StellaJones

Midtermquestion#1
Careiswidelyconsideredwomensworkandthismanifestsinbothpaidandunpaid
carework.Womenmakeuparoundseventypercentofinformalcaretakersfortheelderly
(NakanoGlenn2010,2)andconstitutenineoutoftenpaidcareworkers(NakanoGlenn
2010,4).Additionally,careworkisalsodividedalongraceandclasslinesasitisdelegated
tothelesswelloffmembersofsociety(Tronto1993).Thesocialorganizationofcarework
asagenderedandracializedresponsibilitycanbehistoricallytracedthroughshiftsinthe
marketsandtheideasofdependence.Further,itbecomesevidentthattheriseand
continuationofthedivisionoftheserolesalonggenderandracelinesaretheresultof
variouscoercivepractices.Ibelieveitisthisconnectionbetweenwhodoescarework,its
devaluationandcoercionthatleadNakanoGlenntotitleherbookForcedtoCare.
Thestarkdivisionofcaringlaboralonggenderlinesisoftenarguedtocomefrom
thenaturalcharacteristicsofwomenasnurturingoremotional(Tronto1993).However,
whenwelookhistoricallyattheevolutionofthisdivisionweseethatmuchofitissocially
constructed,thatcaringlaborhasnotalwaysbeentheexclusivedomainofwomen.Inthe
colonialandearlyrepublicanera,bothproductiveandreproductiveeconomicactivitywas
locatedinsideindividualhouseholdsandgenderresponsibilitywasnotexclusivelydivided
alongthoselines.Forexample,whilewomenwereresponsibleforlookingaftertheirkids,
cookingandcleaning,theyalsoparticipatedinbusinessactivitiessuchasnegotiatingwith
merchantsandmakingcandlesandsoap(NakanoGlenn2010).Developmentofastricter
divisionofmaleandfemalespheresoccurredduringthelate18thcenturyaroundthe
AmericanRevolution.Thisoccurredsimultaneouslywithachangeinwhowasconsidered
independent,fromexclusivelypropertied,whitemalestoallfreewhitemales(Fraserand

Gordon1994;NakanoGlenn2010).AtthesametimeideasofRepublicanandEvangelical
motherhoodstressedtheimportanceanddutyoffemaledomesticity(NakanoGlenn2010).
Industrializationwasthenexttosolidifywomensdomestic,unpaid,andnowconsidered
unproductivelaborasseparatefrommenspaid,productive,wagelabor.Therewasalsoa
riseinthenumberofservantshiredfromtheranksoflessprivilegedwomenasmiddleand
upperclasswomensoughttoliveuptothespiritualidealsofthehousewifeanddelegate
thelesservaluedpartsofthejob.Theemergenceofthebreadwinner,thefamilywage,the
housewife,andthenewdemandforhiredhelpdemonstratehowmenareoftenassociated
withthefirsttwoelementsinJoanTrontoscareethics,whilewomenandwomenofcolor
arelefttoperformthelattertwo(Tronto1993).
Thereisarelatedhistoryastohowlessprivileged,oftenminority,womencameto
fillthenewdemandforhiredcarework.Duringslavery,bothmenandwomenworkedin
thefieldsbutwomenwerealsoinpositionsofdomesticservice.Thecareoftheirown
childrenwasnotvaluedandtherewaslittletimetodoso(NakanoGlenn2010).Minority
womenwithhistoriesincoercivelaborregimesprovidedasolutiontothecontradictionin
elitewomensdomesticresponsibilitiesbetweentheelevationofspiritualcaringlaborand
thedegradationofphysicallaborandconsequentlyestablishedtwounequaltiersof
reproductivework(NakanoGlenn2010;Parrenas2000).Thissystemwascontinuedinpart
bythevariousreformeffortsbytheupperandmiddleclasswomen.Assimilationprograms
forNativeAmericangirlsandimmigrantspreparedlessprivileged,minoritywomenin
mainlydomestictasksultimatelypreparingthemtomeetthedemandforinexpensive
domesticlaborforthemoreprivileged(NakanoGlenn2010).Thetrendoflessprivileged
minoritywomenfillingthedemandforthedomestichelpofmoreprivilegedwomen
continuestodayasweexperienceadramaticriseinthemigrationofcareworkersfromthe

globalsouthtotheglobalnorth,termedtheinternationaldivisionofreproductivelabor
(Parrenas2000;Williams2010).
Tracingpatternsofwhodoescareworkandhowtheycometodoitdemonstrates
thatthehistoricalandcontinuedfeminizationandracializationofcareworkisrootedin
diverseformsofcoercion(NakanoGlenn2010).NakanoGlennoutlinestwotypesof
coercionthatarepresent,statusobligationinwhichdutiesareassignedtoallthoseina
givenstatus(NakanoGlenn2010,6)andracializedgenderedservitudeinwhichone
partyhasthepowertocommandtheservicesofanother(NakanoGlenn2010,7).The
previouslyoutlinedhistoricalandcontinuingpatternsincareworkillustratehowcare
becameracializedandgenderedthroughthesetwocoercivesystems.Thesepatternsof
coercionarereasonsNakanoGlenntitlesherbookForcedtoCare.
Theinternationalmigrationofcareworkersandtheglobalcarechainprovidean
exampleofhowwomenandminoritywomenareinducedintocarework.Ifwomendonot
migrate,theypassuponhigherwagesandfacerelativepovertybutiftheydomigrate,they
areseparatedfromtheirfamiliesandotherwomenfilltheircaringdutiesathome
(Williams2010).Theglobalcarechainandhowcaringlaborispassedfromonesetof
womentoanotherdemonstrateshowwomenperformcareworkasastatusobligation.In
thiscase,thedelegatingofcarework,especiallythelaborintensiveforms,toless
privileged,immigrantwomenconstitutesaformofracializedgenderedservitudewhichis
maintainedbytheprivatenatureofcareandexclusionfrommanylaborlaws(Nakano
Glenn2010).Coercionaspressuretoinducesomeoneintodoingsomething(Nakano
Glenn2010,6)andasthechoicebetweentwodisagreeableoptions(NakanoGlenn
2010,36)intheformsofstatusobligationandracializedgenderedservitudeare

characteristictohowdivisionsofcaringlaborcametobedrawnalongracialandgender
linesandserveasinspirationforthetitleandcontentofForcedtoCare.

Midtermquestion#2
Residualpovertyknowledgeunderstandspovertyasaconditionofthe
impoverished,politicallyshiftingresponsibilityawayfromsocietyandontothepoorasa
containedandmarginalizedgroup.Conversely,arelationalpovertyanalysisfocusesonthe
processesandstructuresthatcontributetopoverty.Thinkingrelationallyaboutpoverty
providesforthediscourseofsocialinterconnectednessnecessaryforthepracticeofcare
ethics.
Residualpovertydiscoursesidentifythecausesofpovertyasbeinglocatedwithin
thecharacteristicsofpoorpeopleandplaces(Hickey2009,2).Povertyisperceivedasa
lackofwealthcausedbytheculturalandbehavioraldeficienciesofthepoor(Lawson,
JaroszandBonds2010).SamuelHickeysanalysisofhowpovertyisunderstoodin
northernUgandaprovidesaclearillustrationofresidualpovertydiscourses.InUganda,the
northernregionisseenasneedingtocatchupwiththesuccessfuldevelopmentoftherest
ofthecountry.Developmentprojectscitetheviolence,alcoholism,lackofcapitaland
inappropriatecultureofthenorthasexplanationsforthesocalleddevelopmentgap
(Hickey2009,7).GoodeandMaskovskyoutlineanotherexampleofaresidual
understandingofpovertyintheircritiqueofJamesFallowsTheInvisiblePoor.They
arguethatFallowsdoesnotseektoappealtothepoorandtheiralliesbuttotherichandin
doingsoherepresentsthepoorasinvisible,passive,pathologicalorinneedofcharityor
moralreform(GoodeandMaskovsky2001,3).Boththeserepresentationsofpoverty

otherthepoorandunderstandpovertyastheinternalissueofaperson,grouporplace.
Theyattempttoremovetheimpoverishedperson,grouporplaceandtheirculturesfrom
thelargercontextofsocietalstructuresandinstitutions.
Theseparationofpovertyfromsocietysbroadereconomic,politicalandsocial
structuresoutlinesaspecificsetofpoliticalresponsesthatproceedinaparticulardirection.
Ifpovertyisunderstoodasthefailingorlackingofpoorpeopleandpoorplacesthen
solutionsaresoughtintermsof,howsocietycanhelpthepooror,howsocietycanhelpthe
poorhelpthemselves.Residualpovertyknowledgecanevenjustifyrelievingsocietyofany
responsibilitytohelpthepooratall.Theseattitudes,springingfromaresidualpoverty
analysis,shapethepoliticalecologyinmanyways.First,thepooraremarginalizedand
containedasagroupoutsideofsocietyandtheirpoliticalagencyisplacedinthehandsof
richothersthusdenyingthemfullcitizenship(GoodeandMaskovsky2001,2).Second,
separatingpovertyfromstructuralinequalitiesandperceivingitasanissueofinternal
deficiencyvalidatesthenormsandprivilegesofthemiddleclassandthusmaintainsclass
inequality(Lawson2012).
Thesetwophenomenaarecomplementarytocurrentneoliberalideologies,which
boastindividualismandfreemarketcompetitionascorevalues.Residualpoverty
knowledgeanditscorrespondingpoliticalecologyofmarginalizationandpersonal
responsibilityultimatelyshifttheburdenofrelievingpovertyfromsocietyontothepoor.
OneexampleofhowthishasmanifestedinAmericanpovertypolicyismodernwelfare
reform.PRWORAandinparticularTANFnowattachworkrequirementsandtimelimits
tobenefitswiththegoaloftransformingthewelfaredependentpoorintoproductive,
autonomouscontributorstosociety.Thereareoftenalsomoralcomponentsattachedto

welfarereceiptsuchastheregulationofmalevisitorsormandatorydrugtests.Theseshifts
inwelfareareanexampleofthepoliticalworkjustifiedbyresidualpovertydiscourses.
Whataresidualunderstandingofpovertyignoresthatarelationalpovertyanalysis
attemptstoaccountforarethestructuralandinstitutionalcontributionstopoverty.A
relationalanalysisunderstandspovertyasproducedthroughhierarchiesinpower(Lawson
2012;GoodeandMaskovsky2001)andasthepresenceofinequalityratherthanthe
absenceofwealth.Further,relationalpovertythinkinghighlightsthecrucialroleofthe
nonpoorintheproduction,maintenanceandmanagementofthepovertyobject(Lawson
2012,10).BacktotheexampleofSamuelHickeysworkinUganda,heaimstoanalyze
theeconomic,politicalandhistoricalfactorsthatcreateunequaldevelopment.
Theconsiderationofsocietalinterconnectednessinvolvedinarelationalapproachto
povertymakesroomforcareethics.Careethicsisconstructedfromasocialontologyof
connection(Lawson2007,3)andfocusesonunequalpowerrelationships(Lawson2007,
1),whichcorrespondtoarelationalunderstandingofpoverty.Thisisdemonstratedfurther
byanalyzingthefourmoralcomponentsofJoanTrontoscareethics,attentiveness,
responsibility,competenceandresponsiveness.Attentivenessinvolvesbeingawareofones
ownneedsasaprerequisiteforrecognizingtheneedsofothers.Relationalpovertythinking
considershumaninterdependenceandisthereforeopentotheassertionthattheneedfor
careisuniversal.Responsibilityistheideathatsomethingwedidordidnotdohas
contributedtotheneedsforcare,andsowemustcare(Tronto1993,132).Thisideais
mirroredintherelationalpovertyanalysisofmiddleandupperclassrolesinthe
perpetuationofpoverty.Relationalpovertythinkingsupportscompetenceinthatanevent,
suchasadramaticdropinthewelfareroles,willnotbesimplyacceptedasagoodthingbut
examinedinthecontextofpoliticalandsocialstructures,forexampleamothernotbeing

abletomeetworkrequirementsbecauseshemustcareforchildrenandleavingwelfare.
Responsivenessassertsthatonemustconsiderapersonspositionalityinorderto
understandtheirneeds(Tronto1993).Whilearesidualanalysisremovesthispersonfrom
theirgreatersocietalcontext,arelationalapproachnecessitatesitsconsideration.A
relationalunderstandingofpovertyisbestsuitedforcareethicsduetotheirmutual
considerationofsocialconnection,anelementnotincludedinresidualpovertyknowledge
anditsassociatedpoliticaleffects.