Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
1. INTRODUCTION
Theory of
Demand for goods
the
by individuals
Consumer
Theory of
the Firm
Revenues
1,000
500
Opportunity cost
400
Accounting profit
Economic profit
Normal profit
ECONOMIC RENT
Economic rent is the high profit attributed to a fixed, limited supply.
Supply
P2
P1
Demand2
Demand1
Q1
TR
AR
MR
100 $1.25
$125
$1.25
$1.30
200 $1.30
$260
$1.30
$1.33
300 $1.33
$399
$1.33
$1.35
400 $1.35
$540
$1.35
$1.37
500 $1.37
$685
$1.37
$1.37*
Average revenue
Marginal revenue
COSTS OF PRODUCTION
Total cost (TC) is the sum of all costs of producing goods or services.
Total fixed cost (TFC) is the sum of all costs that do not change with the level
of production.
- A quasi-fixed cost is a cost that is fixed for a specific range of production
but that changes at different levels of production.
Total variable cost (TVC) is the sum of all costs that change with the level of
production.
Average fixed cost (AFC) is the total fixed cost divided by the quantity
produced.
Average variable cost (AVC) is the total variable cost divided by the quantity
produced.
Average total cost (ATC) is the total cost divided by the quantity produced.
Marginal cost (MC) is the change in total cost for one more unit produced.
EXAMPLE
Suppose that the fixed costs of
production are $50 and that the
variable cost per unit begins at $24
per unit, declines to $12, and then
increases to $15.
10
11
12
PROFIT-MAXIMIZING OUTPUT
Profit is maximized when the difference between total revenue and total cost is
maximized, which is also the point at which marginal revenue is equal to
marginal cost.
Determining profit-maximizing output requires
1. forecasting the revenues and costs in order to estimate the production level
at which the difference is maximized.
2. computing the change in total revenue per unit and the change in total cost
per unit and produce to the point at which they are equal.
3. comparing the estimated cost per unit of input with the contribution margin
per unit.
13
14
15
PRODUCTIVITY
Productivity is the average output per unit of input.
- Labor productivity is used as a measure of productivity because it is easily
identified and measured.
- Unit of input for labor = L
Increasing productivity increases profitability.
- In the case of labor, increased rewards to workers may further increase
productivity.
Measures:
- Total product (TP), or output, is the sum of production in number of units
produced; also represented as Q.
- Average product (AP) is the total product divided by the number of units of
input, .
- Marginal product (MP) is the productivity of the next unit produced, or the
change in total product if one more unit of input is added:
Copyright 2014 CFA Institute
16
Total Product
10
10 0 =
10
10/1 =
10.0
19
19 10 =
19/2 =
9.5
27
27 19 =
27/3 =
9.0
34
34 27 =
34/4 =
8.5
40
40 34 =
40/5 =
8.0
Marginal Product
Average Product
17
18
19
10
10
25
19
27
4
5
Input 2
Marginal
Units Total Marginal Revenue
MRP/
of Product Product Product Price of Input
0
1.56
20
20
50.00
5.00
23
1.41
35
15
37.50
3.75
20
1.25
40
12.50
1.25
34
18
1.09
43
7.50
0.75
40
15
0.94
44
2.50
0.25
The optimal levels are four units of Input 1 and three units of Input 2.
Profit = 2.5 (34 + 40) (4 16) (3 10) = 185 64 30 = 91
Copyright 2014 CFA Institute
20
SUMMARY
The profit of concern in the theory of the firm is economic profit, which
considers not only explicit costs but also implicit costs.
If a firm is able to maintain a comparative advantage (such as economies of
scale), it can earn economic profit. In a market with perfect competition,
however, economic profits are zero; firms can earn a normal profit, which is a
profit in which revenues just cover both implicit and explicit costs.
Profit maximization occurs at the level of production at which the difference
between total revenue and total costs is the greatest or, equivalently, where
marginal revenue equals marginal cost.
In the long run, all inputs to the firm are variable, which expands profit potential
and the number of cost structures available to the firm.
Under perfect competition, long-run profit maximization occurs at the minimum
point of the firms long-run average total cost curve.
21
SUMMARY
A firm shuts down in the short run if total revenue does not cover variable cost
in full.
A firms production function defines the relationship between total product and
inputs, whereas average product and marginal product are key measures of a
firms productivity.
Increases in productivity reduce business costs and enhance profitability.
An industry supply curve that is positively sloped will increase production costs
to the firm in the long run. An industry supply curve that is negatively sloped will
decrease production costs to the firm in the long run.
In the short run, assuming constant resource prices, increasing marginal
returns reduce the marginal costs of production and decreasing marginal
returns increase the marginal costs of production.
22