Vater froma ~ Distance: The First Owens River-Los Angeles Aqueduct 'N 1781, when Spanish seclers founded the village ‘hac would become the city of Los Angeles, ic seemed ‘to therm thatthe Los Angeles River would provide all of the water they would ever need. That humble vil- lage, however, was destined for dramatic roweh. In 1870 its population was 5,728, and by 1900 that number had swelled 10 102,479. ‘Among, those at the end of the 19th century who grasped the challenges that accompanied such growth were Fred Eaton, a former city engineer who had risen co the office of ‘mayor in 1898, and William Mulholland, the superincen- ‘dent of che privately owned Los Angeles City Water Compa- ty. Tostrecch the water supply, Mulholland introduced water metering in Los Angeles in 1889, successally reducing per ‘capita consumption by more than 100 gpd by 1903. Bur the ‘population continued to grow, and he began to search for new sources. Te was Eaton who suggested che Owens River, located approximately 250 mi from Los ‘Angeles. Fora distance of some 150 mi, the More than 200 mi fong, the aq- ‘educt included an unlined ca conorete-ined channel, ve; and a closed concrete ‘water remained ic the lake and became saline. Eaton believed this water could be capeured while i was stil fesh and redi- rected to Los Angeles. At his urging, Mulholland surveyed ‘the area and determined that such a water delivery system not only was possible au also could be realized by using the force of gravity, making pumps unnecessary. Mulholland estimated that building the equied infrastructure would cost less than $25 million, Persuaded by Eaton and Mulholland that tapping the ‘Owens River was the only viable option, the city’s Board of ‘Water Commissioners acted quickly. Ina 1905 ballot initia- tive, the board scughe and won the people's approval by a ratio of more than 10 to 1 to issue $1.5 million in bonds to ppurchase land in che valley of the Owens River. A year lat- et, the city recruited three prominent engineers—John R. Freeman, Hon M ASCE, who would become ASCE’ president in 1922; James D. Schuy- les, M ASCE; and Frederic P Stearns, M.ASCE, ‘who was then serving as ASCE’ president— costudy the feasibility of che project. The river collected the snowmelt from theeastemn _candul Never Beare had so ceam enthusiastically endorsed the proj- Sierra Nevada and carried iesouch intoabasin much water been moved sofar_—ec:, concluding it was not only feasible but to form Owens Lake. Having no outlet, the tomeetthe needs of acl, alo “admirable in conception and outline 10) Civil Engineering apni. 2013and fl of promise for the cont ued prosperity of Los Angeles.” In a second referendum, in 1907, the people of Los Angeles approved an sxdicional $23 million in bonds to construct the project. At that poine oversight of he project passed from. the Board of Water Commissioners co the Board of Public Works, Mul- holland serving as chief engineer and J.B. Lippincott, Hon.MASCE, ashis depury. Simply preparing for conseuc~ sion was a large tsk, Some 225 mi of new emails and roads were need edo provide access roche aqueduct route. Crewsinsalled 180 miof wa- ter mains ro supply the workers and make concrete production pssible. They also buile ewo hydroelectric plants to power che construction lighting and equipmene. The city ‘even made a deal wich the South ‘xn Pacific Railroad to construct 120 mi riled line oughly parle othe facure aquesiuce for the transportation of ‘supplies. ‘While surveying the aqueduct route, city engineers searched fo local soures of the limestone and clay thar would be ned- ed co manufacture cement. They found an ample supply ata sie in the Tehachapi ‘Mountains, roughly halfway along te line ofthe aqueduct, and erected alarge cement mil chee that went on to spawn the fcto- ‘Betwoon 1867 and 1907, the ish im- migrant Wiliam Mulholland rose fom ‘common laborer tothe chet engineer of a $26-milin project essential to ‘he growth ofthe ity of Los Angeles. The sel-tught engineer proved ca- ‘able of directing the efforts of thou- ‘sands of workers covering a distance ‘of more than 200 mi, Crows line the ‘canal with concrete, below onthe ‘eastern outskirts ofthe Sierra vada, 1y town of Monolith. In other plac- ¢s workers mined deposits of caf, ‘or volcanic ash, which they blended ‘with the cement ro create aconcrete ‘mix similar to what had been used toconstruce the aqueducts of ancient Rome. ‘The aqueduct as Mulholland de~ signed ic comprised several distince sections. It began at its northern end ‘with an intake structure feeding into an open, unlined canal excavat- ced using steam shovels and running 24 mi through the valley ofthe Ow- fens River. Upon reaching the Ala~ ‘bama Hills, a range of rugged rock formations on the eastern outskirs of the Sierra Nevada, the canal re- ‘mained open bue was lined with concrete for the next 37 mi. Ic then ‘emptied into Haiwee Reservoir, the first and largest ofthe projects res- cexvoirs. Below the reservit, the wa- ter entered a closed conduit of cast- in-place concrete that conveyed it 98 mi through the western Mojave Desert. ‘When at last the water reached the northern base of che mountains just north cof Los Angeles, it entered a second reser- voir and then passed into the 26,870 fe Jong Elizabeth Tunnel, which curried che water beneath the crest of the mountains. In San Francisquito Canyon, three hydro- clectric plants converted the energy ofthe descending water into electricity. Thewater was then collected in another reservoir and conveyed 10 ‘terminal reservoir in the San Fernando Valley. From there i would be disributed tothe city. ‘The Elizabeth Tunnel was the longest ofthe 142 runnels ‘on the aqueduct. These conveyed the watera total distance of 43 mi,and there were an additional 9 mi of tunnels associated ‘with the hydroeleceric plants. Mulholland understood char efficient eunnel construction ‘would be of paramount importance in completing the proj- «ecton schedule and within badger. To encourage speed, he set ‘up an incentive system. For example, the men excavating the Elizabeth Tunnel were expected to progress a least 8 ft per Alay they exconde this minimum, however, diy would 1e- ceive abonusof 40 cents per man for each addicional foot. The [42] Civil Engineering Aran 2013 ‘Where the aqueduct ha to cross deep canyons, Mulholland en- loved inverted stet pip sions, the most impressive of which ‘was in Jawbone Canyon, above, Construcion required hauling ‘huge pipe sections up step slopes ef. Workers cover the ult ith east-in-place concrete, below, in the Mojave DesertMulholland understood that efficient tunnel construction would be of paramount importance in completing the project on schedule and within budget. To encourage speed, he set up an incentive system. system worked, The 10 wide by 12 etal horseshoe shaped, concrete lined tunnel was complead on February 28, 1911, ‘450 days ahead of schedule. In eeir final construction re- or, city ofiials noced proualy thae the Elizabeth Tanne] ‘crew had driven through 604 feof hardrock na single month (April 1910), setting a new American record foe woek done using noching buc hand dlls, dynamite, males, and ralears ‘Where the aqueduct had to cross anyone thac were par ticularly deep and wide, Mulholland used invercedstel pipe Not everyone cheered. Those living in the valley of the ‘Owens River bieecrly opposed the diversion of water from. their homes and farms. But there was no going back. The aqueduct fueled the growth of the booming metropolis, Which soon needed even more water. The original aqueduct ‘was extended north to the Mono Basin in 1940. The follow- ing year marked the opening of another aqueduct delivering water t0 Los Angeles, this one from a completely different source—the Colorado River. And in 1970 yet another aque- siphons, which made up 12 mi of the aq- ‘ueduct route. The siphons typically were formed of riveted steel pipe, although in some locations concrete was used t0 re- duce cos where the water pressures were relatively low. The most impressive of ‘hese structures was the 8,095 fe long pressure siphon across Jawbone Canyon, which plummeted 850 ft to the floor of the canyon before acending the opposite canyon wall. The siphon pipe varied from 7.5 co 10 fe in diamecer, and its walls were up to 1 Ygin. thick. The longest siphon, however, ‘was in Antelope Valley. Its length was 21,800 f, including, 15,600 feo steel pipe ‘Construction offcially began on October 1, 1908, The project was compleced five years laer, on time and under budget. In a ceremony on November 5, 1913, some 40,000 spectators gathered atthe lower end of the aqueduct and cel- brated as the waters of the Owens River poured out a their destination for the fst rime. When ic was time for Mulhol- land to present the aqueduct ro the cir, he utered juse five words: “There iis. Take it.” Included inthe electricity Some: Hydroelectric plants, above lf were ed the opening ceremony, which was held on November 5, 1913, above right dluce opened, roughly parallel to the ist, bringing even more water from the Sierra. Nevada ‘The legacy of the first Owens River— Los Angeles Aqueduct is controversial in that population growth is intensifying ‘competition for water resources in California and, indeed, throughout the American Wese. What is not controversial, however, isthe enormity ofthis engineering achievement Designed to deliver 260 million gpd, the Owens River-Los ‘Angeles Aqueduct was the fist aqueduct ever to supply wa- ter toa metropolitan areaon such a large scale, and it was ac- corded landmark sears in ASCE's Histor- ic Civil Engineering Landmark Program in 1971. In this, the aqueduct’s centennial year, its contribution to the prosperity oF os Angeles is worth celebrating, —JEFF 1, BROWN jet to generate 000 people attend Jeff Broun isa contributing editor to Civil Engineering. arn Civil Engineering [43]