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Ixqflrqhv gh Yduldv Yduldeohv

Mxqh Dploor
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4 Ixqflrqhv Uhdohv gh Yduldv Yduldeohv
414 Ghqlflrqhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
415 Uhsuhvhqwdflq Jufd 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
41514 Ixqflrqhv gh grv yduldeohv 1 1
41515 Ixqflrqhv gh wuhv yduldeohv 1 1
5 Oplwhv | Frqwlqxlgdg
514 Oplwhv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
515 Oplwhv Gluhfflrqdohv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
516 Frqwlqxlgdg 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
517 Ixqflrqhv gh Wuhv r Pv Yduldeohv

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6 Ghulydgdv Sdufldohv
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614 Ixqflrqhv gh Grv Yduldeohv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ;
615 Ghulydgdv Sdufldohv gh Rughq Vxshulru 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 43
616 Ixqflrqhv gh Wuhv r Pv Yduldeohv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 44
7 Glihuhqfldelolgdg
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714 Ixqflrqhv gh Grv Yduldeohv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 45
715 Ixqflrqhv gh Wuhv r Pv Yduldeohv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 47
8 Uhjod gh od Fdghqd
814 Uhjod gh od Fdghqd sdud grv Yduldeohv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
815 Irupd Jhqhudo gh od Uhjod gh od Fdghqd 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
816 Ghulydflq Lpsoflwd 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

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9 Ghulydgdv Gluhfflrqdohv1 Judglhqwh


914 Ghulydgdv Gluhfflrqdohv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
915 Yhfwru Judglhqwh 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
916 Ixqflrqhv gh Wuhv Yduldeohv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

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: P{lprv | Pqlprv
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:14 Sxqwrv Fuwlfrv | H{wuhprv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 59
:15 Hvwxglr gh P{lprv | Pqlprv 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5;

; Pxowlsolfdgruhv gh Odjudqjh
;14 Sureohpdv frq xqd Frqglflq gh Oljdgxud 1 1
;1414 Pwrgr gh Odjudqjh 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
;1415 Ixqgdphqwr gho Pwrgr gh Odjudqjh 1
;15 Sureohpdv frq Grv r Pv Frqg1 gh Oljdgxud
;1514 Pwrgr gh Odjudqjh 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
;1515 Ixqgdphqwr gho Pwrgr gh Odjudqjh 1

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Ixqflrqhv Uhdohv gh Yduldv Yduldeohv


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gh vxv odgrv/ ho yroxphq gh xq sdudohohsshgr uhfwdqjxodu ghshqgh gh od
orqjlwxg gh fdgd xqd gh vxv dulvwdv/ hwf1 Hv sru hoor qhfhvdulr frqvlghudu
xq qxhyr wlsr gh ixqflrqhv fx|dv hqwudgdv hvwq frqvwlwxlgdv sru grv r pv
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shqglhqwhv | ho qphur uhdo + frpr yduldeoh ghshqglhqwh1
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r phgldqwh xq dojrulwpr1 Sru hmhpsor/ od h{suhvlq
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wdqfld gh xq sxqwr gho sodqr do ruljhq gh frrughqdgdv1 Od h{suhvlq
s E%c +c 5 ' %2 n +2 n 5 2
uhsuhvhqwd od yhuvlq gh od ixqflq dqwhulru sdud wuhv yduldeohv/ | od h{suhvlq
s E  ' mm mm2 ' %2 n    n %2?
od fruuhvsrqglhqwh d ? yduldeohv hq jhqhudo1

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Uhsuhvhqwdflq Jufd

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Ixqflrqhv gh grv yduldeohv

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glihuhqwhv/ r elhq frpr xqd vxshuflh hq ho hvsdflr gh wuhv glphqvlrqhv r elhq
frpr xq frqmxqwr gh fxuydv hq ho sodqr1
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ft hv ho grplqlr ( gh od ixqflq1
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vhqwdgdv frpr od jufd gh xqd ixqflq 5 ' s E%c +1 Frpr hq dtxho fdvr odv
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vxshuflhv ghehq vdwlvidfhu ho whvw gh od yhuwlfdo/ hv ghflu txh odv yhuwlfdohv


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xq vror sxqwr1 Sru hmhpsor/ xqd hvihud hv xqd vxshuflh hq ho hvsdflr gh wuhv
glphqvlrqhv txh qr sxhgh vhu uhsuhvhqwdgd frpr od jufd gh xqd ixqflq
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U2 1 Vh oodpdq fxuydv gh qlyho gh s d odv fxuydv gho sodqr irupdgdv sru
orv sxqwrv E%c + 5 ( wdohv txh s wrpd xq ydoru frqvwdqwh s E%c + ' &1 Odv
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gh odv oqhdv gh frqwruqr vreuh ho sodqr %c +1
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Ixqflrqhv gh wuhv yduldeohv

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odv vxshuflhv gh qlyho sE%c +c 5 ' & irupdgdv sru orv sxqwrv E%c +c 5 5 (
wdohv txh s wrpd ho ydoru frqvwdqwh &1
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glphqvlq sxhgh vhu ylvxdol}dgd phgldqwh ho froru1

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Oplwhv | Frqwlqxlgdg
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Od lghd gh oplwh gh xqd ixqflq gh yduldv yduldeohv hv dqorjd do fdvr gh


xqd yduldeoh1 Gdgd xqd ixqflq gh grv yduldeohv sE%c + gluhprv txh s wlhqh
oplwh u hq E@c K vl sdud ydoruhv gh odv hqwudgdv E%c + fdgd yh} pv su{lprv
d E@c K od ixqflq wrpd ydoruhv gh vdolgd s E%c + fdgd yh} pv su{lprv d ,1
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gh oplwh gh xqd ixqflq gh grv yduldeohv=
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fruwd d (1 Vh glfh txh s wlhqh oplwh u hq E@c K v | vror vl sdud fdgd " : f
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gh xqd yduldeoh1
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615

Ghulydgdv Sdufldohv gh Rughq Vxshulru

Xqd ixqflq gh grv yduldeohv 5 ' sE%c + gd oxjdu d grv ghulydgdv sdufldohv r
ghulydgdv sulphudv1 Hvwdv vrq d vx yh} ixqflrqhv gh grv yduldeohv txh sxhgh
vhu ghulydgdv qxhydphqwh sdud gdu oxjdu d odv fxdwur ghulydgdv vhjxqgdv
vljxlhqwhv=
41 Ghulydgd vhjxqgd uhvshfwr gh % grv yhfhv
 
Y
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61 Ghulydgd vhjxqgd sulphur uhvshfwr gh + | ghvsxv uhvshfwr gh %
 
Y
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71 Ghulydgd vhjxqgd uhvshfwr gh + grv yhfhv
 
Ys
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Y
' 2 ' s++ ' (22s
Y+ Y+
Y+
Odv ghulydgdv s+% | s%+ vh oodpdq ghulydgdv fux}dgdv1 Iuhfxhqwhphqwh/
hvwdv ghulydgdv vrq ljxdohv frpr lqglfd ho vljxlhqwh whruhpd1
43

Whruhpd 46 +Ljxdogdg gh odv ghulydgdv sdufldohv fux}dgdv, Vl s E%c +


xqd ixqflq uhdo gh grv yduldeohv wdo txh s / s% / s+ / s+% | s%+ vrq frqwlqxdv
hq xq delhuwr -1 Hqwrqfhv/
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Y+Y%
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d glhflvlv ghulydgdv fxduwdv | dv vxfhvlydphqwh1

616

Ixqflrqhv gh Wuhv r Pv Yduldeohv

Hq ho fdvr gh xqd ixqflq s E%c +c 5 gh wuhv yduldeohv h{lvwhq wuhv ghulydgdv


sdufldohv1 Hq ho fdvr jhqhudo gh xqd ixqflq sE%c    c %?  gh ? yduldeohv
h{lvwhq ? ghulydgdv sdufldohv1 Wrgdv hoodv vh ghqhq vh ghqhq gh irupd
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714

Ixqflrqhv gh Grv Yduldeohv

Vhd + ' s E% xqd ixqflq gh xqd yduldeoh glihuhqfldeoh hq @ |


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od ixqflq
uE%c + ' s E@c K n

Ys
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huuru oEc & hqwuh sE@c K | uE%c +/ ylhqh gdgd sru
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45

Ghqlflq 48 Vhd s E%c + xqd ixqflq uhdo gh grv yduldeohv frq grplqlr (
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ixqflq s hv glihuhqfldeoh hq wrgrv orv sxqwrv gh -1
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dsur{lpdflq olqhdo gh s hq E@c K d od ixqflq olqhdo
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715

Ixqflrqhv gh Wuhv r Pv Yduldeohv

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r pv yduldeohv1
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yhulfd=
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sxqwr gh -1 Dv plvpr glihuhqfldelolgdg gh s hq @ lpsolfd frqwlqxlgdg gh s
hq @1 Vh oodpd glihuhqfldo gh fdgd yduldeoh lqghshqglhqwh % | vh uhsuhvhqwd
sru _% / d fxdotxlhu lqfuhphqwr hq glfkd yduldeoh1 Od glihuhqfldo wrwdo gh
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gh s hq xq sxqwr E@c Kc S wrpd od irupd
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Uhjod gh od Fdghqd

Od uhjod gh od fdghqd sdud ixqflrqhv gh xqd yduldeoh hvwdeohfh txh vl + ' sE%
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814

Uhjod gh od Fdghqd sdud grv Yduldeohv

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ho fdvr hq od txh fdgd xqd gh vxv yduldeohv % h + vrq d vx yh} ixqflrqhv gh
xqd yduldeoh lqghshqglhqwh | frq or txh
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vhu xqd ixqflq gh |1 Odv yduldeohv % h + vh ghqrplqdq yduldeohv lqwhuphgldv
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5 ' sE%c +
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% ' %E| h + ' +E|
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Whruhpd 55 +Grv yduldeohv lqwhuphgldv | grv qdohv, Vhd


5 ' sE%c +
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% ' %Eoc | h + ' +Eoc |
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815

Irupd Jhqhudo gh od Uhjod gh od Fdghqd

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ixqflq
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gh od yduldeoh %1
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gh odv yduldeohv % /    /%? 1
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5 ' s E+c    c +6 
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816

Ghulydflq Lpsoflwd

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gh %/ l1h1 + ' +E% | s E%c +E% ' f1 Vxsrqjdprv dghpv txh glfkd ixqflq
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64

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;1515

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65

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66

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