDo;vg
Q v { qt=ng|~}w F9FF
vg urqt}r v n v {
ks { v xx ;o2n=nuwv|~s2nu|4v j{ qtts9}r v { unno9ur}w|Vng|~}w
| Fv9j|4vg v s nd|4vg9} ng|~}w ur} j nu 9 un n r {i } x
j
Pm Pr
j i o;vguwvp
ks w
0=
c
i=1
j=1 i
0 = 0(vk ) = (
r
m X
X
cji ij )vk =
cjk wj
r
m X
X
(cji ij )vk =
cjk = 0
+2ng|~} ~j vQuwv} { v&o2n=nqFv v { uwv { o;v { }r9u 4{ gnuwvg 4{(9

j=1
un
cik = 0
|4v
i = 1, . . . , r
k = 1, . . . , n
vg&|~s9o9ur}r {FwF F9FF9FF 9 |~}r v { k

s
x
Hom(V, W )
mvg vs |4vgFvgunt}wv q ~j v {
ks
r
m X
X
cji wj ki
i=1 j=1
i=1 j=1
i=1 j=1
r
X
gvg {F tyn v {
`s qFv n {
{ v xx x
k
j j=1,...,n
{i }i=1,...,r
j=1,...,n
{ji }i=1,...,r
vgtn s n2n {Fe9
D[Hom(V, W )] = D(V )D(W )
Z('~U`R^`_b^`_ba2\acbU`^f^k_h* YWx
z# uwv { F|~}w|~}wv {({ }rys9} ~ q 4{(9 q t} j{ }ùnKqt=n j{ vgtng|~}w k
s v { } j }w|Vn
4{ v vds nqt=n j{ vgtng|~}w ur} j nu x
lyx n A : C M (R) 9j } no*vg
22
A(a + ib) =
a b
b a
x n
q4;3 S~~;:t~ 7
Re : C R 2
151
9j } n o*vg
Re (a + ib) = (a, b)
@x n T , T , T , T , T , T , T qt=n j{ vgtng|~}wv j4{Q9

} n { *o vg1 2 3 4 5 6 7
S&e T [(a, b)] = (ca, cb), c R.

?&e T [(a, b)] = (b, a)
S&e T [(a, b)] = (a, 0)
fg?&e T [(a, b)] = (0, b)
fg?&e T [(a, b)] = (b, a)
fR?&e T [(a, b)] = (a + 1, b + 1)
fR S&e T [(a, b)] = (a + b, a b)
R2
R2
jx n
x n
x n
x n
x n
n no*vg
A : Mrn Mrs
A(aij ) = (aij )(bij ) con (bij ) Mnr
A : Mnn Mnn
n ndo;vg
A(aij ) = (aij )T (aij )
A : M31 M31
n ndo;vg
A(aij ) = (Rij )(aij )
cos
(Rij ) = 0
n vo;vg sen
A : P 4 P3
siendo
0 sen
1
0
0 cos
A(a0 x4 + a1 x3 + a2 x2 + a3 x + a4 ) = 4a0 x3 + 3a1 x2 + 2a2 x + a3
x n
lV@x n
lylyx n
l x n
n vo;vg
A : Pn Rn+1
A[a0 xn + a1 xn1 + + an ] = (a0 , a1 , . . . , an )
A : R 3 P2
n vo;vg
A(a0 , a1 , a2 ) = a0 x2 + a1 x + a2
A : C[0, 1] C[0, 1]
n no*vg
A[f (x)] = f (x) + 1
A : C[0, 1] C
n ndo;vg
A[f (x)] =
n vo;vg
f (x)dx
Tr : Mnn (K) K
Tr (aij ) =
lV@x n
n
X
i=1
T rans : Mnn (K) Mnn (K)
aii
n vo*vg
T rans(aij ) = (aij )T
99
12
l~jx n
l x n
q4 #8 ;:t~ 7 g~ 7
A : C 1 [0, 1] [0, 1]
n no*vg
A[f (x)] = f 0 (x)
A : Mnn R
n nDo;vg
z uwv {{ }rys9} ~ q 4{ F|~}w|~}wv {e9 q t} j vg k tq t}w|Vn ~ q unng|4|~}w 9

unqt=n j{ vgtng|~}w x
l x n T : R2 R2 n ndo;vg
A[(aij )] = det[(aij )]
S&e T [(x, y)] = (x, y)

?&e T [(x, y)] = (x, y)
S&e T x = x 0
y
0 y
fg?&e T x = x 0
0 y
y
cos sen
fg?&e T xy = sen
cos
fR?&e
fR S&e

0
x
0 y
0
0 1
z
z

1
0
0
x
x
T y = 0 cos sen y
0 sen
cos
z
z

x
1 0 0
x
T y = 0 1 0 y
z
0 0 1
z

x
1
0 0
x
T y = 0 1 0 y
z
0
0 1
z

x
1
0 0
x
y
0
1
0
y
T
=
z
0
0 1
z

x
1
0
0
x
0 y
T y = 0 1
z
0
0 1
z
fR ?&e
?#S&e
#?&e
z uwv {K{ }rys9} ~ q 4{ F|~}w|~}wv {9 q t} j un vgtn 9 unDqt=n j{ vgtn
|~}w ru } j nu x
lTx S&e n T : R2 R3 q=nu&
ks w
T
1
0
1
= 2
3
2
T : R R2

1
T
= 4
6
T [(1, 0)] = (1, 1) T [(0, 1)] =

0
1
?&e n
q=nuc
`s
(1,
S&e 1)
nuruns ndqt=n j{ vgtng|~}w ur} j nu 9 M
fg?&e nurunKs ndqt=n j{ vgtng|~}w ur} j nu 9 M
22
33
M33x
M22
q4 qo tR]~S:oRk: 8 4~ 7 7 >hb 7 :t ;:t~ 7
1s
l x n {v }n {w }r 2n {F4{9 V W 4{ o |~qt}ryn ~ q e A : V ~
s nino9i=1
ur}w|Vng|~}w jur} jj=1
nu x
WS&e z{ |~} tqFvw
ks Q{ }
u;|4v s qFv 9 |~qFvg 4{ {A(v )}n 4{
r < n,
i i=1
xx
?&e Qz{ |~} tqFPv
`s { } r > n, u|4v s qFv 9 |~qFvg 4{ {A(vi)}ni=1
4{ xdx
S&e B } r = n, |4g v 4{K u|4v s qFv 9 |~qFvg 4{ {A(vi )}ni=1
l x n A , A , A no9ur}w|Vng|~}wv j4{ ur} j nu 4{&9 V ~ W, v { qt=n
ks
1
2 4{ 3 s n no9ur}w|Vng|~}w ur} j nu 9
~ x
A
+
A
+
A
1
2
@x mvgo9u q=nBun3 o9ts 2n 9
ks u|4v s qFv V9 no9urW}w|Vng|~}wv j4{ ur} j nu 4{B9
~
vgtnDs 4{ o2ng|~}wv |~qFvgt}nu x
lyxV n V Ws yx x@{= n f, g Hom(V, R) {F nDunDqt=n j{t vgtng|~}w

ks
9j } no;vg F (v) = (f (v), g(v)). v { qt=nK
F : V R2
F Hom(V, R2 ).
Y
O Ra]H_bU`HP9HU`\HUibP9\SVRPj\a2RgP9^`_ba*Uk\
n
v {yx xj {w , . . . , w } s |4v s qFvnt9}rqt=nt}wv 9 |
qFvg 4{e9 W V{v , W
s |4v s 1 qFv 9 s |~qFvg 4{ x x;~ V ~4{ q=n { |4v @
.
.
.
,
v
}
}w|~}wv j4{{ } o9 14{ o*v { }rs9u ~ |4v qt=nv 9j }r&s n A Hom(V, W ) q=nu&
ks
vg ,{ k t 4{F
ks 4{j | 4{ nt}wz
v
ks
{A(v1 ) = w1{F, A(v
w 2v , .{=. .0, nA(v
=v ws s } qFv
2x)x =
s )u;|4
B
n
nt9}
9
{
9
F
{
{v
} v s9o*v `n v
ks
qt=n1t,}w.v9.. , vns
v 1 , .x . . ,~w sqF}v | 4{ v {F o9s 49
{ {
{ {v , . . . , v } { {w
k
o;v j K|4vg vs n|4vgB9} ng|~}w ur} j nu 19 uwv {s9 { @} xyx
o;vguwvw
`s v k = a1v1 + a2 v2 + + ak1vk1 + ak+1vk+1 + + asvs
A(vk ) = wk = A[a1 v1 + + ak1 vk1 + ak+1 vk+1 + + as vs ]
= a1 A(v1 ) + + ak1 A(vk1 ) + ak+1 A(vk+1 ) + + as A(vs )
= a1 w1 + + ak1 wk1 + ak+1 wk+1 + + as ws ,
uwv|~s2nu#}ro9ur}w|Vnz
ks w n v 4{ s |~qFvgBnt9}rqt=nt}wv9 { } vz
ks 9 o ~j9 9 u
k
4{ qFv 9 un { w x
s
(Z '~U`R^`_b^`_bax # n A Hom(V, W ) {vi}ri=1 s n2n {FK9 V {wj }sj=1 s n
2n {FD9 W, { } r > s, ~ qFv | 4{ uH|4v s qFv 9 |~qFvg 4{ {A(v ), . . . , A(v )}
1
r
4{ xDxx
Uà2RUkXPx 0 } A Hom(V, W ) U s { s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv 9 V ~ qFv | 4{
4{ s { s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv 9 W.
A(U ) = {w W | w = A(u), u U }
# +2n`n v { s n
Q v { qt=ng|~}w n

|4vgB9} ng|~}w ur} j nu 9 w ww1 9w q 2 tA(U
} j )v {Q a 1j9a{F2e~ K|~s ~ qt=n x
1
q4#8 ;:t~ 7 ~ 7
15|
o9s 4{ qF
v
ks U 4{
a2 A(u2 ) = A(a
u1
`s + a2 u2 )
1uwvl
| 4{ 1a) u+ +a
*
o
g
v
(
{ s9 4 a{ 1o2wng1|~}w+v 9a 2wV2 ~= qFav 1 A(u
u U
(a w +a w ) A(U ).
1 1
2 2
z# vgtn { }r}run
Uà2RUkXPx 0 } A Hom(V, W )
s { s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv 9 W ~ qFv | 4{
4{ s { s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv 9 V.
A1 (U ) = {v V | A(v) = w, w U }
v { qt=ng|~}w 2 n v v A1 (U ) a a K o*vg 9 v { qt=n
U
ks w a v + a v A (U ).
s 4{ qFvk
s v , v A (U ) ~ qFv | 4{
1 1
2 2
{F U s "{ s9 4 { o2ng|~}wv 9 W, s
~ |~s ~ qt= n ~ U } xyx a A(v ) + a A(v )

1
(a1 v1 + a2 v2 ) A1 (U ).
A(v ) = u
2
j nu 9 A(v
2
)
n|4vg9A(v
} ng|~1}w) = ur}u1
= A(a1 v1 + a2 v2 ) U
o;vg
{F
4{
U
A(v
~ qFv 2 ) |
~ } ~j v|4vg v
2n {F uwv { q vg n { n q t}wvg 4{ #+2ng| v { un {Q{ }rys9} ~ q 4{e9
j }w|~}wv j4{Vx
Uf#H_h^k_h*x } A Hom(V, W ) un F9OpH)DJd9 V 2nv A {FQ9jj |4vg v
9 ng|~s vnuwvn q t}wvgV;un }rn ~9 V 2ntv A 4{ s { s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv 9
A(V )
{Fe{ }r;vgur^} uTno;vg ~XgP 2UX9 0 4taTx

W A(V )
z# vgtn { }r}run 9j }r v
{
{ }r;vgur}ûVn v
v lgZ EdD5d9
Uf#H_h^k_h*x z ru D DJ#DE
W ) vgtn vo*vg
o;vg
U` R ta
0 UkRUkiHU 0 a^kihUka HUA Hom(V,
1 {0},
94{F9 urs fv u
qFv v { uwv { |~qFvg 4{e9 V, uwv { |~s2nu 4{ 2ntv A gn nuH| 0 Fv A9 W
e 9 A 4{ s { s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv 9 V.
z# 2n {= n 4{ q=n {K9j }w|~}wv j4{ 9 |~}r v {
ks p

Uf#H_h^k_h*x Hom(V, W ) 4%
{ x})C,D)D Z QIF9UVH x]HTD Z QIFUYH v xR)D Z QIFUVH
un|~s2nuHq=n9} k~ v { }w|
ks w W, k4{ q=n o9FvTk} ~j
{ } { guwv { } I(A) =A W,
nu ~ v {9 s u ~ qFv v V 2nv A.
Uf#H_h^k_h*x
4{ F9J=)D Z QIF9UVH{ } { guwv { }2o2n=n|~s2nû
ks9} o2n
v { v , vW )&u
ks A(v ) = A(v ) { }r } |Vw
n
ks v = v
9 |~qFvg 4{9 V A }r`nHom(V,
1
2
1
2
4{ q=n 9j }w|~}w q=n9} ~ v { }w|
`s qFv v u ~ qFv 9 2ntv 1|4v 2
} kf |~qt}rgn@9qt} ~j }rn ~
9 }w|Vn x
Uf#H_h^k_h*x A Hom(V, W ) 4P
{ CF9)D Z QIF9UVH v s vns v { } { guwv { } A 4{
} kf |~qt}rgn { vg9 ~f |~qt}rgn x9j }w|~}w
`s q=nB9} k~ v { }w|
ks qFv v u ~ qFv
9 W @o9FvV} ~j |4v A 9} f |~qt}ryn 9 s v { guwvds u ~ qFv 9 V 2ntv A x
urys v { q vg n {
ks e{Fe94{ o9 ~j9~9 un {K9j }w|~}wv j4{ n q t}wvg 4
{
q4 qo tR]~S:oRk: 8 4~ 7 7 >hb 7 :t ;:t~ 7
Uà2RUkXPx 0 } A Hom(V, W ) 4{K{ vg9 ~f |~qt}ryn {v }n 4{ s nD2n {Fe9

i i=1
qFv | 4{ {A(v )}n ~j =n W x

V
i i=1
v { qt=ng|~}w Q s 4{ qFv{
ks A 4{{ vg9 ~f |~qt}ryn ~ qFv | 4{ Im(A) =
n 9 {#{ n v {
`s |~s2nud
`s9} u ~ qFv 9 W To9FvTk} ~j nu ~ v {
A(v)
v
`s o2n=nDqFv n w W,
9 s = u W
~ qFv 9 V 2nv A 9o;vguww
= A(v) = A(a1 v1 + + an vn ) = a1 A(v1 ) + + an A(vn )
~j =n W x
~ qFv | 4w{ {A(v
), A(v ), , A(v )}
1
Uà2RUkXPx A Hom(V, W ) 4{ } `f |~qt}ryn { } { guwv { } Ker(A) = {0}.

v { qt=ng|~}w y s9o*v `n v {
ks 4{ } kf |~qt}rgn@ 4{ qFv { }r } |Vn[
`s qFv v
u ~ qFv 9 un}rn ~9 V 2nv A 9o9FAvTk} ~jB9 s v { guwvs u ~ qFv 9
q=nNu
ks A(v) = 0 pro9ur}w|Vn v = 0 o*vguw
v
`s Ker(A) = {0} x } Ker(A) =
V
~ qFv | 4{ o2n=n
qFv v v , v V q=nru
`s A(v ) = A(v ) { }r } |Vn j v
ks
{0},
1 2 o9s 4{ qF[
1
2 ~ qFv | 4{
v
ks Ker(A)
A(v
)A(v
)
=
0
=
A(v
v
),
=
{0}
v1 v2 =
1
2
1
2
v
ks A 4{ } `f |~qt}ryn x
9 @n
ks9p v = v o*vguww
0
1
Uà2RUkXPx }
4{ } `f |~qt}ryn {v }n 4{ 2n {F9 V
i i=1
~ qFv | 4{ {A(v )}n A{ v Hom(V,
x xx W )
i i=1
v { qt=ng|~}w ` s 4{ qFv
ks A 4{ } `f |~qt}ryn@ { }r } |Vn
ks & v { u ~ qFv {
} ~ q 4{9 unQ2n {F g2ntv qt} ~j~ }r ~j4{ } ~ q 4{ nl
`s 9 q ~j un
} { n}rn ~{ }r } V|Vntpno;vgA 9j }w|~}w 9 } `f |~qt}r} n ]+2n9un 9 uwv { } {
v {# u ~ qFv {9 unQ2n {Fyxy n`n v { s n|4vg9} ng|~}w ur} j nu 9 un { {A(v )}n
i i=1
}rys2nun n { nu| Fv 9 W x
o;vgur} j nur} n
q ~j v { a v
0 = a1 A(v1 ) + a2 A(v2 ) + + an A(vn )
o;vg {F
} kf |~qt}rgn@
0 = A(a1 v1 + a2 v2 + o;vg + a
A
n vn ),
n
F
{
=
{
K
~ qFv | 4{
n
an vnq = 0,
{vi }i=1
V,
1 1 + a2 v2 + j +

n
r
u
a
{A(v1 ), A(v2 ), . . . , A(vn )} = {A(vi )}ni=1
4{ i = x 0,xx con i = 1, . . . , n;
Uà2RUkXPx 0 }
4{ s nD2n F{ 9
n
s n2n {Fe
~ qFv | 4{ {A(v )}n {v4i}{ i=1
9 W x
A Hom(V, W )
4{ 9} f |~qt}rgn@
n
`s A 4{ 9} f |~qt}ryn@ ~ qFv | 4{ A es sobreyectiva
v { qt=ng|~}w Y l
A es inyectiva
vg {F { vg9 ~f |~qt}rgn@ ~ qFv | 4{ {A(v )}n ~j =n W i uq vg nn @
i i=1
q t}wvg j x
vg {F } kf |~qt}rgn@ ~ qFv | 4{ {A(v )}n 4{ xx$i uq vg nn q t}wvg j x
s 4{ qFv
`s {A(v )}n ~j =n Wi i=1
n 9 {4{ x x ~ qFv | 4{ {A(v )}n
i
i i=1
i=1
4{ s nD2n {=9 W i |4vg n 9j }w|~}w 9 2n {F j x
i
i=1
q4#8 ;:t~ 7 ~ 7
15
mvg vs |4vgFvgunt}wv 94{ qFv { 4{ s9urq=n v { 9q ~j v {

ks
a2RaibP9Rg_bax & } A Hom(V, W ) |4v A 9} f |~qt}rgn@ A v {e~ kpn
2n {F4{e9
2n {=4{9 W x } xyx{ } {v }n 4{ s n2n {F9 V {A(v )}n 4{ s n2n {F
~
V
i i=1
i i=1
9 W x
9} f |~qt}ryn {v }n s n 2n {F9 V o;vg

uwv
ks
}w|~}wv j4{{ } o9 o;v 9 v {9j }r
4
{
F
{
e
xtz#4{ q=n { |4v ji i=1

n
{A(v
)}
W
i
i=1
s nno9ur}w|Vng|~}wv B 9 W ~ V 9j } n|4vg v B[A(v )] = v B[A(v )] = v
1
1
2
2
x4x4x B[A(vn)] = v
n
q 4{K9 |4v qt} s2n 9j }r v { un |4vgo*v { }w|~}w 9 no9ur}w|Vng|~}wv j4{ ur} j nu 4{
U`(H_b^`_bx } A Hom[V, W ] F Hom[W, U ] {=9jj un |4vgo*v { }w|~}w
vdo9Fv sj|~qFv 9 no9ur}w|Vng|~}wv j4{ |4vg v
n
A Hom(V,
s nD2n W )
nd|~s2nu {F u 4
(F A)v = F [A(v)] = (F A)v
{= ys9} v 9 v
A
|4vgo9s 4{ qFv
|4v
Z('~U`R^`_b^`_ba$}h v { qt=nB
ks un|4vgo*v { }w|~}w F A 4{ vgqt=nno9ur}w|Vng|~}w V v j9
k4{ q=n F A x
{F tyng|~}w vgq=n
ks e uvg 9~9 un { no9ur}w|Vng|~}wv j4{4{ }ro;vgtq=n q yx
mv qt} s2n j vB|4v B[A(v )] = v |4v i = 1, . . . , n vgq v {
`s o2n=nQqFv n
i
vV
(B A)v =
=
=
=
B[A(v)] = B[A(a1 v1 + . . . + an vn )]
B[a1 A(v1 ) + . . . + an A(vn )]
a1 B[A(v1 )] + . . . + an B[A(vn )]
a1 v1 + . . . + an vn = v,
o;vguwvw
`s und|4vgo*v { }w|~}w B A |4vgt 4{ o;v j9 nDun no9uw|Vng|~}w } 9~ qt} n ~ V.
z#X vgtn { }r}runun|4vgo;v { }w|~}w A B 4{ un|4vgo;v { }w|~}w } 9~ qt} n ~
x
W z F|~}w|~}wv =h v { qt=n 4{ q=nds9urqt}rnn tng|~}w x
v
`s
s 4{ qFM
~
~
{= }w|
ks B 4{ un
qt=n j{ vgtng|~}w } B A{ n =9 EA
{FVe{ pr;Avgur^} uTBn |4=vg Ev A1Wx
{F t 4{F
ks A1 v { n j n2n {F4{d~ 2n {F4{ t 4{d9 |~}rV A1 qFvgns n
2n {Fe9 W unDn j nnDs nd2n {Fe9 V o;vguwp
v
ks 1 4{ 9} f |~qt}rgn x
Uf#H_h^k_h*x } A Hom(V, W ) } { q A1 {FAe }w|
ks A 4{ ys9unV
9 v {= &n { p {Fe }w|
ks A 4{K{ } ys9un x
v
ks A 4{ ys9unV { } { guwv { } A 4{ 9} f |~qt}rgn x
Q{ p + v {K~ |4v qt=n
Uà2RUkXPx 0 }
A Hom(V, W )
~ qFv | 4{
D(V ) = D(Ker(A)) + D(Im(A))
q4 qo tR]~S:oRk: 8 4~ 7 7 >hb 7 :t ;:t~ 7

1
Q v { qt=ng|~}w ` n {v , v , . . . , v } s nQ2n {F9 u Ker(A) yo9s 4{ qFv%
ks
4{ s { s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv 9 V o*v 9 v { ny `n v V o Fv v 6
Ker(A)
o9}rqt} ~j v 4{ q o9Fv| 4 }r} ~ qFv2+ n { q=n vgtnQs n2n {FB9
L n + q=n + L
{F 4k { {v , v , . . . , v , v , . . . , v } { } ~j v D(V ) = r + s nYj+ vg=n9} ~V t
|~s2nudk
s9} K |~qFvg v V {F o9s 49 o*v j &|4vg v
{ n v { k
s v = a v + a v + + a v + + a v
1
r+1
v1
r+1
vr
1 1
r+1
r+s
2 2
r r
r+s r+s
A(v) = A[a1 v1 + a2 v2 + + ar vr + + ar+s vr+s ]

= [a1 A(v1 ) + a2 A(v2 ) + + ar A(vr )
+ar+1 A(vr+1 ) + + ar+s A(vr+s )] Im(A).
A(v) = ar+1 A(vr+1 ) + + ar+s A(vr+s )
}ro9ur}w|Vn j vK
`s
{A(vr+1 ), , A(vr+s )}
n v {&{ } 4{ q |4v s qFv 4{ x x
~j =n
Im(A).
o;vgur} j nur} n q ~1j r+1

v {
b A(v
} @ t} ~j vp
ks
) + b2 A(vr+2 ) + + bs A(vr+s ) = 0
A[b1 vr+1 + b2 vr+2 + + bs vr+s ] = 0
uwv
|~s2nu 4{ s n
|4v 1qt=n r+1
qFv n uP
`s suwv r+s
}w|4|~}w 2;r+2
{ u ~ qFv {e9 u
9 { v
s nd|4vgB9} ng|~}w ru } j nu 9 {v , . . . , v } 2nY+jvg=nd9} ~ j2o n=nw
`s Ker
v } { q=An k4{ q=n
1
r
4{j | 4{ nt}wvp
`s
b v
+b v
+ + b v
Ker(A)
|4|~}w {v2 r+2, . . . , v }s { r+s

v xx q ~j v {
`s {b =
o9s 4{ qFvl
ks o;vg#|4v j{ qt1tsjr+1
r+1
r+s
@
r
}

9
o
r
u
w
}
V
|
n
v
k
u
4
|
v
s
F
q
v
j
e {A(v )}s 4{ s nD2n {=9 Im(A) x i
0}ni=1 s qF
r+k k=1
q ~j v {
4{ v
`s D(V ) = r + s, D(Ker(A))
ks D(V ) = D(Ker(A)) + D(Im(A)) = r D(Im(A)) = s

b v
Uf#H_h^k_h*x
+b v
D(Ker(A)) =
+ +b v
s9ur} n 9
=0
D(Im(A)) =
=n fv 9
2,
q4#8 ;:t~ 7 ~ 7
Z('~U`R^`_b^`_ba2\acbU`^f^k_h* Yx
lyx n {{ }rys9} ~ q 4{ no9ur}w|Vng|~}wv j4{
o tq ~j | ~ n
T1 , T 2 , T 3 , T 4 , T 5
T1 [(a, b)] = (ca, cb), c R.
T2 [(a, b)] = (b, a)
T3 [(a, b)] = (a, 0)
T4 [(a, b)] = (0, b)
T5 [(a, b)] = (b, a)
Hom(R2 )
nurun { s / |~u v9j}rn ~ j=n fv

s9ur} n x
x n V W y x x F Hom(V, W ), {= n U s X{ s9;|4v s qFv 9 V
q=nu
`s
xj v { qt=n!
`s U 4{ s { s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv 9 V.
V :|~qFFvg(v)
= 0}
s
v
9
s
w
u
v 9 R2, {F n F Hom(R2 , W ) q=nu
`s
@xU n= {v
v
t
q
=

n
s
unun}rn ~9 4{ s nur} j nB |~q=nv
9
n F=0,Hom(V, W ) Ker(F ) = {0} x9 s9Fo; `n {F

ks V W qt} ~{0}.
jxF (v)
j~
un} { n }r ~j{ }w x2 v { qt=n!
`s
x n L Hom(R2) q=nou
ks L 6= 0 *o ImF
Fv L2==W.L L = 0 x* v { qt=n
ks e } { q s nd2n {F
9 2 q=n&u
ks
x
x n V s yx x`{= n {vP1 , v2P} no9Rur}w|Vng|~}wv j4{ ur} L(v
j n1u 4){=9v2V ~L(v
{ p2)=} { 0 v x
s9o; `n {F
ks e{Fe{ nqt} {t1 ng| ~ 2un {&{ }rys9} ~ q 4{ |4v j }w|~}wv j4
{
?&e P + P = I i no9ur}w|Vng|~}w } 9~ qt} n j
?&e
v B
}r |~q=n 9 un { }r ~j4{&9 P

1
4{
~ yx
P
2
xch n q ~ } ~j vDun vgq=ng|~}w |4vg v ~
u F|~}w|~}wvBn q t}wvg 9 v { qt=n
ks
un}rn ~9 P 4{ }rys2nunu ) |~u v 9 P x
|Vn} vp1
ks o9s 49{F qt}ruo2n=n2undo9ts 2n 4{
S&eKnd}rn ~9 P1 4{ q=d|4v q ~ } n ~ u / |~u v 9 P2 x
?&e z u / |~u v 9 4{ q=d|4v q ~ } v ~ unD}rn ~9 x
x nurunKs ndqt=n j{t vgtPng2|~}w ur} j nu A : R3 en R3 q=nu
`s w P1
{ Pqt=in Pksj =Vij4P{ j}rys2nui,nBjun ={ s91,2.n
o |~qt}rgn q
q=nu
`s w
Ker(A) = {(x, y, z) | 3x + 2y z = 0}.
x nurunKs ndqt=n j{t vgtng|~}w ur} j nu
Im(A) = {(x, y, z) | 3x + 2y z = 0}.
lV@x n
S&e h
?&e h
A : R3 en R3
9j } ndo;vg
A v Hom[M
Mnn ]
A(a
)=
(a
)9
(aij )T
ij
ij

n
t
q
t
w
}
|
r
}
t
q
t
w
}
V
|
n
{ qt=n ks nn ,Ker(A)
4
Q
{
{
K
{
v { qt=n `s Im(A) == {{ nqtt}w| 4{ n qt} { }r qtt}w|Vn {Qn9nn} n}

lylyx n A Hom(C 1[a, b], C 1 [a, b]) 9j } no;vg Af (x) = xf 0(x). Q q
} n u |~u v und}rn ~9 A x
l x n H s { s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv 9 V q=nu ks un D(H) = k un D(V ) = n x
s9o;v `n `s U Hom(V ) |4v un&o9Fvgo9} 4 n B9 `s { } T U, T (h) =
o2n=nqFv n h H x
0
Bs 4{ qt ks U 4{ s { s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv 9e vg V x
m0nuw|~s9un }r U
S&e
?&e
)
!
q4 1 ^7 : :td 7 : 7
2X3
lV@x n A, B Hom(V ) q=nul
`s AB 4{ unXqt=n j{ vgtng|~}w | Fv xB
mg v 4{ undqt=n @ vgtng|~}w
q=nuB
ks Ker(A) = {0} x
l~jx n D(V ) = D(W ) {F n ABA
Hom(V, W )
v { qt=n!`
s e } { q A Hom(W,
x
l x n F G Hom(V ) 9 ys9un 4{ 9 Vv ){ qt=nk
s p
1
(F G)1 = G1 F 1 .
l x n
9
lTx
4{
n ndo*vg
B Hom(R3 )
B(x, y, z) = (x y, x + z, x + y + 2z),
v { qt=n `s } { q B 1 Hom(R3).
n A Hom(V ) q=nu `s A2 = 0. v { qt=n `s (E A) Hom(V )
ys9unV { } ~j v E unno9ur}w|Vng|~}w } 9~ qt} n `s o tq ~j | n Hom(V ).
Y ~ \Va*aRT(\Ta\
U`(H_b^`_bx } A Hom(V, W ) 4{ 9} f |~qt}ryn@ F{ urunn
.xX@Op@9NxOp
Uf#H_h^k_h*x V, W { v M.xX@Op@9X@x
{ } } { q A Hom(V, W )
ks e{F nD} { vg vg 2{ v9
}
9} f |~qt}ryn@
{ { guwv { } } { q
{ } { guwv { } } { q A1 Hom(W, V ) ys9un x
A Hom(V, W )
z# |~} tq=n vgtn uc`

s v {B4{ o2ng|~}wv { |~qFvgt}nu 4{D{F n } { vg vg v {{ }r } |Vn
ks { v
ks9}rynu ~ q 4{ { guwv } 2 ~ o*vgn@
ks uruwv { vg@ qFv {
ks uwv {K vgtn 4{ q=n
4{ un=nYVu o;vg0un|~s2nu {F 9s { |Vn { } o9 s yx x |Vn }w|4v x9z{ qFv 4{ { } V 4{09
}r ~j{ }w n 4{ q D4{Q `
s9}rynu ~ q v
} { vg vg vnu yx x R o*vguwvK
ks {
ks
qt=n2nFn&|4v uwv {& u ~ qFv { } { v {9
@qt=n2nFn v { |4v un {K~j n n {Vx

V
n
Uà2RUkXPx Q n
v {eyx x{ vg9 d uH} { v|Vno*v t V, W { v } { v
vg v {K{ } { guwv { } D(VV ) =WD(W )
v { qt=ng|~}w } V, W { v } { vg vg v { 4{ qFv { }r } |Vn
`s } { q s
} { vg vg 2{ v A Hom(V, W ) uH|~s2nu ~ }n2n {F4{9 V ~ 2n {=4{Q9 W 2o*vg
uww
v
ks D(V ) = D(W ).
& |~pro9Fv|Vn ~ q K

n V W v {&yx x99j } v {&{ vg9 u} { v |Vno*v9jq=nu 4{
{F n
{w }n 2n {=4{9 V W 4{ o |~qt}ryn ~ q
n
D(V ) = D(W )
o;vg#uw
v
ks { } o9 &4{ o*v {v{ }ri9}u i=1
=
q
A Hom(V, W ) n no;vg A(v ) =
K4{ n9u j| j=1
i
@ n v {
ks A 9j } vn { p 4{ s } { vg vg 2{ v x
wi con i = 1, . . . , n
Fvg v {
ks A 4{ } kf |~qt}rgn@} xyx
ks Ker(A) = {0}, {F n v Ker(A)
o;vguww
v
`s A(v) = 0, P
n
ks v = a v + + a v q ~j v {
ks
1 1
n n
A(v) = A(a1 v1 + + an vn ) = a1 A(v1 ) + + an A(vn )

= a 1 w1 + + a n wn = 0
2,q
o;vgBuwv
ks
q4#8 ;:t~ 7 ~ 7
~ qFv | 4{
a1 = a 2 = = a n = 0
Ker(A)
=
{0}.
Fvg v { n jvg=n ks { vg9 ~f |~qt}rgn@ 4{
ks |~s2nu ks9} u ~ qFv 9 AW o9FvV} ~j nu
A.n
w W, o;vguwv ks
Y+
v = 0,
uwv
`s }ro9ur}w|Vn
`s
qFv 4 {
`s Im(A) = W 4 { qFv 4{
~ v e
{ 9 s
u ~ qFv 9 V 2 ntv
w = b1 w1 + b2 w2 + + bn wn = b1 A(v1 ) + + bn A(vn )
= A(b1 v1 + + bn vn )
uwvz
ks }ro9ur}w|Vnz
ks qFv v u ~ qFv 9
9 V 2nv A.
o9FvTk} ~j nu# ~ v {9 s u ~ qFv

2
z# s v 9 uwv {0 F|~}w|~}wv { o9Fvgo9s 4{ qFv {~ un {F |4|~}w lyx {=~ |~s ~ qt=nP

`s un
}r ~j{ }w 9 n i u yx xj{ vg9 k 9 un {K@ n n {9e) Fv9 9e j 4{ o9 |~} { n
q=n qFvo*v 9 v {K4{ q=n9u | u { }rys9} ~ q |4vgFvgunt}wv
~ q n; o;vgK
a2RaibP9Rg_bax } V 4{ s dyx xT{ vg9 K 9 }r ~j{ }w n, ~ qFv | 4{#4{ } { vg vg v
n Kn x
} , v , . . . v } 4{ s n
2n {FB9 V 2o;v 9 v {Q nQs } { vg vg 2{ v 9 V
1n v 2 o*vg v n= (a v + a v + + a v ) 7 (a , . . . a ).
~ K n {v
1 1
2 2
n n
1
n
(Z '~U`R^`_b^`_ba2a\ cbU`^f^k_h* Ywx
lyx Fvg2n!
ks unDqt=n j{ vgtng|~}w
4{ s } { vg vg 2v{ =v x a1v1 + a2v2 anvn 7 (a1 , . . . an).

x v {/ Fv { |4vgo9u v {wib) Fv {e9 un vgtn a + ib; a, b R j |4v @
{ } 9 =n v|4vg v yx x9{ vg9 uwv { nu 4{ qt} ~j~ }r ~j{ }w o*vguwvP
ks e4{
} { vg vg vn R2. Fvg2nc
ks unqt=n j{ vgtng|~}w n no;vg a + ib 7 (a, b)
4{ s } { vg vg 2{ v x

ks d{ } A Hom(V, W ) B Hom(W, U ) { v } { vg vg 2{t
@xch v { qt=n
v { ~ qFv | 4{
S&e A1 4{ s } { vg vg 2{ v x
?&e A 4{ s } { vg vg 2{ v x
jx n T B Hom(C[0,
4{ q= 9j } no*vg T f (x) = f (x 3) x
1],
C[3,
4])
h s 4{ qt
ks T 4{ s } { vg vg 2{ v x
x n D(V ) > D(W
s n no9ur}w|Vng|~}w ur} j nu x v {
n
V W
qt=n!
`s e u / |~u v ).9 L v L4:{ {0}.
x n D(V ) = D(W ). n L : V W s nno9ur}w|Vng|~}w ur} j nu|~s v
/ |~u v 4{ v { qt=n!
`s L qt} ~j s n no9ur}w|Vng|~}w ur} j nu} { n x
no9ur}w|Vng|~}wv j4{ ur} j nu 4{ } tqt}r9u 4{B9 s 4{ o2ng|~}wv |~qFvgt}nu
x n F {0}.
G v
}

}
~
{
{
x2Q v { qt=n
`s w

xV n L : R2 R2 unno9ur}w|Vng(F|~}w G)ur} j1 nu =9Gj1 } nFo*1vg . L(x, y) =
9 v { qt=n
ks L 4{ } tqt}r9u yx
(2x + y, 3x 5y),
q4 2N 8 h 7 ,>;t~ < ?>9:t 7# ;: 7 ~$9 7

21
x n L : V V s ndno9ur}w|Vng|~}w ur} j nu;q=nu#
ks L = 0 xk v { qt=n-
ks
4{ } tqt}r9u i 4{ un no9ur}w|Vng|~}w } 9~ qt} n 9j } n { vg9 j x
lV@xI n LA s n no9ur}w|Vng|~}w I ur} j nu 9 s yx x~{ }} { v { s9o; `n {F V
ks
i v j9 I 4{ unno9ur}w|Vng|~}w } 9~ qt} n j x2 v { qt=nB
ks
A A
+
I
=
0
} { q k
s e4{ }rys2nun
x
lylyxA n V W v {yx xT9 }r ~Ij{}w A n e{F n {e } {e } 2n {F4{H9
4{ o |~qt}ryn ~ q k v { qt=nck
s A : V W 4{ s } { vg vg 2{ v
V W
2
n
i i=1
n
j j=1
{ } { guwv { } det(A ) 6= 0, { } ~j v (A ) unB o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w 9 A unqt}ryn

ij
nDun { 2n {F4{K9 V ij W.
l xw s k ynuwvg 9 s +2ng|
ks u(|4v s qFv 9 un { nqtt}w| 4{{ }r k qtt}w|Vn {9
{F nd} { vg vg v n Rs
9j } no;vg Ag(x) = g(x 4). h v { qt=n
lV@xr n rA : C[0, 1] C[4,
5]
ks 4{ s } { vg vg 2{ v x
l~jx n AT : M M , 9j } no;vg T A = AB |4v B s nnqtt}û
} tqt}r9u 2 nmv { qt=n
ksnm T 4{ s } { vg vg 2{ v x

`s { }
{ } 4{
l cx h v { qt=n
n ~
n {F9jj o*vg
s } { vg vg 2{ v9 T~ qF:v R| 4{ A 4R{ } tqt}r9u unBqt=Tn jv{ =vgtAvng|~}w } T { n
1 4{ q= n ndo;vg
1
1 x

ks unqt=n j{t vgtng|~}w f 9
l xT n A Hom(V )T yxs9u=nV&A v x{ qt=nM
n
n
;
o
g
v
4{ s ns9qFvg vg 2A{ v
Hom(V
)
Hom(V
)
f
(B)
=
AB
i s } { vg vg 2{ v 9 s yx x9{ vg9 { A}} { v j x
lTx n A Hom(V, W ) B Hom(W, U ) 9j }r v { B A 4 }n q
S&e h
?&e h
x
S&e h
v { qt=n%
ks D{ } A
(B A)vv =qt=B[A(v)]
{ n ks BvAVHom(V, U ).
v { qt=n ks { } A B { v } `f |~qt}ryn
qt}rgn
{ ~ qFv | 4{
BA
4{ } `f |
{ v } { vg vg 2{ v { ~ qFv | 4{ B A 4{
B
} { vg vg 2{ v x
Y U`]HRUk\VUk*SVP9^`_b* HUceU`^fSVa2RU`\p PjH_ba2\HUdP9\VU
qt}rur^} uTn j vBuwv { 4{ s9urq=n v {09 un {F |4|~}w n q t}wvgVkq ~j v {
ks s |
qFvgVgo9s 49{F # o9 4{F~ q=n v 4 }n q { s { |4vgo;v j~ q 4{ |4v 4{ o |~qFvBnenurys n
2n {Fyx
vg o9uwv { } V 4{ s yx x9Q }r ~j{ }w n {e , e , . . . e } 4{ s n2n {=
1 9 2 unX2n n{F n n |4vg v
9 V q=n[u
ks v V {F o9s 49 o;v j ~ q k t} v {
un
o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w 9 v |4v 4{ o |~qFvn 4{ q=n
v2n = {c
{F {=1 e= 1 +(c c,2ce2, +. . . c )+cnKenn.};
v
ks 1D{ 2}rys D4{ n ~= k |4vs9qt}rur^} uTneun vgq=ng|~}w 9z } j{ q } ~
z# uw
k4{ q=n@ ~
qFv v { uwv { q k t} v {~ v j9 no2n uV|Vn p j }w| 4{ o qt} v { ntt}r2n n2ntv9 {F
}ro9ur}w|Vnun { s9n { vg9 qFv v { uwv { ynuwvg 4{ o;v { }r9u 4{B9 up j }w| o*vg o9uwvun
v
ks un o9 4{ }w tj f i |4vgt 4{ o*v j9 n
{ s9n { vg9 r Pn tr f = tr f , o*vgBuw
r
r
i j
s n vg9u { s9n@ r=1
~4{ q=n vgq=ng|~}w s 4{ qtFv |~qFvg v V 9 u o9uwvn q t}wvg
{F o9s 49 o;v j |4vg v v = {c1 e + c2 e + + cn e } = cr e v j9 un {
|4vgo;v j~ q 4{9 v ~ urs9`n 9 uru 1gn up j2 }w| n2nvduwvnuru yn nttr}r2n x
252
q4#8 ;:t~ 7 ~ 7
{ei }ni=1
A Hom(V, W )
0 m 2n {F4{&9
o;vg{euwvwj }
`j=1
s
A(e1 ) = w1 = w1r e0r

A(ex 2 ) = w2 = w2r e0r
4{ o |~qt}ryn ~ q e
A(ei ) = wir e0r = Ari e0r
xx
+ v { + |.+jv w = A
v {
|4vgt 4{ o;v j9~ nDs nB o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w 9
u ~ qFv {9 un vgtn
unBno9ur}w|Vngnm
|~}w A 4{ o |~qFvBnun { 2n {=4{A n n { 4k { q=n nur ~ q |4vgt 4{ o;v j9 ns n
nqtt}û 9 mn { }rB*vgur}ûTn n
|4vg v (A ) v j9D up j }w| { s9o t}wvgQ|4vgt 4{ o*v j9
nd ~ yuwv j4{ u} @ t}wvgQn |4vgurs9 n { gq 4{F `
s { }|Vn9}n v { nurys n 9 un {
2n {F4{ 9|Vn9}nunD o9 4{=~ q=ng|~}w x
vg9 Q4{ q } { v 4{ | ~ nt}wv9k n v { k
s k ung|~}w ys2n n un { |4vgo;v j~@
q 4{B9 s |~qFvgd|4v un { |4vgo*v j~ q 4{D9 un}rn ~ 9K4k { q |4v 4{ o |~qFvn
x
A
n v V, o;vguwvpk
s v = v e w W o*vguwvwk
s w = w e
A(en ) = wn = wnr e0r
r
i
r
i
r
i
r
i
r 0
r
w = A(v) = A(v i ei ) = v i Aei = v i Aji e0j = wr e0r

v i Aji e0j = wr e0r = wj e0j
v i Aj = w j ,
4{F~ q=ng|~}w 9 A 4{ un ks i v { n j n 9 un { |4vgo*v j~ q
nndun { |4vgo*v j~ q 4{Q9 und2n {F o9t}rn n x s9o*v `n v
4 { qFv 4{ yun o9
4{9 un
2n {F vo9t}rn
{ nY+jvg=n
ks {ei}ni=1 {ej }nj=1 { v 2n {F4{9 V, 4{ qFv { }r } |Vn

`s er = ckr ek
ks
v { o9 ys q=n v { nY+jvg=n|4g v 4{ q= ung|~}wv n v { uwv {B u ~ qFv { v
es = dls el
un { nqtt}w| 4{e9 |Vn9}wv 9 2n {F 2 n v { o9s 4{ qFvK
ks e = ck e = ck dl e , un
9 }w|Vndo;v { }r9}rur} n
ks v {
ks 4 ndo2n=nw
ks e4{ qFv {F |~s9o9r un 4{ r
`ks w r k l
dlk ckr
0 si l 6= r
1 si l = 1
4{ q + |.+jvvo9Fvgo9} 4 n `
s 4 n o9 4{ n v 4 } n q un i 9 Fvg |,+ Vun
j
|~s2nu

o*vguwv
`s
0 si i 6= j
i =
dl ck = l
j
k r
1 si i = j
(Z '~U`R^`_b^`_bax #z{ |~t}r2nDqFv v { uwv { q k t} v {K9 unnqtt}û (rl ). o9FvT |,+2n j v
un 4{ o9s 4{ q=n 9B4{ q o9Fvg9u n o*v } ~j v dl ck = l ~ vgtn nqtt}w|~}nu} xyx
r
k r
l )(cl ) = ( l ), vg {F t v {
ks (dl ) |4vgt 4{ o*v j9 nunDnqtt}ûe} { n 9 (cl )
(d
r
r
r |~pro9r Fvk|Vn r~ q yx
mvg v|4vgFvgunt}wvvg {F t v {
`s unnqtt}û (ci ) 9 |VnB9}wv 9 2n {F o
ks
v { |4v j |~q=n und2n {F |4v 2nt=n|4v unw
ks vqt} ~j j 2nt=n@jqt} ~j9 q t} n q
} ~ q 9 | Fv x
& |~pro9Fv|Vn ~ q { } (ci ) 4{ s nnqtt^} u|~s2n =n n 9 vg 9~ n n |~s v
9 q t} n q 4{d } ~ q j 9 | Fv {e }n 4{ s n2n {F9 V, u0|4v s qFv
i i=1
q4 2N 8 h 7 ,>;t~ < ?>9:t 7# ;: 7 ~$9 7
2s
~ v j9
4{ s n2n {F9 n v {
ks 4{ qFv 4{ |~} tqFv9
j
v t
g
v 0{ u*| Fv9 aeiie ==c0i e=j aicj e , ~ qFv | 4{ aV,i cj = 0 n
`s det(ci ) 6= 0,
j
~ qFv | 4{ ai = 0 ~ i |4v j{F |~s ~ |~i }n j {e }n { v ixx
9 { o9s 4{ qFv
ks {e }n { v i xi=1
x k4{ qFv { ~j =n s { s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv 9 V
i
i=1
9e }r ~j{ }w n, =Yn uV o*vgund|~s2nu {e , . . . , e } 4{ s nd2n {Fe9 V x
1
n
v
ks w
Q v { vg9q ~ }

{ei }ni=1
Uà2RUkXP x e n ns n2n {F
u0|4v s qFv
vgtn v
n
n
}n q e = cj e 4{ s nd2n {F{ } {{egi }uwv i=1{ } , det(ci ) 6= 0. {ei }i=1,
i
i j
Q v { qt=ng|~}w +2n9pn ~ |4v qt=n v

ks n n { v { 2n {=4{ {e }n
9 V W 4{ o |~qt}ryn ~ q #s nqt=n j{t vgtng|~}w ur} j nu 4{ q=i i=1
o9
{
e j }m
j=1
{F~ q=n nBo*vg0s nBnqtt}û (ai ), q=nu
ks A(e ) = Aj e o;v 9 v { } 4{ qt}r`n&|4g v
{F v } |Vn }w.| +2n o9 4{F~ j q=ng|~}w nuB+2ng| i
s |Vi nj9}wv 9 2n {F (q=n qFv ~ V
|4vg v ~ W x
n 0 }n {e0 }m un { s yn { 2n {=4{K9
v { n kv {k=1
ks w
gv &s {e
ujn j=1
4{ o |~qt}rgn ~ q yx
ei = cji e0j por lo que e0j = crj er
`
s
n
ek = dsk e0s
A(ei ) = Aji ej
ks e0 = dpe
s p
o;vguwvp
A(e0j ) = Bjk e0k
o*vguwvw
ks
(1)
nDo2ntqt}r 9
q ~j v { 9s9qt}rur}ûTn j v uwv {K9 { 4{ s9urq=n v {

(1)
o;vguwvw
`s
A(ei ) = A(cji e0j ) = cji Ae0j = cji Bjk e0k = Aji ej = Aji dkj e0k
(2)
cji Bjk = Aji dkj = dkj Aji = Bjk cji
4{ q l urqt}r v 4{ s9urq=n vo9s 4{ qFv ~ vgtnDnqtt}w|~}nu v { `

s 4 n
(dki )(Aki ) = (Bik )(cki )
(Bik ) = (dki )(Aki )(cki )1
un s gn o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w 9 A ~ q k t} v {9 un n q t}wvgV2und|~s2nu 9 o ~j99

u nDnqtt}û 9 |Vn9}wv 9 2n {= nur}ûTn v ~ V W x
}*s |~qFvg 4{ q= o9 4{=~ q=n v ~ q k t} v {09 s ne2n {F {e , . . . , e } o;vg
|Vnun 4{ {v1 , . . . , vn } i4{ qFv 4{ v = vi e j nu!+2ng|
s |Vn19}wv 9 n 2n {F
4
{
n
4 }n q e = cj e0 , u( |~qFvg v o9s 49 o9 i4{ n {F |4vg v v = v j e , ~ qFv | 4{
i
i j
uwv|~s2nu}ro9ur}w|Vno*vgd} j9 o ~j9~ |~}nj ur} j nuB
ks
v = v i e0 = v j e = v j ck e0 ,
0
j k
v i = cij v j .
2
2|
q4#8 ;:t~ 7 ~ 7
{,k t 4{F
`s } ~ qt=n { e = cj e0 , v i = ci vj 4{ qFv 4{
ks unnqtt}û
i
j
i j
i ),
ks v { qt=n j{ vgtnv|VnB9}n 9 un2n {F o9t}rn nn un vo9t}rn n@
(c
q=njB9} k~ v { qt=n j{ vgtnv |Vn9}nun { |4vgo;v j~ q 4{Q9 un2n {Fe v o9t}rn n
n
un { |4vgo;v j~ q 4{9 un2n {F o9t}rn n@y|~s2n j v 4{ qFv { sj| 490{F }w|
`s un&nqtt}û
9 qt=n j{t vgtng|~}w ng|~qts2n ~ vgtn|4v qt=nt}n@o;v 9 v {&9 |~}r ~ s 4{ qtFv
|Vn { v
ks un { |4vgo;v j~ q 4{ {= qt=n j{ vgtn |4v qt=nVgnt}n q ~ q T o;v { q t}wvgt ~ q

v {
`s un|4v qt=n4ynt}n |~}n 4{ q= ung|~}wv n n|4v uwv {B{ s9o tp j }w| 4{
ks
un { |Vn qt} n 94{ |4v
{ s99p j }w| 4{ vg 49 | ~ une} { !n u ~ 9 qt=n j{ vgtng|~}w &
ks
uwv { |~qFvg 4{ 2n {Fe{ v |4vTgnt}n q 4{ gx
0
Z('~U`R^`_b^`_ba2\acbU`^f^k_h* Yrx
lyx n F F Hom(V, W ), {e }n {e }m 2n {F4{9 V W 4{t
o |~qt}ryn1 ~ q 2yRx h v { qt=n
`s un o9i i=1
4{F~ q=ng|~}wj j=1
9 F + F |4v 4{ o |~qFv
nun { 2n {F4{ n n {4{ }rys2nuHndun { s9n 9 un { o9 4{F1~ q=ng|~2}wv j4{9 F
1
2n {F9 x]h v { qt=nl

ks un o9
), {e|4i }v ni=1 o |~qFv nBVun 2n

n n 4{ }rys2nunu
{
F
{
={ ~ q=ng|~F}w1 9F 2F Hom(V
F
=
F
F
1
2
1
2
o9Fv sj|~qFv 9 un { o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}wv j4{Q9
@x n {e = (1, 1, 1), e = (0, 1, 1), e F=1 (0,F0,2 .1)}y{e0 = (1, 0, 0), e0 =
1
2
3
1
2
0 = (1, 1, 1)} 2n {F4{&9 V 9 q t} nunnqtt}û 9 qt=n j{ vg
(1,
1,
0),
e
ng|~}w 93 |VnB9}wv 9 2n {F
`s v { o t}rq o;v j Dun2n {F o9t}rn n
~ q k t} v {9 un vo9t}rn n q=n9} k~ un|4vgt 4{ o;v j } ~ q nu#|Vn { v
|4v qt=nt}wv x
jx n {e , e } un2n {F |Vn }w|Vn 9 R2 {e0 , e0 } un s gn2n {F
`s B{F
vg9qt} ~j 1 nuH2y}r=nunn q t}wvg ~ s ys9uwv 1 x 2 nurunQun o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w
9 unDqt=n j{ vgtng|~}w |4vgt 4{ o;v j } ~ q nu|Vn9}wv 9 2n {=yx
x n
I1 = {e1 = (1, 1, 1), e2 = (0, 2, 2), e3 = (0, 0, 3)}

2n {F4{K9 V
I = {e0 = (2, 2, 0), e0 = (0, 2, 2), e0 = (2, 0, 2)}
xF 2n .
I3 = {
e1 = (1, 0, 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0), e3 = (0, 0, 1)}
2n {=4{K9
I4 = {
e01 = ( 12 , 31 , 14 ),q=en02u `=s (0, 31 , 41 ), e03 = (0, 0, 41 )}
W, A Hom(V, W )
A(e1 ) = (1, 3, 5), A(e2 ) = (1, 2, 6), A(e3 ) = (2, 2, 4),
A(e01 ) = (
e01 + e02 ), A(e02 ) = (
e02 e03 ), A(e03 ) = (
e01 e03 )
&
nurun
S&eKnnqtt}û 9 qt=n j{ vgtng|~}w 9 |Vn9}wv 9 2n {F~ V 9 un
o9t}rn n ~ q k t} v {Q9 un vdo9t}rn n x
?&e nnqtt}û 9 qt=n j{ vgtng|~}w 9 |Vn9}wv 9 2n {FD~ W 9 un
o9t}rn n ~ q k t} v {Q9 un vdo9t}rn n x
S&&e nK o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w 9 A ~ q k t} v {(9 un { 2n {F4{ v&o9t}rn n {
} xyxj~ q k t} v {9
fg?&&e nd o9 4{=~ q=ng|~}w I9 I A. ~ q k t} v {9 un { 2n {F4{ o9t}rn n {Tx
fg?&e z# |4v qt=nQunD ung|~}w ~ qt n2n { o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}wv j4{Tx
1
q4 s )6 798 ;:N 9 7 $

2
xz uwv {d F|~}w|~}wv {{ }rys9} ~ q 4{ +2nurundun o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w 9 unqt=n j{ vg
ng|~}w |4vgt 4{ o;v j } ~ q nu|VnB9}wv 9 2n {= `
s e{F } j }w|Vn x
unX2n {= |Vn }w|Vn 9 R {e , e } un 2n {F k
s {F
n
vg9qt} ~j {e , e }
S&e uqt=n { un n&unD2n {F {e , e } nDuwvduntfv 9 e s n|Vn qt} n .
?&e uqt=n { un nKunD2n {F {e , e } nDuwvduntfv 9 e s n|Vn qt} n .
S&e u 2* Fnund2n {F {e , e } |4v 4{ o |~qFvnDunD |~q=n y = x.
fg?&e u 2* tnKun2n {F {e , e } |4v 4{ o |~qFv nu x.
fg?&e u 2* FnKund2n {F {e , e } |4v 4{ o |~qFv nu y.
fR?&e u 2* tnKun2n {F
|4v 4{ o |~qFv nuvgt}r ~x
fR S&e u o t}r ~ q=n {e{e ,, ee }} s n vg9u 2* }w o9t}r Fv 4{t
o |~qFv
nu nd|4v qt} s2ng|~}w |4v 4{ o |~qFv nu
fR ?&e u o xt}r ~ q=n {e , e } s n vg9u qt=n { ung|~}w y. un
o9t}r =nn
1
0
2
uwvuntfv 9 e s n|Vn qt} 1n

s n|Vn qt} n 2 .
0
1
n|4v qt} s2ng|~}w nuwvuntfv 9
e2
Y ZQ\V]HP9^`_baPjidP9\VUPji
Q v { } { qFvz
ks u|4v s qFv 9 no9ur}w|Vng|~}wv j4{ ur} j nu 4{~ tq v {yx x
9 j } v {{ vg9 u0} { v|Vno*v9 vgtns yx x }w|.+jv 4 { o2ng|~}wv s

V}rB*vgW
ur}ûTn v o*vg Hom(V, W ).
{
nu 4{ o2ng|~}wv 9 no9ur}w|Vng|~}wv j4{ ur} j nu 4{ Hom(V, K)
z# o2ntqt}w|~s9un { }
{F u |4v v| |4vg v Dx W H Z =F?aK,@gH@E29 u yx x V {FB{ }r;vgur^} uTno*vg Hom(V,
nuwv {d u ~ qFv {9
4{ q
4{ o2ng|~}wv9uwv { |~s2nu 4{d{ v no9ur}w|Vng|~}wv j4{ ur} j nu K)
4{d9=
V ,
v Z @U@D Z QS@,Dx nB9} k~ k}r v {
{= u 4{ |4v vk| K
/J Z FI@J#H@E^DxEF9J#D5HE^Dx
V
K,
ks D[Hom(V, W )] = D(V )D(W ), ~ s 4{ qtFv7|Vn { v D[Hom(V, K)] =

o;vg&uwK
v
`s
v
ks v {Q }w|
ks
) = D(V ), 4{ s9urq=n K
D(V )D(K)
=
D(V
)v jn
`D(V
v
}
g
v

g
v
s
t
q
}
q
s
{
9
{
e
} { vg vg 2{ v x
V V }ww
v
`s { } {v }r {w }s { v 2nV{F4{V9 V W 4{ o |~qt}ryn ~ q u
j j=1
i=1
|4v s qFv 9 un { {j i}j=1,
4{ s nD2n {F9 Hom(V, W ).
... ,r |4v
ji (vk ) = wi kj
i
i=1,
...
,s
z# u|Vn { v 9
v j9
un2n {F9 4{ u q ~j v {
ks j1(vk ) = 1 kjV =, kj , o9s 4{WqFav =

ks KqFv v { uwv { u ~K qFv {B9
41,{ q=n2n {F { v
ng|4vgo2n W n v {H9 u 1, o;v 9 v { o9 4{ |~} j }r 9c k4{ q # q ~j { }ro9u ~ q j (v ) =
u / FvqFvgq=nu 9Q urun {&{F =B}rys2nunBun }r ~j{ }w 9 V x@ vguwvDq=n qFv ks n
kj ,
2n {F&9 V 4{ q=e|4v j{ qt}rqts9} no*vg r s |~}wv nu 4{ {l }l=1 , 94{F9 urs fvB|~s2ndu
`s9}
vgqtFv u ~ qFv V , {= o9s 49 o*v j ~ q k t} v {&r 9e4{ q=n2n {Fyx
Uf#H_h^k_h*x n
`s Q4{ q= ~
{ r }r=1
{ } kn(e ) = k x
s
s
n 2n {F9 V, u|4v s Fq v 9 u ~ qFv {
4{ s n H@x}D[%gH@E9 u|4v s qFv {e }n { }
{ guwv
V
{ei }ni=1
1 i=1
z# u|Vn { vn q t}wvg {k }k=1 { v v|4v j{ qt}rqts f~ unD2n {F s2nu 9

n {j }j=1 2n {Fe~ V ,r o*vguwvw
ks o2n=nDqFv n V
n
{vi }ri=1 .
= 1 1 + 2 2 + + n n = j j con {j }nj=1 escalares
q4#8 ;:t~ 7 ~ 7
n j =n 9 o9uwv v {& u { }rys9} ~ q u n

UPx } {e }n 4{ s n2n {F9 V {j }j=1 4{{ sX2n F{ s2nu ~
n
|4v = j , ~ i qFvi=1
| 4{ = (e ).
j
j
j
v { qt=ng|~}w n 9 v { qt=ng|~}w 4{ } 4 }nq=n na
`s n uno9ur}w|Vn
|~s2nud
ks9} u ~ qFv e 9 unD2n {F {e }n q ~j v {
r
i i=1
(er ) = [1 1 + 2 2 + + r r + r+1 r+1 + + n n ]er

2
r
r+1 (e ) + + n (e )
= 1 o;1vg(eruw)v +k
2 (er ) + + r (er ) + r+1
r
n
r
s
r
r = (er )
2
z# 2n {F n 4{ q u n |4v j{ } 9 =n j vun { 2n {F4{ n q t}wvg 4{ #q ~j v {

ks
o2n=ndqFv n v V, v = vj e , }ro9ur}w|Vnw
`s vj = j (v).
vgn j v ~ |4v j{ } 9 =jng|~}w uwv { 4{ s9urq=n v { n q t}wvg 4{ q ~j v {
`s w
= (ej )j y
que v = j (v)(ej )
Z('~UkX]Hiba
n {e = (1, 0, 0), e = (0, 1, 0), e = (0, 0, 1)} s n2n {F9
1 { s2n {F s2n2u ~
o*vg3uwvw
ks w
{1 , 2 , 3 }
[R3 ]
o;vguwvw
`s o2n=2nD) =qFv v
1 (e
R3
{F n
1 (e1 ) = 2 (e2 ) = 3 (e3 ) = 1

2
2
3
3
3 ) = (e1 ) = (e3 ) = (e1 ) = (e2 ) = 0
(a, b, c) R3
1 (e
1 (a, b, c) = 1 [a(1, 0, 0), +b(0, 1, 0), +c(0, 0, 1)]
= a1 (1, 0, 0), +b1 (0, 1, 0), +c1 (0, 0, 1) = a
9 n j =n { }r}run 2(a, b, c) = b 3 (a, b, c) = c

z{D9 vg {F tyn {F
ks unng|4|~}w 9 s n s |~}wv nu { vg9 s |~qFvg 4{ s
4{ |VnunV 4{ qFv 4{ { } v V V , (v) k, 4{ q 4{ |Vnun {F o9s 49D4{ |~t}r9}r
9 }r { n { n j =n {a (v) =< , v >= (| >, |v >); ~ vgq=ng|~}w 9
}r=ng|nDun {0 s |~}wv nu 4{ ur} j nu 4{{F u 4{K{ }rB*vgur}ûTndo;vguwv { urunn v { 9=n j|~s v
o2n=n } { qt} ys9}res 9=n 9 vgqtFv {F s9qt}rur}ûTn u qt=n { v ) Fv {
{ prB*vguwv 4{
} xyx < |a, <<|b,|,< |c, . . . < 1|, < 2|, . . . x
v
ks w
+2n9pnd} { qFw
9{ } V {i }i=1 4{ 2n {F9 V
n
n
~ vgq=ng|~}w 9e }r=ng| s9qt}rur}ûTn j vund|4v ~ |~}w 9ez } j{ q }

1
= 1 + 2 + + n = i i con i = 1, . . . n
= i i = i < i| = (< |)(|i >) < i| =< ||i >< i| =< |i >< i|
4{ 2n F{ 9 VV
vV
{ei }ni=1
(v) = (< |)(|v >) =< ||v >=< |v >

4{ s nd2n {F s2nu ~ V , q ~j v
{j }j=1
n
(v) = < |v >= (j < j|)(v k |k >) = j (< j|(v k |k >))
{ };n 9 {
= j v k (< j||k >) = j v k < j|k >= j v k kj = j v j = k v k ,
q4 | ;:H$9 7
uwv|~s2nuq=nB9} k~ o9s v {= Kvg9q ~ } v }r |~q=n ~ q
(v) = (i i )(v k ek ) = i [i (v k ek )] = i [v k i (ek )] = i v k ki

= i v i
4{ s
{ s9;|4v s qFv 9 V, v j | 4{ nt}n ~ q s
{ s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv9 {FK9jj
u H@J/E^HTT@9 U, u|~s2nu {Fe{ }rB*vgur}ûTndo;vg U 0 , F{ e9jj |4vg v
U
U 0 = { V | (u) = 0, u U }
Z('~U`R^`_b^`_bagh v { qt=n
ks U 0 4{ s { s9 o2ng|~}wv 9 V .
Uà2RUkXPx H } U 4{ s d{ s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv 9 V, ~ qFv | 4{ D(V ) = D(U )+D(U 0 ).
s n2n {=
9 o9s 4{ qFvM
ks 4{
v { qt=ng|~}w H n
s { s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv 9 V, o;v 9 v {e{ 1n,ye 2 ,`.n.&. nDeru}nB2n {F9 U |~U,qFvg 4{ xx
`s 4U{ q=
~ o Fv v ~ U, +2n { q=n vgtn&s n2n {FB9 V, {F n D(V ) = n, o*vguwvp
`s
q ~jV,
v {
`s ny `n n r |~qFvg 4{ xx +2n { q=n vgtns ne2n {FK9 V {F n k4{ q=n
{F n {1 , 2 , . . . , n } { s2n {F s2nu ~ V ,
{e1 , e2 , . . . er , er+1 , . . . , en }
4{ qFv 4{ k (e ) = k
v
`s U 4{ s { s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv 9 V
n sU o9s s4{ qFp
o Fv { n v {
ks = (e ) o9s 4{ qFvw
`s {e , e , . . . , e } U U ,
r
~ qFv | 4{ (e ) = 0, ii = 1, .i. . , r, o*vguwva
ks 1 = 2 r+1
n
n 9 {4+{ q= ~+ Un n ,
9 @n
ks9pvg {F tiyn v {
`s {r+1 , . . . , n } ~j =n U , r+1
ks r+1(ei) = r+2(ei) = = n(ei) = 0, o2n=nBqFv n ei, i = 1, . . . r.

vgD|4v j{ qttsj|4|~}w r+1
n { v xx uwv|~s2nu}ro9ur}w|Vn
ks 4{ q |4v @
s qFv 4{ s n2n {F&9 U{ , |~s , n . . .}r ~j} { }w D(U ) = n r, o*vg urqt}r v D(U ) +
~ qFv | 4
{
D(U ) = r + n r = n = D(V ),
= 1 1 + 2 2 + + r r + r+1 r+1 + + n n
D(V ) = D(U ) + D(U ).
ks e{ } V = M N, ~ qFv | 4{ V = M N . 2
Y Pj(_ha UDP9\TUU V
n {e }n 2n {F9 V, {F n {j }j=1 { sB2n {F s2nu ~ V , } xyx k (e ) =
} |~qts2n i v i=1
{ s |VnB9}wv 9 2n {= n}r`n v {9 {e }n n {e0 }n , rn v
rk .
j j=1
o;vg e = cj e0 vo;vg e0 = dk e , ~ qFv | 4{ e0 = dk e = idki=1
w
u
D
v
|~s2nu2}ro9ur}w|Vn
0
l
j ck el ,
j k
j
ks dikj clk =i jjl . j j k

v 9 v { +2nurun u|VnB9}wv 9 2n {F |4vgt 4{ o*v j } ~ q d~ V . n { j }j=1
n
unD2n {Fe s2nu 9 {e0 }n ~ qFv | 4{ j (e0 ) = j .
0
0j
(e0i )
=
=
i i=1
i
j
j k
m
i = (Fk ) (di em ) =
j k
j
k
Fkj dm
i m = F k di = i
i
j k
Fk [
j m k
(dm
i em )] = Fk di em
q4#8 ;:t~ 7 ~ 7
~ qFv | 4{ |4vgo2n=n j v v { F j = cj o;vguwvdq=n qFv j 0 cj k .

n { }rys9} ~ q q=n9un v { n s nnDk 4{ s9k}r no9ur}w|VnKs *o v|4vDuwvkn q t}wvg
0
ei = cji e0j
e0k = dm
k em
k = Frk r
s = dsr r
~ |4v qt=n v {
ks k = ck r o*vguwv
`s s = ds r o9s 4{ qFv
ks { n v {
r
ks (cj ) = (dj )1 q ~j v {Kr j nur ~ q

ks
0
ei = cji e0j
e0k = cm
k em
k = ckr r
s = csr r
4| v qt} s2ng|~}w +2n v { s o9uwv9 ~ u$

`s e{F no9ur}w|Vnuwvn q 4{ k} { qFv x
Z('~UkX]Hiba"* n
0 = (1, 1), e0 = (1, 1)}
2n {F4{B9 R2 i o9t}r Fv{e 1 = (1,v { 0),
`s e 2 u=n(0,nqt1)}
t}û 9 {e
|Vn19}wv 9 2n {=2 9 un {B v
o9t}rn n { nun { o9t}rn n { 4{ un} { n
ks & v { qt=n j{ vgtnDvd|Vn9}nBun { |4vg
o;v j~ q 4{ 4{ o |~qFvn un 2n {= o9t}rn n ~ un { |4vgo;v j~ q 4{ 4{ o |~qFvnun2n {F
v
ks w
vdo9t}rn n j o*vguwp

e0i = aji ej = a1i e1 + a2i e2
(1, 1) = =
+ a21 e2 = a11 (1, 0) + a21 (0, 1)
1 = a11 y 1 = a21
0
1
(1, 1) = e2 = a2 e1 + a22 e2 = a12 (1, 0) + a22 (0, 1)
1 = a12 y 1 = a22
e01
a11 e1
~ qFv | 4{
~ qFv | 4{
} ~j vunDnqtt}û 9 |Vn9}wv 9 2n {Fe9 un vdo9t}rn n

nDundo9t}rn n
n
2 o;vgDuwv
ks
~ qFv v| 4{R
(aij )
1
1
1 1
v = v i ei = v 1 e1 + v 2 e2 v = wj e0j = w1 e01 + w2 e02
(v 1 , v 2 ) = w1 (1, 1) + w2 (1, 1) = (w 1 + w2 , w1 w2 )
~ |4v j{F |~s ~ |~}n

o;vguwvdq=n qFv
v 1 = w1 + w2
v1
v2
1
1
1 1
v 2 = w1 w2

w1
w2
q4 | ;:H$9 7
s3
v 9 v { q=n9} k~d o9 4{ nun02n {F vo9t}rn n ~ q k t} v {H9 uno9t}rn n@

4{ qFv 4 { e = dj e0 ,
e1 =
i j
d11 e01
+ d21 e02
d21 (1, 1) ,
1 = d11 + d21
0 = d11 d21
d11 = 21 , d21 =
(0, 1) = d12 (1, 1) + d22 (1, 1) ,
1 = d12 + d22
0 = d12 d22
d12 = 21 , d22 = 12
(1, 0) =
d11 (1, 1)
~ vgtn { }r}run
e2 = d12 e01 + d22 e02
o;vguwvw
`s
(dij )
1
2
1
2
1
2
12
n 1 , 2 } { 1 , 2 } un { 2n {F4{ s2nu 4{K9

o |~qt}rgn ~ {
q o*vguwvp
ks
0
1 (a, b) = a,
{e1 , e2 }
1
2
{e01 , e02 }
4{t
2 (a, b) = b
ab
a+b
a+b
(1, 1) +
(1, 1)] =
2
2
2
ab
ab
02
02 a + b
(1, 1) +
(1, 1)] =
(a, b) = [
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
(a, b) + (a, b)
0
1 (a, b) =
=[
+
](a, b)
2
2
2
0
1 (a, b) 2 (a, b)
1 2
0
2 (a, b) =
=[
](a, b)
2
2
2
0
1 (a, b) = 1 [
1
0
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
12

1
2
tq =ndn j =n 9 +2ng| tuwv {F tpn x

n $ {e = (1, 0), e = (0, 1)} y {e0 = (1, 1), e0 = (1, 1) } 2n {=4{K9
1
2
2
o*vg1uwv
`s
e01 = dj1 ej = d11 (1, 0) + d21 (0, 1) = (1, 1)

(d11 , d21 ) = (1, 1)
d11 = 1, d21 = 1
e02 = dj2 ej = d12 (1, 0) + d22 (0, 1) = (1, 1)

(d12 , d22 ) = (1, 1)
d12 = 1, d22 = 1
z# vgtn { }r}run
R2
sq
q4#8 ;:t~ 7 ~ 7
e1 = cj1 e0j = c11 (1, 1) + c21 (1, 1) = (1, 0)
1 1
c11 + c21 = 1
c1 = 2
c11 c21 = 0
c21 = 12
e2 = cj2 e0j = c12 (1, 1) + c22 (1, 1) = (1, 0)

1
1
c12 + c22 = 0
c2 =
2
c12 c22 = 1
c22 = 21
1

1
i
2
2
(cj ) =
1
1
2 2
+jvg=nBvg ={ t v {
`s k4{ uwvP
ks Q{ sj| 49 |4v unnqtt}û 9 |VnB9}wv 9 2n {F
~ u 4{ 2o ng|~}wv s2nu x
{ n v {
ks
j = F j k
0
1 = 1 (1, 1) = (F11 1 + F21 2 )(1, 1) = F11 + F21

0
0 = 1 (1, 1) = (F11 1 + F21 2 )(1, 1) = F11 F21

1
1
F11 = ,
F21 =
2
2
02
2 1
2 2
0 = (1, 1) = (F1 + F2 )(1, 1) = F12 + F22
0
o;vguwvw
`s
1 = 2 (1, 1) = (F12 1 + F22 2 )(1, 1) = F12 F22

1
1
F22 =
F12 = ,
2
2
(Fji )
1
2
12
1
2
1
2
Z('~U`R^`_b^`_ba2\acbU`^f^k_h* Ywx
lyxz |4v qt=nQs nD2n {F o2n=n un s9un vg 9 {(1, 1, 1), (1, 2, 3)} R3.
xz |4v qt=nQs nD2n {F o2n=n un s9un vg 9 {1, 2, 3, 4} R4.
@x n P u0|4v s qFv 9 o;vgur} vg}wv {d9 y=n v ~ vgDv}rys2nu0ns v
{= n 11 , 2 P q=nu&
ks w
1
1 [g(t)] =
2
nurunKs nd2n {=e9

jx n
[g(t)] =
P1
g(t)dt
0
2
g(t)dt
un|~s2nu {F nD2n {Fe s2nu 9

0
1 , 2 .
q4 8 hX:t 7 g~ 7 8 b:t#
s1
I = { e1 = (1, 1, 1), e2 = (0, 1, 1), e3 = (0, 0, 1) }

0
0, 0), e02 = (1, 1, 0), e03 = (1, 1, 2) }
v { 2n {F4{II9 =R3{ e1 {F= n (1,
{
1 , 2 , 3 } un { 2n {F4{ s2nu 4{
1
2
3
4{ o |~qt}ryn {9 I II. nurun,un, n}qtt} {
9 |VnB9}wv 9 2n {FD9 un {
s
nDun { , 4{K9 |~}rV k = F k l .
x n es = (1 + i, 1 i) l e = (2, 2 i).
1 v { qt=n ks
42{ 2n {F9 C 2.
{e
,
e
}
1
2
nurunKun { |4vvg 9~ n n {9 s |~qFvgQnt9}rqt=nt}wv (a, b) C 2 ~
q=nd2n
û
S&e h
?&e
4{
S&e
{Fyx
n {1 , 2 } u nX2n {= s2nu 9 {e , e }, +2nurun 1 [(a, b)]
1
2
2 [(a, b)] o2n=nds |~qFvgnt9}rqt=nt}wv (a, b) ~ C 2 .
x n {e = (1, 0, 0), e = (0, 1, 0), e = (0, 0, 1)} s n2n {F9 R3 {F n

1
2
3
3 } { s2n {Fe s2nu ~ (R3 ) .
{n1uru,n&2u,n
2
n {F s2nu 9 {e0 = (1, 1, 1), e0 = (0, 1, 1), e0 = (0, 0, 1)} ~
q k t} v {9 {1 , 2 , 3 } ,1 4{09 |~}rV { } 2k e0 = k , +2nuru3n {1 , 2 , 3 }

r
r
q=nu
`s i = ai j .
j
Y ]U`RP9aRUk\ _U`PjibU`\ ]UkRP9Ha2R
Pji
+jvg=n v { 4{ qtt} y}r v { n
un { qt=n j{ vgtng|~}wv j4{ ur} j nu 4{e9 s yx x
{ vg9 { p} { v90un { |~s2nu 4{K{F |4v v| ~ |4vg vvgo =n vg 4{ u;|4v s qFv 9e urun {
{ }rB*vgur^} uTn vo;vg Hom(V ), vgtn@o*vguwv
k} { qFvn q t}wvgt ~ q s yx x9d }
~j{ }w }rys2nujn (D(V
~ qFv | 4{
~ o2ntqt}w|~s9un { }
))2 }rDvgqt=nvgo =ng|~D(V
) =q=n n s ynvgo =D(Hom(V
n

n
*
o
v

v
w
}
{
9
{
9
ng|~}w {F uru))n=n
2,
n
]5@ Z QS av Z @O! YxF Z FI@J`)D =DH)T@,Dx
Uf#H_h^k_h*x n B Hom(V ) u0o9Fv sj|~qFv A B v AB, u|~s2nu
q=nB9} k~ sj.| +2n { | 4{A,
v B {F ys9} v 9 A
v B |4vgo9s 4{ qFvX|4v
{F u 4 |4vg
A{Fe9jj 4 }n q K
e4{ q=n 9j }w|~}w {Fe{ }rys k
s { }
(AB)v = A[B(v)]
v V
v1 , v 2 V
a1 , a2 K.
(AB)(a1 v1 + a2 v2 ) = A[B(a1 v1 + a2 v2 )] = A[a1 B(v1 ) + a2 B(v2 )]

= a1 A[B(v1 )] + a2 A[B(v2 )] = a1 (AB)v1 + a2 (AB)v2
AB Hom(V ).
Z('~U`R^`_b^`_baXx ch v { qt=n
ks (AB)C = A(BC); A, B, C Hom(V ).
Z('~UkX]Hiba x } A, B, C Hom(V ) v { qt=n v {
ks
[A(B + C)] = AB + BC
[A(B + C)]v = A[(B + C)v] = A[Bv + Cv] = A[Bv] + A[Cv]

= (AB)v + (AC)v = (AB + AC)v
~ qFv | 4{ A(B + C) = AB + AC, { }r}runt ~ q (A + B)C = AC + BC.

Z('~U`R^`_b^`_baXx ch v { qt=n
ks A(aB) = (aA)B = a(AB)
`s A0 = 0.
s2
q4#8 ;:t~ 7 ~ 7
v 9 v { } qtFv sj|~}r&s nDqt=n j{ vgtng|~}w 9 V ~ V 9j } ndo;vg Ev = v

o;vguwvz
ks
4{
v
1 v 1{ + a2 v2 ) = a1 v1 + a2 v2 = a1 E(v1 ) + a2 E(v2 )
n 9
9 |~}r EV, Hom(V ), E(a
(AE)v = A[E(v)] = A(v)
(EA)v = E(Av) = A(v).
4{K9 |~}r AE = EA, ~ ~j =nu AB 6= BA x

Uf#H_h^k_h*x n
4{ s {=DH)T@Dx Z H@EHB{ } A = aE
o2n=n nur 9 a K. A Hom(V ), A
Uf#H_h^k_h*x D& vgo =n vg A Hom(V ), 4{zBD?@RE^H@{ } } { q A1
q=nu
`s AA1 = A1A = E. } A v 4{ ys9unV {F urunn FJR@/E^H@
Hom(V ),
2+ n9pnd} { qFvw
ks e{ }
W ), D(V ) = D(Ker(A)) + D(Im(A)),

q=n qFv Ker(A) |4vg v Im(A) { v { s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv {
~4{ q |Vn { v9A { } AHom(V,
Hom(V
),
9 V.
} A 4{ 9} f |~qt}rgn@ 4{ } `f |~qt}ryno;vgBuwv
ks Ker(A) = {0} v s9ur} n 9
n 9 { 4{0{ vg9 ~f |~qt}ryn@v {F n Im(A) = V v=n fv
A = D(Ker(A)) = 0
9 A = D(Im(A)) = D(V ). A
Uà2RUkXPx
4{ ys9un { } {= |~s9o9u nurys n 9 un {{ }rys9} ~ q 4{
o9Fvgo;v { }w|~}wv j4{ A Hom(V )
e A Hom(V ) 4{ } `f |~qt}ryn v s9ur} n 9 A = 0
e A Hom(V ) 4{K{ s9 f |~qt}rynv=n fv 9 A = D(V )
n
ks B s9ur} n 9 A = 0
v { qt=ng|~}w } A 4{ } kf |~qt}rgn uruwv
ks9}rgnu
9 und} 9~ qt} n
nulidad de A + rango de A = D(V )
{Fe{ }rys
`s =n fv 9 A = D(V ), o9s 4{ qFvp
ks Im(A) 4{ s { s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv 9 V,
|~s n }r ~j{ }w 4{ }rys2nun
v {F nz
ks A 4{
{F { }rys
`s
9} f |~),qt}rynvd ys9un x Im(A) = V
{ s9 f |~qt}ryn@9o;vguwvw
`s A 4{ D(V
}r}runt ~ q
{ } A 4{e{ s9 f |~qt}ryn@ Im(A) = V, o;vgQuwvz
ks D(Ker(A)) =
v {F n
uwv[
ks }ro9ur}w|Vn[
`s A 4{ } `f |~qt}ryn
D(V )D(Im(A))
ys9un x = {0}
~ |4v j{F |~s ~ |~}n9=} f0 |~qt}rynvdKer(A)
2
Uf#H_h^k_h*x & }
4{ ys9un {F u urunn H@ QS@Op@9NxOp o;vg
uwvw
ks s ns9qFvg vg 2{ A v 4Hom(V
{ s } { vg) vg 2{ v 9 s yx x9{ vg9 { p;} { v x
z# {F |4|~}wv j4{ n q t}wvg 4{{F }wv
ks { } A Hom(V, W ) 4{ 9} f |~qt}rgn
4{ s n2n {F9 V, ~ qFv | 4{ {A(e )}n 4{ s n2n {F9 W, ~ vg
n
{e
n i }{i=1
}r}run { } A Hom(V
ys9un {ei }ni=1 4{ s n2n {= 9 V, ~ qFv | 4{
),
ts 2n 94{ q=n urqt}rnn tng|~}w
4{ vgqt=nK2n {F9 V ; 94{F9 urs fvuni o9i=1
n
{A(e
)}
i
i=1
4{K{ }ro9u yx
q4 8 hX:t 7 g~ 7 8 b:t#
s5s
nB9} k~ {F k}wv[
`s { } { }
}n 2n {F9 V, {e }n
n o9 4{F~W q=)ng|~}w {e
q=n {
4 { 2n {FD9 W, |4v A 9} f |~qt}rAgn@uHom(V,
i9 i=1A ~ q k t} v {e9Bj 4{ j=1
2n {F4{ 4{ s nQnqtt}û|~s v 9 q t} n q &4{# } ~ q &9 | Fv xyz# s 4{ qtFv|Vn { v9
v ~ u|Vn { v 9 vgo =n vg 4{ ;s 4{ s9urq=n v { }r}run {F qt} ~j | @ o9qFvz
ks D v {F

ks9} 9e v { 2n {F4{ j|4v s n 4{K{ s |~} ~ q yx
& |~pro9Fv|Vn ~ q n n&s nK2n {= {e }n 9 V A Hom(V ), 9j } ~j v
4 }n q Ae = aj e , { } det(ai ) 6= 0,i i=1
{ n v {
ks
4{ 2n {=9
n
aji
n j n2n {F4{~
iV, q vg nBi unqt}rifvDj n|Vn9}wv j9 2n {F j nun u[
`s A{A(e
v {i )}i=1
2n {F4{ o*vguww
v
ks Ker(A) = {0}, } @ t} ~j v {F
`s A 4{ ys9un x
Uà2RUkXPx 0 n (e , e , . . . , e ) s nD2n {= |~s2nud
`s9} =n 9 V {F n
9j } ~j1 v2uwv { n2 4n{ |Vnun 4{ aj 4 }n q Ae = aj e , ~ qFv | 4{
A Hom(V ),
i
i guwv
i j
9
}
~
|
t
q
r
}
g
@
n
j
9
s
u

n

v

n
9
s
F
q
g
v

g
v
9
v
}
}
4
{
f
{
{

{
{
j
A
det(a ) 6= 0.
Q v { qt=ng|~}w n
|4v j{ } 9 v { un |4vgo;v
{ }w|~}w A, un|~s2nuno A n V Hom(V
~ K, { )} v ,v VV , a , a K
i
( A)[a1 v1 + a2 v2 ] = [A(a1 v1 + a2 v2 )] = [a1 A(v1 ) + a2 A(v2 )]

= a1 (A(v1 )) + a2 (A(v2 ))
= a1 ( A)v1 + a2 ( A)v2
9Q v j9
A
9 ,n `s9p
|~} tqFv x
n
z{ q=n s |~}wv nu
( A) V .
{= } qts f k
s
1 , 2 V
( A)
A : V V ,
a1 , a 2 K
{F o9s 49Q9~ vgq=no;vg
n v {
{ } |~qt}ryn ~ q 4{ qFv 4{
def
A (a1 1 + a2 2 ) = (a1 1 + a2 2 ) A
o;vg F{ 4{ q=n |4vgo;v { }w|~}w s n s |~}wv nu*ng|~qts2n { vg9 u ~ qFv {Q9
ks { sng|4|~}w { vg9 v V
[A (a1 1 + a2 2 )]v =
=
=
=
~ qFv | 4{
o*vgKq=n qFv
jo*vguwv
[(a1 1 + a2 2 ) A]v = (a1 1 + a2 2 )[A(v)]

a1 1 [A(v)] + a2 2 [A(v)]
a1 (1 A)v + a2 (2 A)v
[a1 (1 A) + a2 (2 A)]v
A (a1 1 + a2 2 ) = a1 A 1 + a2 A 2 )
A Hom(V ).
Uf#H_h^k_h*x n
Z JTHT)9
A =
9j }r v { u
gD5HTT@a@gH@E H)RJQS
A }Hom(V
4 n q A), = A, 4{9 |~}rVo2n=nqFv n v
A, A
~ vgq=ng|~}w 9 o2n ~ q 4{ } { |~q= ys9un 4{ q ~j v {
V, (A )v = ( A)v, n
s nK2n {=9 V A Hom(V ).
< A , v >=< , Av > .
(e1 , e2 , . . . , en )
q4#8 ;:t~ 7 ~ 7
s|
n v {
`s s nQ o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w
9 A 4{ q= n nQo*vg n2 4{ |Vnun 4{9 un vgtn
a k4{ qFv { o9FvTk} ~j~9 A(ei) = aji ej , ~ vgtn { }r}runQun o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w 9
aij
o9FvTk} ~j9 n2 4{ |Vnun 4{ a i uwv { |~s2nu 4{ o9FvV} ~j~ 9 Aj = a j k ,
A
k
{ } ~j v {i }i=1 unD2n {F s2nu ~ Vj 9 {e }n .
j j=1
n
n v { |4g v 4{ q= ung|~}wv n v { ai a i .
j
j
v
`s
s 4{ qF
[A j ]ek = (j A)ek = j [Aek ] = j ask es = ask j es = ask sj = ajk
o*vgvgqt=no2ntq [A j ]e = (a j r )e = a j r = a j , vg {= tgn v {~

9o t} |~}ro9}wv
`s aj = a j , k} { qt} ~j vrs nur}rk =n } r k~ |~}n@unk|~s2nu*o9FvV} ~j9 u
+ .| +jv
ks nung|~kqts2n Ak { vg9 un { e, ng|~qts2n { vg9 p j }w| 4{ } @ t}wvg 4{ @|4v qt=nt}wv n
unng|4|~}w 9 A { vg9 un { ,
ks 4 j v v {&j nur ~ q a j = ak .
z{ q=n urqt}rn n tng|~}w o9s 49 {= g|~}rur ~ q j n kv { j
Aei = aji ej
A k = a km m
A 1 = a 11 1 + + a 1n n
xxx
A n = a n1 1 + + a nn n
Ae1 = a11 e1 + + an1 en
xxx
Aen =
a1n e1
+ +
(Z '~UkX]Hiba@ n
2n {FQ s2nu ~ R2
uwvw
ks
xx
ann en
x 1
ex 1
xx
en
ax 11
a 1n
a n1
a nn
xx
ax 11
a1n
an1
ann
xx
s
n 2n {F&9
o;vgq=n qFv
xx
ex 1
xx
en
{s
{ e1 = (2, 0), e2 =n (0,

3)
}
R2 , {1 , 2 }o;vg
B
n
;
o
g
v
A Hom(R2 )
A(a, b) = (3a b, a + 2b),
A(2, 0) = (6, 2) = aj1 ej = a11 (2, 0) + a21 (0, 3)
x 1
= (2a11 , 3a21 )
a11 = 3, a21 =
2
3
A(0, 3) = (3, 6) = aj2 ej = a12 (2, 0) + a22 (0, 3)

= (2a12 , 3a22 )
a12 = 23 , a22 = 2
(aij )
3
2
3
3
2
T
3
3
2
2
3
q4 8 hX:t 7 g~ 7 8 b:t#

vgvgqt=nDo2ntq { n v { k
s (e ) = , o;vguwvw
`s p
i
s,
i
j
(A k )e1 = (a kr r )e1 = [a k1 1 + a k2 2 ]e1 = a k1

2
= (k A)e1 = k [A(e1 )] = k (6, 2) = k [3e1 + e2 ]
3
{ } k = 1 q ~j v { `
s
~ vgtn { r} }run
{}
a 11 = 3,
q ~j v { `
s
k=2
a 21 =
2
3
(A k )e2 = (a kr r )e2 = (a k1 1 + a k2 2 )e2 = a k2

= (k A)e2 = k [A(e2 )] = k (3, 6) = k
|4v
o;vguwvw
`s
|4v
a 12 = 23 ,
k = 1,
(a ij )
4{ s9urq=n v
`s |4vg} |~} 9 |4v uwv 4{ o =n v x
Z('~U`R^`_b^`_ba2\TcbU`^f^k_h* Y9*x }
2
3
a 22 = 2
k = 2,
3
2

3
e1 + 2e2
2
o9Fvg2n
?Xe (A + B) = A + B .
Se (aA) = aA .
?e (AB) = B A .
f Se E qt} ~j s |4vgo*vgtq=n} ~ qFv { }r}run ~ V nu
`s qt} ~j E ~ V.
fg?Xe n V u 4{ o2ng|~}wv |~qFvgt}nu 9 qFv n { un {& s |~}wv j4{ o;vgur} vg}wv { vg9
u#|Vno;v 9 uwv {/ Fv { nu 4{Vx= n n v { s9 Fv { nu 4{Q tv {
{F n f V 9j } v o;vg
A, B Hom(V )
aK
D
D f .
f (p) =
p(x)dx
4{ uvgo =n vg 9 t}ryng|~}w { vg9

a
V,
ks k
4{ v v j94{ q=
YWY ORaH^ySVaUk\Va2Rg_bPjiYB n
{F9jje u 5@ Z QS

DJgx}@F?H@Ej9 v , |4vg vn@
`s urun
vgo =ng|~}w V v
qt=vn j{ V,vgtng|~}w
ks nu(ng|~qts2n
{ vg9 s u ~ qFv 9 V v { n j nn u ~ qFv {
9 V, 4{ qFv 4{ (o2n=nqFv n
o*vg#uwv`
s gunevgo =ng|~}w
ng|~qts2n { vg9 |~qFvg 4{
u v V
n nD= |~[(u)]v,
qFvg 4{ t n v {&{ } |~qt}rgn ~ q vv Hom(V )
{ (vn j )u
n
u1 , u2 , v V, a1 , a2 K
(v )(a1 u1 + a2 u2 ) = [(a1 u1 + a2 u2 )]v = (a1 u1 + a2 u2 )v

= a1 (u1 )v + a2 (u2 )v
= a1 (v )u1 + a2 (v )u2
uwv|~s2nu}ro9ur}w|Vnp
`s
v Hom(V ).
q4#8 ;:t~ 7 ~ 7
(Z '~U`R^`_b^`_ba2\T%b;Uk^f^`_b Y*YWx e }
v { qt=n
v1 , v 2 V ; 1 , 2 V
aK
?Xe v ( + ) = v + v
Se (av ) = v a = a(v )
?e (v + v ) = v + v
j+ vg=nd9} ~ v { vgqtFv {&{ n v {
ks e{ } {v , v , . . . , v } { } {w , w , . . .
{ v 2n {F4{(9 4{ o |~qt}ryn ~ q gs n&2n {F9 Hom(V, W ) 4{ q= n n
w
s
o;vg} un { r s q=Vnu&`
W
{ }rys9} ~j v u} { v |Vn} vK
`s e v {
=w ,
uru fn|4v j{ qtts9}rs n2n {F 9(v )Hom(V,
o*v 9 v { |4v j{ qtts9}rs n2n {= 9
W
),
} 2ntfv 4k { q=ndun|4v j{ qtts9}r v {Q~ q k t} v {Q9 o9Fv sj|~qFv { q ~@
Hom(V
{ vgt}nu 4{ ). n v { {F n A Hom(V ), {e } s nQ2n {F9 V { } { sd2n {F
s2nu ~ V , n`
s A(e ) = a e = a e = a [ (e )]e 0 a [e ]e ,
~ qFv | 4{ A = a e , uwvk
s }ro9ur}w|Vn`
s uwv { n o9Fv sj|~qFv { q ~j{ vgt}nu 4{
~j =n
e |4v qt} s2ng|~}w Hom(V
).v { k
s 0{ v x x o2n=nuwvQ|~s2nu9|4v j{ qtts9}r v {# u@vgo =n vg
| Fv9 0 = c e , o;vguwvpk
s o2n=ndqFv n v V,
1
i
j
i
j
j
k j
k
j k
i
k
i
j r
n
i i=1
j k
k i j
j
i j
j
k
j n
j=1
j
k
0(v) = 0 = ckj (ek j )v = ckj [j (v)]ek = ckj [j (v r er ]ek = ckj v r rj ek = ckj v j ek
o9s 4{ qFvw
ks un { { v xx 4{ qFvd}ro9ur}w|Vnw
ks k j
o9s 4{ qFvp
ks e4{ q 4{ s9u
q=n v 4{ yur} vo2en=ndqFv n v V, ~ qFv | 4{ ck c=j v0, =k 0,= 1, . . . , n.
q t}wvgt ~ q v { qt=n v {
ks uwv { o9Fv sjj |~qFv { q ~j{ vgt}nu 4{#{ v u ~ qFv {9
~ qFv | 4{ uwv { n2 o9Fv sj|~qFv { q ~j{ vgt}nu 4{9 e j vgtn s n2n {F
Hom(V ),
i
9 Hom(V ).
P@SVR_b^fUk\yYU`(H_b^`_bx & n HQIFd#4{ s nt yuwve |~q=n ys9un 9

4{ |Vnun 4{ uwv { |~s2nu 4{ o2n=n 4{ o |~} |Vn { sdo;v { }w|~}w {F u 4{ +2ng| ng|4vgo2n W n 90 v {
p j }w| 4{ s v { s9o t}wvg vgqtFv} @ t}wvgVgvQ9} ~d v { p j }w| 4{ } @ t}wvg 4{Bi{ s9o t}wvg 4{ j
4{ qFv 4{ u 4{ |Vnun i vk|~s9o2n u* ~ yuw unB|4vgurs9 n j 4{ q } { v u ~ qFv
{ }rB*vgur}ûTn v|4v p ja j }w| 4{ } @ t}wvg 4{&4{ ai x
z{ q=n {{ s9t ~ nuH 4{ vgur s { } { q ijn 9D |~s2ng|~}wv j4{ ur} j nu 4{ { s9t ~ |4vg v
o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w 9 no9ur}w|Vng|~}wv j4{ ur} j nu 4{ ò9s 49~{ s9ty}r ~ une o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w 9
nurys n {K s |~}wv j4{K4{ o |~p |Vn { jo*vg o9uwv
n
YY
y=
a11 x + a12
,
a21 x + a22

n 4{ q=n s |~}w u o;v 9 v { n { vk|~}n unt yuwv

4{ q nt yuwv v 4 {-9 }w|4v9 nw
ks e{ } c 6= 0 i nu j
y=
a11 c+a12 c
a21 c+a22 c
|4v
a11 a12
a21 a22
ca11 ca12
ca21 ca22
{ } X 2ntfv
q4 8 hX:t 7 g~ 7 8 b:t#

s5
~ qFv | 4{ v { nqtt}w| 4{94{ q qt}ro;v o9 4{=~ q=n nunX} { n s |~}w { }uwv {
u ~ qFv {9 s n { v }rys2nu 4{ nnur 9 urqt}ro9uwv ih v j 9 uwv { u ~ qFv {9 un
vgqt=n x
|4v a = 1 a = 0 , y = x
{F t v { k
s d{ } y =
unDnqtt}ûBn { vk|~}n n 4{ unDnqtt}^
u } 9~ qt} n x a = 0 a = 1
o*vguwvwk
s
} y=
z=
a11 x+a12
a21 x+a22
x+a12
b11 aa11
+ b12
21 x+a22
x+a12
b21 aa11
21 x+a22
12
21
22
b11 y+b12
b21 y+b22
a11 x+a12
a21 x+a22
z =
11
+ b22
a11 b11 x + b11 a12 + a21 b12 x + a22 b12

a11 b21 x + b21 a11 + a21 b22 x + a22 b22
a11 b11 + a21 b12

b21 a11 + b22 a21
b11 a12 + b12 a22

b21 a11 + b22 a22
unnqtt}ûn { vk|~}n ndn 4{ q=n|4vgo;v { }w|~}w |4vgt 4{ o;v j9 nu*o9Fv sj|~qFvBs { s2nu 9 n
qtt}w| 4{ (bj ) o*vg (ai ) .
j
i
v { p j }w| 4{
ks ng|4vgo2n W n nuwv { u ~ qFv {9 s nBnqtt}ûQo9s 49~ qFvgn
s ) Fv j }rqFvvX} @j }rqFv 9 ynuwvg 4{Vxz# |Vn { v 9
ks uwv { p j }w| 4{ qFvg ~
ynuwvg 4{j }rqFv { {F +2n9un 9 s nnqtt}û 9 vg 9~j }rqFv9 9& v {F n { p {F +2n9un
9 s ndnqtt^} u 9 vg 9~ } @j }rqFv x
}Hun nqtt^} u 4{9 vg 9~j }rqFv u / Fv
}r v 9 ~ yuwv j4{4{
/ Fv 9 |4vgurs9 n { m, {F }w|
ks uvg 9~X9 unnqtt^} u 4{ n m v9n} ~
ks un }r ~j{ }w 9 unnqtt^} u 4{ n m.
u|4v s qFv 9 nqtt}w| 4{&9 vg 9~
{F u e{ }rB*vgur^} uTndo;vg
|4v (K),
s qFv
{ } {=K{ vg9 4~ qt} ~j9Q u2|Vno;v { vg9 K u|~s2mnu 4{ n.q= 9j } nunnqtt^} uf M
umn
{Fe{ }r;vgur^} uTn { }ro9u ~ q o*vg M .
mn
Uf#H_h^k_h*x } A M (K) k4{ q=n {Fd{ }r;vgur^} uTno;vg (ai ). n (ai )
n x/OpH9 (ai ) (bi ) |4vg vd@n
`s urujnnqtt^} uQ|~s j v {
{FK9jj umn
(bij ) Mmn (K),
u ~ qFv {K{ v 9 un vgtn ai + bi
k4{ q=n {=j { }rB*j vgur^} uTnDo;vg (ai + bi ). z{ q=n v {
}w|
ks Q u u ~ qFv 9 u;} k4{ j}r vdj ~ yuw un& k4{ }rnD|4vgurs9 jnDo9FvVj } ~j9 un
{ s9ns { s2nu 9 u ~ qFv {D9 u#} k4{ }r v ~ yuw X unB k4{ }rn|4vgurs9 n 9 |Vn n
s n 9 un { nqtt}w| 4{Vx
nnqtt^} u%
`s o tq ~j | n M (K) |~s v {0 u ~ qFv {&{ v qFv v { | Fv { un
mn
9~ vgq=n v { o*vg 0.
Uf#H_h^k_h*x n (bi ) M (K) a K 9j }r v { un O REQIF]EGF Z H Z F?@J
ks urunnqtt^} u0|~s v {( u ~ qFv {{ v d9 un vgtn

9 a o*vgHun&nqtt^} u (bi ) j|4vg ve@n mn
j
un { }r;vgur^} uTn v { o;vg (abi ).
abij
j
v
ks
n + v {e9j } vun { s9n 9 nqtt}w| 4{ u(o9Fv sj|~qFv 9 s
s 4{ qF
4{ |Vnundo;vgds nnqtt^} ufn 9 {9 q ~j 9j } nunnqtt^} u| Fv9#|4v 4{ qFv
|4vg v2n {= ndo*v 9 v { o9Fvg2n
ks e u|4v s qFv M (K) vgtnds yx xx
mn
|
h
v { qt=n v {
q4#8 ;:t~ 7 ~ 7
nd|4v qt} s2ng|~}w `
s unDqt=n j{t vgtng|~}w
Mmn (K)
o;vg T (A)W=)
4{ s } { vg vg 2{ v 9j T} :v Hom(V,
v j9 A Hom(V, W ) (ai )
i
(aj )
4 { un o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w 9 A 4{ o |~qFvQnKun&2n {F {e } m 9 V, 4{ qFv 4{ Ae = aj ej0
i i=1
i
i j
v j9 {e0 } n 4{ 2n {Fe9 W.
j j=1
Q v { qt=ng|~}w
Fvg2n v { o9t}r Fvp
ks T Hom({Hom(V, W ), M (K)}) .
mn
n A, B Hom(V, W ), q=nu
`s
o;vguwvw
`s
A(ei ) = aji e0j
B(ei ) = bji e0j
o;vgKvgqt=ndo2ntq { n v { k
s
o;vguww
v
ks
T (A) = (aji )
T (B) = (bji ),
j 0
(A + B)ei = Aei + Bei = ai ej + bji e0j
(aji + bji )e0j
n9} k~{ n v { k
s
T (A + B)ei =
aij
bij
= (aij ) + (bij ) = T (A) + T (B)
(aA)ei = aAei = a(aji e0j ) = aaji e0j
o;vgKuwvdq=n qFv
T (aA) = (aaji ) = aT A
j+ vg=nD v {
ks T 4{ } `f |~qt}ryn x
n A Ker(T ) ~ qFv | 4{ T (A) = 0 = (ai ), o*vgdvgqt=no2ntq A(e ) =
j
~ qFv | 4{ A = 0, o;vguwv{
ks Ker(T ) = {0}.
vg urqt}r v9Qo2n=n qFi v n
0
k4{ q=n { } o9 o9s 49 o9 4{F~ q=nnXs nno9ur}w|Vng|~}w C
(cji ) Mmn (K),
4{ qFv 4{ C(e ) = cj e0 o;vguwvp
ks T (C) = (cj ).
Hom(V,
i
i j
i
n
ks
z{ qFv W{ }r ), } |Vw
D(Mmn (K)) = D(V )D(W ) = mn.
2
z( } { q vgqt=nvgo =ng|~}w urunn n OPREGQIF]EGF Z H Z FIJDJQI,D[OpHQIF Z Dx n (ai )

{=D9jjd u(o9Fv sj|~qFv 9 (ai ) (bi ) |4vg vn@
ks urunnjqtt}û
(bij ) Mmn (K),
|~s v { u ~ qFv {K9 u ~ yuw i |4vgurs9 n j { v j9 un jvgtn ai + bk , unenqtt}û
o9Fv sj|~qFv {F = (ai bk ). z# 4{ q=n 9j }w|~}w "4{ q=}ro9urpw|~}rqFv
ks k u j/ Fv 9
|4vgurs9 n {(9 un&o9tk}r j =n&nqtt^} u {F n&}rys2nu9nu ) Fv 9 ~ yuwv j4{#9 un {F ys j n
v {F n n2, un 9j }w|~}w
xQ @n
ks9p 4{ |~unF!v
ks { }ùn { nqtt}w| 4{H{ v D9 vg 9~
uwvgy=n { } (ai ) M
{F no9ur}w|Vn g|~}rur ~ q 9Q v {F Kn { p uo9Fv sj|~qFv (ainn,
F
{
i
j )(bj )
(bi ) M { guwv ~4{ q vg 9~ j} xyx9 uo9Fv sj|~qFv (bi )(ai ), v 4{ q= j9j } rsv9
j
j
v
ks sk k = r.
| jo9qFp
v
`s
|4v qt} s2ng|~}w { s9o*v j v {
`s (ai ) (bi ) M (K) o*vguwa
j
nn
(aij )(bij ) = (aik bkj ).
Z('~U`R^`_b^`_ba9 v { qt=n[
`s e{ }
e
{(aij ), (bij ), (cij )} Mnn (K)
(aij )[(bij )(cij )] = [(aij )(bij )](cij ).
~ qFv | 4{
q4 8 hX:t 7 g~ 7 8 b:t#
|3
e (a )[(b ) + (c )] = (a )(b ) + (a )(c ).

e { } d K, d(a )(b ) = (da )(b ) = (a )(db ).
Uf#H_h^k_h*x nnqtt}û ( ) M (K) 4{ un 9 }w|Vnnqtt}ûP
`s nus9urqt}
o9ur}w|Vn {F o*vg|~s2nud`
s9} QvgqtFv u ~ qFv 9 M (K), v
n |~q=n v vqt=n j{ vgtn
nDunDnqtt}^B
u o*vgund|~s2nu {= s9urqt}ro9ur}w|Vn@ 4{ qFv 4{
i
j
i
j
i
j
i
j
i
j
i
j
i
j
i
j
i
j
i
j
i
j
i
j
i
j
i
j
nn
nn
(aij ) Mnn (K)
(ji ) Mnn (K)
def
(aij )(ji ) = (aik jk ) = (aij )
(ji )(aij ) = (ki akj ) = (aij )
Uf#H_h^k_h*x (ai ) M (K) {FD }w| pJ=UYDXQIF?CXE^DQ{ } } { q (bi ) M (K)
q=nu
ks (ai )(bi ) = j(bi )(ai )nn= (i ), nunnqtt}û (bi ) {= u |4v j v| |4vgnn
vXun
j
j
j
j
j
j
} { n 9 unBnqtt^} u (ai ) {F u Q{ }r;vgur}ûTno;vg (ai )1; nu u ~ qFv 9 u*} k4{ }r v
~ yuw k4{ }rnd|4vgurs9 j n 9 undnqtt^} u (ai )1 uwv j{ }r;vgur}ûTn v { o;vg ai .
j
j
s9o;v `n v {
ks (ai ) 4{ } tqt}r9u 4{ qFv 4{ } { q (ai )1 o;vguwvw
`s
j
(aij )(aij )1 = (aik a

kj ) = (ji )
u u ~ qFv 9 u ~ yuw
|4vgurs9 n
9 uo9Fv sj|~qFv |4vgt 4{ o;v j9 n
o2n=nBs n j Fn@ }r`n v { jk=j 1, js n i

`s yntpn 9 1 n
o9 4{ }w ta |4vgt 4{ o;v j9 nu { } { q n 9e ~| s2ng|~}wv j4 {
ai a
k = i
(A)
i=1
i =x 2
a11 a
11 + a12 a
21 + + a1n a
n1 = 11 = 1
2
1
2
2
2
a1 a
1 + a2 a
1 + + an a
n1 = 12 = 0
i=n
an1 a
11 + an2 a
21 + + ann a
n1 = 1n = 0
xx
n,
q ~j v { k
s un
z{ qFv|4vgt 4{ o;v j9 ns { } { q n 9 |~s2ng|~}wv j4{ ur} j nu 4{ |4v } |4g }

q=n { {a1 , a2 , . . . , an}. n=n
ks D4{ q D{ } { q n n 9d |~s2ng|~}wv j4{ q ~ `n { nvgursj|~}w 4{
j | 4{ n1t}wv1
`s 1
n 9 { { }
det(aij ) 6= 0
det
ax 11
ax 12
a1n
an1 an2
ann
xx
xx
~ qFv | 4{
a
11 =
1
0x
xx
a12
ax 22
xx
0 an2
det(aij )
6= 0
a1n
a2n
ann
(1)1+1 M11
det(aij )
|q
q4#8 ;:t~ 7 ~ 7
a
k1 =
a11
ax 21
a12
ax 22
1
0x
an1 an2
xx
xx
xx
det(aij )
a1n
a2n
n
an
(1)1+k Mk1
det(aij )
{ } ~j v M 1 u ~ vg|4vgt 4{ o;v j } ~ q nu u ~ qFv 9 u ~ yuw 1 |4vgurs9 n k

9 unnqttk}û (ai ), { } ~ urs9`n 9 +2n 94{ ntFvgurun v 4{ q { } { q n 90 |~s2ng|~}wv j4 {
o2n=n j = 1, uwvwj+`s99} k =n v { + |,+jv o2n=n j = s, uwv {K u ~ qFv {Q{F tpn
a
ks =
(1)k+s Mks
,
det(aij )
~ 2n {F n 4{ q=n o9 4{ }w o*v 9 v { |4v j{ qtts9}r&qFv v { uwv { u ~ qFv {9 (ai )1.

j
mvg vs |4vgFvgunt}wv 94{ q=n 9j }w|~}w q ~j v {
`s w
a2RaibP9Rg_bax (aij ) Mnn(K) 4{ } tqt}r9u { } { guwv { } det(aij ) 6= 0. z#
unnqtt}û (ai ) {F urunn { } ys9un 94{F9 urs fv v
|Vn { v 9
`s
i
j
} tqt}r9u yx det(aj ) = 0,
(Z '~U`R^`_b^`_ba2a\ cbU`^f^k_h* 9Y Y;YWx
lyx q t} nunDnqtt^} u} { n 9
(aij ) =
a b
b a
I
0
0 I
0 i
i
v {K~ k0s
o2n=nuwv { |Vn {
1 3 0
1 3 ;
(bij ) = 2
0
0 2
0
0
0
1
0
0
;
0 1
0
0
0 1
1
0
=
0
0
{ } ~j v
i = 1, 2, 3,

0 1
0 i
1
2
=
,
=
,
i
{ qt=n ks d1 { } 0(ai ) (bi ) M (K)
{ 0v }
sj|~qFv }rys2nuHjnuo9Fv j sj|~qFv nn s } n
1
0
0 1
tqt}r9u 4{ un
} { n 9 u
xch v
o9Fv
4{
9{ { { { o9s 4{ q=n {~ vg 9~ |4v @

qt=nt}wv
nuvgt}ry} nu 4{ qFv 4{
i )(bi )]1 = (bi )1 (ai )1
j
j
@cx h v { qt=n
ks e uno v J : C [(aM
n vj o;vg j
(R)
22
J(a + i b) =
a b
b a
4{ q= ~
q4 8 hX:t 7 g~ 7 8 b:t#
4{ } `f |~qt}rynf
|51
4{Q{ vg9 ~f |~qt}ryn`
J 4{ } { vg vg
2{ vK
Uf#H_h^k_h*x K n n
9j }r v { un QI5H@Jgx ]gDxQSH 9 unn
s v {(R),
u ~ qFv {Q9 u} k4{ }r v ~ yuw k4{ }rn
qtt}û (a ) |4vg vn@
ks urun(anqtt)}ûD|~M
|4vgurs9 nd|4vgt 4{ o;v j9 nu u ~ qFv 9 unBnqtt}ûvgt}ry} nu }w|,j+ v 9 vgqt=n vg
u qt=n j{ o9s 4{ q=n 9 (a )
n@ u u ~ qFv 9 u ~ yuw i |4vgaurs9 n j 9 unnqtt}^d
{F{ }rB*vgur}ûTno*vg a = a , unqt=n j{ o9s 4{ q=n 9 (a ) {F{ }r;vgur}^Tu no;vg (a ) .
Z(~' U](iha
Hom[C, M22 (R)].
J
i
j
i
j
nn
j
i
j
i
it
j
i
j
1 2 3
1
(aij ) = 2 i
2
2 ,6
7
i
j
i T
j
1
(aij )T = 2
3
2
i
1
2

2
,6 .
7
Uf#H_h^k_h*x 2 n n (ai ) M (C) 9j }r v { un A/JQSHBDO FIQIF?H@J]H#9 un
nqtt}û (ai ), |4vg vn@

ks urunQjnqtt}û&nn|~s v u ~ qFv 9 u9} k4{ }r ve ~ yuw k4{ }rn
|4vgurs9 nj|4vgt 4{ o*v j9 nu u ~ qFv aj 9 unnqtt}ûBvgt}ry} nu 4{ qFv 4{ aj = a i ,
unen s q=
n + t}rqt}n n 9 (ai ) {F{ }rBi*vgur}ûTneo*vg (ai ) , uwv { u ~ qFv {i 9-k4{ q=jn
j
j
o;vg ai .
j
Uf#H_h^k_h*x
}
xFOXQIF Z H
Uf#H_h^k_h*x & }
(aij ) Mnn (R)
OP\IQIF Z HH@RQSHT/JQSH
Uf#H_h^k_h*x & }
u urunn QS,)@J]H@E
Uf#H_h^k_h*x }
urunn RJ=FIQSH@FIH
(aij ) Mnn (C)

(aij ) Mnn (R)
(aij ) Mnn (C)
4{ q=nu
ks
4{ q=nu(
ks
(aij ) = (aij )T
{F u urunn
(aij ) = (aij )
4{ } tqt}r9u q=nu(
ks
4{ } tqt}r9u @q=nu
`s
{= u urunn
DX
(aij )T = (aij )1
(aij ) = (aij )1
{F
{F u
n=nnurys n {H9 v { qt=ng|~}wv j4{( u`s { v 9 nqtt}w| 4{ |4v p j }w| 4{ ntt}r2n n2ntv
o9s 4 9 4{ s9urq=n&o;vk|4v |~unFv9=+2ng|~} ~j vqFv
v { g|~}ruqt=n2nFn j v nqtt}w| 4{ |4v
v { p j }w| 4{ n2nv x
Uf#H_h^k_h*x n
5H@Jgx ]gDxQSH9
(aij )
4{
Uf#H_h^k_h*x nn s q=n Q t}rqt}n n 9

aij = a
ji .
Z('~UkX]Hiba\T
(atij )
(aij )
(aij )t
4{
v j9
(aij )
atij = aji .
(aij ) ,
v j9
|2
q4#8 ;:t~ 7 ~ 7
lyx nqt=n j{ o9s 4{ q=n 9 s o9Fv sj|~qFv 4{ uo9Fv sj|~qFv 9 un { qt=n j{ o9s 4{ q=n {
|4v uvg 9~ } tqt} v x
P
v { qt=ng|~}w T n (c ) = (a )(b ), o;vguwvB
`s c def
ij
ij
ij
ij =
unqt=n j{ o9s 4{ q=n 9 (c ) 4{ q= n no*vg (c )T |~s v u ~ qFv k aik bkj ,
ij
{ } ~j v 4k { q e u u ~ qFv
ctij = cji =
ij
k ajk bki =
t t
k akj bik =
9 uo9Fv sj|~qFv
o;vguwvw
ks
t t
k bik akj
)T,
ij
(bij ) T (aij
(cij )T = [(aij )(bij )]T = (bij ) T (aij ) T .
x nn s q=n%+ t}rqt}n n 9 s o9Fv sj|~qFv 4{ ujo9Fv sj|~qFv 9 un { n s q=n {

+ t}rqt}n n { o9s 4{ q=n {K~ gv 9~ |4v qt=nt}wv x
v { qt=ng|~}w T n (c ) = (a )(b ), o;vguwvB
`s c = P a b ,
ij
ij
ij
ij
k ik kj
{ n v {
ks w

cij
= cji =
=
ajk bki =
k

akj bik
ajk bki =
k

bik akj
a
jkbki
4{ q e u ~ qFv|4vgt 4{ o*v j9 n ku u ~ qFv } k4{ }r v 9 uo9Fv sj|~qFv

k
;o vguwvp
ks (c ) = [(a ij)(b ij)] = (b ) (a ) .
ij
ij
ij
ij
ij
Z('~U`R^`_b^`_ba2\
lyxch v { qt=n
`s u2o9Fv sj|~qFv 9 nqtt}w| 4{ vgtqFvgfv nu 4{04{ s nnqtt}ûevgtqFv
fv nu x
cx h v { qt=no
`s uò9Fv sj|~qFv 9 nqtt}w| 4{ s }rq=nt}n {H4{ vgqt=nnqtt}ûs }rq=nt}n x
Uf#H_h^k_h*x n QIHHQ9 s nBnqtt}û|~s2n =n n (ai ) = (a ), 4{0 u 4{ |Vnun
ij
j
P
i ) = traza(a ) = tr(ai ) = tr(a ) =
i , ~ v j9 unP+ v {
traza(a
a
=
a
9j } v9j9q=n qFv o2n=ndijp j }w| 4{ ntjt}r2n n2ijnv99|4vg i viio2n=nip j }w| 4{ n2ntv x
z{K uno v tr : Mnn(K) K ur} j nru
v
`s (c ) = (a ) +
v { qt=ng|~}w * n (a ) (b ) M (K), o;vg&uw
ij
ij
nn
ij
ij
}
v
{
~
(b ) = (a + b ),
c =a +b
(b )(a ) = (bij ) (aij )
ij
ij
ij
ij
ij
tr(cij ) =
=
n
X
i=1
n
X
ij
cii =
aii +
i=1
|4v
)
n
X
i=1
n
X
(aii + bii )
bii
i=1
= tr(aij ) + tr(bij ).
~ qFv | 4{
(cij ) = a(aij
a K,
cij = aaij .
Pn
Pn
P
tr(cij ) = i=1 cii = i=1 aaii = a ni=1 aii = atr(aij )
o;vguwvdq=n qFv tr Hom[M (K), K].
nn
q 4 8 hX:t 7 g~ 7 8 b:t#
Uf#H_h^k_h*x n HT5 9 s nDnqtt}û (a ) M (C) 4{ unnqtt}û
z{K uno v adjh : M (C) M (C) ur} j nuo
v { qt=ng|~}w 2 n (a ) (b ) M (C), o;vgKuwvw`
s w
ij
nn
nn
(aij )
ij
ij
nn
{ } ~j v
uj|~s2nu*|4vgt 4{ o*v j9 nu u ~ qFvB} k4{ }r v 9 un { s9n
o;vg#uwv
ks
(aij ) + (bij ) ,
adjh(cij ) = adjh[(aij ) + (bij )] = [(aij ) + (bij )] = (aij ) + (bij ) .
n (c ) = a(a ) |4v a C, ~ qFv | 4{ c = aa
ij
ij
ij
ij
o;vgeuwvq=n qFv [a(a )] = a(a ) , o;vgeuwva

`s
ij
B2ntfv 4 { 9} f |~qtij}ryn x
cij = cji = aaji = a

a
ji = a
a+
ij
adjh 6 Hom[Mnn (C), C],
v { qt=n
ks [e(a ) ] = e(a )
v { qt=ng|~}w o9s 4{ qFvw
`s (a ) P (a )
4{ ur} j nu|4v 4{ o |~qFv
nDun { s9n [e ] = [ k k!
nn
(cij ) = (aij ) + (bij ) = (aij + bij ),

cij = aij + bij
adjh(cij ) = adjh[(aij ) + (bij )] = adjh(aij + bij )
ji + bji = aij + bij
cij = cji = aji + bji = a
|s
i
j
[e
i
j
i k
j
i
j
(aij )
] =[
X (aij )k
] =
{ }
o Fv { n v { k
s
X (aij )k
adjh
n 9 { { n v {
ks un adjh 9 ks 9o Fv sj|~qFv 4k{ }rys2nu*nu2o9Fv sj|~qFv 9 un { adjh
o9s 4{ q=n { ~ vg 9~ |4v qt=nt}wv9 ~4{ q V| n { vDo9s 4{ qFvw
ks unDnqtt}û 4{ unB} { n v
+2n9= } ~ |~}nw
ks 4 n j v
k!
k!
q4#8 ;:t~ 7 ~ 7
|5|
[e
(aij )
] =[
X (aij )k
k
k!
] =
X (aij ) k
k
Z('~U`R^`_b^`_ba2\acbU`^f^k_h* Y9Y
lyxU`(H_b^`_bx } (a ) 4{ } tqt}r9u B
ij
k!
(
aij )
= e(aj ) .
2
4{K{ s} { n@ 9j }r v {
v { qt=nB
ks [b(ai )]n = bn(ai )n |4v n Z.
xU`(H_b^`_bx } P ()j 4{ s o;vgur} vgj}wv ~ 9 y=n v n |4v |4v 9
|~} ~ q 4{&~ K, 4{ qFv 4{
|4v P K
P () = P0 n + P1 n1 + + Pn ;
i
(ai )n M (K), 9j }r v
{
(aij )n = (
aij )n
nn
P [(aij )] = P0 (aij )n + P1 (aij )n1 + + Pn (ji )
U`(H_b^`_bx e(a ) = exp[(ai )] = P (a ) .

S&e nurun exp i2 1 0 j k k!
?&e h v { qt=nB
`s e{ } (a0i ) 1(bi ) |4v Bs9q=n ~ qFv | 4{
i k
j
i
j
@x n
(aij ) Mnn (C)
[(aij )+(bij )]
nt9}rqte=nt}n@e 9j= }re v {
1
(h(1) ij ) = [(aij ) + (aij ) ]
2
s k
j x }
j
(aij ) (bij )
1
[(aij ) (aij ) ]
2
(h(1) ij ), (h(2) ij ), (aij ) (aij )
|~un {Fe9 nqtt}w| 4{&{ v

{Fe9jjp
(ai ) M (K),
(h(2) ij ) =
nn
(aij )
= (ji ), (aij )1 = (aij ), (aij )2 = (aij )(aij ), . . . , (aij )m =

(aij )m1 (aij ).
S&e v { qt=n[
`s (a ) (a ) = (a ) .
?&e v { qt=n
ks [(a ) ] = (a ) .
xch v { qt=nk
s e{ } ) 4{ + tprqt}w|Vn@ ~ qFv | 4{ e
4{ s }rq=nt}n x
} { v 9 s ndnqtt}û 4{B9 }w|4v x
xch v { qt=nk
s e u(a
xch v { qt=nwk
s { } u 9 q t} n q 9 s nnqtt}û 4{ | Fv9 ~ qFv | 4{ un
nqtt}û vqt} ~j } { n x
xch v { qt=nk
s [(a ) ] = [(a ) ] .
|4v
xch v { qt=nk
s
} ) { n =9 s (a n0)nqtt}û }n6=fv 0.nu v { } ys9un 4{ }nfv nu x
lV@xch v { qt=n&k
s un(a
lylyxch v { qt=n[`
s und} { n 9 s n nqtt}û { }r k qtt}w|Vn v { } ys9un 4{{ }r k
qtt}w|Vn x
l x s9o;v } ~j vzk
s un { nqtt}w| 4{ (a ) (b ) { v + tprqt}w|Vn { un { n
qtt}w| 4{ (c ) (d ) { v s }rq=nt}n {Vxj Fvg2n[`
s w
i m i n
j
j
i m n
j
i m+n
j
i mn
j
i (aij )
i
j
i T 1
j
i 1
j
i
j
i
j
i 1 T
j
i 1
j
i
j
i
j
q4 8 hX:t 7 g~ 7 8 b:t#

|
S&e (c ) (a )(c ) 4{ + tprqt}w|Vn x
?&e (c ) (d )(c ) 4{ s }rq=nt}n x
S&e )(b ) (b )(a )] 4{ + tprqt}w|Vn x
n&un {K{ }rys9} ~ q 4{ n tng|~}wv j4{
lV@x v { qt=i[(a
S&eKn} { n 9 s nnqtt}û vgtqFvgfv nu i s }rq=nt}n j 4{ s nnqtt}û
vgtqFvgfv nu i s }rq=nt}n j x
?&e z uo9Fv sj|~qFv 9 v { nqtt}w| 4{ vgtqFvgfv nu 4{i s }rq=nt}n { j 4{ s n
nqtt}^B
u vgtqFvgfv nu i s }rq=nt}n j x
S&e z uo9Fv sj|~qFv 9D v { nqtt}w| 4{{ }r k qtt}w|Vn {wi + tprqt}w|Vn { j 4{ s n
nqtt}û { }r k qtt}w|Vn i + tprqt}w|Vn j { } { guwv { } 4k { q=n { |4v s9q=n x
l~jx } A B { v nqtt}w| 4{ + tprqt}w|Vn { 9 v { qt=n!k
s AB + BA
{ v q=nB9} ~k + tprqt}w|Vn {Vx

l x v i(AB
{ nqtt}w| BA)
4{ U H 4{ q= ung|~}wv n n { o;vg U = e , |4v a nu
S&e } H 4{ + tprqt}w|Vn@ 9 v { qt=nk
s U 4{ s }rq=nt}n x
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s |~}wv j4
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1 4 q4;3 *d>:t5:t44
s |4v s qFv 9 |~qFvg 4{ vg

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ks
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Z('~U](iha2 n v { `
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= (0 (x), x2 ) c = 0
1 4 q4;3 *d>:t5:t44
`s
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n=n
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=
=
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s
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|u > = |v >
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n 94>,
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ks > +|r > |r > |u > k
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n =9 uk qt|vt} > y|u
def
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uwvD|~s2nu;k}r
o9ur}w|Vn
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urunn vdun } { q=n |~}n@ u;|~s2nu|~s9o9u |4v un {{ }rys9} ~ q 4{ o9Fvgo9} 4 n 94{
(r, s),
} x (r, s) = (s, r).
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ks r = s.
}r}r} x (r, s) (r, q) + (q, s).
Z('~U`R^`_b^`_ba2\
lyx n V s 4{ o2ng|~}wv k qtt}w|4v "{F n
xt v { qt=n!
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V
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X
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s
n 2n {F vgtqFv vgtnu 9
(ei , u)(ei , v).
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ks ai = (ej, T (e )) x
i=1
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yx x |4v s o9Fv sj|~qFv} q t}wvgV 4{ s
4{ o2ng|~}wv k qtt}w|4v x vguwv
ks
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ks un { sj| 4{ }w
j
q=nu
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V,
s ~ q Fv M, q=nu(
ks { } n > M, ~ qFv|v | >4{ (|v
{ }r;vgur}ûTn j v
n >, |v >) < ,
4{ q + |.+jv|4vg v
{|v1 >, |v2 >, . . . } V
lm |vn > = |v >
(Z '~UkX]Hiba v {Q) Fv { =ng|~}wv nu 4{ vgtn s yx x{ vg9 B{ }} { v Q{

|4v u;o9Fv sj|~qFvd} q t}wvg ~ Q, 9j } v|4Qvg v (p, q) = pq, p, q Q, 4{ s
4 { o2ng|~}wvd k qtt}w|4v92o*vguwv
`s
1 4 `:= ?>: , >h;:t

(p, q) = kp qk = (p q, p q)1/2 =
p
(p q)2 = |p q|
nun { sj| 4{ }w {1, 1,7, 1,73, 1,732, 1,7320, . . . } Q, 4{ q=n { sj| 4{ }w v 4{

|4v t ~ q nK
`s n 9 |~s2n j vvg {F tgn v {
ks qt} ~j9 n 3, 3 6 Q. }
B2ntfv 4{ q=nQ} { n { sj| 4{ }w ~ R 4{ s n { sj| 4{ }w |4v t ~ q & n
`s 3
R.
Uf#H_h^k_h*x n
s "4{ o2ng|~}wv k qtt}w|4v9 {Fe w} |

ks u n { sj| 4{ }w
4{ s n { sj| 4{ }w 9LNH@ Z { }*o2n=nB|Vn n > 0, } { q s ~ q Fv M q=nu

ks { }
~ qFv | 4{ (|v >, |v >) < .
n, r > M,
n
r
u o9uwv n q t}wvgvg {F tgn v {
`s un { sj| 4{ }w
ns
`s v 4{ |4v t ~ q 4{ s n
{sj1,| 1,7,
1,73,m0n1,732,
1,7320,
. . }. } q Q,
w
}
j
s
|
.
+
V
|
n
}
`
s
{ 4{ 9
fxz{ { 9~ qFv n { sj| 4{ }w |4v t ~ q
4{ s n
{ sj| 4{ }w 9 m0nsj,| + j n v { un |Vn { } k} 9~ |~}n x
v { qt=ng|~}w n {|v >, |v >, . . . } s n { sj| 4{ }w ~ V, un|~s2nu 4{
|4v t ~ q 4{ qFv { }r } |V
n
ks 1 } { q 2|v > V q=nu
`s Q{ } > 0, } { q n N,
q=n$u
ks
|4v s > n
(|v >, |vs >) <
q=nB9} k~
|4v r > n
(|v >, |vr >) <
n
`s o2n=n > 0 } { q m N, q=n&u
ks
4{ qFv { }r } |Vw
{ |v1 >, |v2 >, . . . } V
(|v >, |vl >) <
q=nu$
ks
(|v >, |vo >) <
con l > m
|4v
o>n
>, |vl >) + (|v >, |vo >) <

n 9 {{ n v {
`s (|v
uwv|~s2nu
}ro9ur}w|Vn
`s (|v >, |v(|v>)l >,< |v,o >)
urs f+ (|v
`s u>,
n { |vsj0| 4>)
9 v j(|v
9Bl{F >,|4v |v |~>)
{ }w 4{&9
0
l
m0nsj.| + fx
vgeuwvq=n qFvqFv n { sj| 4{ }w |4v t ~ q

4{ s n { sj| 4{ }w 9 m0nsj|,+ { }
2ntfvunD |~pro9Fv|Vn v 4{ |~} tq=n x
Uf#H_h^k_h*x 0 }w|
`s s 4{ o2ng|~}wvQ k qtt}w|4v 4{ Z @O!]EdDXQS { }qFv n { sj| 4{ }w
9 m0nsj.| + 4{ |4v t ~ q yx
z# 2n {= n 4{ q=n 9j }w|~}w vgq=n v {
`s Q |4vg v 4{ o2ng|~}wv k qtt}w|4v v 4{
|4vgo9u qFv9 { } 2ntfv9*ns
`s e vduwv 9 v { qt=n v { Rn 4{ |4vgo9u qFv x
|4v qt} s2ng|~}w n v { s n urqt}rn 9j }w|~}w 2ns
ks v v {9 q ~j
v { nn nur^} uTnqFv n {&{ s { |4v j{F |~s ~ |~}n {& o9uwv {Vx
1 4 1 )6 798 ;: 7 ~#" d> 7 4;t~& 8 bX:t 7

5s
Uf#H_h^k_h*x H&DxS H Z FIK)D-lF9E^C.DQ 4{ s
4{ o2ng|~}wv |~qFvgt}nu;|4vgo9u vD|4v
s o9Fv sj|~qFv} q t}wvgV u|~s2nu|4vg v 4{ o2ng |~}wv k qtt}w|4v 4{ |4vgo9u qFv x
Z('~UkX]Hiba\H vo9Fvg2n v { un|4vgo9u q fu { guwv n v { u 4{ s9urq=n vv
|4v qt=n o9uwv { j x
lyxz u 4{ o2ng|~}wv |~qFvgt}nu C n, |4v uo9Fv sj|~qFv} q t}wvg 9j } vn q t}wvg

~ q 4{ s 4{ o2ng|~}wv 9 }rur tq x
x mv j{ } 9 v { u 4{ o2ng|~}wv |~qFvgt}nu|4vgo9u tv 9 qFv n { un { s |~}wv j4{
|4v qt} s2n {{ vg9 s } q tgnuwv | t=n v [a, b], |4v u&o9Fv sj|~qFvX} q t}wvg
Rb
4{ q 4{ o2ng|~}wv v 4{ |4vgo9u qFv o*vguwv q=n qFv
(f,
dx , o9uwv 9`
tg(x)
qV0s "
v g)4{=9a f}rur(x)
k4{ qFv 4{ un { sj| 4{ }w "9 s |~}wv j4{
9j } n {~ 1 x 1 |4vg v
1
fn (x) =
nx
1 x < n1
n1 x n1
1
n <x1
9 un { sj| 4{ }w qt} ~j o;vgy= |Vn
n = 1, 2, . . .
u ~ qFv
lmn fn (x)
,
,
{= o9 4{F~ q=n y= |Vn ~ q o*vg
z uny= |Vn {F vg {F tgnK

ks ns k
s |Vn n s |~}w 4{ |4v qt} s2n@ uHurp
}rq |~s2n j v n vuwv 4{Vx
4| v qt} s2ng|~}w n v {
ks un { sj| 4{ }w 4{09 m0nsj|,+ 9|Vnuw|~s9u v {
) +2n`n v { q ~j9 n, m n
} @j }rqFv x n
y= |Vn 9 un { s @
d(f
|~}wv jn4{ ffm(x)
f (x) {F s 4{ qt=n ~ un ys9=n x
n
1 4 `:= ?>: , >h;:t
6
,
,
,
,
,
,
vvgur} n
`s
(f, g) =
Rb
a
1
fn (x) =
nx
f (x) g(x) dx
1 x < n1
n1 x n1
1
n <x1
n = 1, 2, . . .
d(fn , f m ) = kfn fm k = [fn fm , fn fm ]1/2

Z 1

=
[(fn (x) fm (x))(fn (x) fm (x)) dx ]1/2
1
Z
|fn (x) fm (x)| dx
1/2
Z 1
1/2
2
= 2
(fn (x) fm (x)) dx
0
"Z
1/m
= 21/2
(fn (x) fm (x))2 dx
1/n
1/m
(fn (x) fm (x))2 dx

Z
1
1/n
(fn (x) fm (x))2 dx
#1/2
1 4 2 8 hX:t 7
"Z
= 21/2
1/n
0
(nx mx)2 dx +
,
Z
1/n
1/m
(1 mx)2 dx
x3 1/n (1 mx)3 1/n

|
+
|1/m
(n m)
= 2
3 0
3m
1/2

(1 (m/n))3
1
= 21/2 (n m)2 3 +
3n
3m
1/2
21/2
3
1/2
2
3
#1/2
1/2
n
1
(n m)2
n3
m
m 2
1
1
o2mn=n m nn { s
q o `s v
o;vg&uwvK
`s
|~} ~ q ~ q y=n j94{ k4{ qFvo9s 49 +2ng| {=
nt9}rqt=nt}n ~
XW xgQ{ pkun { sj| 4{ }w 4{(9 m0nsj|,+ fo Fv { sDurpr}rq
v o tq ~j | nu 4{ 2o ng|~}wv |~qFvgt}nu n v 9Q s |~}wv j4{ |4v qt} s2n {Vx
=
3
9 qFv n { un {D s |~}wv j4{9 [a, b] C, q=nu 4{
`s
4{ } q y=n9u { vg9 [a, b], i4{9 |~}r&
`s R b | f (x) |2 dx
| f (x) |2 f (x) f (x)
4{&j }rq=n j |4v uHo9Fv sj|~qFv
} q t}wvg (f, g) = R b f (x) g(x) dx 4a{ s 4{
o2ng|~}wv|4vgo9u qFv o*vgq=n qFv 9 }rur tq i q vg an 9 } 4{ u } { + j x
@xz u 4{ o2ng|~}wv
L2 [a, b],
X4{ o2ng|~}wv 9
|~qFvgt}nu|4vgo9u tv
ks |4vg v 4{ o2ng|~}wv
}rur tqV H, 4{ o9s 4{ s no2n Fn vgtn no;vg s 4{ o2ng|~}wv

s o9Fv sj|~qFv} q t}wvg ( , ) 9j } v ~k u 9 q=n un j =n
k qtt}w|4v 4{ |4vgo9u qFv x
Y ]UkRP9Ha2RU`\
s 4{ qFvB
ks s o9Fv sj|~qFvK} q t}wvg v { o t}rq } 9~ qt} |Vn |4v i o9s 4{
} j sj| s } { vg vg 2{ v ~ qt uruwv { j ~ unX} { n vgtnqFv v V vgo =n V vg 9
) o9s 49 } 9~ qt} |Vn {F |4v s v 9 Hom(V ), ~ o2ntqt}w|~s9un(o2n=n uvgo
Hom(V
=n vg s2nu A, o*v 9 v {9j }res vgo =n vgn { v|~}n K
v
ks ng|~qts2n ~ v { vg9
r
u
u

n

v
n
s
F
q
v
w
+
t
r
}
t
q
}
n
9
v
H
u
~
|
2
s

n
u
r
}
B
g
v
r
u
}
^
T
u

n
*
o
g
v
A .
F
{
e
{
V,
Uf#H_h^k_h*x nds 4{ o2ng|~}wv |~qFvgt}nuj|4v o9Fv sj|~qFv} q t}wvgVjo2n=n
9j }r v { A , { s H)RJQS DOPF9QIF?H@J] 4 }n q

A Hom(V )
(u, A(v)) = (A (u), v)
~j v {~ qFv | 4{ A(v)) = (v, A (u)) i~ s 4{ o2ng|~}wv |~qFvgt}nuK nu

o;v 9 v { |4v j{ } 9 =nQun (u,
|4v s9`ng|~}w |4vg vs nvgo =ng|~}w } 9~ qt} n 4{9 |~}rV
o2n=n
a = a vgq=ng|~a}w R). }r=ng|yj|4v
z#
9e
u | u >, v | v >, A(v) = A | v >;
(u, A(v)) (| u >, A|v >) = < u | A | v > (v, A (u)) = < v|A |u >,
para u, v V
urs fv
1 4 `:= ?>: , >h;:t
4{ q= 9j } no*vg
< v|A |u >
< u|A|v >= < v|A |u >
(Z '~UkX]Hibagh v { qt=nB
ks Hom(V ).
gv ursj|~}w n |u >, |v A> V,
{F n
a, b C
Fq vg v { |w > = a|u > +b|v > o;vguwvp
ks
9 s F|~}w|~}wvn q t}wvg { n v { k
s
< u|A|v > =
< | V
< |A (a|u > +b|v >) >=< |A |w >= < w|A| >
< w| = a < u| + b < v|
nt9}rqt=nt}wv9
urs fv
< |A (a|u > +b|v >) > = (a < u| + b < v|, A| >)
*o vg&un 9j }w|~}w 9B{ s9n 9 s |~}wv nu 4{ ur} j nu 4{ 4{ q=n ru qt}rn o9 4{ }w 4{
}rys2nun
= a < u|A| > +b < v|A| >
= a< u|A| > + b< v|A| > = a < |A |u > +b < |A |v >
= < |a A |u > + < |b A |v >
ks e{ }
?e (A + B) = A + B A, B Hom(V )
Se (a A) = a A
?e (AB) = B A
f Se (A ) = A
U`(H_b^`_bx ;gD5HTTlDx DOP\9QIF Z PPH@ QSHT/J]QS{ } 4{ }rys2nu2n { sn s qFv
+ t}rqt}n v92} xyx A Hom(H) 4{ + tprqt}w|4v { } { guwv { } A = A .
Uà2RUkXPx v { vgo =n vg 4{ + tprqt}w|4v {H9
vgtn s B{ s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv
nu 9 Hom(H) k
s |4v qt} ~j nDunqt=n j{ vgtHom(H)
ng|~}w } 9~ qt} n x
Q v { qt=ng|~}w 2 n A, B Hom(H) + tprqt}w|4v { 4{K9 |~}r A = A ,
B=
~ qFv | 4{{ }
a, b R
urs fvuwv { vgo =n vg 4{ + tprqt}w|4v { vgtn s { s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv |~qFvgt}nu { vg9 uwv {

nu 4{Vx E Hom(H) 4{ + tprqt}w|4v o9s 4{&{ } |u >, |v > H
(a A + b B) = (a A) + (b B) = a A + b B = a A + b B
< u|E |v >= < v|E|u > = < v|u > =< u|v >=< u|E|v > .
+ tprqt}w|4v { AB 4{ + tprqt}w|4v9 { }
Uà2RUkXPx d n
Hom(H)
{ guwv { } [A, B] = 0, i v A,
j9B [A,
B] = AB BA ).
v { qt=ng|~}w =) s9o;v `n v {
ks AB 4{ + tprqt}w|4v9 4{9 |~}r
~ qFv | 4{ o9s 4{ qFvw
ks (AB) = B A = BA, q ~j v {
(AB) = AB,
1 4 2 8 hX:t 7
4{K9 |~}r B] = 0.
`n v {
ks [A,
[A, B] = 0, 4{K9 |~}r
~ qFv | 4{ (AB) = B A = BA
AB
+ t=prqt}w|4BA,
vx
BA = AB,
s9o;v
=)
5
= AB
o;vg
uwv"
`s
(AB)
4{
2
v { qt=n
ks w

?e AA AA { v + tprqt}w|4v {Tx
Se A + A 4{ + tprqt}w|4v A A 4{ n qt}^+ tprqt}w|4v x
?e } A 4{ + tprqt}w|4v9 iA 4{ n qt^} + tprqt}w|4v x
f Se h v { qt=n
`s qFv vBvgo =n vg {F o9s 49&4{ |~t}r9}r0|4vg vun { s9n 9 s
vgo =n vgB + tprqt}w|4v vgqtFvn qt^} + tprqt}w|4v x
fg?oe } A 4{ n qt^} + tprqt}w|4v9 iA 4{ + tprqt}w|4v x
Z('~UkR^`_b^`_bax n
A Hom(H),
UàRUPx d } 4{ s vgo =n vgq=nuB

`s (v, A(v))
~ qFv | 4{ A = 0.A
Q v { qt=ng|~}w 2 n w = au + bv, ~ qFv | 4{
= 0
o2n=nqFv n
v H,
0 = (w, Aw) = (au + bv, A(au + bv))

= (au, A(au)) + (au, A(bv)) + (bv, A(au)) + (bv, A(bv))
= (au, aA(u)) + (bv, bA(v)) + (au, bA(v))) + (bv, aA(u))
= | a |2 (u, A(u)) + | b |2 (v, A(v)) + ab(u, A(v)) + ba(v, A(u))
~4{ q=nD}rys2nu n { }
{}
a=i
a=1
q ~j v { `
s
ab(u, A(v)) = ba(v, A(u))
b=1
q ~j v { k
s p
b=1
(u, A(v)) = (v, A(u))
(I)
s { qt}rqts f~j v ~ vg {F tgn v {

ks A(v)) = (u, A(v)) 4{ s9urq=n v
`s
o9ur}w|Vn`
`s
4{ s9urq=n v
ks
4{ |~} tqFvo2n=nIIqFv n I,u H, uwv|~s2nu}r(u,
q=nB9} k~4{ |~} tqFvo2n=nqFv n v H, 9e v j9B{F |4v A(v)
| ~urs f =
ks0, A = 0.
i(u, A(v)) = i(v, A(u))
(II)
Z('~U](iha9z |V }w|Vn|~s2 qt}w|Vn@ u 4{ q=n v 9 s { } { q n 4{ q= n vdo;vgs

f q 9d4{ q=n v t | >,
ks D4{ q= vgtnur}ûTn v9 4{9 |~}r < | >= (| >, | >) = 1.
nDqt=n j{t vgtng|~}w G = 4{ s vgo =n vgV2o9s 4{
T
(a|u > +b|v >) = a |u > +b |v >

t
t
t
= aG|u > +bG|v >
G(a|u > +b|v >) =
3 5
{}
| >
4{ s f q vgtnur}ûTn v
1 4 `:= ?>: , >h;:t
< | >= (| >, | >)

t
t
= ( | >, | >) + (| >, | >)

t
t
= (G| >, | >) + (| >, G| >) = (| >, G | >) + (| >, G| >)
0 = G < | >=
o;vg u urqt}r vq vg nq ~j v {

ks G = G, uwv|~s2nu}ro9ur}w|VnM
ks G 4{
n qt}^+ tprqt}w|4v9o*vguwvz
ks s9urqt}ro9ur}w|Vn j
v n G o;vg i uwv+2ng| v { + tprqt}w|4v9uwv
Bs9urqt}ro9ur}w|Vn v { o;vg (i ~)
(| >, (G + G)| >) = 0
i~G = H = i~
n v { k
s |~qt}rgn ~ q H 4{ + tprqt}w|4v x H = (i ~ G) = i ~ G = i ~ G =
uwv|~s2nu}ro9ur}w|Vn
ks H = H, { } ~j v H + tprqt}w|4v9 H |~}r u
i ~vgB
G9=9
H,
vgo =n vg n}rurqFv }n v9*ndun o9 4{ }w
H | >= i ~
| >
t
{F u |4v v| |4vg v |~s2ng|~}w 9B |,+9%$ } x
4{ + tprqt}w|4v { } { guwv { }
n v H.
Q v { qt=ng|~}w = ) s9o;v `n v {
ks A 4{ + tprqt}w|4v9 ~ qFv | 4{
@o*vg0uwvw
ks (v, A v) = (v, A(v)) = (v, A(v)) o;vgq=n qFv (v, A(v))
A = A
s9o;v `n v {
ks (v, A(v)) R, ~ qFv | 4{ (v, A(v)) = (v, A(v)) uwv
R. = )
|~s2nu}ro9ur}w|Vna
`s
9 v j9 (v, (A A)v) = 0, o*vg
q=n qFv9 A A = 0(v,}rA(v))

o9ur}w|Vnp=
ks (v,
AA=v)A.
Uà2RUkXPx vgo =n vg
A
Hom(H)
o2n=ndqFv
(v, A(v)) R
Z('~U](ihaRh v { qt=n
`s s vgo =n vg A 4{ n qt}^+ tprqt}w|4v { } { guwv { } (v, A(v))
4{ }rny} nt}wvo9s9Fvdo2n=ndqFv n v H.
v { qt=ng|~}w = ) s9o;v `n v {
`s A 4{ n qt}^+ tprqt}w|4v9 ~ qFv | 4{
*o;vgQuwz
v
ks (v, A v) = (v, A(v)) = (v, A(v)) uwvz
`s }ro9ur}w|Vn
ks
A = A
9 v j9{F |4v |~urs f
ks A(v)) 4{ }rny} nt}wv
(v,
o9s9FA(v))
v x = =) (v,
s9o;v A(v)),
`n v {
ks (v, A(v)) 4{ }rny} nt}wv(v,
o9s9Fv9 4{ qFv 4{
ks p

uwv|~s2nu}ro9ur}w|Vw
n
ks (v, (A + A )v) = 0,
(v, A(v)) 0 (v, A(v)) 0 (v, A v)
uwv|~s2nu v {& }w|
`s A + A = 0 j nur ~ q *|4v |~urs9}r v {
ks A = A.
3 3
1 4 2 8 hX:t 7
4{J]@OwHE { }|4v s9q=n|4v { sn s qFv+
A
Uf#H_h^k_h*x vgo =n vg
}rqt}n v99} xyx2{ } [A, A ] = 0.
{ n
`s qFv vvgo =n vg A, {F o9s 49 o*v j |4vg vun { s9n 9 s
vgo =n vgl
+ tprqt}w|4v vgqtFvn qt}^+ tprqt}w|4v9n 9 {e{ n v {
ks s vgo =n gv
n qt^} + tprqt}w|4v 4{ i | 4{ s vgo =n vg+ tprqt}w|4v o;vguwvp
`s
vgo =n vg 4{ + tprqt}w|4v {Vx
A = A1 + iA2
con
A 1 y A2
h v { qt=nB
ks A Hom(H) 4{ vgtnu { }
{ guwv { } [A1, A2] = 0.
v
`s (A + iA ) = A iA o;vguww
v
`s
Q v { qt=ng|~}w 9 s 4{ qF
1
[A, A ] = [A1 + iA2 , A1 iA2 ]

= [A1 , A1 ] i[A1 , A2 ] + i[A2 , A1 ] + [A2 , A2 ]
= 2 i [A2 , A1 ]
o;vgKuwv
`s B{ }
4{ vgtnu x
A
4{& vgtnu ~ qFv | 4{
[A1 , A2 ] = 0
{ }
[A1 , A2 ] = 0,
~ qFv | 4{
3
n v {
ks
4{ s vgo =n vg nY+jvg=n v { o9 ys q=n v { |4g v 4{
{ sn s Fq vp+ t}rqt|a}n >v <x b|
n
(|u >, (|a >< b|) |w >)
= (|w >, |a > < b| |u >) = (|w >, < b|u > |a >)
= < b|u >< w|a > = < b|u > < w|a >
= < a|w >< u|b >= (|u >, < a|w > |b >)
= (|u >, |b >< a| |w >)
4{ s9urq=n v
ks v { }w|
ks (|a >< b|) 4{ + tprqt}w|4v { guwv|~s2n j v
v|~s2n j v < b| =< a| 4{K9 |~}rV
4{ + tprqt}w|4v x
(|a >< a|) = |a >< a|
(|a >< b|) = |b >< a|.
ks e{ }
?e
Se
?e
f Se
fg?oe
fRSe
fR ?e h
qFv
|a >= |b >
A, B, C Hom(H),
a, b, c C
[A, B] = [B, A] ,
[A, A] = 0.
[C, aA + bB] = a[C, A] + b[C, B].
[AB, C] = A[B, C] + [A, C]B.
[A, BC] = B[A, C] + [A, B]C
[A, [B, C]] + [C, [A, B]] + [B, [C, A]] = 0.
[A,} B] = v[B , At].prqt}w|4v
A, B {
{
4{ n qt} tprqt}w|4v x
v { qt=n o;vg&} j sj|4|~}w [A,ksB]{ } A B |4v s9q=n |4v [A, B] ~@
| 4{ [A, B n] = nB n1[A, B].
^+
3 5q
1 4 `:= ?>: , >h;:t
n {|e >}n s n2n {=B9 H A Hom(H) { n v {

`s s n o9
{F~ q=ng|~}w D
9i A 4i=1
{ q= n no;vg n2 4{ |Vnun 4{ aj q=nu 4{
ks A|e >= aj |e >, nY+jvg=n
j
v { o9 ys q=n v { |4g v 4{ un0 o9 4{=~ q=ng|~}w di9 A , o9s 4{ qFvBi
`s A i Hom(H),
Yn +jvg=nd9} ~
A |e >= bk |e >,
j
j k
(|er >, A |ej
bkj grk = asr gsj ,
>) = (|er >, bk |e >) = (|ej >, A|er >) = (|ej >, asr |es >)
k
{ }unD2n {Fe4{ vgtj qFv vgtnu
bkj rk = asr sj
~ |4v j{F |~s ~ |~}n
brj = brj = ajr = ajr = arj ,
~ qFv | 4{ un o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w 9 A, |~s2n j vBun2n {F&4{ vgtqFv vgtnu@|4vgt 4{ o*v j9
nunnqtt}ûn s qFvM+ t}rqt}n n 9 un o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w 9
} B2ntfvun
|~pro9Fv|Vn v 4{ |~} tq=n@ 4{H9 |~}r { }unK o9 4{=~ q=ng|~}w 9 A |4vgA.
t 4{ o;v j9 nKun&n
qtt^} un s q=
n + t}rqt}n n 9 une o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w 9 A, un2n {F v j | 4{ nt}n ~ q
4{ vgtqFv vgtnu x
(Z '~UkX]Hiba n {|e1 >, |e2 >, . . . } s n2n {F vgtqFvgfv nu 9 H {F n u
vgo =n vg F = |e ><
o*vguww
v
ks
e |,
1
Fij |ej
o;vg {= Fu|enBi2>=
n {F vgtqFvgfv >=
~ iq >=<
nu (|e
{ g1uwv ><
4{0 e} 1 |)|e
e9 | eF1v |ei u > u |e 1 ~>=
qFv g|~1is2|en j1 >v i = 1,
o;vguwvl
ks F |e >= F j |e > 0 g |e > F 1 = g qFv v { uwv {#9 {
1
11 1
11
1
1 j
| Fv99} xyx
g11 0 . . .
(Fji ) = 0xx 0xx . . .
x x
nY+jvg=n9} ~ F = |e >< e | o;vguwv
ks { s o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w {F =un} { n@
n 9 { unn s q=nP+ 1 t}rqt}n 1n 9 (F i ) 4{K urun} { n x
j
U`(H_b^`_bx U Hom(H) 4{/J=FIQSH@FI{ }

{ guwv { } U 1 = U .
} 4{ s }rq=nt}wvo9 4{F tgnXq=n qFvo9Fv sj~| qFv { } q t}wvg 4{ |4vg v vgtn { 4{
9 |~}r U
n v {
[U (v), U (w)] = (v, w)
kU (v)k = kvk
[U (v), U (w)] = (v, U U (w)) = (v, Ew) = (v, w)

p
p
kU (v)k = (U (v), U (v)) = (v, v) = kvk
} ~ s 4 { o2ng|~}wv 9 }r ~j{ }w j }rq=n {F qt} ~j un ung|~}w 9 vgo =n vg 4{

{ }r } |Vn!
`s { } {e , e , . . . , e } 4{ s nK2n {F9 V e0 = A(e ), e0 =
BA = E
1 2
n
1
1
2
0 = A(e ); ~ qFv | 4{ e = Be0 , e = Be0 , . . . , e = Be0 o;vg
A(e
),
.
.
.
,
e
2
n
1
2
n
n
n
1
2
q=n qFv9jq=nu |4vg v {F o9 4{F~ qF ~ uo2n { n v9 { } CA = E, o9s 4{ qFvK
`s q=n qFv B
|4vg v
ks
1 4 2 8 hX:t 7
qt} ~j~ und} { nd}rn ~ ~ qFv | 4{
31
B = C.
UPx 0z# s 4{ o2ng|~}wv 9 }r ~j{ }w j }rq=n@ { }

~ qFv | 4{ AB = E.
BA = E,
A, B Hom(V )
{ v q=nu 4{
n
`s BA = E, s9urqt}ro9ur}w|Vn v { o;vgun}û
ks9} n@
v { qt=ng|~}w
q
{
{ s9n j vn 4{ q=n o9 4{ }w un n q t}wvgV
A
ABA v = AE = A,
9
ABA+BA
= o;Evguw(AB
E)A = E,
o;vguwv } { |~s9qt=} A+E,
vn q t}wvgt ~ q ABA+BAEA
vBq=n +B
qFv AB
AB
+
B
E
=
B,
E = 0,
uwv|~s2nu}ro9ur}w|Vp
n
`s AB = E.
o;vg
} 2ntfv 4{ q 4{ s9urq=n vP
ks {= |~s9o9u o2n=n 4{ o2ng|~}wv {9Q }r ~j{ }w j }rq=n@
~ ~j =nu v 4{ yur} vo2n=n 4{ o2ng|~}wv {9 }r ~j{ }w } @j }rq=n@o;vg o9uwv { }
qFvgn v { uwv { vgo =n vg 4{ D I Hom(C 2[0, 1]) 9j } v { o;vg
df
Df =
,
dx
I(f ) =
f (x) dx
v j 9~4{ q=nB} q y=nu} j9j } n {F qFvgnBun|4v j{ q=n q e

9 } q y=ng|~}w }rys2nun
| Fv9 ~ qFv | 4{ DI = E o Fv ID 6= E, n v {e s9o*v ` n v {
ks f (x) = x2,
o;vguww
v
`s
I(f ) =
{ } B2ntfv
o;vguwvw
`s
x3
x dx =
3
2
d
dx
d
D(I(f )) = (D I)f =
dx
o;vgKuwvw
`s
x3
3
(x2 ) = 2x
Z
2x2
I(D(F )) = I(2x) =
2x dx =
+ cte. = x2 + cte.
2
DI 6= ID.
D(f ) =
= x2
Uà2RUkXPx n s 4{ o2ng|~}wv 9 }r ~j{ }w j }rq=n |4v s o9Fv sj|~qFv} q

t }wvg xg n {e , e , . . . ,Ve } s nK2n {F vgtqFv vgtnu 9 V U Hom(V ), ~ qFv | 4{
uwv { |~qFvg 4{ 1 {e20 = U (en ), . . . , e0 = U (e )} vgtn s n
2n {F vgtqFv vgtnu 9
n
{ } { guwv { } U1 4{ s }rq=1nt}wv x n
V,
Q v { qt=ng|~}w = ) s9o;v `n v {
ks uwv { |~qFvg 4{
n 2n {F vgtqFv vgtnu 9 V, ~ qFv | 4{
vgtn s
= U (e )}
n
{e01 = U (e1 ), . . . , e0n
o2n=ndqFv n e uwvp
`s }ro9ur}w|Vnp
`s
j9 Ui U = E, ~ |4v j{F |~s ~ |~}n {=
} ~j v
`s U 4{ s }rq=nt}wv9q ~j v {
(e0i , e0j ) = ij = (ei , ej ) = (U ei , U ej ) = (ei , U U ej ) = (ei , Eej )
o;vgq=n qFv
(ei , (U U E)ej ) = 0
o2n=nqFv n e , 9 v
(U
U
E)e
0,
j
|4v |~urs f `s U 4{ s }rq=nt}wv x =j ) s9o;v
3 2
ks
(e0i , e0j ) = (U ei , U ej )
{e0i }ni=1
4{ vgtqFv vgtnu x
1 4 `:= ?>: , >h;:t

(ei , ej ) = ij ,
uwv|~s2nu0}ro9ur}w|Vn
ks u0|4v s qFv
2
|4v qt} s2ng|~}w 94 sj|~}r v { un o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w 9 s vgo =n vges }rq=nt}wv9 ~
q k t} v {d9 s n2n {= vgtqFv vgtnu x n {e }n s n2n {F vgtqFv vgtnu 9 H,
o;vg0uww
v
`s U Hom(H), U (e ) = bk e , { ni i=1
v {
`s U Hom(H) o*vg0uwv
i
i k
ks U (e ) = ar e
j
j r
(U (ei ), U (ej )) = (ei , U bkj ek )

= bkj (ei , ark er ) = ij = bkj ark (ei , er )
= bkj ark ir = aik bkj
o;vgq=n qFv&unK o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w 9 U |4vgt 4{ o;v j9 nun} { n 9 unK o9 4{F~ =q ng|~}w
9 uwv |~s2nu}ro9ur}w|Vn
`s undnqtt}û
ks o9 4{F~ q=nn 1 4{ s r} q=nt}n x
Uvgo , =n vg&s }rq=nt}wv 4{ ndunD us vgo =n vg vgtnu x U U
, '&
( d*)
e
m0no9prqts9uwv
+ G#L;G-, M G 2 G#E2L;MKN
2W Y Z^`P9^`_b Av = v
z# p { }w|Vn@;un
ung|~}w {e{ }ro9u ~ qt v { |~qFvg 4{ x, y 4{ q=nu(
`s
4
|
g
v
t
;
o
v j9 n s urqt}ro9uwv 9 x, o;vg o9uwv 2~ u |~qtFv { q=qt}w|Vn D~ = E;
4
{
~
y
~ n j qFv { q=qt}w|Vn@ ~ uwv { nq t}nu 4{ o2n=nn =k qt}w|4v { }nn =k qt}w|4v { B~ =
nD ung|~}w ur} j nu ~j =nu 4{ { |4vgo9ur}w|Vn n x } 2ntfv99o9s 49~
m} { qt0}r&H. |~qFvg 4{4{ o |~}nu 4{ o2n=n uwv { |~s2nu 4{4{ q=n ung|~}w {F 4 sj| ns n {
{ }ro9u y = x i s 4{ |Vnun j x
vg o9uwv9 { s9o;v `n v {
ks ~ nurys nQ o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w funnqtt^} u (ai ) 9
n
`s a 6= 0 { guwv { } i = j, ~ qFv | 4{{ } {e j}n
4
&
{
}nfv nu*uwv
|~s2nu { }r } |VK
A
4{ s n2n {FB9 V, q ~j v { Ae 0 aijj e 0 ai e i s { guwv u ~ qFv9 n i v i=14{
yur} nDun vgq=ng|~}w 9z } j{ q } j x i i j i i
z# un o9 4{ }w n q t}wvgV u9vgo =n vg A { }ro9u ~ q qt=n j{ vgtnenu |~qFvg
~ s urqt}ro9uwv 9
ei }unnqtt^} u v ei . }nfv nu u0o9Fvg9u n
4{

{F 4 sj| n ~ |4v qt=n|~} tqFv {
|~qFvg 4{
ks B{ nqt} { ng| ~ Av = v; a
n
ks n
|4v qt} s2ng|~}w
k4{ q d4{Q uHo9Fvg9u
n nur^} uTn v {Vx
W2YWY OQai_a*X_ba P9RP9^ySVU`/R .b\4ST_b^faY
n
s |~qFvg
|~s2n j v 4v{ qFv { sj| 49
} ~ q 9 | Fv9q=nu
`s Av = v |4v s 4{ A|VnunVHom(H)
{F }w|
ks 4{ s
UYD Z QS]5]F? v DF^)DJU@D Z QS@9
`s 4{ s
UVH@E^@
]5]F? v DF^)DvJÙYH@EK9 A |4vgt 4{ o;v j } ~ q nu |~qFvg v.A vgu x m0n=ng|~q tp { qt}w|41v 0 q x
4{ o |~qt=nu
v
ks
n {e }n s nD2n {F9 H, q=n$u
ks Ae = aj e v = vr e o;vgKuww
i i=1
Av = Av er = v Aer =
}rys2nun j v
i j
v r ajr ej
q ~j v { k
s
v = v r er
v r ajr ej = v r er
v r ajr ej = v r rj ej
v r ajr = v r rj
9 9} vna
`s v 6= 0 u { } { q n 9 r|~s2ng|~}wv r j4{
{ vgursj|~}w } ~ q 9 unDqtt}r}nu { guwv|~s2n j v
v r (aj j ) = 0
v r (ajr rj ) = 0
n }rq s n
354 2 S:t /6 798 ?>bh

a1
a12
1
2
a2
xxx 1 a2 xxx x x x

det(ajr rj ) =

an1
an2

xx = 0 ,

n
an
a1n
ax 2n
s v 9 uwv { q k t} v {&9 u 9 q t} n q B4{
y=(a
)
=vg(1)
+(1)
n
q k (at)(a
} v {~ )
9
1
1
2
2
n
n
n n
n1 n1 (a1 +a2 +
1
2
+ann )
{F tyn j v u 94{ ntFvguruwv 9

j
j v {0 n v { |~s ~ q=nP
ks 4{ q 4{
s o;vgur} vg}wv ~ , ~| s nd }rndet(a
o*vgq ~r |~}
n 4r{ ),n, } xyx
det(ajr rj ) = () = a0 n + a1 n1 + + an
v j9
a0 = (1)n
a1 = (1)n1 (a11 + a22 + + ann ) = (1)n1 tr(aij )
xxx
an = det(ajr )
u n o9 4{ }w
{F u |4v v|
j
j
r ) urs (
r )]n
|4vg v EF9J]@OPF? Z H@5()
f
v
H Z Q D\x0 QIF Z det(a
9 jrun
nqtrjt)}û 0 (adet[(a
9
F
{
9
{F
i
u |4v v| |4vg v D Z H Z FI@J Z HH Z Q D\xQIF Z H nBun { j=),npw| 4{9Q4{ q=n |~s2ng()
|~}w =5H@0\ Z Dx
Z HH Z Q D\xQIF Z HYx
ng|~s v|4v u*q vg n s j n ~ q=nu 9 uur 9=n@ u / Fv 9 =npw| 4{

4{( gq=nu=
ks () 0 ( )( ) ( ) 0 Qn ( )
() = 0
1
i=1
Uf#H_h^k_h*x n A Hom(H) (ai ) unDnqtt}û

ks o9 4{F~ q=nn A 4{t
o |~qFvnnurys n2n {= F{ 9jj u g@EF9J]@OPj F? Z H@H Z Q D\xXQIF Z 9 unnqtt}û (aj )
i
|4vg v
() = det(aij ji ) = det((aij ) (ji ))
= a0 n + a1 n1 + + an
2W YY P@SVR_b^fUk\lb_ _bibP9RU`\yY
U`(H_b^`_bx n (ai ) (bi ) M (K)
{F& }w|
ks (ai ) (bi ) { v axFOPF9EH@,Dx#{ } } { q (ci ) M (K)j ys9ujnV`q=nu#nn
`s
j
Uà2RUkXPx H }
}rys2nu 4{Vx
nn
~ q k t} v {9 u ~ qFv { nqtt}w|~}nu 4{

(aij )
(cij )1 (bij )(cij )
(aij )
(bij )
(bij )
(cij )(aij )(cij )1
r
aij = cim bm
r cj .
{ v { }r}run 4{ { s { o;vgur} vg}wv { |Vn=ng|~q tp { qt}w|4v {{ v
53 4;36 ;t
9 s 4{ qFv
`s
Q v { qt=ng|~}w
Av = v
() = | ((aij ) (ji )) |
= | ((cij )1 (bij )(cij ) (ji )) |
= | ((cij )1 (bij )(cij ) (cij )1 (ji )(cij )) |

= | (cij )1 [(bij ) (ji )](cij ) |
= det[(bij ) (ji )].
v j9 + v { o9u n v u[+ |.+jv 9

ks u 9 q t} n q X9 s 9o Fv sj|~qFv
9 nqtt}w| 4{ 4{ }rys2nu&nu0o9Fv sj|~qFv 9 uwv
{ 9 q t} n q 4{9 |Vn ns n 9 un {
nqtt}w| 4{ jq=n9} k~{= s { u$+ |,+jv 9
`s det(ci )1 0 1 .
j
det(cij )
a2RaibP9Rg_bax H } v { nqtt}w| 4{ i i { v { }r}run 4{ ~ qFv | 4{{ s o;vgur} v

}wv|Vn=ng|~q tp { qt}w|4v9 { sqt=nYuTn@ { s 9(a q j )t(b} jn ) q { s { =npw| 4{ |Vn =ng|~q tp { qt}w|Vn { t { v
}rys2nu 4{ j} xyx9 v { nqtt}w| 4{{ }r}run 4{K{ v |Vn { }
ks9}rynu ~ q 4{Vx
Uà2RUkXPx v { nqtt}w| 4{ i i { v { }r}run 4{ { } B{ guwv { } o9 4{F~ q=n

nu} { vvgo =n vg ~ 2n {F4{K (a} j ) ~ q (b4{Vj x)
Q v { qt=ng|~}w
n (ai ) (bi ) v { nqtt}w| 4{{ }r}run 4{ *q=nuN
`s (ai ) o9 4{F~ q=nnu
= )
j
j
vgo =n vg A Hom(H),
4{ o |~qFvnun2n {F {e }n 9 H j{= n {j }j=1 { s
2n {FD s2nu ~ H , o;vguwvn q t}wvgeq ~j v {
ks i i=1
o9s 4{ qFnv
ks
A = aji ej i ,
i ) (bi ) { v { }r}run 4{ ~ qFv | 4{ ai = c
i bk cr |4v (ci ) ys9unV { s { qt}rqts f~j v
(a
j
j
j
j
k r j
q ~j v {
`s
A = aji ej i = cjk bkr cri ej i
o;vg {F (ci ) ys9unq ~j v {

`s e0 = cj e 4{ vgqt=n2n {FK9 H, q vg n {
~ q 4{ j nK|VnB9}wv {(9 2n {F t nY+jvg=nK k n v k{ ujnQng|4|~}w D9 (cr i)e0 0 cr i (cj e )
j
i
i
k
02n {Fceri c jks2jinu 0 9 cri cik0 0 n kr uwo;vdvg|~Ks2uwnwv u;
k}rs o9ur}w|Vn
ks {cri i = r }nr=1 |4vgt 4{ o*v j9~ knun
{e }
0
k k=1
A = aji ej i = bkr e0k r
uwv |~s2nu}ro9ur}w|Vnp
ks (ai ) (bi ) o9 4{F~ q=n nu} { vvgo =n vgV|4v 4{ o |~qFv
j
nD2n {F4{& } ~ q 4{Vx j
s9o*v `n v {
`s (ai ) (bi ) o9 4{F~ q=n nu;} { vvgo =n vg A 4{t
= )
o |~qFvn&2n {F4{H } ~ q 4{ {e }n j {e0j}n { } ~j v {i }i=1 { j }j=1 { s { 2n {=4{
n
n
uwvp
ks j j=1
s2nu 4{ 4{ o |~qt}ryn {K~ V , io*vgi=1
0
A = aij ei j = bij e0i j
= bij cri er cjm m = cri bij cjm er m
353
354 2 S:t /6 798 ?>bh
|VnB9}n j v ~ uo9t}r K} B9Fv

n
`s
o;vgq=n qFv
(aij )
o*vg
o;vg
q ~j v {
A = arm er m = cri bij cjm er m

arm = cri bij cjm
(bij )
{ v nqtt}w| 4{{ }r}run 4{Vx
}vg {F tyn v { 9o2n=nDqFv v A Hom(H), { s o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w (ai ) 4{ o |~qFv

nKnurys n&2n {F ufo*vgur} vg}wvQ|Vn=ng|~q tp { qt}w|4v () 0 det[(ai )(i )], ujn |~s2ng|~}w
|Vn=ng|~q tp { qt}w|Vn () = 0, un { =npw| 4{ |Vn=ng|~q tp { qt}w|Vn { u 9j q t} j n q 9 (ai ),
unXqt=Yn uTn 9 (ai ); v 9 o ~j9~"9 un 2n {F u y} n@ { } v
`s 9 o ~j9~"9j u
vgo =n vgV9o;vguwjp
v
`s qt} ~j{F~ qt} vun { }rys9} ~ q 9j }w|~}w x
Uf#H_h^k_h*x } A Hom(H), {F9jj{ so;vgur} vg}wv|Vn=ng|~q tp { qt}w|4v|4vg v
{ s |~s2ng|~}w |Vn=ng|~q tp { qt}w|Vn () = 0, un { =npw| 4{K9 () = 0
det[(aij ) (ji )],
|4vg v { s { =npw| 4{ |Vn=ng|~q tp { qt}w|Vn { { sqt=Yn uTnD|4vg v tr (ai ), { s 9 q t} n q |4vg v
v j9 (ai ) 4{ unD o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w 9 A 4{ o |~j qFv n nurys nd2n {Fyx
det(aij )
j
W2YwY UkibP9^`_bUk*SVRUiba2\ cPjibaRUk\ ORa2](_haP
\ ihP9
\
3P .b^fUk\
P9RP9^ySVU`/R .b\4ST_b^fP9\yY +jvg=n v {
ks k ung|~}w } { q Q~ qt uwv {0 }r ~ yn
uwvg 4{ 9v gnuwvg 4{ o9Fvgo9}wv {9 s vgo =n vgV { s { =npw| 4{ |Vn=ng|~q tp { qt}w|Vn {Vx
|4vgt 4{ o;v j } ~ q nu; |~qFvg o*vg
n s gnuwvg0o9Fvgo9}wv 9
uw!v
`s Av = v, { } {e } 4{ s nKA2n {FHom(H),
9 H q ~j v {
`s Av 0 vj ak e 0 v,vj e
i
j
j k
w
u
v
~
|
2
s

n
u
r
}

9
o
r
u
w
}
V
|
n
K
k
s
;
o
g
v
&
=
q
n
F
q
v
k
j
k
j
k
j
k
j
k
v [(aj ) (j )] = 0
o90 s v
v j
kes k v 4{& } ~ q 9 | Fvv9 a~j qF0 v v| 4{ j
4{ qFw
qt} ~j o*vg
s n 9 { s {{ vgursj|~}wv j4{ n j, o*vgq=jn qFv |4vgt 4{ o;v j9 ns n=npû
|Vn=ng|~q tp { qt}w|Vn x
& |~pro9Fv|Vn ~ q B{ } 4{ s n=npû|Vn=ng|~q tp { qt}w|Vn ~ qFv | 4{
() = k(ak ) ( k )k = 0
}ro9ur}w|Vnw
ks e u { } { q n 9 |~s2ng|~}wv j4{
(r ) = k(aij ) r (ji )k = 0
n }rq o2n=n
{ vgursj|~}wv j4{& } ~ q 4{Q9 undqtt}r}nu@o*vg&uwvw

`s
v j (aij r ji ) = 0
v j aij = v j r ji
v j aij ei = v j r ji ei
uwv|~s2nu v {& }w|

`s 4{ s v }rAe
~ j =ynAv
uwvg 9= A.r v
4{ q=n vgtn@ùwv {r }r ~ gnuwvg 4{09 u;vgo =n vg A { v un { =npw| 4{9 un |~s2n
|~}w |Vntq=ng|~q tp { qt}w|Vn 9 A, |Vnuw|~s9un n ~ |~s2nud
ks9} K2n {Fyx
j
354;36 ;t
35353
Av = v
n { =npw| 4{9
o9s 49~{F ~ ~j =nuH|4vgo9u Fn {& no2n | Q {
Q=n 0
9 s n uf ()()
{ }Kun=npû no2n | | 4{ 9 |~}r v {
ks ni 4{ un OP/EQIF#=EF Z F?THTi=19( iund=n)pûf ib gq 4{F

ks i ni 1) no*i v 9 v {&4{ |~t}r9}r
Qm
n |4v m < n, m }rys2nunu / Fv 9 =npw| 4{e } ~ q 4{
()
=
(
)
i
i=1
9 ()
ks n + n + + n = n
4{ }r n v 1{ |4v 2 M nu|4v ms qFv 9 |~qFvg 4{
ks { v }r ~ |~qFvg 4{9
|4v }r ~ ynuwvg . i
A
i
Z('~U`R^`_b^`_ba2\
Flh v { qt=nB
ks 4{ s { s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv 9
FF!h v { qt=n
ks MMii Mj = {0} { } i 6= j.H.

F{F } @2
`s |4v |Vn n=npû q ~j v { n { vk|~}n vXs { s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv
9
N} +2n s qFvgq=nu 9 m =npw| 4{ } i ~ q 4{ q ~j v { s qFvgq=nu 9 m

M
H.
i
{ s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv { M , M , . . . , M x@ } { vgun ~ q +2n
v {0{ s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv { M , M i4{
9 |~}rV { guwv v {19 u2n { =npw| 4{em9 () = 0 { v } ~ q 4{ j 9FF s qF1v|4v 2 u
+ .| +jv 9
ks H = M1 + M2, Bs 4{ qt=n
ks H = M1 M2 { } o9 |~s2n j v
qFv v u ~ qFv 9 H {F n { s9n 9B }r ~ |~qFvg 4{9 A. o;v tpn|4v qts9=n
ks 4{ qFv 4{ |~} tqFv9j { n 9

ks ~ ~j =nu H = M1 M2 Mm, { }
B2ntfv v 4{ n { p { } 4{ s vgo =n vgnt9}rqt=nt}wv x h v { qt=n v {
ks D{ } 4{
vgtnu 4{ o;v { }r9u s An 4 sj|4|~}w |4vgo9u q=n 5x 4 n=n u|Vn { vD ~j =nu9v {F nBAo2n=n
4{ o2ng|~}wv {&9 }r ~j{ }w } @j }rq=nd k n {= o*vg o9uwv uur}r9Fv }r vV7 6 x
s { s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv 9
W2YrY ]U`RP9aRUk\dUORaRUk^f^`_bY
n
4{
{F n e , , e s n2n {F vgtqFv vgtnuo2n=n N ; o;Nv 9 v { n W n }rB |~qFvgH,
1
r
+2n { q=n q ~j s n 2n {= n o2n=nqFv v } j }j=1
er+1s
n
n {Fe, s2 nu,@eo;nv 9 v {0 vgtn uvgo =n {evg i }Pi=1 = e 1 +H. +{
4{{ , e2r+2
e
r ,
N
1
r
{F qt} ~j~ qFv | 4{ o2n=ns |~qFvg v H nt9}rqt=nt}wv v = vi e ,
ks
i
PN (v) = v i PN (ei ) = v i [e1 1 + e2 2 + + er r ]ei
4{9 |~}r
= v 1 e1 + v 2 e2 + + v r er ,
]5@)D Z,Z FI@ImP

J{ vg9 =NN,4{
N
n 9 { P 2 = P , 4{9 |~}r P , urunn v gD5HTT)D

N o*vgq ~ q *n 9 N {
s vgo = n NvgK} 9
Pn = P .
Z('~UkX]Hibax (h v { qt=n
ks
qt}w|4v x
PN = PN ,
Q v { qt=ng|~}w 9 s 4{ qFv
`s
4{09 |~}r
PN
PN (ei ) = PN ji ej
4{ ns9qFvfn s qFvv+ tp
353 q
354 2 S:t /6 798 ?>bh
PN (e1 ) = PN j1 ej = PN 11 e1 + + PN n1 en = e1
PN 11 = 1, PN 21 = 0, , PN n1 = 0
PN 12 = 0, PN 22 = 1, , PN n2 = 0
PN 12 = 0, , PN r1
= 0, PN rr = 1, PN r+1
= 0, , PN nr = 0
r
r
PN 1n = 0, PN 2n = 0, , PN nn = 0
PN (e2 ) = PN j2 ej = PN 12 e1 + PN 22 e2 + + PN n2 en = e2
PN (er ) = PN jr ej = PN 1r e1 + + PN nr en = er
PN (en ) = PN jn ej = PN 1n e1 + + PN nn en = 0
vgKq=n qFvunD o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w 9
PN
1 0
0x 1 x
xx
xx
0 0
0x 0
xx
0 0
4{
0 0
0x 0
xx
1 0
0x 0x x
xx xx
xx
0 0
0
0x
xx
0x
xx
u n o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w 9 P {F tpnBun} { n@ n

`s Q4{ q=nnqtt}û 4{ + tprqt}w|Vn@
o9s 4{ qFvw
ks unD2n {Fe4{ gv tqFNv vgtnu2q ~j v {
`s P = P .
N
|~}r v {
ks s |~qFvg v H 4{ vgtqFvgfv nu(nu { s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv N, v N, { }
gv tqFvgfv nuHnDqFv v |~qFvg 9 N i4{K9 |~}r (v, u) = 0 o2n=ndqFv n u N j x
4
{
v
uwvg`n ~ q }r v {
`s s { s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv 0 4{ vgtqFvgfv nuHn
{ }qFv v
|~qFvg 9 N 0 4{ vgtqFvgfv nun N i~ vgqt=n { o2nunN9=n { (v, u) = 0 No2n=nqFv n
o2n=ndqFv n
jx
v N 0,
4{ }r n v { 4 u}n q NN u9|4v s qFv 9 qFv v { uwv { |~qFvg 4{ vgtqFvgfv nu 4{
n N, o*vgq=n qFv N N.
ks
s 4{ qFv
`s
Ker(PN ) = N .
Ker(PN ) = N ,
Z('~UkX]Hibax ch v { qt=nB
ks { }
vg 9 v { qt=n
F N N = {0}
FF v H, v = v
~ qFv | 4{
4{K{ s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv 9
4{ s { s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv 9
+ v2 , v1 N y v 2 N .
H.
H, H = N N
354;36 ;t
Av = v
353 1
v { qt=ng|~}w
PF n v N N uwv
|~s2nu}ro9ur}w|Vn
ks v N y v N o;vgKuwvp
ks
o;vgq=n qFv v = 0, 9 v j9{= |4v |~urs f
ks N N = {0}
(v, v) = 0,
P
FF n v H, o*v 9 v {4{ |~t}r9}r v |4vg v v = v P (v) + P (v),
o Fv { n v {
ks P (v) N, Yn +jvg=n n v {e~ j9d4{ q= vN P (v),N {F n
N
o;vguwp
v
`s N
u N,
(u, v PN v) = (u, v) (u, PN v) = (u, v) (PN u, v)
= (u, v) (Pn , v) = (u, v) (u, v) = 0
`s (v P v) N .
P
FQM
F9F{Fe{ }rys
ks N
H = N N
F{ u |4v v| |4vg vZ O#E^DODJ]QSz@QS.T@J]H@E99 N.

N
Z('~U`R^`_b^`_ba2\
lyx n P , R v { vgo =n vg 4{9 o9Fv f |4|~}w
9 H { vg9 M N 4{ o |
qt}ryn ~ q h v { qt=n
ks unB|4vgo*v { }w|~}w vBo9Fv sj|~qFv 9 uwv { vgo =n vg 4{
4{ s vgo =n vg 9 o9Fv f |4|~}w { } { vguwv { }

x

`s { } P Hom(H) 4{ s vgo =n vg 9P Ro9F=v f RP
|4|~}w o
ks
cx Ph v { qt=Rn
o9Fv f |~q=nBnuwv { u N~ qFv {9 H ~ N ~ qFv | 4{ I P o9Fv f |~q=nDneuwv {
N
u ~ qFv {9 H ~ N x
@x n P s vgo =n vg 9 o9Fv f |4|~}w
ks K4{ q= ~ Hom(H) x9 v { qt=n
ks (IN+ PN ) 4{ } tqt}r9u t +2nurun (I + PN )1 x

jx ms2u 4{K u|4vgo9u ~ qFv
vgtqFvgfv nu 9 H 4{ qFv 4{ H =
x ms2u 4{K u|4vgo9u ~ qFv
vgtqFvgfv nu 9 u {0} 4{&9 |~}r {0} =
s { s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv
W2YY b& Uk\V]HP9^`_ba2P
\ 4# @P9Rg_bPj*SVU`\yY Uf#_b^`_b n
}n q K9 T { }@o2n=n
9 H T Hom(H) {F }w|
ks M 4{ s { s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv} yntM
qFv n u M { sj| 49
ks T (u) M 4{09 |~}r T (M ) M x un 9j }w|~}w {F
} @2
ks e{ } T 4{ |~s2ndu
ks9} &vgo =n vg { vg9 H ~ qFv | 4
{
?e H 4{ } ynt}n q 2nv T x
Se z /u 8 7 99 4{ } ynt}n q 2ntv x
?e Im(T ) HKer(T ) { v } gnt}n q T4{ 2ntv T x
{F n S |~s2nud
ks9} vgo =n vg { vg9 H
ks
(Z '~U`R^`_b^`_baQ n
|4v Bs9q=n|4v T 4{T9 |~}r Hom(H)
{F n M un}rn ~ 9 S {F n N u
T
S
=
ST
~ qFv | 4{ { v { s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv { } ynt}n q 4{Q9 x
Ker
y de
4{F S v { Yn +jvg=nn M s 4N{ qtFvvgo =n vg vgtnu A uwv {{ s9 T4{ o2ng|~}wv { M , q=nu
ks { } v Mi, Av = iv, o9s 4{ qF v

`s Mi 4{ s { s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv i s 4{ |Vi nunV
uwv|~s2nu2}ro9ur}w|V
n
ks A(M ) M , o*vg#uw`
v
ks M 4{ s zxgC,DxS H Z FI
M
,
i
i
i
i
i
F9J=UVH@F?H@JQ D 2ntv A.
353S2
354 2 S:t /6 798 ?>bh
Z('~UkX]Hibax %h v { qt=np
ks { } A Hom(H) 4{d vgtnu v N, q=nu-
`s
~ qFv | 4{ Av = v
Av = v,
Q v { qt=ng|~}w s 4{ qFva
`s Av = v ~ qFv | 4{ Av v = 0, 4{ qFv 4{
~ qFv | 4{ ((A E)v, (A E)v) = 0 o;vgq=n qFv
(A E)v = 0,
j+ vg=nD9} ~ 9qt=n2nFn j v o;vg {F o2n=n vq ~j v { `
s w
((A E) (A E)v, v) = 0
(1)
(A E) (A E) = (A E )(A E)
= A A EA AE + EE
= (A E)A (A E)E
{ s { qt}rqts f~j v ~
(1)
q ~j v {
= (A E)(A E )
(1) = ((A E)(A E) v, v)
= ((A E) v, (A E) v)
= 0
(A E) v = 0
A v = v
z{ q 4{ s9urq=n v q=n9} k~ v {K }w|

ks A (N ) N, 4{ qFv 4{
`s N 4{ } yn
t}n q 2nv A.
Z('~UkX]Hibax
h v { qt=nK
ks { }X 4{ } gnt}n q 2nv
~ qFv | 4{ N 4{
} gnt}n q 2ntv A n 9 |~s2n j v NA v {F n vgtnu x A,
v { qt=ng|~}w j s 4{ qFv
ks N 4{ } ynt}n q 2nv A, }ro9ur}w|Vn
`s o2n=n
qFv n v N, Av = v w
v
`s A(N ) N.
v
`s
n u N v N, o;vguww
(v, A u) = (Av, u) = (v, u) = (v, u) = 0

A (N ) N
A u N
(v, Au) = (A v, u) = (v, u) = (u, v) = 0

A(N ) N
Au N
gv urqt}r v { } A Hom(H) 4{ vgtnu N 4{ } ynt}n q 2nv

4{ } ynt}n q 2nv A x
N
Q v { qt=ng|~}w 2 n v N u N o;vguwvw
`s
|4v |~urs Tk~j v {F
`s { } 4{ vgtnu ~ qFv | 4{
o2n=n A |4vg vo2n=n A.A
3
F
q
v
|
~
{
A,
{ v } gnt}n q 4{ q=n qFv

3
354;36 ;t
353 s
Av = v
Z('~U`R^`_b^`_ba2\
lyx qt}rur^} uTn j v
`s H = M M , { } v H, ~ qFv | 4{ v o9s 49Q94{ |4vg
o;v j {F ~ vgtn 9 }w|Vni |4vg iv v = u + w |4v u M w M
no9urd}
ks v { n v uwv { vgo =n vg 4{ P A AP : ~ qFv | 4{ i AP = P A.i

`s { } P A = AP , ~i qFv | 4{ Ni 4{ } ynt}n q i2ntv i A.
cx h v { qt=n
v
ks MN M { v } ynt}n q 4{ 2ntv A {F
uwvg`n ~ q n N
i
i
+2nurun APi = PiA.
Uà2RUkXPx 0 } A 4{ vgtnu ~ qFv | 4{ M M { } i 6= j.
i
j
v { qt=ng|~}w n v v ~ M ~ M , 4{ o |~qt}rgn ~ q kq=nu 4{
j
k
s Av = v Av = vi o*vgjuwp
v
ks i
i
i i
j j
j (vi , vj ) = (vi , j vj ) = (vi , Avj ) = (A vi , vj )

= (i vi , vj ) = i (vi , vj )
(j
|4vg v
)(v , v ) = 0
i
i 6= j
(vi , vj ) = 0
M i Mj
2
s 4{ qFv`
`s M M , 4{ qFv}ro9ur}w|Vn
ks M M ,
ks n { s u}ro9ur}w|Vn
i
ks Mi Ker(P
j n
ks Ker(P ) = Mi . qt}rjur}ûTn j v 4{ qFv { 4{ s9urq=n v {
)
j
j
j
q ~j v {
`s o2n=ndqFv n v H
o;vguwvw
`s
(Pj Pi )v = Pj (Pi v) =
Pj Pi = Pi ij
0
Pi v
si i 6= j
si j = i
W2YwY U`\T^faX]a2\T_b^`_b*ZQ\V]Uk^ySVRPjiY
n
1 +M
v A,
uwv ~n
v j9 {M }n { v qFv v { uwv {{ s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv { } ynt}n q 4M{ 2=ntM
4{ qF2v +4{ { g+M
i
qt=n qFv v { uwv { }r ~ |~qFvg 4{ 2ntv } P = P + P + + P
{F~ |~s ~ i=1
M
n
}{ ~j v P uvgo =n vg 9 o9Fv f |4|~}w { vg9 M , A,
q ~j v { 1 2
H
C
P = (P1 + P2 + + Pn ) = P1 + P2 + + Pn
= P1 + P2 + + P n = P
P = P
P 2 = (P P ) = (P1 + P2 + + Pn )(P1 + P2 + + Pn )
= P12 + P22 + + Pn2 = P1 + P2 + + Pn = P
pHQC |4v |~urs9}r v { k

s
n=nqFv n v H
P2 = P
4{ s vgo =n vg 9 o9Fv f |4|~}w x
353 |
354 2 S:t /6 798 ?>bh

P (v) = (P1 + P2 + + Pn )v
= (P1 v + P2 v + + Pn v ) M
|{z}
|{z} |{z}
uwv |~s2nu}ro9ur}w|Vn
`s
vgvgqt=nDo2ntq 2|4v
AP
M
M
M
9
o
F
v
~
|
=
q
n
d
n
~
|
2
s

n
d
u
k
9
s
}
K
|~qFvg 9
P
vgtnu
A Hom(H)
n
M.
= A(P1 + P2 + + Pn ) = AP1 + AP2 + + APn

= P1 A + P2 A + + Pn A = (P1 + P2 + + Pn )A
= PA
= PA
o;vg(uwv[
ks o2n=nQqFv n v H (P A)v = PAP(Av)
uwv%
`s }ro9ur}w|Vn
(P
A)v
ks [AP (v)] M n%
ks (AP )v = A[P (v)] }ro9ur}w|Vn
ks M 4{ } gnt}n q 2nv
A.
2ntv
z# vgtn { }r}runV*o9s 4{ qFv

ks P A = A P }ro9ur}w|Vn
`s M 4{ } ynt}n q
o;vg uu nn q 4{ o9Fvg2n v
q ~j v {
`s M 4{ } ynt}n q 2ntv
A
A .
j+ vg=n9} ~ s9qt}rur}ûTn j vs u n@ F|~}w|~}wvn q t}wvgVq ~j v {

`s H =
{ } B2ntfv9fvg {F t v {
ks M vQo9s 49{F } ~ q K9 | Fv9 n
M
ks M
9K{F tuwv ~K
k4{ q K~ |4v qt=ntpn v {0 }r ~ |~qFvg 4{ |4vgt 4{ o;v j } ~ q 4{ n s fv {
}r ~ ynuwvg 4{ o Fv {F +2n9pn }w,| +jva
ks qFv v { uwv {{ s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv { } ynt}n q 4{D9
v
ks M = {0} o*vguwvq=n qFv H = M =
=n u|4v s qFv {M }n o;vgKuwp
A
i i=1
e4{ q + |.+jv 9 `
s
M1 + M 2 + + M n .
Mi M j
{F }ro9ur}w|Vnp
ks
H = M 1 M2 M m
v { qt=ng|~}w H vg 9 v { qt=nVHs { n j vun} @ vgtng|~}w

`s
v {d n
ks o2n=ndqFv n v H, k4{ q qt} ~j94{ |4vgo;v { }w|~}w 9 }w|Vn x

s9o;v `n v {
`s v = v + v + + v |4v v M , i = 1, . . . , m.
1
2
m
i
i
4
|
v
w
u

v
|~s2nu}ro9ur}w|Vnp
ks
v = w + w + + w
w M , i = 1, . . . , m.
1
4{ qFv 4{
k (vk
o*vguwvw
ks o2n=ndqFv n
{F |~s9o9u k
s w
(v1 w1 ) + (v2 w2 ) + + (vm wm ) = 0
wk ) = 0
u Mj ,
j wj )
o;v { }w|~}w 9 }w|Vn@2|4vv j uwwvKj
`=s 0+ v {9 vv j{ qt==n w v j
;o vgKuwv q=n k (vqFv9k vwqtk} ~))j=9(u,
4{ |4vgv
ks
0 = (u,
H = M 1 M2 M m
354;36 ;t
353
+jvg=n9} ~ { s9o*v `n v {

`s q ~j v { s n2n {F9 M , o*vg u0o9Fvk| 4{ v 9
=n |,+9} qV(uno*v 9 v { +2ng| dvgtqFv vgtnu {F n 4{ q=n 1 {e , e , . . . , e } 9
q=nun j =
n
`s D(M ) = n , ~X vgtn { }r}runBo;v 9 v { q 1~j 2 |4v jn{ qtts9}r
s n2n {F vgtqFv vgtnu*o21 n=n M1 , unB|~s2nu 4{ `vgtqFvgfv nun M , n
ks M M ,
1
2
|4v qt} s2n j vn { p {F qt} ~j s nd2 2n {= vgtqFv vgtnuo2n=ndqFv n 1 H.
Av = v
vgkk}n ~ q 0{F
n k4{ q=n
, . . . , en +n ,u.n . . ,}re n +n}w ++n } vgt v
{ u
9 q ~j P
k{es 1 ,n. . . +, enn , e+n +1
+
n
=
n
H.
1
2
m
vgo =n vg 0 P + + P no9ur}d
`s k v { uwvnnurys v 9 uwv { |~qFvg 4{
1 nu|4v j{ qtts9
m} n@
m 4{F |~qFvgo tq ~j | =n nurys v 9 uwv {
tqFv 1vgt
9 un2n {FA vg=
{ s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv { M , }r`n v { M , nu*no9ur}w|Vntu A0 , qFv n { un { o9Fv f |4|~}wv j4{ | o9qFv
~ }n= n i4{F |~qFvgKnu*k| Fv9 u* 4{ s9urq=n v {F = | 4{0 u; |~qFvg n v9
P
,
o kFv 4{ v 4{ o9 |~} { n ~ q uw
v
ks +2ng| A, o9s 4{ Av = kv o2n=nBqFv n v M uwv
|~s2nuH}ro9ur}w|V
n
`s A = A0, u(vgo =n vg A ~4{ q=n2n {Fdk 4{ q= o9 4{=~ q=n vko;vg
unDnqtt}û
1
1
1
xxx
0
2
xxx
m
v j9 |Vn n no2n | =q n q=n { | 4{ |4vg v {= n { s

s9urqt}ro9ur}w|~} n ~ un |~s2ng|~}w
|Vn=ng|~q tp { qt}w|Vn ix; } A 4{ s gv o =n vg
ks e{F o9s 4 n 4{ |~t}r9}r&|4vg v
1 1
2 2
m m
~ qFv | 4{ A 4{ vgtnu i |4v P vgo =n vg 9 o9Fv f |4|~}w j x
i
`s A = P + +
A = P + P + + P
m Pm
1 1
~ qFv | 4{
1P + +
m Pm
1 P1 + +
m Pm
A =
=
1
m Pm Pm
1 P1 P1 + + m
AA = 1
2
1 1 P + +
m m P 2
=
1
m
= A A
o*vgKq=n qFv {F |4v |~urs f `

s
4{
A
s AA
vgo ==n Avg A vgtnu x
3
353
354 2 S:t /6 798 ?>bh
Z('~U`R^`_b^`_ba2\
e h v { qt=nB
ks uwv {& }r ~ ynuwvg 4{K9 s vgo =n vgB+ tprqt}w|4v { v nu 4{Vx
e h v { qt=n
`s uwv {
}r ~ ynuwvg 4{
9 s vgo =n vgn qt}^+ tprqt}w|4v { v
}rny} nt}wv { o9s9Fv {Vx
e h v { qt=nB
`s uwv {& }r ~ gnuwvg 4{K9 s vgo =n vgKs }rq=nt}wv qt} ~j~
s9uwv lyx
z{ qFv { } { v { 4{ s9urq=n v {H{F vg9qt} ~j~d9 un 94{ |4vgo*v { }w|~}w D9 s vgo =n vg
vgtnu
A = 1 P1 + 2 P2 + + m Pm
w\TU`RV@P9^k_h* z# |V }w|Vn|~s2 qt}w|Vn u 4{ q=n v 9 s { } { q n {= |Vn=ng|

q t}ûTn v { }rB*vgur}ûTnXo;vgs ;:DXQ94{ q=n v | > u|~s2nu 4{ q= vgtnur}ûTn v9 4{
9 |~}rV < 1 >= 1, nun uqFv n|Vn qt} n p { }w|Vn 4 }r9u svg {F tyn9u #q=nu
|4vg vun ~j typn|~} = k qt}w|Vn@un ~j typno;vgq ~ |~}nu u vg ~ qFvn ys9unV qF| xH{F
{ }rB*vgur^} uTn 4 }n q s vgo =n vg + tprqt}w|4v u*|~s2nu;ng|~qts2n { vg9 f q {94{ q=n v
~ s 4{ o2ng|~}wv 9 }rur tq 9 }r ~j{ }w } @j }rq=n@o;vguwv
`s uwv { 4{ s9urq=n v {
~ |4v qt=n v { +2n { q=nYn +jvg=n@ v {F o9s 49~ no9ur}w|Vn }r |~q=n ~ q { } B2ntfv9 H
{F o9s 49{F ys9}r(o;v } ~j ve|4vg vun { s9n }r |~q=n 9 uwv {#{ s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv { } ynt}n q 4{
v
`s un o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w
9 s
9 u9vgo =n vgV 4{ qFv 4{ H = M M s 4{ qF%
vgo =n vg 9 o ~j99 un2n {= u1 y} n@2 {F 9s { |Vn { } o9 s n o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w |4v
4{ o |~qFvBns ne2n {F vgtqFv vgtnu vgtn no*vguwv { }r ~ |~qFvg 4{09 uvgo =n vgV
v
ks ~ q k t} v {94{ q=n2n {F un o9 4{=~ q=ng|~}w 9 u&vgo =n vg
94{F9 urs f
|4vgt 4{ o;v j9 ns nenqtt^} u }nfv nu ~ |~s n }nfv nu2o9t} |~}ro2nu {F~ |~s ~ qt=n
uwv {K }r ~ gnuwvg 4{9 uvgo =n vgVjq=n q=n { | 4{ |4vg v {F nduns9urqt}ro9ur}w|~} n 9 un {
=npw| 4{ |Vn=ng|~q tp { qt}w|Vn {9 uvgo =n vg x
Z('~UkX]Hibax Qz# |V }w|Vn|~s2 qt}w|Vnun { o2ntqtpw|~s9un {d9 u { o9} s v 4{ q= |Vn
=ng|~q t^} uTn n { 4 }n q uwv { vgo =n vg 4{ S , S , S ; unD o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w 9 S |4v
y
4{ o |~qFv nds nD2n {F vgtqFv vgtnu {e , e ,xe }y 4{ q=z n no*vg
1
0 i
0
0 i
(Sy ji ) = ~2 i
0
i
0
4{ q=nnqtt}û 4 { ns9qFvfn s q=n@o;vgeq=n qFv9 n va

ks {e , e , e } 4{ vgtqFv vgtnu
4{ s vgo = n vg!+ tprqt}w|4v vns9qFvfn s Fq v ;x so*vgur} 1vg2}wv3|Vn=ng|~q tp { qt}w|4v 4{
S
y
() = det
ks
0
i~
(2 ~2 ) = 0
i~
2
0
i~
= 3 +
0
i~
2
0
~2
2
}ro9ur}w|Vnw
ks
~
3
2
2
2
+
2 = + ~ = ( ~ )
1 = 0
2 = ~
3 = ~
354;36 ;t
353
g q 4{F
ks uwv { |4v |~} ~ q 4{9 2 0 { v | Fv9qFv n& u
`s tr(S i ) | (S i ) |
{ v | Fv xj } e0 4{ s }r ~ |~qFvg|4vgt 4{ o;v j } ~ q nu }r ~ ynuwvg yj = ~, y4{jqFv
4{K{ } S (e0 ) =2 e0 = ~ e0 , o9 4{F~ q= j vguwv|4vg vs n |4vgB9} ng|~}w 2 ur} j nu 9
un { {e y, e 2, e } q ~1j2 v { 2 e0 = ci e , o*vguwvp
ks
1
Av = v
2 i
Sy e02 = Sy cj2 ej = cj2 Sy jr er = 2 e02

= 2 cj2 ej = ~cj2 jr er
cj2 Sy jr = ~cr2
o*vgKq=n qFv { }
r=1
Sy 11 c12 + Sy 21 c22 + Sy 31 c32 = ~c12
r=2
Sy 12 c12 + Sy 22 c22 + Sy 32 c32 = ~c22
r=3
Sy 13 c12 + Sy 23 c22 + Sy 33 c32 = ~c32
9e v j9 vg9q ~j v {Q u { } { q n
i~ 1
c
2 2
i~ 2
c
2 2
i~ 2
c
2 2
= ~c12
= ~c22
= ~c2 3
i~ 3
c
2 2
i~ 2
1
= 0
2 c2 ~c2
i~ 1
i~ 3
2
c 2 c2 ~c2 = 0
2 2

i~ 2
c ~c32
= 0
2 2
1
i 2
= 0
2 c2 c 2
i 1
i 3
2
c 2 c2 c 2 = 0
2 2
i c2 c3
= 0
2
2 2
1
i 2
2 c2 c 2
i2 c22 c12 + c12 c32
i c2 c3
2
2 2
1
i 2
= 0
2 c2 c2
2
2
i
2
3
c2 c2 + i 2c2 = 0
i c22 c3
= 0
2
2 2
2 2
i c2
= 0
= 0
= 0
i 2
c c12
= 0

2 2
i
2
3
2c c = 0
i 2 2 2 3 2
c c2
= 0
2 2
uwv|~s2nu(}ro9ur}w|VnK
ks s n
|4vgB9} ng|~}w X9 u n {e |~s2ng|~}wv j4{pil j "
i Tj v { n un
|~s2ng|~}w
i j jo*vguwvp
ks e{ guwvd 4{ vgur v { u n {K v { o9t}r =n {
(
c12 = i2 c22
i () i c2
2
2 2
i c3
2 2
= c22
c32 =
i c2
2 2
3 q5
354 2 S:t /6 798 ?>bh
ks 4 j v v {
i
i
e02 = c22 e1 + c22 e2 + c22 e3
2
2

i
i
2
= c 2 e1 + e 2 + e3
2
2

i
i
i
i
0
2

k e 2 k = c2 e1 + e 2 + e3 , e1 + e 2 + e3
2
2
2
2
1/2

1
1
+1+
= | c22 | 2
= c22
2
2
o;vguwvw
`s u |~qFvgK9s { |Vn v {F =
e002 =
e02
k e02 k
e2
i
i
e002 = e1 + + e3
2
2 2

1
i e1 + 2e2 + i e3
=
2
1/2
1
i e1 + 2 e2 + i e3 , i e1 + 2 e2 + i e3
k e002 k =
2
1
2
=
(1 + 2 + 1)1/2 = = 1
2
2
Sy (e01 ) = Sy ck1 ek = ck1 Sy ek = ck1 Sy kr er = 0

r=1
Sy 11 c11 + Sy 21 c21 + Sy 31 c31 = 0
r=2
Sy 12 c11 + Sy 22 c21 + Sy 32 c31 = 0
r=3
Sy 13 c11 + Sy 23 c21 + Sy 33 c31 = 0
9e v j9 vg9q ~j v {Q u { } { q n
i~ 1
c
2 1
i~ 2
c
2 1
i~ 2
c
2 1
i~ 3
c
2 1
= 0
= 0
= 0
(1)
(2)
(3)
s 4{ qFvP
ks ~4{ q |Vn { v il j ]i j q ~j v {
ks { guwv v { 2n { q=n un {0 v {
o9t}r =n { |~s2ng|~}wv j4{ 9 v j9 0 vg9q ~j v {

`s i ~ c1 = i ~ c3 uwv |~s2nu}ro9ur}w|Vnw
ks c1 = c3
`s 4 j v v {
c2 = 0
1
2 1
2 1
354;36 ;t
3 q3
Av = v
e01 = c11 e1 + c11 e3

k e01 k = c11 [(e1 + e3 , e1 + e3 )]1/2 = | c11 |(2)1/2
e001 =
k e001 k =
e01
e1 + e 2
1
1
=
= e1 + e3
0
ke1 k
2
2
2
2
1
(e1 + e3 , e1 + e3 )1/2 = = 1
2
2
Sy (e03 ) = ck3 Sy kr er = ~cr3 er

r=1
Sy 11 c13 + Sy 21 c23 + Sy 31 c33 = ~c13
r=2
Sy 12 c13 + Sy 22 c23 + Sy 32 c33 = ~c23
r=3
3 1
c3
9e v j9 vg9q ~j v {Q u { } { q yn 1
i~ 1
c
2 3
i~ 2
c
2 3
i~ 2
c
2 3
i~ 3
c
2 3
+ Sy 23 c23 + Sy 33 c33 = ~c33

1 i~ 2
~c3 2 c3
i~ 1
c + ~c23
2 3

i~ 2
c + ~c33
2 3
= ~c13
= ~c23
= ~c33
1
i 2
c3 2 c3
i c1 + c2
3
2 3
i c2 + c3
3
2 3
i c3
2 3
9e v j9 vg {= tgn v { `
s
c13
= 0
= 0
= 0
i~ 3
c
2 3
= 0
= 0
= 0
(1)
(2)
(3)
2
2 2
i 2 2
i 2
i 2 2
3
1
3
c3 + c 3 =
c3 + i 2c3 + c3 =
c3 + c33
c3 c 3
i
2
2
2
4| vg v i j 4{ s nD|4vgB9} ng|~}w
9Pil j M
i Tj o*v 9 v { qt=n2ntn { guwvD|4v il j
i T j 9 v j 9 q ~j v {
ks 9 pil j c1 = i c2 { s { qt}rqts f~j v ~ i Tj
3
i i
c23
2 2
1
c23 + c23
2
ks 4 j v v {
2 3
i
c33 = 0
2
i
c23 = 0
2
1 2
i
c3 = c33
2
2
i
i 2 2
3
c = c23
c3 =
2 3
2
3 q5q
354 2 S:t /6 798 ?>bh

e03

i
i
e1 + e 2 e3
2
2
1/2

2 i
c3 e1 + e2 i e3 , i e1 + e2 i e3
2
2
2
2
1/2

2 1
1
c3
+1+
= c23 (2)1/2
2
2
0
e3
1
2e2 i e3 )
=
(i
e
+
1
ke0 3k
2
i1/2
1h
i e1 + 2e2 i e3 , i e1 + 2e2 i e3
2
1
[1 + 2 + 1]1/2 = 1
2
c23
k e03 k =
=
e003 =
k e003 k =
=
o;vguwvdq=n qFvuwv {K }r ~ |~qFvg 4{K vgtnur}ûTn v {Q{ v `

e001 =
e002 =
e003 =
gq 4{F k
s
1
2
2i
i
2
1
2
2i
i
2
1
1
e1 + e3
2
2

1
i e1 + 2e2 + i e3
2

1
i e1 + 2e2 i e3
2
1
2
i
2
2i
2
2
2
2
1
1
2 + 2
i
i
2
+ 2
2
2
i
i
2 2
2 2
1
2
1
2
i
2
2
2
2i
i
i
2
+ 2
2
2
2
1
1
4 + 4 + 4
14 + 42 14
1 0 0
= 0 1 0
0 0 1
2
2
2
2
1
2
i
2
2i
2i
2
2
i
2
i
i
2
2 2
2
41 + 24 14
2
1
1
4 + 4 + 4
1
0 i
0
2
i
0
i
2
0
0
i
0
1
i
2
2
2
2i
2i
2
2
i
2
354;36 ;t
=
~
2
i
2
i
2
2
2
i 2
2
i
2
i
2
i2 +
12
1
1
2 + 2
42
42
i
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
3q1
Av = v
1
2

2
0
i
2
i 2
1
2
2
2
4
2
4
2
4
2
4
i
2
2
2
2i
2
2
2
2
+
+
2
4
2
4
0
0
0
0
0 0
= ~2 0 2 0 = 0 ~ 0
0
0 ~
0
0
2
2i
2
2
i
2
2W Y9*Y _bPg2a*Pji_fP9^`_b HU P@SVRg_b^fU`\fY

}9} ~4{ |~} tqFvK
ks un
o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w 9 S ~ q k t} v {(9 s n2n {F vgtqFv vgtnu vgtn n&o*vgHuwv {( }r ~
|~qFvg 4{ 9 u(vgo =yn vgV 4{ s n
nqtt}û }nfv nu x& mg v
o;v tpn v { v { qt=n
vgtnur ~ q
`s e4{ qFv 9 {F &n { p
Q v { qt=ng|~}w 2 n A Hom(H) vgtnuv|~s2n j v ~ v { + tprqt}w|4v9
{F n (ai ) un o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w 9 A |4v 4{ o |~qFvnds n 2n {F vgtqFv vgtnu {e e
j
ks v {~ |4v qt=neun o9 4{=~ q=ng|~}w 9 A ~ q k t} v {e9 s n12n {F2
.vg.t.},
qFv vgtnu vgtn no;vguwv { }r ~ |~qFvg 4{9 A, {F n k4{ q=n {e0 e0 . . . e0 },
n
1
2
o;vguww
v
`s
ks e4{
Ae0i = e0i = Fik e0k
}rys2nun
`s
j m r 0
A cji ej = cji A ej = cji am
m er
j em = c i aj c
`
s
FF
rm rk e0k
Fik e0k = cji am
j c
e0i = cji am
cr e0
ks cj am cr = r j vgm 9r~
i i
i j m
4
K
{
9 |~}rV9unD
r
i
(Fj ) = (i i )
9e v j9 vg9q ~j v { k
s
j
Fik = ckm am
j ci
uwv|~s2nu}ro9ur}w|Vn"
`s r e0 = cj am cr e0 4{ qFv 4{
n j v cr am cj = r o9is 4r{ qFv ~i vgjtmnrnqtt}w|~}nu
i i
o9 4{=~ q=mng|~}w j i4{ s nd
nqtt}û }nfv nu x
(Fji ) = (cij )1 (aij )(cij )
3
z u { }rys9} ~ q q vg n q ~j } vdnu*|Vn { v 9&4{ o2ng|~}wv {9 }r ~ j{ }w } @j }rq=n@

4{K9 y=n }ro*vgtq=n |~}n ~ |V }w|Vn |~s2 qt}w|Vn x
Uà2RUkXPx
} B { v vgo =n vg 4{ vgtnu 4{ } { q s nX2n {F vgtqFv
|~s2nuun { o9 4{=~ q=ng|~}wv j4{d9 A B { v nqtt}w| 4{
vgtnu|4v 4{ o |~qFAvnun
}nfv nu 4{{ } { guwv { } [A, B] = 0.
3 q2
354 2 S:t /6 798 ?>bh
s nB2n {F vgtqFv vgtnu|4v 4{ o |~qFvn

v { qt=ng|~}w
n
n
und|~s2nuun { o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w=
v j4{) 9 A{e i }Bi=1{ v
nqtt}w| 4{& }nfv nu 4{ 4{ qFv { }r } |Vn
ks Ae = e Be = 0 e o;vguwvw
`s
j
j j
j j
= A0j ej = 0j Aej = 0j j ej
(AB)ej
= j 0j ej = j Bej = B(j ej ) = B(Aej )
AB = BA
[A, B] = 0
n 2n {= vgtqFv vg
s9o;v `n v { nY+jvg=nw
ks B] = 0 {F n {e }n s d
nu=
q=nu)
ks Be = 0 e , o*vgKvgqt=nDo2[A,
ntq {F n v H s i i=1
}r ~ ~| qFvg 9 A, o*vg
uww
v
ks Av = v,i uwv|~is2inu}ro9ur}w|Vnp
ks (A E)v = 0, |4v
i i i

n
9
o
r
u
d
}
`
v { u B, 4{ qFv 4{ Bu =
k
uj = (A E)c
j
ès j

n
4
|
v
B
9
s
=
q

n
|4v B A, o*vguwvPj
`s
= (A E)c Be ,
B
v = c 1 e1 + c 2 e2 + + c n en =
vgt v { u0 |~qFvg
B(A E)cj ej
Pn
ce.
Buj = (A E)cj 0j ej = 0j [(A E)cj ej ] = 0j uj
`s
o9s 4{ Fq vp
ks V| n n
Pn
4{ s }r ~ |~qFvg 9
uj
j=1 uj
uj
Pn
B,
n 9 {
(A E)c e = (A E)v = 0
|~s ~ qt=n ~{ s9j j4{ o2ng|~}wv {K } ~ q 4{

{Fe~j=1
uwvB|~s2nu*}ro9ur}w|Vn
ks u = 0,j=1i =j 1, . . .1, n o*2vguwv
ks (An E)c e = 0 }ro9ur}w|Vn
ks (A E)ej = 0 i o;vgq=n qFvP

`s Aej = ej 9 v j9 |4v j|~urs9j }r v {
ks uwv {
}r ~ |~qFvg 4{ vgtqFv vgtnu 4{Q9 B uwv { v q=n9} k~9 A.
Pn
u = u + u + +u
Y aRXP
Q{ vk|~}n v|4v |Vn nvgo =n vg
4{ s no v 9 H ~ C, n vo;vg
}
v = v 1 + v2
vH
P9HR@ST_h^`P
} { q s n vgtn|~s2n =qt}w|Vnun|~s2nu
A
v (v, Av) C,
(v1 + v2 , A(v1 + v2 )) = (v1 + v2 , Av1 + Av2 )

= (v1 , Av1 ) + (v1 , Av2 ) + (v2 , Av1 ) + (v2 , Av2 )
unno2nt}w|~}w 9 uwv { q k t} v {
v { }w|
`s ujno v v 4{
ur} j nu { } v&|~s2n =qt}w|4v xg{ } (vys91u,nAv
}r2 )o;vgt(vq=n 2 , |~Av
}n 14){ u|Vn { v&|~s2n j v (v, Av) R,
~ 4{ q |Vn { v { n v {
ks A 4{ + tprqt}w|Vn un vgtnX|~s2n =qt}w|Vn {F urunn
+ tprqt}w|Vn x
} {e }n 4{ s nd2n {=9 H.
i i=1
2X4 qr6=< h;: 7
3qs
(v, Av) = (v i ei , Av j ej ) = v i v j (ei , Aej )

= v i v j (ei , akj ek ) = v i v j akj (ei , ek )
{ }unD2n {=e4{ vgtqFv vgtnu2q ~j v {
(v, Av) = v k v j akj
z# u|Vn { vo2ntqt}w|~s9un 9

`s {= n vgtnuvnuwv ~ v { + tprqt}w|Vn@o;v
9 v { +2nurunQs n 2n {F vgtqFv vgtnAu ~ v j 9 un o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w 9 A ai = 0
{ } i 6= j, 4{ qFv 4{ {F n
s nnqtt}û }nfv nu o*vgeuwv
ks ~4{ q |Vn { vun jvgtn
|~s2n =qt}w|V
n
`s 4 n=|4vg v
(v, Av) =
|vi |2 aii = |v 1 |2 a11 + |v 2 |2 a22 + + |v n |2 ann
Z('~U`R^`_b^`_ba2\
lyx n T Hom(R2), |~s n o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w |4v 4{ o |~qFvnDund2n {F vgtqFv
vgtnu (e e ) 4{

1 1
2
2
2
S&e v { qt=n%
ks uwv {!9 }w|4v {{ s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv {9 R } ynt}n q 4{e9 T
{ v R u { s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv s9uwv x
?&e } U Hom(C ), |~s n o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w |4v 4{ o |~qFvnun
2n {F {e = (1, 0), e = (0, 1)} 4{ A. Q v { qt=n
`s U qt} ~j s
2
{ s9 4{ o2ng1|~}wvs } r} ~j2 { }wv nu} gnt}n q yx

x n T Hom(V ) x }qFv v { s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv 9 V 4{ } gnt}n q 2ntv T,
~ qFv | 4{ 4{ s urqt}ro9uwv 9 uvgo =n vgK} 9~ qt} n x
@x n {e , . T. . , e } s |4v s qFvvgtqFv vgtnu {F n P n vo*vg P (v) =
nh v { qt=n
Pm 1

ks w

(e
,
v)e
.
i
i
i=1
S&e P 4{ s vgo =n vg 9 o9Fv f |4|~}w x
?&ev {K }r ~ gnuwvg 4{K9 { v dlyx
jx n V s 4{ o2ng|~}wv |~qFvgt}nu P9 }r ~j{ }w n { vg9 K, ms2u 4{ u
o;vgur} vg}wv|Vn=ng|~q tp { qt}w|4v 9 uvgo =n vg} 9~ qt} n E { vg9 V ms2u
v
4{& uo*vgur} vg}wv
|Vn=ng|~q tp { qt}w|4v o2n=n uvgo =n vg&| FK
xz |4v qt=n u9o;vgur} vg}wv|Vn=ng|~q tp { qt}w|4v9fuwv { }r ~ gnuwvg 4{ guwv {# }r ~ |
qFvg 4{& vgtnur^} uTn v {K un vgtn }nfv nu 9 un {K{ }rys9} ~ q 4{ nqtt}w| 4{Tx
S&e A = 2 0
4 5
0
1
0
?&e A = 1 0 0
1
S&e
~
0 0 0
0 0 c
A3 = 1 0 b
o2ntqt}w|~s9unV0jB1s 4{ qta ks
uo;vgur} vg}wv |Vn=ng|~q tp { qt}w|4v 4{
() = 3 a2 b c.
3q|
2X4>2 S:th )6 798 S>hh

fg?&e
~
1
1
0 0
1 1
0 0
A4 =
2 2
2 1
o2ntqt}w|~s9unVj1Bs 4{ 1qt 1
ks 0uo;vgur}
vg}wv |Vn=ng|~q tp { qt}w|4v 4{
2 ( 1)2 .
() =
0 i 0 0
0 0 i 0
A5 =
0 0 0 i
u0vgo =n vg Ai qt0} ~j0 |40vg vynuwvg
fg?&e
4{ o9Fvgo9}wv { = 0 = 1,
x }
1
2
|4vgt 4{ o*v j } ~ q 4{ nuwv { |~qFvg 4{ o9Fvgo9}wv { 1 2 . h v { qt=n
ks unnqtt}û (aij ) n { v|~}n nn A, un|~s2nuKqt2} ~j o;vg 1

}r ~ ynuwvg 4{
}r ~ |~qFvg 4{ uwv { n q 4{&{FXW nun v {4{
S&e }r k qtt}w|Vn x
?&e ms2u 4{K{ sqt=Yn uTn 9 q t} n q
S&e ms2u 4{ (aij )
fg?&e ms2u 4{&{ v uwv { ynuwvg 4{ o9Fvgo9}wv {& |~qFvg 4{ o9Fvgo9}wv {K9 A2
x n A s ndnqtt^} u n n |4v o*vgur} vg}wv |Vn=ng|~q tp { qt}w|4v
() 0 ( c1 ) ( ck ) ,
9 v { qt=n
`s T raza(A)
x n A s ndnqtt}û n n =|4v c 1 do*1vg+ur} vg +}wv c|Vknd=kng.|~q tp { qt}w|4v
d1
dk
ck ) .
q=nu 4{
ks AB = BA.
n V u 4{ o2ng|~}wv ()
9 un { 0 (nqtt}w| c41{ ) n (
v { qt=n!
`s un }r ~j{ }w 9 V 4{ d2 n,+ B,
2
x } (ai ) 4{&{ }r}runn (bi ), v { qt=n
`s (a1 i )2 4 {K +{ }rdk}ru.nn (bi )2 .
v
`s v { jnqtt}w| 4{&{ }r}run 4{ qt} j~j~ u} { v=n j fvK
lV@xz{ j|~} tqF
lylyx v { nqtt}w| 4{ + tprqt}w|Vn { !v + t}rqt}n n { A B qt} ~j~ uwv { } { v {# }r ~
ynuwvg 4{Vx; v { qt=n

ks 4{ q= ung|~}wv n n { o*vgs n
qt=n j{ vg
ng|~}w 9{ }r}runt} n x A B
v
`s s nDnqtt^} uB} tqt}r9u B4{K }nfv nur^} uTn9u
l x z{ |~} tqF
lV@x n V = M (K) A M (K). n T U Hom(V ) 9j } v {
nn
nn
o;vg
d1
dk
S&e zT{ (B)

=n 9AB
nur}ûTn9u ~ qFv | 4{ T
Fvv nu y{ v
ks U(B)
{ } A =4{AB
}nfv BA
4{K }nfv nur}ûTn9u
?&e z{ n 9 Fvv nu { v
`s { } A 4{ }nfv nur}ûTn9u ~ qFv | 4{ U
4{K }nfv nur}^Tu n9u
l~jx }nfv nur}^Tu n(un {{ }rys9} ~ q 4{ nqtt}w| 4{ o*vg 4 }wv 9 s nnqtt}ûs }rq=nt}n
vds nnqtt}^
u vgtqFvgfv nu x
S&e (a ) = 40 05 30
j
i
3 0
2X4 qr6=< h;: 7

?&e
3
2 (1 i)
5
3
3i 2
3
2
3
(1 + i)
2
3(1+i)
2 2
(bji ) =
3(1+i)
2 2
i
3 2
11
6
0
0
1
0
0
0
0 2(1 i)
j
(ci ) =
1
0
0
0
0 vg
nnqtt}
|~} tqFv
o =n 2(1vg
+ur} i) nu|40v o 0|~qFvnunX2n
S&e
lx
3q
û
(1, 0, 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0), e3
4{
= (0, 0, 1)}
4{
{F
{e1 =
1 1 0
1 1
(aji ) = 2
2
0 1
v { qt=n!
`s unD o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w 9 u} { vvgo =n vg&|4v 4{ o |~qFv n
un2n {F e0 = ( 2 , 1 , 2 ), e0 = ( 1 , 2 , 2 ), e0 = ( 2 , 2 , 1 ) 4{
1
3 3 3
(bji ) =
3 3
3
4
17
9
9
1
11
9
9
2
10
9 9
3
1
9
20
9
11
9
3 3 3
l x v { qt=n&un {K{ }rys9} ~ q 4{ n tng|~}wv j4{

S&e nnqtt}û { }r k qtt}w|Vn o tn j | { }r k qtt}w|Vn 94{ o9s k4{9 s n
qt=n j{ vgtng|~}w 9{ }r}runt} n o*vgs ndnqtt}ûDvgtqFvgfv nu x
?&e n0nqtt^} us }rq=nt}nKo tn j | s }rq=nt}n 94{ o9s k4{H9 s nKqt=n j{
vgtng|~}w 9e{ }r}runt} n o;vgs ndnqtt}ûs }rq=nt}n x
S&e nnqtt^} u+ tprqt}w|Vno tn j | + tprqt}w|Vn 94{ o9s k4{B9 s n
qt=n j{ vgtng|~}w 9{ }r}runt} n o*vgs ndnqtt^} u+ tprqt}w|Vn x
, ?
( 7ed
m0no9prqts9uwv
+ #G ? KL*G
2W Y @ ajSVU\VaR
z# |Vno9prqts9uwv { n q t}wvg 4{K{F9j }wuwvP
ks {F~ qt} ~j9 o;vg0s q ~j{ vg
|4vVynt}n q v o;vg
s |4vgq ~j{ vg ~ V, k4{ q 4{ s nXqt=n j{t vgtng|~}w
~
g
V
n 9 { unqt=n j{t vgtng|~}w 4{ 9}rur} j nu 4{ qFv 4{ 4{ ur} j nu ~
g|Vn : n
Vs
V
K,
v 9 uwv { ntys9 ~ qFv { nu 4{ o2ng|~}wv
|~qFvgt}nu vgtn vo*vg 4{ qFv { vg@ qFv {
uwv { }rB*vgur}ûTn v { o*vg T 0, 2 (V ).
z# 2n {F nBun 9j }w|~}w
ks {= +9^} uVvDo2n=nBuwv {0 u ~ qFv {K9 T 0, 2(V ) o;v 9
v { vg {F tyn%

`s s n RJ Z F?@J]H@EoEGFJ#D,H@E4{ s l q ~j{ vg ~ V, vs l |4vgq ~j{ vg
~ V
u yx x vgtn vo*vg k4{ qFv {K{ }r;vgur^} uTntuwv|4vg v T 0, 1(V ).
}rys9} ~j v 4{ q vg 9~
9 } 9 n { 9j }r v { s z
Q DXJgxX@ DJ Z @UVHF?H@JQ D v
sz
Z TQ DJgxX%DJ V |4vg ves nqt=n j{ vgtng|~}w T : V V V V K, un
|
{z
}
|~s2nun 9 {4{ s9urqt}rur} j nu 4{9 |~}rV 4{ ur} j nu ~ |Vn ns v r veces
9{ s { ntys9 ~ qFv {
4{ qFv 4{
F T (v , v , . . . , v ) K
FF T 4{ Bs9urqt}rur} j nu 4{ qFv 4{ { } w
~ qFv | 4{
1
V,
|4v
1sr
a1 , a2 K,
T (v1 , v2 , . . . , a1 ws + a2 vs , . . . , vr )
= a1 T (v1 , v2 , . . . , ws , . . . , vr ) + a2 T (v1 , v2 , . . . , vs , . . . , vr )
T1
T1 + T 2
T 4{ q= 9j } v {D~
2
4| vg v
V
V} K,
| {z
{F
9jj un { s9n 9
r veces
(T1 + T2 )(v1 , v2 , . . . , vr ) = T1 (v1 , . . . , vr ) + T2 (v1 , . . . , vr )
uo9Fv sj|~qFv 9 s 4{ |Vnun
aK
o*vg
T1
|4vg v
(aT1 )(v1 , v2 , . . . , vr ) = aT1 (v1 , . . . , vr )
u| Fv 9 uwv { |4vgq ~j{ vg 4{&~
V,
|4vg v
v j9 u| Fv 9 un 9 |,+2n 4{K u 4{ |Vnun&| Fv x

n v { n 9 {
`s un { s9n 9
ujo9Fv sj|~qFvo*vgs
4{ |Vnun
unBqt=n j{ vgtng|~}w | Fv|4vg v s Q9jT 1} + n@T 24,{ |Vn nDs n 9Q urun { s |4vgq aT
~j{1vg
~ V.
0(v1 , . . . , vr ) = 0
313
31q
s 4 2 7 :t 7
Q v { qt=ng|~}w
n o2ntqt}r 9
z u} |~} { v F{F |~s9o9u o2n=nd|Vn ns n 9 un { qt=n j{ vgtng|~}wv j4{ D
{ s 9 j }w|~}w x
ts 2n 9PFF
n=nun { s9n * n s yn ~ q w V, |4v 1 s r, n9o ur}d
`s v {
nDun t n n 9 |~qFvg 4{&9 V, 4{ qFsv 4{
T +T
1
(T1 + T2 )(v1 , . . . , a1 vs + a2 ws , . . . , vr )
def
n
`s
}rys2nun
{ v qt=n j{ vgtng|~}wv j4{ s9urqt}rur} j nu 4{ 4{ q=n ru qt}rn o9 4{ }w 4{
= T1 (v1 , . . . , a1 vs + a2 ws , . . . , vr ) + T2 (v1 , . . . , a1 vs + a2 ws , . . . , vr )
T1
T2
= a1 T1 (v1 , . . . , vs , . . . , vr ) + a2 T1 (v1 , . . . , ws , . . . , vr )
+ a1 T2 (v1 , . . . , vs , . . . , vr ) + a2 T2 (v1 , . . . , ws , . . . , vr )
o9s 4{ qFv
ks q ~j v { un { s9n 9 |~s2nqtFv 4{ |Vnun 4{ uwv { o;v 9 v { |4v s9q=n
nyts9o2nV=
ks 4 n j v
= a1 [T1 (v1 , . . . , vs , . . . , vr ) + T2 (v1 , . . . , vs , . . . , vr )]
+ a2 [T1 (v1 , . . . , ws , . . . , vr ) + T2 (v1 , . . . , ws , . . . , vr )]
= a1 [(T1 + T2 )(v1 , . . . , vs , . . . , vr )] + a2 [(T1 + T2 )(v1 , . . . , ws , . . . , vr )]
`s
T1 + T 2
4{ s |4vgq ~j{ vg 9
V.
3
Z('~U`R^`_b^`_ba2\`x
lyx Fvg2n
`s e uo9Fv sj|~qFvo;vgs 4{ |Vnun unDqt=n j{t vgtng|~}w | Fv9 { v
|4vgq ~j{ vg 4{&~
x~ } ~j v ~ |4v jV.{ } 9 =ng|~}w uwvn q t}wvgV(o9Fvg2np
ks H2nvun { vgo =n
|~}wv j4{ n q 4{e9j } n { u#|4v s qFv 9 |4vgq ~j{ vg 4{e~ V 4{ s yx xHx
}w.| +jv yx x2{Fe{ }r;vgur^} uTndo;vg 0, r
vgn j v|4vg v2n {F un 9j }w|~}w 9T s (Vn ). s |~}wv nuur} j nuo;v 9 v {B9j }r
s nqt=n j{t vgtng|~}w
`s 0 v { n j n 9 ~ n no*vg
o2n=n
qFv n V v V n 9 {&{ } , V V K,a , a K v() (v)
1
v(a1 1 + a2 2 ) = (a1 1 + a2 2 )v = a1 1 v + a2 2 v
= a1 v(1 ) + a2 v(2 )
q=n v {
9e4{ q + |.+jv o;v 9 v { } @ t}r v { v4{ s9urHomV
e s V = V
e s n { p|4vg vuwv {B u ~ qFv {D9 V {F } 9~ qt} |Vn |4v uwv { l q ~j{ vg
|4vgynt}n q 4{Q~ v l |4vgq ~j{ vg 4{Q~ V ; uwv {& u ~ qFv {9 V {F } 9~ qt}
q ~j{ vg|4vgqt=n4ynt}n q 4{e~ v l |4vgqt=nq ~j{ vg 4{~ V ; v
|Vn |4v uwv {l V,
9} ~ |4vg vs l q ~j{ vg0|4vVynt}n q ~ V V,
vs l |4vgq ~j{ vg ~ V ; 9
o ~j } ~j v 9 |4vg vBuwv} q to9 q v { {= =eunen j =n 9&{ }r;vgur^} uTntuwv9
4{ qFv 4{ ~4{ q |Vn { v
T 0, 1 (V ) = T 1, 0 (V )
s 4;35A :>b 7 :t
3 151
z{ q + |,+jv v { o t}rq q ~j ynt}n { nurq nqt}ryn { q=nu 4{ |4vg v # vgtn

s fv { o9Fv sj|~qFv { q ~j{ vgt}nu 4{ js v 9e uruwv {&{F tpn u 9
} 1 2
1
2
2 1 uH|~s2nu(|4vgt 4{ o;v j9 tpn
nDs vgo =n vgVjvgqtVFv {= tpnv V, [ v] = (v )
} v , v V 1 2 V q ~j v {
ks
1
(v1 v2 )(1 , 2 ) = v1 (1 )v2 (2 )
|4vgt 4{ o;v j } ~j v uo2no u 9e4{ q o9Fv sj|~qFv q ~j{ vgt}nunDs |4vgq ~j{ vg ~ V .
nu;ntys9 ~ q=ng|~}w uno;v 9 v { q ~j9 o2n=neuwv { |4vgq ~j{ vg 4{ v |4v qt=n
q ~j{ vg 4{~ V, un 9j }w|~}w 9 s |4v qt=nq ~j{ vg ~ V {F } @2 D9 uwvn q 4{
o9un q n v x
Uf#H_h^k_h*x 0&" Z @J]QIHQ DXJgxX@KDXJ i v
s q ~j{ vg|4v qt=n4ynt}n q j 4 {
s
no vw
`s ~ pn nu V . . . V V K n 9 {K uno v 4{ ur} j nu ~
|
{z
}
|Vn d
n s v 9{ s { &ntys9 ~ qFv r{Tx veces
mvgo2n=n j vun 9j }w|~}w 9 s |4vgq ~j{ vg ~

q ~j{ vg ~ V, v {
`s un 9 s |4v qt=nq ~j{ vg ~
s |4vgq ~j{ vg ~ V .
V
V
|4v un 9 s |4v qt=n

4{
`s9}rynu ~ q nun 9
z# un {F |4|~}w M
i x j 9j }r v { u2vgo =n vg s2nu*v|4v s9`n v9/
`s o;v 9 v {
~j =nur}ûTnQ|4vg v { }rys w
mv j{ } 9 v { A Hom(V, W ) {F n W , ~ qFv | 4{{ } v V, qt} ~j
{F~ qt} vun o9 4{ }w (A(v))
`s 4{ s 4{ |Vnun xj }r v { uKvgo =n vg A
4 }n q (A )v = (A(v)),
4{ qFv v { } }rq=nno ~j{ nw
ks
ks A Hom(W , V ) ~ un s yn vgq=ng|~}w (A) T 0,(A1(V)) AV
Y+
0, 1
0, 1
Hom[T
vg (W
v ),n jTvg=n(Vs )].
|4vgq ~j{ vg ~ W, T, {F n {v , . . . v } V A

r
o;vguwv!
`s {A(v ), . . . , A(v )} W, o;vgq=n 1 qFv T (Av
Hom(V,
W
),
1
r
1 , . . . , Avr )
4{ s 4{ |VnunK9} ~9j } v9 4{ |~t}r9} ~j v
F{ qt} ~j&~ qFv | 4{

ks (A T ) T 0, r (V ) s9qt}rur}ûTn j vun { s9n 9 |4vgq ~j{ vg 4{
~ W, v {K n v { |~s ~ q=np(r)
ks A 4{ ur} j nuj n v {
T )(v , . . . , v ) = T (Av , . . . , Av ),
(A(r)
1
r
1
r
(r)
[A(r)
(T1 + T2 )](v1 , . . . , vr ) = (T1 + T2 )(Av1 , . . . , Avr )
= T1 (Av1 , . . . , Avr ) + T2 (Av1 , . . . , Avr )
= (A(r)
T1 )(v1 , . . . , vr ) + (A(r)
T2 )(v1 , . . . , vr )
A(r)
(T1 + T2 ) = A(r)
T1 + A(r)
T2
312
s 4 2 7 :t 7
[A(r)
(aT )](v1 , . . . , vr ) = (aT )(Av1 , . . . , Avr )
= aT (Av1 , . . . , Avr ) = a(A(r)

T )(v1 , . . . , vr )
Z('~U`R^`_b^`_ba9 Fvg2n!
ks
v { qt=n v { `
s { }
Q v { qt=ng|~}w 2 n
= B A .
(AB)(r)
(r) (r)
A(r)
(aT ) = aA(r)
T
A(r)
Hom(T 0, r (W ), T 0, r (V ))
T ) T 0, r (V ).
(A(r)
B Hom(V, W )
T T 0, r (W )
o*vgKq=n qFv {F |~s9o9u `

s w
(B(r)
T ) T 0, r (V )
A Hom(W, U ),
S T 0, r (U )
~ qFv | 4{
o*vg&uwvw
`s
(A(r)
S) T 0, r (W )
[(AB)(r)
S](v1 , v2 , . . . , vr ) = S[(AB)v1 , (AB)v2 , . . . , (AB)vr ]
= S[A(Bv1 ), A(Bv2 ), . . . , A(Bvr )]
= (A(r)
S)(Bv1 , Bv2 , . . . , Bvr )
= [B(r)
(A(r)
S)](v1 , v2 , . . . , vr )
(AB)(r)
(S) = B(r)
(A(r)
S)
(AB)(r)
= B(r)
A(r)
|4v qt} s2ng|~}w v { s tq }ro;vQ { ~j =nug

`s |4vgt 4{ o;v j9 nu9|4v | o9qFv
9 q ~j{ vg x
Y Uk\Va2RU`\
U`(H_b^`_bx DJgxX(4{ s nqt=n j{ vgtng|~}w s9urqt}rur} j nu
`s ~@
pn uo9Fv sj|~qFvQ|Vntq 4{ }n v ~j =nur^} uTn v 94{ o2ng|~}wv { |~qFvgt}nu 4{H{ vg9 T uk} { v
|Vno;v9 ~
4{ qFv 4{
v j9 uwv {4{ o2ng|~}wv { |~qFv
t}nu 4{ V v K;{ v j | 4{ nTt}n: V~1 q V2 } ~ q 4V{ n ~
q ~K,
j } k~j v {F uns9urqt}rur} j nur} n
|4vg vBuni ur} j nur} n ~ |Vn nBs v 9{ s { ntys9 ~ qFv { ~{ prB*vguwv { q ~j v %
{
4{ s q ~j{ vg { }`|~s9o9u |4v un { v { |4v j }w|~}wv j4{
{ }rys9T} ~ :q 4V
{ 1 V
2 Vn K
e }o2n=n v1 V1, v2 V2, . . . , vn Vn T (v1, v2, . . . , vn) K.
F9F0 }n 9 { w V a , a K, |4v 1 s n
s
T (v1 , v2 , . . . , a1 vs + a2 ws , . . . , vn )
= a1 T (v1 , v2 , . . . , vs , . . . , vn ) + a2 T (v1 , v2 , . . . , ws , . . . , vn ).
31s
s 4 qB2 7 :th 7
gq 4{F
ks un 9 }w|Vn }r ~ |~}n
`s o*v j v {0{ vg9 uwv {4{ o2ng|~}wv { |~qFvgt}nu 4{
ks qFv v {{FK~ |~s ~ qt=n 9j } v {{ vg9 K u2} { vB|Vno*v9 4{ qFv ~ |~} tq=n
4
{
V
vgtn v {( }w|
ks u@q ~j{ vg T 4{ nurfvlk
s nu9ng|~qts2n { vg9 ~j n n {#9 |~qFvg 4{
9 } ~ q 4{4{ o2ng|~}wv { |~qFvgt}nu 4{ v { n j nn 4{ |Vnun 4{ 4{ |4vg v { } s =nQs n
@
ks9} ndqtt}rqts9=n vg=npk
s qFv vduwv |4v } tq ~ s nd} { n|4v { n x
i
v1 V 1
{ }
Tv
{ v v { q ~j{ vg 4{9j } v {
~
9j }r v { un { s9n
S
V2 , . . . , v n Vn ,
V 1 V2 V n
{ }
(T + S)(v , . . . , v ) = T (v1 , . . . , vn ) + S(v1 , . . . , vn )
a K,
1
n
9j }r v { uo9Fv js |~qFv
(aT )
|4vg v
(aT )(v1 , . . . , vn ) = aT (v1 , . . . , vn ).
v { qt=n v {
ks S + T = T + S.
`s
(S + T )(v1 , . . . , vn )
=
=
def
Z('~U`R^`_b^`_ba,x h v { qt=n
ks { }
e
e
S(v1 , . . . , vn ) + T (v1 , . . . , vn )
T (v1 , . . . , vn ) + S(v1 , . . . , vn )
(T + S)(v1 , . . . , vn )
S+T =T +S
T, S
{ v q ~j{ vg 4{9j } v {~
V1 V 2 V n
a(bT ) = (ab)T.
(T + S) + R = T + (S + R).
v { qt=n v { n|4v qt} s2ng|~}w

ks D{ } T S { v v { q ~j{ vg 4{9j } v {e~
4{ q=n9} k~ s q ~j{ vg x
V1 V 2 V n , T + S
Q v { qt=ng|~}w 9 vg 9 v { qt=n
ks
F + S)(v1, . . . , vn) K uwv |~s2nu {F |~s9o9u 9o*vg 9j }w|~}w 9{ s9n
9 q ~j{ vg (T
4{Tx
FF (T + S) 4{ s9urqt}rur} j nu x0 n a1, a2 K n 9 { ws Ws, |4v
q ~j v {~ qFv | 4{
ks
1 s n,
(T + S)(v1 , . . . , a1 vs + a2 ws , . . . , vn )
= T (v1 , . . . , a1 vs + a2 ws , . . . , vn ) + S(v1 , . . . , a1 vs + a2 ws , . . . , vn )
= a1 T (v1 , . . . , vs , . . . , vn ) + a2 T (v1 , . . . , ws , . . . , vn )
+ a1 S(v1 , . . . , vs , . . . , vn ) + a2 S(v1 , . . . , ws , . . . , vn )
= a1 (T + S)(v1 , . . . , vs , . . . , vn ) + a2 (T + S)(v1 , . . . , ws , . . . , vn )
`s (T + S) 4{ s9urqt}rur} j nu x
vg&unDo9ts 2n 9wFMFF + v {&9 v { qt=n v
ks
4{ s q ~j{ vg 9j } v ~ V V
(T + S)
1
Vn .
3 15|
s 4C2 7 :t 7
Z('~U`R^`_b^`_bax Fvg2na
`s (aT ), |4v a K T s q ~j{ vg 9j } v ~
4{ s q ~j{ vg 9j } v ~ V V V .
V1 V 2 V n ,
1
2
n
n
ks e uno v O : V V V K n vdo;vg
Fvg2n v { Yn +jvg=w
i4{ |Vnun&| Fv j vi 1Vi, i =2 1, . . . , n.n 4{ s q ~j{ vg x
O(v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ) = 0
ks
F O(v1, v2, . . . , vn) = 0 K, uwvd|~s2nu 4{0 } 9~ q 9 un 9j }w|~}w 9Dx
F9F O 4{ s nqt=n j{ vgtng|~}w Bs9urqt}rur} j nu x n w V |4v 1 s n
s
a1 , a2 K.
def
O(v1 , . . . , a1 vs + a2 ws , . . . , vn ) = 0 = 0 + 0
= a1 O(v1 , . . . , vs , . . . , vn ) + a2 O(v1 , . . . , ws , . . . , vn )
3
(Z '~U`R^`_b^`_bax Dz# 2n {F nun { vgo =ng|~}wv j4{ n q t}wvg 4{ qFvgn j v ~ |4v j{ }
=
g
n
9 |~}w nu q ~j{ vgV( v { qt=n
ks uK|4v s qFv 9 q ~j{ vg 4{ 9j } v {
{ vg9
vgtn s 4{ o2ng|~}wv |~qFvgt}nu x
V1 V 2 V n
u 4{ o2ng|~}wv |~qFvgt}nu 9 uwv { q ~j{ vg 4{&9j } v {Q~ V V V {= u
1
2
n
}{ rB*vgur^} uTno*vg V V V
n
1
2
n T S v { q ~j{ vg 4{
ks 4{ q= 9j } v {~ V V V ,
4{ o |~qt}rgn ~ q {=9jjD u ]5@1 Z QSaQ 2DXJgxX@F?H@E T r S
W
W
|4v 1 v 2V w = Wq |4vg v
i
(T S)(v1 , . . . , vr , w1 , . . . , wq ) = T (v1 , . . . , vr )S(w1 , . . . , wq )
v { qt=nK
ks uo9Fv sj|~qFv q ~j{ vgt}nu 9
ks
4{ s q ~j{ vg 9j } v ~
V1 V 2 V r W 1 W 2 W q .
F (T S)(v , . . . , v , w , . . . , w ) K, uwv|~s2nu {F } @2 9 un 9j }w|~}w

9 o9Fv sj|~qFvq ~j{ vgt}nu x
FF
4{ s9urqt}rur} j nu x9z{ q=n 9 v { qt=ng|~}w qt} ~jQ v { o2ntq 4{ s n
`s
qt} ~j k
s (T &|4S)v undBs9urqt}rur} j nur} n 9 T vgqt=n|4v un 9 S.
s9o;v `n v { k
s } { q u V |4v 1 k n, a , a K o;vgKuwvw
`s
1
(T S)(v1 , . . . , vr , w1 , . . . , wq )
def
= T (v1 , . . . , a1 vk + a2 vk , . . . , vr )S(w1 , . . . , wq )
= [a1 T (v1 , . . . , vk , . . . , vr ) + a2 T (v1 , . . . , uk , . . . , vr )]S(w1 , . . . , wq )
= a1 T (v1 , . . . , vk , . . . , vr )S(w1 , . . . , wq )
+ a2 T (v1 , . . . , uk , . . . , vr )S(w1 , . . . , wq )
= a1 (T S)(v1 , . . . , vk , . . . , vr , w1 , . . . , wq )
+ a2 (T S)(v1 , . . . , uk , . . . , vr , w1 , . . . , wq )
9 n j =n { }r}run {F o9ts 2nuns9urqt}rur} j nur} n 2o n=nuwv { ntys9 ~ qFv {

9 un
9 |.+2n x mv 4 { qFv {F9 s 4{ qt=n
ks T S 4{ s q ~ j{ vg 9j } v ~ V V
1
V r W1 W2 W q .
s 4 qB2 7 :th 7
31
3
Z('~U`R^`_b^`_bax rh v { qt=n
ks &{ } T T { v
v { q ~j{ vg 4{9j } v {0~ V
S S { v v { 1 q ~j{ vg2 4{9j } v {~ W W W1 ,
V2 V
,
R 4{ s rq ~j{ vg 19j } 2 v ~ U U U ; ~ qFv | 14{Q{F 2|~s9o9u ~ uqn {
1
2
p
{ }rys9} ~ q 4{ }rys2nu n 94
{
e (T + T ) S = T S + T S .
e T (S + S ) = T S + T S .
e (aT ) S = T ) (aS ) = a(T S ) a K.
f e T (S R) = (T S ) R.
gq 4{F k
s vqt} ~j{F~ qt} vBo9 ys q=n { } u*o9Fv sj|~qFvBq ~j{ vgt}nu 4{
1
q=nqt}rfv99o9s 4{
T1 S 1
V1 V r W 1
4{ q=ntpn 9j } v {~
S1 T 1
W W
W
q
1
4{ o |~qt}ryn ~ q yx
}
qFv | 4{
~
q ~j{ vg ~ 1 V V1 V, 2 V 2 ,V. . . , n kvo*Vvg k ,
1
|4v
|4v Bs
V1 V r
1 2 k
4{K u
(1 k )(v1 , . . . , vk ) = 1 (v1 ) k (vk )
v1 V 1 , . . . , v k V k
|4v
Uà2RUkXPx
}
~ qFv | 4{
D(V ) s n 2n {F9
k,
qFv v { uwv { o9Fv sj|~qFv { {eq i~j}{ ivg=1
t}nu 4{ i i Vr, i r vg=t1,n . .s . , n
2n {F o2n=n
uwv { q ~j{ vg 4{9j } v {~ V V V , v j9 {i }i =1 4{ une2n {FQ s2nu
1
2
k
D(V )
9 {e }D(V ) .
i i =1
Q v { qt=ng|~}w s 4{ qFv
ks i V , 4{ qFv 4{ i 4{ s q ~j{ vg 9j } v
v
`s i i i {rv q ~j{ vg 4{&9j } v {~ V V
~ V , 4{ |~unF
r
Vn k . s q ~j{ vg 9j } v ~
} xyx T (v , v , . . . , v ) |4v
T
V1 V2 V k ,
1 2
k
2
o

n
=
n
9
o
s
F
q
v
k
s
4
i2
i1
,
.
.
.
,
v
=
vkik eik
e
,
v
=
v
e
v|4i v Vis9,n}rio9=
1,
.
.
.
,
k,
v
=
v
k
urpw|~}rq=n 9 i 9l n D(v )1 {F qt} 1~j i1 2 2 i2
{
r
r
T (v1 , v2 , . . . , vk ) = T (v1i1 ei1 , v2i2 ei2 , . . . , vkik eik )
o;vgKvgqt=ndo2ntq { n v { k
s
= v1i1 v2i2 . . . vkik T (ei1 , ei2 , . . . , eik )

ir (ejr ) = jirr
`
s
4{ q 4{ s9urq=n v v {K }w| k
s
ir (vr ) = ir vrjr ejr = vrjr ir ejr = vrjr jirr = vrir
T (v1 , v2 , . . . , vk ) = i1 (v1 )i2 (v2 ) ik (vk )T (ei1 , ei2 , . . . , eik )

= Ti1 i2 ...ik (i1 i2 ik )(v1 , . . . , vk )
T = Ti1 i2 ...ik i1 i2 ik
3 15
uwv%
ks
s 4C2 7 :t 7
s 4{ qt=n%
`s uwv { o9Fv sj|~qFv { q ~j{ vgt}nu 4{9 un vgtn i i
i
|~s v / Fv 4{ }rys2nu*n (D(V ))(D(V )) (D(V )), ~j =n
u 4{ o2ng|~ }wv 9 uwv { ,
k
q ~j{ vg 4{&9j } v {&~ V V 1 2 V .
1
2
k
n=n v { qt=nBun} j9 o ~j9~ |~}nur} j nu vgt v {D uq ~j{ vg| Fv 9j } v
~ V V V |4vg vun |4vg9} ng|~}w ur} j nu
1
0 = ci1 i2 ...ik i1 i2 ik
~ qFv | 4{
0 = 0(ej1 , ej2 , . . . , ejk ) = ci1 i2 ...ik i1 i2 ik (ej1 , ej2 , . . . , ejk )
`s qFv n { un { |4vvg 9~ n n {&9 uq ~j{ vg { v | Fv9 4{ qFv 4{
= ci1 i2 ...ik ji11 ji22 jikk = cj1 j2 ...jk
s 4{ Fq vl
ks 04{ q= ~j =n { v x x uwv { (D(V ))(D(V )) (D(V )) o9Fv
sj|~qFv { q ~j{ vgt}nu 4{9 un vgtn i i 1i vgt2n s n2n {Fk9 uwv {
q ~j{ vg 4{&9j } v {&~ V V V .
cj1 j2 ...jk = 0
con jr = 1, . . . , D(Vr ) y
1
r = 1, . . . , k.
mvg vs |4vgFvgunt}wv

} 4 }nqFv9;un }r ~j{ }w 9 uwv { q ~j{ vg 4{e9j } v {e~
nu|4v s qFv 9 q ~j{ vg 4{
4{
V
)){ }rB
*(D(V
)),vg
1 ))(D(V
2{
k o;
u
g
v
r
u
^
}
T
u
n
F
{
91j } V v2 {e~ V VVk (D(V

V V , u
V
V
1
2
k
1
|~s2nuqt} ~j4{ qttsj|~qts9=n 9Q4{ o2ng|~}wv |~qFvgt}nu uwvurunn v { o9F2v sj|~qFvq ~j{ kvgt}nu
9 uwv {K4{ o2ng|~}wv { V , V , , V .
1
2
k
+jvg=n v { 4{ qt} y}r v { nuwv { q ~j{ vg 4{9j } v {D~ V V V
v
k2s o;v 9 v n{
v j9 |Vn ns v 9 uwv { V |4v 1 i n { v V v V 4 o9s 41{ qFz
i
} q to9 q=ndn v V |4vg vs X u ~ qFv 9 V , q=nu
`s { s ng|4|~}w { vg9 s
u ~ qFv 9 V v { n j nn K 6 x
s9o;v `n v {
ks 4{ q= 9j } v ~
~ v j9
no2n | r | 4{Q V Tno2n | s | 4{ ;n r V+1 s=Vn2 {F u |4v Vvn| , |4vg v
=n fVv
9 uq ~j{ vg t ~4{ q |Vn { v {FB }w|
ks uq ~j{ vg 4{ r | 4{ |4vTgnt}n q D s | 4{
|4v qt=n4ynt}n q yx
s 4 qB2 7 :th 7
31
Z('~UkX]Hiba\fx
lyx mv j{ } 9 v { |4vg v o9uwv u 4{ o2ng|~}wv V V V V V,
`s
|4v j{ q=n 9 uwv { q ~j{ vg 4{09j } v {~ V V V V V , uwv { |~s2nu 4{
{ v "9 =n fv @ | 4{ |4vTgnt}n q 4{ | 4{ |4v qt=n4ynt}n q 4{Vxe }
~ qFv | 4{H{F o9s 494{ |~t}r9}r T = T i i i i
T V V V V V,
i
i
=
q

n
u
&
`
s
e e i e
2 3
i2
i3
i5
T (ej1 , j2 , j3 , ej4 , j5 )
= Ti1 i2 i3i4 i5 i1 ei2 ei3 i4 ei5 (ej1 , j2 , j3 , ej4 , j5 )

= Ti1 i2 i3i4 i5 ji11 ij22 ij33 ji44 ij55 = Tj1 j2 j3j4 j5
} {e0 }n 4{ vgqt=nd2n {Fe9 V, ung|~}wv n n |4v {e }n ndqt=n4 k4{9

unnqtt}ûi i=1
ys9un (cj ) : e0 = cj e , ~ qFv | 4{d{ } { ij }i=1
j=1 4{D{ s 2n {F
j
i
i
i
s2nu ~ V , {= qt} ~j
`s j = cj e0 v j9 (ci ) 4{ un} n { n 9 (ci ).
z q k t} v {9 un { 2n {F4{ o9t}rkkn n { `s q ~jj{ vg T
`s 4{ q k&~ V j
{=e4{ |~t}r9}r=
V V V V
0
T = Ti1 i2 i3i4 i5 i1 e0i2 e0i3 i4 e0i5
T i1
i2 i3 i5
i4
= T (e0i1 , i2 , i3 , e0i4 , i5 )
= T (cji11 ej1 , cij22 j2 , cij33 j3 , cji44 ej4 , cij55 j5 )
= cji11 cij22 cij33 cji44 cij55 T (ej1 , j2 , j3 , ej4 , j5 )
=
cji11 cij22 cij33 cji44 cij55 Tj1 j2 i3j4 j5
x n urunKunD ung|~}w
`s e } { q e~ qt un { |4vkvg 9~ n n {Q9 uwv { q ~j{ vg 4{ T
S, 4| v un {K9 aT + bS T S x
n T S q ~j{ vg 4{e9j } v {~ V V V V V o;vgQuwvz
ks d{ }
4{ s n2n {FD9 V {j }i=1 { s2n {FD s2nu ~ V , q ~j v {
ks un {
{ei }ni=1
|4vvg 9~ n n {&9 T S {F =
Tn i i i S i i i o*vguwvw
ks
2 3
i1
i4
2 3
i1
i4
(aT + bS)(ei1 , i2 , i3 , ei4 , i5 )

= aT (ei1 , i2 , i3 , ei4 , i5 ) + bS(ei1 , i2 , i3 , ei4 , i5 )
= aTi1 i2 i3i4 i5 + bSi1i2 i3i4i5
urunn j v
aT + bS = R,
q ~j v { k
s
Ri1i2 i3 i4i5 = aTi1 i2 i3i4 i5 + bSi1i2 i3i4i5
|4v {e }n s n2n {FB9

T V V V V , S V V V V,
s
2
n
2
s

n
u
q
v
k
u
n
{
F
{

{ |4vvg 9i ~i=1
n n {Q9 T S
j }j=1
,
V
{
V
n
{F = `
3S2,
s 4C2 7 :t 7
(T S)[i1 , i2 , ei3 , ei4 , ej1 , j2 , ej3 , j4 )]

0
= T (i1 , i2 , ei3 , ei4 )S(ej1 , j2 , ej3 , j4 )
= T i1 i2i3 i4 Sj1j2j3j4
urunn j v
T S = R,
q ~j v { k
s
Ri1 i2i3 i4 j1 j2j3 j4 = T i1 i2i3 i4 Sj1j2 j3j4

3
m v j{ } 9 =n v { nY+jvg=ns q ~j{ vg 9 qt=n { | ~j9~ |~}n ~ p { }w|Vn x n V s

s n
2n {F vg
yx x;9 }r ~j{ }w j }rq=n|4v s o9Fv sj|~qFv} q t}wvg x n
n
qFv vgtnuQo2n=n V, { } v , v , . . . , v { v n |~qFvg 4{9 V,{ei|V}n i=1
ns v 9 uruwv {
{F o9s 494{ |~t}r9}r |4vg v 1 v 2 = vj en, |4v i = 1, . . . , n. j }r v { u0no v
i
4i }jn q
: V V V K,
{z
n veces
(v1 , . . . , vn ) = det(vij )
} ~j v det(vj ) u 9 q t} n q 9 unenqtt}û vgtn ne|4v un { |4vvg 9~ n n {9

|Vn n
s v 9 iuwv { vj |4vguwv|Vn v {e~ u#vg 9~~
`s d{FD~ |~s ~ qt=n uwv { |~qFvg 4{
~ un n ada x i un { o9Fvgo9} 4 n 94{D9 uwv {9 q t} n q 4{D{=94 sj|
ks
4{ qFv 4{ 4{ s n |4vgq ~j{ vg ~ V.
V V ,
|
{z
9 {
n veces
v ={ na
ks 1 24{ n qt} i{ }r k tq t}wj|4v9 ~ 2on ntqt}w|~s9un
|~qFvgno2n | o qt} v x
9
(v , v , . . . , v , . . . , v , . . . , v ) = (v1 , v2 , . . . , vj , . . . , vi , . . . , vn )
|~s2n j vnur
(v1 , . . . , vn ) = 0
n { |4vkvg 9~ n n {9
4{ q= n n { o*vg
i1 in = (ei1 , . . . , ein )
1
1
0
j
e i1 = i1 e j
=
v j9
i11
2
ix 1
= det xx
in1
i12
i2x 2
in2
xx
xx
i1n
i2x n
xx
n
in
n o ts9q=ng|~}w 2o n 9il x4x4x j

4{ s D
}{ (i(i1 ,, .. .. .. ,, iin )) 4 { s D
n o ts9q=ng|~}w r} o2n 9pil x4x4x
1
n
{ }7nur 9{ s99p j }w| no2n | o qt} v
{}
Q{ s2nur ~ q B{Fe9jj u { prB*vguwv
{}
4{
1 { } (k1 kn ) 4{
1
k k k =
{ },(knur1 9 k{ ns9)9p j
0
1 2
|4vg v
9 &DUF9LoF9UFIQSH
k k k
s ndo ts9q=ng|~}w o2n 9il x4x4x j
s ndo ts9q=ng|~}w }ro2n 9pil x4x4x
}w| no2n | o qt} v
1 2
s 4 1N.X 4 9 < 4H ~~ 7
v { n { p]
ks ~ une2n {= vgtqFv vgtnu {e } qt} ~j
{ prB*vguwv {&9 } m}rk}rq=ndo;vguwvpk
s
n
i i=1
3S2X3
o;vg|4vvg 9~ n n { uwv {
= i1 i2 in i1 i2 in
v j9 {j }j=1 4{ und2n {=e s2nu 9 unD2n {F vgtqFv vgtnu {e }n .

n
i i=1
Z('~U`R^`_b^`_bax h v { qt=n
ks d{ } 0 n 4{ vgqt=n2n {F9 vgtqFv vgtnuv v9
ung|~}wv n n|4v {e }n 4 }n q{e ie}0i=1= cj e , ~ qFv | 4{ 4V,{ o |~qFvn 4{ q=n s g n
2n {F un { |4vkvg 9~ n in {i=19 4{ q= n i n { o;ivg j
i01 in = j1 j2 jn (det(cji ))
Y b(_hHPDP '~P9HPUM~(_h^Ù`\
} 4{ s 4{ o2ng|~}wv |~qFvgt}nu nu 9 }r ~j{ }w j }rq=n|4v s o9Fv sj|~qFv
} q t}wvgV { nV v {
ks { so9Fv sj|~qFv} q t}wvg 4{ s q ~j{ vg ~ V, ys9un
{ }r k qtt}w|4v9 g, u|~s2nu} j sj| s } { vg vg 2{ v I : V V , n vo;vg
g
(Ig (v))w = g(v, w)
w V, con v V,
z{ q } { vg vg 2{ v v { o t}rq 9j }r s fv { q ~j{ vg 4{ no2ntqt}r 9 vgqtFv { { }

|4v
~ qFv | 4{
{ }
T
o, *vgw,0uw)
vP
ks R,T (v, w,v,I w(u)) 4V{ q=B9} ~9Vj, } v ut
4{ vgqtFVvD |~qFVvg 9 V,V, I (u) VT(v,
{ }&Yn +jvg=n 9j }r v { T g(v, w, u) = T (v, w, I (u)) gv {
`s { } a , a K
g
u1 , u 2 V
T (v, w, a1 u1 + a2 u2 ) T (v, w, Ig (a1 u1 + a2 u2 ))

= T (v, w, a1 Ig (u1 ) + a2 Ig (u2 ))
= a1 T (v, w, Ig (u1 )) + a2 T (v, w, Ig (u2 ))
= a1 T (v, w, u1 ) + a2 T (v, w, u2 )
4{ qFv 4 { jnDo2ntqt}r 9 T V V TV V+ v V{ |4v jV{ qtts9} v T V V V .

(Z '~UkX]Hibax h v { qt=n
`s { } n 2n {F 9 V {j }j=1
4{{ s2n {F
n
~ qFv | 4{
s2nu ~ V , |4v T V V{e i}i=1
V
T V V V;
`s
T ijk = Tij r gkr
T ijk = T (ei , ej , ek ) = T (ei , ej , Ig (ek ))

= Ti1 i2i3 i1 i2 ei3 (ei , ej , Ig (ek ))
= Ti1 i2i3 i1 (ei )i2 (ej )ei3 (Ig (ek ))
= Ti1 i2i3 ii1 ji2 g(ek , ei3 ) = Tiji3 g(ek , ir3 er )
T ijk = Tij r gkr
3S2,q
s 4C2 7 :t 7
3
n j =n { }r}runV2o9s 4{ qFv
ks I 4{ s } { vg vg 2{ v9 } { q I 1 : V V,

q=nu
`s { } T V V V, T g(u, v, ) |4v u, v V g V 4{ q=9} ~
|4v V ,
9j } v90urunn j vv"+2ng|~} ~j v
1
)
q ~j v {
`s T 4{ q=d9} ~9j T} (u,
v9o;,vg)
Kuwvp=
ks T(u,
{ } aIg, a(),
1 , 2 V ,
1 2 R,
|4v I ( ) = v I ( ) = v ~ qFv | 4{
g
T (u, a1 1 + a2 2 , ) = T (u, Ig1 (a1 1 + a2 2 ), )

= T (u, a1 Ig1 (1 ) + a2 Ig1 (2 ), )
= T (u, a1 v1 + a2 v2 , )
= a1 T (u, v1 , ) + a2 T (u, v2 , )
= a1 T (u, Ig1 (1 ), ) + a2 T (u, Ig1 2 ), )
= a1 T (u, 1 , ) + a2 T (u, 2 )
s 4 2( :t.>hh;t~ 2 7 :th 7
9T V V V
4{ qFv 4 { jnDo2ntqt}r 9 T V V V, |4v j{ qtts9}r v { T V V V.

(Z '~UkX]Hibax & } {ei}ni=1 4{ s n2n {=D9 V {j }j=1
{ s2n {Fd s2nu ~
n
v { qt=n!
`s T jk = T k gjr
Q v { qt=ngi |~}w ir
jk
3S2 1
3
V ,
= T (ei , j , k ) = T (ei , Ig1 (j ), k )
Ti
= Ti1 i2i3 i1 i2 ei3 (ei , Ig1 (j ), k )

= Ti1 i2i3 i1 (ei )i2 (Ig1 (j ))ei3 k
= Ti1 i2i3 ii1 i2 (Ig1 (j ))ik3

= Tii2 k (Ig1 (j ))i2 = Tii2 k g(j , i2 )
= Tii2 k g(j , ri2 r ) = Tii2 k ri2 g(j , r ) = Tir k g jr
z{ qFv v { o t}rq o*v j
Ti
jk
= Tir k g jr
3
Ti jk = Tirk g jr
Ti jk = T rsk gir g js
gkm
4{ q o9Fvk| 4{ v {F u urunTin kxg=CF?TTHKs gC5irH5XgHT)H
/D\9J]@F Z Dx
Y a**SVRP9^f^k_h*HUUk\Va2RU`\
z( } { q vgqt=nvgo =ng|~}w ~ qt q ~j{ vg 4{ (urunn nZ JQIH Z,Z F?@J un|~s2nu
|4v j{ } { q e~ } { } s9}r u=n fv 9 uq ~j{ vg ~ v { s } n 94{ 9 n v {
}
4{ s nB2n {Fe9 V {j }j=1 4{{ s2n {F
{ei }ni=1
F
q
v
s2nu ~ T VV, { } v VVV V,
~
| 4{ T (v, i , e , ) 4{ q=n9} ~X9j } v t

V ,
i
9
o
s
F
q
v
`s q ~j v { p j }w| 4{
{ }Qn 9 { +2ng| v { S(v, ) def
i
4
{
i
, ) s9n }rys ynur}
}rys2nu 4{ ntt}r2n n2ntv9 s 4{ qt==n|4Tv (v,
~ |~,}we i
9
{
{
~j v j v {
ks e{ } a , a , b , b K; v , v V , V
j
r m
js
S(a1 v1 + a2 v2 , b1 1 + b2 2 )
= T (a1 v1 + a2 v2 , i , ei , b1 1 + b2 2 )
= T (a1 v1 , i , ei , b1 1 + b2 2 ) + T (a2 v2 , i , ei , b1 1 + b2 2 )
= a1 T (v1 , i , ei , b1 1 + b2 2 ) + a2 T (v2 , i , ei , b1 1 + b2 2 )
= a1 T (v1 , i , ei , b1 1 ) + a1 T (v1 , i , ei , b2 2 )
+ a2 T (v2 , i , ei , b1 1 ) + a2 T (v2 , i , ei , b2 2 )
= a1 b1 T (v1 , i , ei , 1 ) + a1 b2 T (v1 , i , ei , 2 )
+ a2 b1 T (v2 , i , ei , 1 ) + a2 b2 T (v2 , i , ei , 2 )
3S252
s 4C2 7 :t 7
= a1 b1 S(v1 , 1 ) + a1 b2 S(v1 , 2 ) + a2 b1 S(v2 , 1 ) + a2 b2 S(v2 , 2 )
S VV
~ u2o9 4{F~ q |Vn { veo9s }r v { +2n |4v qt=n} v ujo9t}r D{= ys j vBntys9 ~ qFv9
v uo9t}r Fv u|~s2ntqFv9vd9} ~ uq F| Fv u|~s2ntqFv x
n {e }n s n2n {F9 V, {j }j=1 { s2n {F s2nu ~ V T V
i i=1
v
`s e{ } V , vn V, ~ qFv | 4{ T (e , , v, i ) 4{ q=9} ~
V o;vgKuww
V
V
i
9j } v o;vgun 9j }w|~}w n q t}wvg
S(, v) = T (ei , , v, i ) = Ti1 i2i3 i4 i1 ei2 i3 ei4 (ei , , v, i )
= Ti1 i2i3 i4 ii1 ei2 ()i3 (v)ii4 = Ti
= Ti
j i
k (ej
k )(, v)
i2 i j
i3 k
i3 i2 ej ()k (v)
4| v { s9nD}ro9urpw|~}rq=n { vg9 i)
o;vg 4{ q + |.+jv 9 |~}r v {
ks |~s2n j v ~ un o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w d9 s q ~j{ vgHno2n | ~
p j }w| 4{ o qt} v { ntt}r2n n2ntv9 k4{ qFv {{F |Vn | un } { } s f~j v u2=n fv 9 u
q ~j{ vg ~ v { s } n 94{ { } ~j v u s fvq ~j{ vgD|4vgo2n=n v|4v u0vgt}ry} nu
s nD u ~ v { |4vVynt}n q s nd ue ~ v { |4v qt=nVgnt}n q yx
v
ks { }
z# un { {= |4|~}wv j4{ |4vgt 4{ o;v j } ~ q nvgo =n vg 4M
{ i @x @x j {F k}w
4{ s ne2n {FK9 V {j }j=1 4{{ s2n {F s2nu ~ V , q=nu
A Hom(V ) {ei }ni=1
ks A(ei) 0 aji ej , un o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w 9 A ~ q k tn} v {H9 o9Fv sj|~qFv { q ~j{ vgt}nu 4{
4{ q= n no;vg A = aj e i , { } 2ntfv9o*vgBun } { |~s { }w + ,| +2n ~ 4{ q
|Vno9prqts9uwv94 v {
`s n i s j4{ qtFvKvgo =n vgq=nB9} k~ uwv0o;v 9 v { o9 4{F~ q=n(|4vg v
s q ~j{ vg 9j } v ~ V V, 4{ qFv 4{ T
ks A V V , u
ks o;v n v { +2ng|
n
ks
4{ qFv9 {=e9 w
{ v } { vg vg v {Vx
n A |4vg) vVq ~j{ vgV 9j } v ~ V V, uwK
v +2ng| v {e9 un
n=n} q to9 q=nBHom(V
4{ s 4{ |Vnun9} ~9j } v9
{ }rys9} ~ q vgtn { }

q ~j v { s no v 9 V V V vK,V, (Av)
n v o;vg (, v) (A(v)), u|~s2nu

ks 4{ q=n urqt}rnn tng|~}w 4{
4{ 9}rur} j nu xH 9 tn|4vg v F|~}w|~}wv 9 v { qt=n
|~} tq=n x
& |~pro9Fv|Vn ~ q { } T 4{ s q ~j{ vg 9j } v ~ V V, {F n w V, q=n]u
ks
o2n=nqFv n
v
ks 4{ 9}rur} j nu
tv x2 s 4{ qFK

T (,
9 o ~jv)9 =ur} j(w)
nur ~ q B9 V, 4{&9V|~}rV vunVo v 9 V ~ V n Tvo;vg I(v) = ww
4{ ur} j nu x
(Z '~U`R^`_b^`_ba2\
lyx nurun u} { vg vg 2{ v nqts9=nu ~ qt V W Hom(V, W ), v j9 V
W { v 4{ o2ng|~}wv { |~qFvgt}nu 4{Q{ vg9 s } { v|Vno*v x
x q ~j{ vg T V V , 9j } v ~ V V V , v j9 |Vn n
s v 9 uwv {e4{ o2ng|~1}wv { V , V .k. . , V 4{ s yx 1x vgt2n v ik9 }r ~j{ }w
j }rq=nv v j { vg9 R v 1 C,2 4{ ng|4vgkq=n v { } } { q M R, o;v { }rqt}rfv9q=nu
ks | T (v , . . . , v ) | M k v k . . . k v k, ~4{ q |Vn { v 9 |~}r v {

ks M
S = Ti
j i
k (ej
k ) , (
s 4 s 2 7 :th 7# >b4,>b 7
3S2 s
4{ s n|4vgq=ndo2n=n up @ v 9 un { |4vgq=n {K9 i{ } 4{ ng|4vgq=n v j {=

u uru nnun vgtn T.9 T {F&9~ vgq=no*vg k T k, kTT k 4T{ u ) FvD {
o
ks XW vq=nu$
`s | T (v , . . . , v ) | k T k k v k . . . k v k.
k
h v { qt=n
ks e{ } T 4{ ng1|4vgq=n v9 k~ qFv | 4{ 1
e k aT k = |a| k T k
e kT + S k kT k + kS k
e k T S k k T kk S k
f e } k T k = 0 }ro9ur}w|Vnw
`s T = 0
@x n V s yx x9 }r ~j{ }w Dj }rq=n { vg9 R |4v s o9Fv sj|~qFv&} q t}wvgV u
|~s2nu { n v {4{ s |4vgq ~j{ vg ~ V, { }r k qtt}w|4v ys9un x2 n {e }
s n2n {F vgtqFv vgtnu 9 V {= n {
{ s2n {F s2nu ~ V , { }
}
v { qt=n!k
s un { |4vgo*v j~ q 4{e9 T ~ und2n {FB n n {F
T
o9s 49T~ o*(V
v j),&|4vg v
e T =g g T
e T =g g T
j j=1
n
0, 4
ijkr
i r
jk
n
i i=1
ls
jl rs i k
li
sr
ks lj
;Y U\Ta2RU`\ihSVU`RgPj*SVUk\
k |4vgq ~j{ vg T ~ V {F }w|
`s 4{H@EQ DJ#H@JQ Dpi v|4vgo9u q=n ~ q
n qt} { }r k qtt}w|4v j { }|Vn9}n 9 { }r v|~s2n j v {F } q F|Vn9}n v {9 { s { ntys
~ qFv { 4{ qFv 4
{
T (v1 , . . . , vi , . . . , vj , . . . , vk ) = T (v1 , . . . , vj , . . . , vi , . . . , vk )
|4v v , v , . . . , v V ; o;vgq=n qFv T (v , . . . , v ) = 0 |~s2n j vnurys v 9 uwv {

ntys9 1~ qF2v { no2n k | o tq } v9 nw
ks e{ } 1u i k4{ }r k v 4{ }rys2nunu j k4{ }r v

T (v1 , . . . , vi , . . . , vj . . . vk ) = T (v1 , . . . , vj , . . . , vi , . . . , vk )
o Fv w
n
ks T 4{ nurq n q
`s
T (v1 , . . . , vi , . . . , vj , . . . , vk ) = T (v1 , . . . , vj , . . . , vi , . . . , vk )
T (v1 , . . . , vk ) = 0.
uQ|4v s qFv 9 uwv {

k |4vgq ~j{ vg 4{ nurq n q 4{~ V uwv 9~ vgq=n v { o;vg
Q + |,+jv9 k (V ) 4{ s D{ s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv 9 V V . n=n|4vgo9Fvg2n
k (V ).

ks k 4{ | t=n v2nvun { s9n unBs9urqt}ro9ur}w|Vng|~}w o*vg
4{ qFv2n { q=n
4{ |Vnun 4{ 9j } n {B~ (VV) V , n v { qFvg v { T, S k (V )
{z
}
|
k veces
F
q
v
|
~
{

a K,
|
{z
k veces
(T + S)(v1 , . . . , vi , . . . , vj , . . . , vk )
= T (v1 , . . . , vi , . . . , vj , . . . , vk ) + S(v1 , . . . , vi , . . . , vj , . . . , vk )
= T (v1 , . . . , vj , . . . , vi , . . . , vk ) S(v1 , . . . , vj , . . . , vi , . . . , vk )
= (T + S)(v1 , . . . , vj , . . . , vi , . . . , vk )
3S2 |
s 4C2 7 :t 7
(aT )(v1 , . . . , vi , . . . , vj , . . . , vk ) = a[T (v1 , . . . , vi , . . . , vj , . . . , vk )]
= a[T (v1 , . . . , vj , . . . , vi , . . . , vk )]
= (aT )(v1 , . . . , vj , . . . , vi , . . . , vk )
uwp
v
ks Bs 4{ qt=nK
`s
qtt}r}nur ~ q nurq n Tq +j x S
aT k (V )
i vg {F t
ks u ` |4vgq ~j{ vgQ| Fv
4{
n {e }n s nD2n {F9 V, ~ qFv | 4{{ } v , v , . . . , v V, uruwv {{F o9s 49~

v v = vj e v j9 vj K i |4v 1i =21, . . . , kk j = 1, . . . , n), o*vg
4{ |~t}r9}rQ|4vgi i=1
i
q=n qFv { } T ki(V ) i j
T (v1 , . . . , vk ) = T (v1i1 ei1 , v2i2 ei2 , . . . , vkik eik )
= v1i1 v2i2 vkik T (ei1 , ei2 , . . . , eik )
94{ q Q94{ ntFvguruwvd v {

ks Q{ } k > n, ~ qFv | 4{ T (v , v , . . . , v ) = 0, n
`s
~ |Vn nes v 9 uwv { ng|~qFvg 4{ T (e , e , . . . , e ) nu ~ 1 v { 2s v 9 kuwv { e no2n |
o qt} v9yo9s 4{{ vgun ~ q +2n n i9& i uruwv { } i ~ q 4{Vxkz{9 |~}r { } T ik (V ) |4v
v k
o2n=n
~ qFv | 4{
k > D(V
n=n ),k = n } { q ~T =|4vgq0,~j{ vg4{ (Vnurq ) = n{0}
q 4{0 } k~>q 4n.{9 | Fv9`s v 9K uruwv {
4{K uq ~j{ vg 9j } v ~ un {F |4|~}w n q t}wvg x
1
UPx 0 } D(V ) = n, ~ qFv | 4{ D(n(V )) = 1 x

o*vguwv
`s
Q v { qt=ng|~}w n
n=n
ks
n
v { qt=nw
`s |~s2D(
nud
`s9} (V
9 + ,| +jv D(n(V )) = 1,(V2)n 6={ q=n{0},
d))o2n> 90.@ |4vgq ~j{ vg 4{
nurq n q 4{~ V { v ur} j nur ~ q B9 o ~j } ~ q 4{Vx
n {e }n s ne2n {FQ9 V, { } T n(V ), ~ qFv | 4{0{ } (v , v , . . . , v ) V
|4v v = vji ei=1
{F qt} ~j
`s T (v , v , . . . , v ) = vi vi vi T1(e 2, e , . .n. , e ),
,
i
j
o Fv 9 9} ivB
n
`s T 4{ nurq n 1 q 2 T (e , ne , . . .1, e 2 ) = n i T (ei , . . . , ei ),
1
n
o;vguwvdq=n qFv T (v , v , . . . , v ) = i vi i vi vii T (e i, .i. i
.
,
e
).
1
n
1
2
n
i
i
i
n
2
1
} 4{ vgqtFv @ |4vgq ~j{ vgnurq n q ~ qFv | 4{{F qt} ~j o2n=nun|4vg9} n
|~}w ur} jS nu [T (e , . . . , e )]S [S(e , . . . , e )]T i und|~s2nuq=n9} k~ o tq ~j | n
1
1 2
n
n
1 2
n (V ))
{[T (e1 , . . . , en )]S [S(e1 , . . . , en )]T }(v1 , . . . , vn )
= i1 in v1i1 vnin {[T (e1 , . . . , en )]S [S(e1 , . . . , en )]T }(e1 , . . . , en )
= i1 in v1i1 vnin {T (e1 , . . . , en )S(e1 , . . . , en ) S(e1 , . . . , en )T (e1 , . . . , en )}
=0
uwv ks s 4{ qt=n ks und|4vg9} ng|~}w ur} j nu [T (e , . . . , e )]S [S(e , . . . , e )]T
1
n
1
n
4{ }rys2nuHnu @ |4vgq ~j{ vg&| Fv x
z u { }rys9} ~ q u n 4{ q=n9u | s n&o |~s9ur}nt} n 9 uwv { |4vgq ~j{ vg 4{ nurq n q 4{

9 = n f v}rys2nuHndun D(V ).
s 4 s 2 7 :th 7# >b4,>b 7
UPx n T n(V ), } ~ q .9 u @ |4vgq ~j{ vg| Fv9
{ } { guwv { } u|4v s qFv {v , . . . , v } 4{ ur} j nur

T
1
n
o ~(vj1 ,} ~. . .q yx vn) = 0
Q v { qt=ng|~}w
s9o;v `n v {
`s , . . . , v } 4{ ur} j nur ~ q 9 o ~j } ~ q
nurys =
|~}w 1 ur} j nnu 9 uwv {
ks no2n | ~ n q 4{
ks
v 9) uruwv {e4{ |4vgB9} ng{v
|Vno9prqts9uwv l j }r`n v { v = Pi1 aj v , o*vgKuwvdq=n qFv
3S2
~ qFv | 4{
~ q 9
~ qFv | 4{
Pk u i
j=1
T (v1 , . . . , vn ) = T (v1 , . . . , vi1 , vi , vi+1 , . . . , vn )

i1
X
= T (v1 , . . . , vi1 ,
aj vj , vi+1 , . . . , vn )
j=1
i1
X
aj T (v1 , . . . , vi1 , vj , vi+1 , . . . , vn )
j=1
nP
ks
= 0
no2n | o qt} v ~ T (v , . . . , v , v , v , . . . , v ).
vj
1
i1 j i+1
n

n
=
n
9
o
F
g
v
2

n

n
r
}

9
o
r
u
w
}
V
|
g
n
~
|
w
}
q
t
q
}
9
v
{

F
{
~
{ s9o*v `n v {
`s
= ) 4{ ur} j nur ~ q } j9 o ~j } ~ q yxz{ qFv { }r } |Vn
ks
4{
(v
vn )
s 1n, .2. n. {=,
9 V, { } T (v , . . . , v ) = 0, ~ qFv | 4{ o2n=n|~s2nu 4{
ks9} {v
=1n , . . . , v|~nqFvg} 4{
1
n
}
{
{F qt} ~j
ks w

j
w , . . . , w V, w = w v
1
i j
T (w1 , . . . , wn ) = w1i1 wnin T (vi1 , . . . , vin )
= i1 in w1i1 wnin T (v1 , . . . , vn )

= 0
urs fv
4{& u @ |4vgq ~j{ vg&| Fv9j|4v qt=nt}wvnDun +9}ro;gq 4{ } {Vx
{= qt} ~j s no v
A Hom(V ),
(A(k) T )(v1 , . . . , vk )
qt} s2ng|~}w v { qt=n v {

`s
, nP
ks { } T k (V ) {F qt} ~jp
vk V.|4v
A(k)
T (Av1 , . . . , Avk ),
k veces
A(k)
o2n=n
k (V )
z
}|
{
Hom V V
k veces
z
}|
{
T V V
n veo;vg
v1 , . . .
4{ s { s9 4{ o2ng|~}wve} ynt}n q 2nv
(A(k) T )(v1 , . . . , vi , . . . , vj , . . . , vk ) = T (Av1 , . . . , Avi , . . . , Avj , . . . , Avk )
uwvw
ks s 4{ qt=n
`s
= T (Av1 , . . . , Avj , . . . , Avi , . . . , Avk )

= (A(k) T )(v1 , . . . , vj , . . . , vi , . . . , vk )
A(k) T k (V ).
3S2
s 4C2 7 :t 7
z# o2ntqt}w|~s9uno2n=n
4{ s no vur} j nu 9 n (V ) ~ { }9} { v x
qFvgn v { nur 9 T n(V ) } ~ q 9 | Fv9
s 4{ qFv
`s D[n(V k)]==n,1, A{ }y(n)
|~s2nud
ks9} u ~ qFv 9 n ) 4{ s urqt}ro9uwv 9 T. +jvg=n A T n(V ),
(n)
o;vguwvdq=n qFvo*v 9 v {K4{ |~t(V
}r9}r A T = aT
} S 4{ vgqtFv @ |4vgq ~j{ vgQnurq (n)n q S = bT |4v b K, ~ qFv | 4{
4{9 |~}r A S = aS(n)o2n=nDqFv (n)n S n(V )(n)i u} { v a, } j9 o ~j } ~ q ~ q

9 u @ |4vgq ~j(n){ vg[
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(A(n) S)(e1 , . . . , en )
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= i1 in ai11 ainn S(e1 , . . . , en )
o Fv
(A(n) S)(e1 , . . . , en ) = aS(e1 , . . . , en ),

det (aij ).
o*vg&uwvp
`s
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UPx 0 }
S n (V ).
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~ qFv | 4{
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0
2
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z{ qFv 4{ |~unFv n
ks (AB) S = det(AB)S, o Fv (AB) = B A ,
(n)
(n)
(n) (n)
o;vgq=n qFv
(AB)(n) S = B(n)
(A(n) S) = B(n)
(detA)S
= (detA)B(n)
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det(AB) = (detA)(detB)
3
}
4{ q=nuo
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v
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q=nu 4
{ i |Vno9prqts9uwv Tj x
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s 4 ok: ?>9: E6 D h> h;:t
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Y ZibUkXUk*SVaUcea*ibHU
n V s yx x;9D }r ~j{ }w j }rq=n i }rys2nun nj { vg9 R |4v s o9Fv
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9~ vgq=n v { o*vg g.
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9z
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~ ~j
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ks (v , . . . , v ) v
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2 1 e3 , . . . , e n }
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iuww
v i=1
`s e9jj |4vgo9u q=n ~ q nuvgo =n vg C. z# qFv | 4 {

e0 = Ce ,
(e1 , . . . , en ) = 1.
} v , . . . , v V, (v , . . . , v )
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n=n +21nurun
s9qt}rur}ûTn v { unB|4v j }w|~}w 9 k

s
)(e , . . . , e ) = det C.
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1
n
nu t
det C,
ji
v j9 + v {&4{ |~t}rqFv
s fv
ib nP
ks
(e01 , . . . , e0n )
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= g(e0i , e0j ) = g(Cei , Cej ) = g(cki ek , clj el )

i
= cki clj g(ek , el ) = cki clj kl = ct k ckj

cei = cji ej
(ct )ij
4{ undnqtt}ûqt=n j{ o9s 4{ q=n 9
1 = det(ji ) = det[(ct )ik ckj ] = [det(cij )]2
vd9} ~
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j
;
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g
v
w
u

v
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n
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n n x 4{ q= 9j } n ~ qFv | 4{ s n ul
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|~qFvg 4{~
vg v {
|4v j{ } 9 v { u
no v 9 V ~ R nn vD1o*vg w (w,Vv , :. . .v,1v, . . . ,).vn1
9, } vdnuns9urqt}rur} j n
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),
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u)
g
g
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9j } n ~
uV
1
n1
v1 ,...,vn1
n1
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s 4C2 7 :t 7
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Q DFI(9
u n 9~ vgq=n v { o;vg v Ig . . . v . qt} ~j~ qFv | 4{ v . .v.1,. .v. , vn1=
1
n1
o;vgq=n1 qFv g(v n1
. . . vn1 , u) 0 (u, v1 , . . . , vn1 ).
Ig1 (v ,...,v ),
1
|4v
Uf#H_h^k_h*x n s 4{ o2ng|~}wv |~qFvgt}nu { vg9 9 }r ~j{ }w
s o9Fv sj|~qFv} q t}wvgV Vg, {F n s u ~ qFv 9 fvgRurs9 ~ n { v|~}n vn n,g. }
u(o9Fv sj|~qFv q t}wvg 9 v , . . . , v 9~ vgq=n vo;vg v
v1 , . . . , vn1i9
V,
ng|~s v nDunDvgt} ~ q=ng|~}w n nD1o*vg j n1
4{ @n
`s u; |~qFvg ~ V 1q=nu
.
k.s . vn1
w
o2n=ndqFv n u V.
g(v1 . . . vn1 , u) = (u, v1 , . . . , vn1 )
z uo9Fv sj|~qFv q t}wvg 9 v , . . . , v 4{ s |~qFvgvgtqFvgfv nunqFv v { uruwv {
1
n1
n
ks w
P

o2n=n t i = 1, . . . , n 1
g(v1 . . . vn1 , vi ) = (vi , v1 , . . . , vn1 ) = 0
o;vg,
`s v no2n | o qt} v x
qt=n { i o9Fvgo9} 4 n 94{e9 v . . . v {FB9 t}ryn }r |~q=n ~ q 9 un {9
n1
n1
ks w
e z uo9Fv sj|~qFv q t}wvg 4{K } { qtt}r9s9qt}rfv9 4{ qFv 4{ k
s
e
v1 . . . (aui + bwi ) . . . vn1

= a(v1 . . . ui . . . vn1 ) + b(v1 . . . wi . . . vn1 )
z uo9Fv sj|~qFv q t}wvg 4{ nurq n q 4{ qFv 4{ k

s
v1 . . . vi . . . vj . . . vn1
= v1 . . . vj . . . vi . . . vn1
e
z{ ur} j nur ~ q B9 o ~j } ~ q 4{Q9 |~}r
4{ xdx
1 , . . . , vn1 }
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} {e }n 4v{ 1 s .n. .2n {Fv n1
4{ |~t}r9}r v { v = vi e
i i=1
1
1 i
{F
j
k
i
v2 = v2 ej , . . . , vn1 = vn1 ek ,
qt} ~j o2n=ns |~qFvg u = ul e nt9}rqtv=1nt}wv . . . vn1 = (v1 . . . vn1) ei,
l
o;vgq=n
n1
ein1 )
g((v1 . . . vn1 )i ei , uj ej ) = (uj ej , v1i1 ei1 , . . . , vn1
in1
i1
i
j
j
(v1 . . . vn1 ) u g(ei , ej ) = u v1 vn1 (ej , ei1 , . . . , ein1 )
in1
i j
j i1
nt9)}rqtu=ngt}wijv = u v1 vn1 ji1 ...in1
qFv92o9s 4(v{ qF1v `s . . .u4v{ n1
4{ unnqtt}û} { n 9
i
n1
(ej , ei1 , . . . , ein1 )
(v1 . . . vn1 )i gij = v1i1 vn1
vs9urqt}ro9ur}w|Vn j vo;vg gjk , v j9
`s 4 n j v
g g jk = k ,
ij
(g jk )
4{d9 |~}r
i1
jk
in1
q=ng|~}w 9j } nBo;vg
} ~ o2ntqt}w|~s9(vun1 {e. .}.n v4n1
{ vgt)qFv =vgtgnu ji ...iqt} ~j vu1nBvgt} ~v n1
i
i=1
i4{K9 |~}r (e , . . . , e ) > 0j ~ qFv | 4{ g = ,
0 ,
1
(gij )
ij
(v1 . . . vn1 ) =
n1
ij
ki1 ...in1 v1i1
j1 j2 ...jn
in1
vn1
j1 j2 ...jn
3s3
s 4 ok: ?>9: E6 D >hh;:t
v {= n
ks uwv { |4vgo;v j~ q 4{9 v . . . v 4{ o |~qFvBns n2n {F vgtqFv vgtnu
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9 un { nqtt}w| 4{ (n 1) (n 1) `
s {= vg9qt} ~j~9
1
v11 v21
v2 v2
xx 1 xx 2 x x
x
x
x
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o n1
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ks
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v1 . . . vn1
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lyx n*8 e = (1, 0, 0) , e = (0, 1, 0) , e = (0, 0, 1) 9 s n2n {F vgtqFv vg
nu 9 1V {j }j=1 { 2s2n {F s2nu ~ 3 V t { } T V V V n v
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1
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0
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v 9 v { |~qFvg 4{ o;vgun 4{4{ s X4{ |Vnun% n 9 Fv aib v|Vn9}n 9{ }r vnu
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q=n qFv ~
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ks e a1 { v z 9 }w|4v {Vx
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urunn v u @/DJ`)DE]@
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4{
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lyx =nq=n j v uqt} o;v|4vg vBs n|~s2ntq=nB|4vvg 9~ n n@|Vn n% ~ qFv Q 4{ q=
94{ |~t}rqFvo*vgun { |~s2nqtFv|4vvg 9~ n n { |Vntq 4{ }n n {
x0 = ct, x1 = x, x2 = y, x3 = z
3 s5s
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un
|4vvg 9~ n n x3 vgqt=n ~ un |~s2nu { guwvdyntpn x0.
z4{ q=n { }r |4|~}wv j4{ o*v 9 v { |4vguwv|Vn uwv { |~qFvg 4{
4{ o |~qt}ryn ~ q yx; } {1 , 2, 3 , 0 } 4{ s n2n {Fe s2nu e 1u,q e~2j,{ evg3 e0

{= urunn Q DJgx}@OXQIF Z
z{ |~t}r9} ~j v = i j , {FB~ |~s ~ tq =n
ks u n { |4vkvg 9~ n n {
9 u |4vgq ~j{ vg 4{ q= ij n n {&~4{ q=n2n {F o*vg
= 0 0 + 1 1 + 2 2 + 3 3
1
0
(ij ) =
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
n nqtt^} u j 9 |Vn9}wv 9 2n {F 0 k |4vgt 4{ o*v j9zi o;vg

9j }w|~}w j nds (cndi )qt=n j{t vgtng|~}w 9 vg e~j q5=u { c}j uen k{ , |4vkvg 9~ n n {Q9
~ un s yn2n {FK{ v }rys2nu 4{ nQun { |4vkvg 9~ n n { 9 un2n {F vgt}ry} nu
4{9 |~}rV { } 0 = (e0 , e0 ) { v }rys2nu 4{ n 9ij n j =n o9urpw|~}rq=n@
ij
i j
o9s 4{ qFp
v
`s ij
0
ij
o;vgq=n qFv
= (e0i , e0j ) = (cki ek , clj el )

= cki clj (ek , el ) = cki clj kl
(cji )
|4vgt 4{ o;v j9 nDs ndqt=n j{ vgtng|~}w 9 vg ~ q5u { }

ij = cki clj kl
j n v { Yn +jvg=n uKo9Fv sj|~qFv ~ un vgtns { s2nu { } (ci ) (di )

9jj~ v { qt=n j{t vgtng|~}wv j4{D9 vg ~ q5uf uo9Fv sj|~qFv 9 jurun {4{ jun
qt=n j{t vgtng|~}w n no;vgQunnqtt}ûd|~s v { u ~ qFv {e{ v 9 un vgtn
Yn +jvg=n
bi = c i dk ,
j
k j
r
l m
k r
lm bli bm
= (clk dki )(cm
j
r dj )lm = (ck cr )(di dj )lm
= (dki drj )kr = ij
o;vgq=n qFv uo9Fv sj|~qFv 9 nqtt}w| 4{

ks o9 4{F~ q=n qt=n j{ vgtng|~}wv j4{
9 vg ~ q5uf2 o9 4{F~ q=nvgqt=ndqt=n j{ vgtng|~}w 9 vg ~ q5u x
n vw
ks unBu ~ n { v|~}nqt}ryn {F |~s9o9u o2n=n uo9Fv sj|~qFv 9 nqtt}
| 4{ @o2n=n s 4{ qtFv
|Vn { vdq=n9} k~{F |~s9o9u yx
nnqtt^} u j |~un=n ~ q { nqt} { ng| i i ) 0 (ci )(i ) = (ci )
o tq ~j | nu|4v ( is ) qFv 9 nqtt}w| 4{
`s (o9 j4)(c
{=~j q=n qt=n j j{ jvgtng|~}wv jj4{
n
`s = l m .
9 vg ~ 5q uf P
ij
i j
lm
3 s,
| 4;3`^ 8 :X t 8 : 7]a ^ 8 : :=,>b
vg urqt}r v v { `
s |Vn ns n 9
4{ q=n { nqtt}w| 4{ o;v {F4 s n
} { n@#un|~s2nuq=nB9} ~k o tq ~j | nu0|4v s qFv 9 o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}wv j4{
|4vgt 4{ o*v j } ~ q 4{ nun { qt=n j{ vgtng|~}wv j4{e9 vg ~ q5u x; n v { { } (c )
o tq ~j | n 4{ q |4v s qFv {F qt} ~j `
s = c c , qFvgn j v u
i j kl
9 q t} n q B9 n;v { un v {&{Fe~ ~| s ~ qt=ijn
v [det(cj )] = 1 6= 0.
1 = [det(cji )]2 (1)
i
vguwvq=n qFvunnqtt^} u (cj ) 4{ } tqt}r9u yx~ vgq=n j vo;vg
} { n 9 (ci ) {F qt} ~j ci ck =i ci ck = i , o;vguwvq=n qFv
i
j
k l
k j
k j
(
cij )
un
ij = il jm lm = (clk cki )(cm

rj )lm
r c
= cki crj (clk cm
ki crj kr = ij
r )lm = c
uwv
`s Bs 4{ qt=nw
ks
(
cij )
o tq ~j | q=n9} k~ nu|4v s qFv x
xz ju |4v s qFv 9 vgo =ng|~}wv j4{9{ }r qttpn 9 un& vgu k |~s9un 9 nys2n|4v j{ q=n
unvgo =ng|~}w 9 tn Fnun vgu k
9 un { vgo =ng|~}wv j4{

|~s9un@ |~qts2ns nE, ,
*2 }w0 X~Xc2 ; u#o9un v 9 un Evgu k |~s9un@ 0 |~qts2n
s nB *2 }w ~ u*o9un v tqt}w|Vnu o to ~j }w|~s9unKnu*o9un v 9 un v
u k |~s9un c nur^} uTns nFvgq=ng|~}w o*vg =n }n j4{ nur 494 vg 9 u d9
un vgu k |~s9u2n &x i x j
bcbcb
vgn j v|4vg vevgo =ng|~}w unQ|4vgo*v { }w|~}w

9 qt=n j{ vgtng|~}wv j4{ {F
~ |~s ~ qt=n
EE
E
E 0
Ec2
=
=
=
=
= 0 0 = c2 c2 = E
c2 0 = 0 c2 = E =
0 E = c2 = c2 = 0
c2 E = 0 = 0 = c2
|4v unevgo =ng|~}w 9 |4vgo;v

@n
ks9p
ks u2|4v s qFv
0
} unD} 9~ qt} n 4{
|Vn n
{ }w|~}w vgtnBs yts9o*v n ur}n {E,
v 9, vg ,9c~2
E
u ~ qFv 4{K{ so9Fvgo9}wv} { v xz{ q yts9o;v 4{ urunn v c .
Z('~U`R^`_b^`_bax Bh v { qt=nl
`s uwv {{ }rys9} ~ q 4{ |4v s qFv { |4v unvgo 2v =ng|~}w n n
vgtn yts9o*v
{
ev { vgo =n vg 4{ ur} j nu 4{ s }rq=nt}wv { |4v undvgo =ng|~}w s { s2nu 9 |4vgo;v
{ }w|~}w x
ev { vgo =n vg 4{ ur} j nu 4{ + tprqt}w|4v { |4v unvgo =ng|~}w s { s2nu 9&{ s9n x
Uà2RUkXPx n a G, uno v L 9 G ~ { p} { v n vo;vg
a
4{l n lyx
La (b) = ab,
Q v { qt=ng|~}w mv j{ } 9 v {Q uno v L , ~ qFv | 4{
a1
(La La1 )(b) = La (La1 (b)) = La (a
b) = aa1 b = eb = b
3s
| 4_^ 8 : 7
(L
L )(b) = L
(L (b)) = L
(ab) = a1 ab = eb = b
o*vgq=n Fq vBauwv { nao v { |4vgao9s 4{ qFav { L La

} gk~ qt}w|Vn 9 G { vg9 e{ p} { v9 ~ 4| v ja {F |~s a ~ |~}n
1
La1 La
9 e{F
La
r} }runt ~ q { } 9j }r v {
s
4 { v ns v x
o*vg
Ra : G G
{ v u nBno9ur}w|Vng|~}w
l n yl x
Ra (b) = ba,
4{ q no v
n =ns yts9o*v j }rqFv 4{ s { s2nu neunvgo =ng|~}w 9 u#yts9o*v 4 }n q s n

q=n9un x
a1
ax 2
xx
a1
a21
a2x a1
xx
ah ah a1
a2
a1 a2
a22
ah
a 1 ah
a 2 x ah
xx
ah a2
a2h
~ uK} k4{ }r v ~ yuw no2n | ~ uwv {

u ~ qFv { L (a ), L (a ), . . . , L (a ),
o;vg u 4{ s9urq=n v 9 uq vg nn q t}wvgV ~ |~s2nud
ks9a} 1 ~ yuwa 2no2n | ~ a qFv hv {
uwv {Q u ~ qFv {9 uHyts9o;v { } o qt}w|~}wv j4{Vx }r}runt ~ q ~ une k4{ }rn
|4vgurs9
nno2n | ~ uwv { u ~ qFv { R (a ), R (a ), . . . , R (a ); uwv { |~s2nu 4{D9 ~
nfvgq=nKuwv {& u ~ qFv {Q9 uyts9o*av9 914{=9 aurs f2v { } o a qt}w|~}whv j4{ o;v { }r9u 4{Vx
}r |~q=n ~ q ~ unQq=n9un {F o9s 49 { } u9yts9o;v 4{ n ur}n v9yvg {F tyn j v
{ }unDq=n9un 4{K{ }r k qtt}w|Vnd 4{ o |~qFvnDun }nfv nuo9t} |~}ro2nu x
i
vg o9uwv99o2n=n uyts9o;v
undq=n9un {F tpn
0
c2
c2v
E 0
E 0
E c2
0 c2 E
c2 0
c2
c2
0
~4{ q |Vn { vun

q=n9un 4 {e{ }r k tq t}w|Vn
uHyts9o;v 4{ n ur}n v x 9 { |Vn n u
~ qFv 4{K{ so9Fvgo9}wv} { v nP
ks E n o2n | B~ u n }nfv n uo9t} |~}ro2nu x
Z('~U`R^`_b^`_bax ph v { qt=na
ks { }
n ur}n v x
a2 = e
o2n=nqFv v
a G,
~ qFv | 4{
4{
Z('~UkX]Hibax mv j{ } 9 v { s yts9o*v 9 vg 9~ H|4v u ~ Fq v { a , a

nurys v 9 uruwv {Di{ vgun ~ q s v j 4{d u ~ qFv} 9~ qt} n r} `n v1 {
k2s
a3 ,
unDq=n9un 9 Bs9urqt}ro9ur}w|Vn {= tpn 9 un vgtn
a = e,
1
a1 a2 a3
a1 a1 a2 a3
a2 a2
a3 a3
3 s5
| 4;3`^ 8 :X t 8 : 7]a ^ 8 : :=,>b
z# u {F ys j v ~ yuw
veo9s 49 no2n | s yn ~ q
9 ~
no2n | { vgun ~ q s n fu n {= n
`s {F q ~ `n a , a , aa ,, v aa ,,aa ,, a ; un
o9t}r =nvgo;|~}w vo9s 49{F VHo9s 4{~ qFv | 4{ a no2n | tpn v { | 4{ ~ un
q F| =n|4vgurs9 n@;o2n=n u urqt}r v ~ yuw { vgun ~ q {F o9s 49 q ~j a , a , a
2
undq=n9un 4{0j nur ~ q
a1
a2
a3
a1
a1
a2
a3
a2
a2
a3
a1
a3
a3
a1
a2
vgBq=n qFvqFv vyts9o;v 9 vg 9~9 q ~j 4{ q=nq=n9un 9 s9urqt}ro9ur}w|Vn x

vg 9 |~}rtuwvdn { p { vgun ~ q } { q s yts9o*v 9 vg 9~@x`z{ q yts9o;v 4{ n ur}n v
n 9 { qFv v { uwv {e u ~ qFv {B9 u(yts9o*v {F o9s 49~ vg9q ~j |4vg vo;vgq ~ |~}n {
9 a v a : a 1 = a , a 2 = a , a 3 = a , a 1 = a , a 2 = a , a 3 = a .
ts9o;2v { |4v 34{ q=n 2|Vn=ng|~q1 tprqt2}w|Vn {F 3urun2n |~pw|~1ur}w|4v {&3 |~un=3n ~3 q B{ v 2 n 3 ur}n v 1{Vx
(Z '~U`R^`_b^`_bax & nuruneun { v { o;v { }r9}rur} n 94{ o2n=nunq=n9un 9 s9urqt}ro9ur}w|Vn 9

s yts9o*v 9 vg 9~ d|~s2u 9 urun { |4vgt 4{ o;v j9 un 9 u0yts9o*v c .
z{ nurys v 9 uruwv { |~pw|~ur}w|4v i{ s9 ~ |~}n@#s {F u-+ |,+jv 9
`s ~ s y2vts9o;v
j }rqFv 9 vg 9~ o2nV } { q |~s2n j v ~ v { s u ~ qFv a 6= e q=nu$
`s a2 = e,
n tng|~}w
`s e9 v { qt=n v { o;v { q t}wvgt ~ q j x
Uf#H_h^k_h*x # n vds yts9o*v G, s x=C?@g9 G 4{ s { s9*|4v s qFv 9

s yts9o;v |4v unvgo =ng|~}w ~ G.
{ v B{ } o9 { s99yts9o*v {H9 G, Q{ v urunn v {(xgC? Yx-F9O##FIYx

G {e}
ks e4{
G
#z s yts9o;v j }rqFv9Vo2n=nKs B u ~ qFv a nt9}rqt=nt}wv9un { sj| 4{ }w a, a2 , a3 , . . .

9 4{ q=n 9~ qtFv 9 uyts9o;v9o*vguwv
ks Q9 ~ } { qt}r } ~ q 4{ o;vgq ~ |~}n {9
`s {F n }rys2nu 4{[ an = am, s9urqt}ro9ur}w|Vn j v 4{ q=n}rys2nu n n | 4{ o;vg a1,

a
n
ks e = amn.
{Fe~ |~s ~ qt=p
z up }r v ~ q Fv o;v { }rqt}rfv k o2n=n u|~s2nu ak = e {= urunn u @5)DJ9 a x
v { k u ~ qFv { a, a2 , a3 , . . . , ak = e; vgtn u =DF?Td9 a, } j }w|Vn v
o;vg {a}.
(Z '~U`R^`_b^`_bax ch v { qt=nB
ks e uo t}wv v 9 s u ~ qFv 4{ s { s99yts9o*v n
ur}n v x
z# s yts9o*vBn ur}n v 4{ s { s2nu 4{ |~t}r9}r a + b ~ urs9`n 9 ab, na ~ urs9`n
9 an. z{ qFvD|4vg} |~} 9 |4v un vgq=ng|~}w s { n no2n=nuwv {4{ o2ng|~}wv { |~qFvgt}nu 4{i
ks
{ v yts9o;v { n ur}n v { j x
z# unq vgtpn 9 4{ o2ng|~}wv { |~qFvgt}nu 4{ s n|~un {F unq =nu 9 s X{ s9 4{ o2ng|~}wv
|~qFvgt}nu M, 4{ u|4v s qFK
v
ks {F vg9qt} ~j nu { s9n&s |~qFvg tv nqFv v {
uwv {K u ~ qFv {9 M, nq=nu|4v s qFv {F u e{ }rB*vgur^} uTn o*vg M + u. u
z# s yts9o;vnt9}rqt=nt}wv9 9 9} vnun v|4v Bs9q=nqt}rk} n ~ ~j =nu 4{
j | 4{ nt}wv } { qt} ys9}r ~ qt uwv { |4v s qFv {
ks e{F vg9qt} ~j~ Bs9urqt}ro9ur}w|Vn j v qFv v {
3|
| 4_^ 8 : 7
uwv { u ~ qFv {B9 s { s99yts9o*v H o;vgs u
}û
ks9} nvdo;vgun 9 |,+2n 4 L (H) R (H)6 x
~ qFv v
a G,
n {F no*vgun
~ vgq=n v { o;vg aH nua|4v s qFv aL (H)

ks {F vg9qt} ~j s9urqt}ro9ur}w|Vn j v
qFv v { uwv {D u ~ qFv { 9 u { s99yts9o;v H o;vga a o;vgBun}û
ks9} n@(nu-
ks urunn
v { Z E^HYx}DwEHTQ DHEoFd /FSD5TH }r}runt ~ q Ha {= = u(|4v s qFv R (H)
`s
{F vg9qt} ~j Bs9urqt}ro9ur}w|Vn j vqFv v { uwv {e u ~ qFv {9 u { s99yts9o*v H o;vg aa, o;vgQun
n Z E^HYx}DE^HQ D5H@E)DX5D ZX H
9 .| +2n@ {F =Ds a
mun=n ~ q ~ s yts9o*v n ur}n v aH = Ha i q=nuK|4vg v { sj| 49~ uwv {
v +2n } { qt} |~}w ~ qt |~un {F4{ unq =nu 4{ ^} u
ks9} n {
4{ o2ng|~}wv { |~qFvgt}nu 4{ v j9& %
9 ,| +2n { j x
Uà2RUkXPx D v { |~un {F4{ unq =nu 4{ ^} u
ks9} n M
{ i9 .| +2n { j 9 ~ G, { v
}rys2nu 4{ v vqt} ~j~ u ~ qFv {~ |4vg 9xy& n|~un {F unq =nu@^} u
`s9} H
n i9 ,| +2n j
9 H, |4v qt} ~jD u} { v ) Fv
|Vn } nu 9 u ~ qFv {
ks H.
n +2n
Q v { qt=ng|~}w ; }
v
qt} ~j~ u ~ qFv {e~ |4vg 9 n p
ks o9Fvg2n x9 s9o*v `n v { aHo;vg ubH|4v qt=nt}w v

ks K } { q nur 9 u ~ qFv c |4vg 9
n aH bH, ~ qFv | 4{# } { q ~B v {( u ~ qFv {(9 H, h h , q=nu 4{
ks c = ah =
o*vgQq=n qFv a = bh h1 . n
v
`s H 4{ s { s919yts92o;v (h h1 )H = H1
bh ,
2
2 1
i
2 1
1
aH z =u(bh
h1
= o;bH.
1 )H
n2o h 1v )H
n v
vg h ah 4{ 9 un 9j }w|~}w 9 aH
9 H= b(h
~ 2aH
{ vg9 ~f |~qt}rfv n 9 { } kf |~qt}rfv
o9s 4{{ } qts9k} 4{=~ un} { n}rn ~
4{
9 |~}r { } ah = ah , ~ qFv | 4{ s9urqt}ro9hur}w1|Vn jh 2vo*vg a1 o*vgun} ks9} n
vgKq=1n qFv H 2 aH qt} ~j~ und} { nd|Vn } nur} n x
h1 = h 2 .
2
û
s 4{ qFv
`s e H, ae = a aH ea = a Ha, o*vgeuwva
ks |~s2nud
ks9}
u ~ qFv 9 yts9o;v G o tq ~j | nnurys n|~un {F unq =nu 9 |.+2n nnurys n
|~un {F unq =nu^} u
ks9} n 9 H. { p G 4{ uns }w } { s q=n 9 |~un {=4{ unq =nu 4{
}û
ks9} n
{ i v 9 .| +2n { j 9 |~s2ndu
ks9} =n 9e{ s {&{ s99yts9o*v {Tx
n@Vo;vg o9uwv9 G uk|4v s qFv Z 9 uwv {) Fv {(~ q Fv { |4v un&vgo =ng|~}w
s { s2nu 9{ s9n@ ~ qFv | 4{ G 4{ s yts9o;vn ur}n v 9 vg 9~ } @j }rqFv x
n H = {. . . , 16, 12, 8, 4, 0, 4, 8, 12, 16, . . .}, H 4{ s { s99yts9o;v 9
;
o
vg {F n ur}n v9#un { |~un {F4{ unq =nu 4{ ^} u
ks9} n {9 H { v }rys2nu 4{ nun {
G, .| +2n o9s
9 { t 49 {F
`s e{ vgun ~ q +2n |~s2nqtFv|~un {F4{ unq =nu 4{& } ~ q 4
{
H +0 =0+H =H
H + 1 = 1 + H = {. . . , 15, 11, 7, 3, 1, 5, 9, 13, . . .}
H + 2 = 2 + H = {. . . , 14, 10, 6, 2, 2, 6, 10, 14, 18, . . .}
H + 3 = 3 + H = {. . . , 13, 9, 5, 1, 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, . . .}
4{ un&s pwv D } { s q=n 9 urun { 4{H9 |~}rH|~s2nu ks9} u ~ qFv 9 G o
Gn
vgun q nds n
q=n |~un unq =nu
tq ~j |
nDs
{
~ 9e4{ { {F4{ 4{Vx
a2RaibP9Rg_bax i D5@,DOpH)Dw&H@5H@J/)D j } 4{ s { s99yts9o;v 9 |~s v {
g 9~j4{({ v k h 4{ o |~qt}ryn ~ q ~ qFv | 4{ kH4{H }r} { vg 9 h, u ~ q G,
Fv n = h
k
{F urunn up j }w| 9 H ~ G.
| 4;3`^ 8 :X t 8 : 7]a^ 8 : :=,>b
3|3
Q v { qt=ng|~}w 4{ unes }w 9 { s { |~un {F4{ unq =nu 4{0 } ~ q 4{ ùn {

|~s2nu 4{Q v {F } q {F |~q=n G |Vn n
|~un {F unq H =nuHo;v {F4 k u ~ qFv { ;o*vgQuwvK
ks D u
vg 9~9 uyts9o;v 9 e{F K urqt}ro9uwv 9 uvg 9~9 H.
2
a2RaibP9Rg_bax ( } G 4{ s yts9o;v 9 vg 9~ h, ~ qFv | 4{0 u*vg 9~9 |~s2nud

`s9}
u ~ qFv 9 G 4{ s ng|~qFvg 9 h.
z{ qFv 4{ |~unFv n
ks P@ } a G, uo t}wv v {a} 9 a 4{ s { s99yts9o*v 9
|~s v vg 9~4{ uvg 9~9 a,
`s e9 {F s ng|~qFvg 9 uvg 9~9 uyts9o*v x
G,
a2RaibP9Rg_bax & yts9o;v 9 vg 9~ o9t}r v vQqt} ~jK{ s99yts9o;v { o9Fvgo9}wv {#B9

{F K|~pw|~ur}w|4v x
n v {* } H 4{&{ s99yts9o;v 9 s yts9o*v 9 vg 9~ o9t}r v9 uvg 9~9
{F { s99 urqt}ro9uwv 9 uvg 9~9 u2yts9o;v o*vgq=n qFv { vgun ~ q o9s 49&{=
H
l v}rys2nu#nuvg 9~9 uyts9o;v9 ~ uo9t}r |Vn { v
~ u {F ys j v H
Fvgo9{e}
}wv {Tx
4{K uyts9o;v |4vgo9u qFvuwv { |~s2nu 4{&{ v { s99yts9o;v { }rHo9=
} 4{ s u ~ qFvd|~s2ndu
`s9} =n 9 u*yts9o*v9 { s
o t}wv v
4{ s { s99yts9o*v
o9t}r &|Vn { v a 9
o*vgq=an qFv {a} = {e} v {a} 4{& uyts9o;v |4vgo9u qFv9 u{a}
{F o9 |~} { n ~ q e t o*vgq=n qFv { } a 6= e uyts9o*v 4{ ~j =n vo*vg a.
Uf#H_h^k_h*x & n s yts9o;v 9 G, H 4{ s { s99yts9o*v} gnt}n q v }

} { vg vgtnu { } aH = H
Ha.
mun=n ~ q q=n qFv G |4vg v e { v { s99yts9o;v {i }ro9Fvgo9}wv { j } gnt}n q 4{Vx
}s yts9o;v vdo;v {F4e{ s99yts9o;v { } ynt}n q 4{ o9Fvgo9}wv {&{= urunn { }ro9u yx
z# s yts9o;vn ur}n vqFv v { s99yts9o;v 4{ } ynt}n q yx
v 9 v { +2ng| s nX|4v j{ qttsj|4|~}w |4vgo9u q=n {F Fn q nun 9 u 4{ o2ng|~}wv
|4v|~} ~ q yx
|4v j{ } 9 =n v { u|4v s qFv
} 4{ s s { s99yts9o*vX} ynt}n q 9
|4vgo9s 4H{ qFvo*vg H { s { |~un {F4{ unq =nu 4{ t { } HaG, Hb { v v { |~un {F4{ unq =nu 4{
9 H, 9j }r v { uo9Fv sj|~qFv 9B urun { 4 }n q
(Ha)(Hb) = H(ab), u|~s2nu
4{ q=nB9} k~ s nd|~un {F unq =nu 9 H.

`s
z{ q |4v s qFv|4v 4{ q=nvgo =ng|4 X{F9~ vgq=no;vg G/H, {= o9s 49
4{ s yts9o;v99urunn v Z Z F?DJ]Q D
(Z '~U`R^`_b^`_bax - h v { qt=n!
ks G/H 4{ s yts9o*v9
ks { } uvg 9~9 G 4{ h
u 9 H 4{ k, uvg 9~9 G/H
4{ h/k.
Uf#H_h^k_h*x K n a, b G, b 4{ Z JTHT)d9 a { } } { q c G q=nru
ks
b = cac1 .
Z('~U`R^`_b^`_ba2\`x
3|q
| 4_^ 8 : 7
lyxch v { qt=nl
`s un ung|~}w $x}D Z @JTHTTM)D 4{ s n ung|~}w 9B
ks9}
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xch v { qt=n`
s Q v { u ~ qFv { |4v s9`n v {0~ qt { p { v
9 u*} { vBvg 9~x
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a.
n=n 9 q t} n u ) Fv 9 u ~ qFv { |4vgt 4{ o*v j } ~ q 4{ n0s nK|~un {F[i n

9}rqt=nt}n j a, |4v j{ } 9 =n v { u|4v s qFv N vgtn vBo;vgqFv v { uwv { u ~ qFv {
a
9 G
ks |4v s9q=n |4v a.
} n n o tq ~j | ~ n N , ~ qFv | 4{
1
4{9 |~}r
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`s9} n {
9
F
q
v
~ | 4 {& a} { q s n N q=nu&
ks c = bn
a.
û
a(n1 n2 ) = (an1 )n2 = (n1 a)n2 = n1 (n2 a) = (n1 n2 )a

x 4{ s { s99yts9o*v 9 G, urunn v u vgtnur} Tn
(n1 n2 ) Na Na
Na
vg 9
c bNa ,
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ks
P
z# |4v j{F |~s ~ |~}n@ v { u ~ qFv { o tq ~j |~} ~ q 4{ ns n} { n|~un {F unq =nu
}û
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} 94{F n v a{ +2nurundqFv v { uwv {D u ~ qFv {~ un|~un {=
9 a, 4{ qFv 4{ qFv v {
uwv { u ~ qFv { |4v s9`n v { |4v a, o*v 9 v { |4v j{ } 9 =n&qFv v { uwv {& u ~ qFv {9
un vgtn cac1 ; vqFv v {K uruwv {{F = } ~ q 4{ { } cac1 = dad1 , ~ qFv | 4{
1 c)a 0 a(d1 c), 9 v j9 d1 c N i4{9 |~}r d1 c = n, v j9 n N j
(d
v c = dn o2n=n nur 9 u ~ qFv n N , 4a{K9 |~}r c dN , v 9 vgqt=n vgtn ca
9 ~ o tq ~j | ndunD} { n |~un {F aunq =nu}û
ks9} n a9 N .
d Q{ p#o9s 4{ u /
Fv 9 } ~ q 4{B u ~ qFv { |4v s9`n v a{ |4v a, 4{ }rys2nu
nu ) Fv 9 |~un {F4{ unq =nu 4
{ i ^} u
ks9} n { j 9
u|~s2nu 4{ o9 |~} { n ~ q
u
p j }w| B9 N ~ G, o;vg&q=n qFvs }rk} { vg i~N auH; |Vn { v 9 yts9o*v {&j }rqFv { j 9 u
vg 9~9 G.a
v { |~un {F4{
} { qt} q=n {
vqt} ~j~ u ~ qFv {~ |4vg 9x9 { |Vn n u
~ qFv 9 G o tq ~j | n
nurys n|~un {= o;vguw
v
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|~un {F4{Tx
z# s yts9o;vn ur}n v |Vn n u ~ qFv vgtnds n|~un {F o;vg { p} { v x
cac1 = (bn)a(bn)1 = b(nan1 )b1 = bab1
n `s n N .
nan1 = ann1 = a,
a
;Y
aXaaRT(\TXa2\&~\Va*aRT(\Ta\U`]HRU`\VU*SVP9^`_baU`\
n v { v { |4v s qFv { o;v 9 v { |4v j{ qtts9}r s |~}wv j4{ vno v {
9 us vnu0vgqtFv t { } A B o*v {FA4~ Bnurys n 4{ qttsj|~qts9=n i{ }nB*v {d{ v yts9o*v {
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`s uruwv { no v {
ks
o9 4{F tyn q=nu 4{ qttsj|~qts9=n@2urunn v { OwOwNxOpYx
Q{ p2o;vg o9uwv { } A B { v
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4{ s no v 9 A ~ B,
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{ } { s ng|4|~}w 4{ |4vgo2nqt}r9u f |4v un { vgo =ng|~}wv j4{B9j } n {D~ A B : { s9n
9 |~qFvg 4{ s9urqt}ro9ur}w|Vng|~}w o*vg 4{ |Vnun 4{~ K, 4{Q9 |~}rV { }(|4v v, w A
3 |51
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~ qFv | 4{p
ng|~s vn
a q=n K, }w|~}w s n
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ng(v)
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n ~+ q f (w).
s j+ vg vg vg 2{ v
4{ 9j fqt(av)
{ o9 = |~} f{ (v)
~ qt 4{ o2ng|~}wv { |~qFvgt}nu 4{ 4{ o*vg uruwv`
s s9qt}rur}^Tu 2n v { un 94{ }r ng|~}w H( , )
o2n=n u|4v s qFv 9 qt=n j{ vgtng|~}wv j4{ ur} j nu 4{9 s 4{ o2ng|~}wv ~ vgqtFv x
Uf#H_h^k_h*x e n 0 v { yts9o*v { {F n s no v 9 ~ 0
|~}r v {
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f(a)f
(b).
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|~s99t}r 4{ v { |Vn { v {B }w|~} ~j
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v
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v
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1 ) 0 f (e); o Fvo9s 4{ qF
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n
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2{ v f : G G0.
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v
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v {K u J Z EdD5B9 f, 4{K9 + ,| +jv s { s99yts9o;v} ynt}n q B9 G : n v {
F e f 1(e0), o9s 4{ qFwv
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F9F } a, b f 1(e0), ~ qFv | 4{ ab f 1(e0), o9s 4{ qFpv
ks
f (ab) = f (a)f (b) = e0 e0 = e0 .
3|2
| 4_^ 8 : 7
F9FF } a f (e ), ~ qFv | 4{ a f (e ), nk
s o*vg uq vg n
= (e ) = e .
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`s
F9U5 f (a} d 4{) |~=s2n[fud
`(a)]
und|~un {F unq =nu}ûk
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ks uruwv {& u ~ qFv {
ks
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q=n qFv f (dc) = f (d)f (c) = f (d)e = f (d), 4{ qFv 4{
df (e ) = {a G : f (a) = f (d)}
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q=nu 4{ k
s a = cd, o2n=nnur 9 c f (e ), o*vgq=n qFv f (a) = f (cd) =
aG
4{K9 |~}r
f (c)f (d) = e f (d) = f (d),
f (e ) = {a G : f (a) = f (d)} = df (e )
o;vguwvw`
s u { s99yts9o*v f (e ) 9 G 4{ } ynt}n q yx
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s D urj+ vg vg vg 2{ v
4{ } `f |~qt}rfv { }
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4{ o |~qt}ryn ~ q j x
Uf#H_h^k_h*x f 4{ s } { vg vg 2{ v { } 4{ s j+ vg vg vg 2{ v { } 4{ s vn
n q t}wvg
0 1
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ks | Fv9`|4v un
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} 9~ qt} n { v l 4{ o |~qt}rgn ~ q yx
n s |~}w
0 v j9 a 4{ s / Fv nu(o*v { }rqt}rfv tv9 4{
s } { vg vg 2{ v log
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n 9 {K4{
s v nds vdo9s 4{ o*v {=4Q s |~}w } { n ai unw
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apn (b)b +logabaj (c),
x
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a
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ns9qFvg vg 2{ v 4%
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Q DJ]
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vd n 9 =n x
n ,D ],DxDJQSH Z F?@J"EF9J#D5HE9 s yts9o*v G 4{ s +jvg vg vg 2{ v 9 G ~
s yts9o;v vgtn vo*vgKvgo =n vg 4{ ur} j nu 4{~ nur 94{ o2ng|~}wv |~qFvgt}nu x
| 4 1 8 h 7 ,>b;:t 7
3|s
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vgo =n vg 4{ ur}
j nu 4{ Ho;v 9 v { q ~j o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}wv j4{ ynurs2n n {~ nqtt}w| 4{ |~s2n =n n { v9
9 ~ q j o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}wv j4{ nqtt}w|~}nu 4{Tx
Q{ p#o9s 4{ s n o9 4{=~ q=ng|~}w nqtt}w|~}nu , 9 s yts9o*v G 4{ s +jvg v
vg 2{ v 9 G ~ nur 9 |4v s qFv 9 nqtt}w| 4{
ks B vgtn s yts9o;v x }Hun {
nqtt}w| 4{{ v n n, unD o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w {F urunn 9e }r ~j{ }wv nur} n n.
} o9 } { q un o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w (1) 9
}r ~j{ }wv nur} n l
ks
~ kpn
qFv v { uwv { u ~ qFv {9 s yts9o;v G ~ ,u / Fv i vnqtt^} u 1 1) lyx i
o9s 49 g|~}rur ~ q
ks (1) : G M (R) n vo*vg (1) (a) = 1 o2n=n
1,1
qFv v a G 4{ } +jvg vg vg 2{ v j x
(Z '~UkX]Hibax vg v { : c M (R) n vo;vg
2v
1,1
v 9 v {
`s 4{ s nD2 o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w o9s 4{ (ab) = (a)(b) |4vg v
9o s 49 t} |Vn {= o9urpw|~}rq=n ~ q K
(c )() = (1)(1) = 1
(c2 ) = ( 0 ) = 1
(c 2)(0 ) = (1)(1) = 1
(c2 0 ) = () = 1
2
()(
0 ) = (1)(1) = 1
( 0 ) = (c2 ) = 1
qF| x
z{ q=n o9 4{=~ q=ng|~}w v 4{2 uo9s 4{ E c qt} ~j~ un} { n}rn ~ n { p
2
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4{ o |~qt}ryn ~ q 9 s yts9o*v G, o;v 9 v {1 vgt2 ns nq F| =n o9
n
n
1
2
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1
vd9} ~1 2 .

`s e{=e9~ vgq=no;vg +
2 ,
} a 4{ s X u ~ qFv 9 1 G, 2 (a) 4{ s 1 nn2qtt^} u|~s2n =n n 9 n n
4{ s nDnqtt^} u 9 n n , o;1 v 9 v { |4vguwv|Vn&n 4{ q=n {K v { nqtt}w| 14{ |4vg1 v
(a)
2
9uwRv
`s 4{ }nfv nu 4{#9 s n&2 nqtt2^} u (n +n )(n +n ), |4vgo9u q=n j v unt yuwv
1
2
1
2
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{
(E) = 1, (c ) = 1, () = 1, ( 0 ) = 1
1 (a) + 2 (a) =
0 0 ... 0
0x 0 . . . 0
xx
1 (a)
0 0 ... 0
0 0 ... 0
0x 0 . . . 0
xx
Q | 4{ }rq=n v { (
ks |~qt}ryn ~ q
2 (a)
0 0 ... 0
v {
4{ s nQ o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w 4{9 |~}r

uruwv|4v j{ } 9 =n
ks (ab) + (ab) = [ (a)+

o2n=n
(a)][ (b)+
(b)],
1
2 (a)][1 (b)+
2 (b)] =
[1 (a)+
3 |5|
| 4_^ 8 : 7
0 0 ... 0
0x 0 . . . 0
xx
1 (a)
0 0 ... 0
0 0 ... 0
0x 0 . . . 0
xx
2 (a)
0 0 ... 0
o Fvdo9s 4{ qFvp
ks
0 0 ... 0
0 0 ... 0
0x 0 . . . 0
xx
xx
0 0 ... 0
0 0 ... 0
0x 0 . . . 0
xx
2 (a)2 (b)
0 0 ... 0
2
2 (b)
0 0 ... 0
0 0 ... 0
0x 0 . . . 0
1 (a)1 (b)
xx
1 (b)
{F o9s 49 B
`s 4{ q o9Fv sj|~qFv 4{ q= n vo*vg
0 0 ... 0
0x 0 . . . 0
{ v o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}wv j4{
o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w x
(b) = (ab)
y
(a) (b) = (ab)
ks 4 j v v {(j(a)
nur ~ q unQnqtt}û (ab)+
o*vg#q=n qFv +
(ab);
1
4{ s n
vg o9uwv9(o;v 9 v { p
`s o2n=n uyts9o;v c , 4{ o;v { }r9u
vgtnun
o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w (1) +
i v j9 (1) y { v u n { n n {e2v~ u urqt}r v o9uwv j
ks e4{ q=n= n ndo;vg

1 0
=
,
0 1

1 0
,
(1) ()+()
=
0 1
(1) (E)+(E)

1 0
,
0 1

1 0
0) =
(1) ( 0 )+(
0 1
(1) (c
2 )+(c
2) =
s 49 t} |Vn {FMi q=nu|4vg v ~X u o9uwvn q t}wvg j

`s (1) 4{ s n
o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}w 9 c , |~qts2n j vun { Bs9urqt}ro9ur}w|Vng|~}wv j4{94{ q=n { n+
qtt}w| 4{Vx
s gn ~ q 4{ q=2vnDq F| =nd o9 4{=~ q=ng|~}w v 4{02 u x
Uf#H_h^k_h*x v { o9 4{F~ q=ng|~}wv j4{ nqtt}w|~}nu 4{Q9 un } { n }r ~j{ }wv n
0 9 s yts9o;v G, { v D RF9UVH@EdDJQ Dxd{ } } { q s nnqtt}û ys9un
=
q

n
u
r
ks 0(a) 0 (tij )(a)(tij ) i v j9 (tij ) 4{ unnqtt}û} { n 9 (tij )

(t
)
ij
o2n=ndqFv v { uwv {K u ~ qFv { a G.
ur} n
z# o2ntqt}w|~s9unV2qFv nD o9 4{=~ q=ng|~}w nqtt}w|~}nu 4{K

ks9}rgnu ~ q n { p} { n x
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