UCM Notes

Compiled by Dr.S.Satishkumar, St.
Josephs College of Engineering , Chennai - 119
2009
UNCONVENTIONAL
MACHINING
PROCESSES
Unit - I INTRODUCTION
Syllabus
Unconventional machining process - Need classification - Brief overview of all techniques
References
1. Modern machining Processes - P.C. Pandey & H.S Shan
2. Unconventional machining - P.K. Mishra
Compiled by Dr.S.Satishkumar, St. Josephs College of Engineering , Chennai - 119
2009
Difficult to machine harder materials

There has been a rapid growth in development of harder and difficult to-machine metals
and alloys
Conventional machining is uneconomical for such materials and the degree of accuracy
and surface finish attainable is poor.
Need of newer Machining Technology

Advance strength level of work piece has a catastrophic effect on machining bill .
There need to be an improvement in machining technology
Merchant ( 1960) emphasized the need for development of newer concepts.
Why it is unconventional?
The newer machining processes developed are often called modern machining
processes or unconventional machining process
These are unconventional in the sense that conventional tools are not employed for metal
cutting instead energy in its direct form is utilized
Material Strength Vs Machining Cost
2009
Classification of modern machining process

Modern machining methods are classified according to the type of fundamental
machining energy employed
Following table gives classification based on type of energy , mechanism of metal
removal, the source of energy requirements
Process selection
These methods cannot replace conventional machining
A particular machining method found suitable under given conditions may not be equally
efficient under other conditions.
A careful selection of process is essential for the machining problem
Before selection the process the following aspects must be studied
Physical parameters
Properties of work material
Shape to be obtained
Process capability
Economic considerations
2009
EDM and USM require approximately same power

ECM consumes roughly 40% more
ECM is an excellent method for drilling long slender holes (Length /diameter >20)
Shape Applications of modern machining process
2009
Material applications
EDM and ECM are unsuitable for electrically non conducting materials. Mechanical methods
can achieve desired results
Process capability
It can be noted that ECM results in excellent surface finish , but cause extensive surface damage.
2009
Effects on equipment and tooling

ECM low tool wear ratio. Serious problems regarding the contamination and corrosion of
machine parts
Comparison
Process Summary
2009
2009
2009
Review Questions
Part A
1. What is the difference between unconventional and conventional process in metal
machining ?
2. List the unconventional machining process which uses mechanical energy.
3. List the unconventional machining process which uses electrochemical energy.
4. List the unconventional machining process which uses thermal energy.
5. List the characteristics of unconventional machining.
6. Name the unconventional machining processes which has maximum material removal
rate and minimum material removal rate.
7. Name the unconventional machining process for machining the following materials.
a. Ceramics, plastics and glass
b. Refractoriness
c. Titanium
d. Super alloys
e. Steel
8. Name the unconventional machining process used for making micro-holes.
9. Name the unconventional machining process used for making deep slender holes
10. Name the unconventional machining process used for making shallow holes
11. Name the unconventional machining process which produces good surface finish.
12. State the type of energy source used in chemical machining
13. State the type of energy source used in electro chemical grinding
14. State the type of energy source used in Electric discharge machining
15. State the type of energy source applied in Electron beam machining
16. State the type of energy source applied in abrasive jet machining
2009
17. Name the unconventional machining process which produces excellent surface finish?
18. Name the unconventional machining process that causes extensive damage during
machining?
19. Which unconventional machining process has the minimum tool wear ratio?
20. Which unconventional machining process has the maximum tool wear ratio?
Part B
1. What are the industrial needs for unconventional machining processes?
2. How are unconventional machining process classified based on type of energy?
3. Compare conventional and unconventional machining process?
4. Classify the unconventional machining processes based on mechanism of metal removal
5. What are the aspects must be considered for selecting a process? Also compare the
physical parameters of the modern machining processes.
6. Compare the process capability of the modern machining methods
7. List the various shape applications of modern machining process and also rate the
processes in terms of machining quality.
8. What is tool wear ratio? Rate the various unconventional processes in terms of machining
medium contamination.
Compoled by
UNCONVENTIONAL
MACHINING PROCESSES
Unit II Mechanical Processes
Syllabus: Ultrasonic machining , Abrasive Jet Machining,

Water Jet Machining
References:
Compiled by Dr.S.Satishkumar, St. Josephs College of Engineering, Chennai - 119
Ultrasonic Machining
Ultrasonic frequency above the upper
There are two types of waves , namely longitudinal waves and shear waves.
Longitudinal waves are mostly used in ultrasonic applications since they can be
frequency of human ear
easily propagated.
Device used to any type of energy into ultrasonic waves is called transducer.
Material is removed by the action of abrasive grains
Abrasive particles are driven into the work surface by the tool oscillating normal
Introduction
to the work surface at high frequency
The tool is shaped as approximate mirror image of the configuration of the cavity
desired in the work .
Schematic representation of USM
Page 2
Scheme of Acoustic head
Page 3
Process
The excitement of the tool is mostly given by magentostrictive transducer
A slurry which is made of abrasive particles suspended in the liquid is fed into the
cutting zone under pressure
Elements
Four mail elements

o Work material
o Tool cone and tip
o Abrasive Slurry
o Ultrasonic machine
A shaped tool is given a mechanical vibration.
Vibration causes the abrasive particles in the slurry to hammer against the work
to cause micro-indentations to initiate fracture in work material
Work Material
Earlier it was assumed that material is removed by brittle failure. So brittle

materials were thought to be machined
It is confirmed that chips can be formed in this process, that is ductile failure can
also take place
There is no limitation to the range of materials that can be machined
Except they should not dissolve in the slurry media or react with it.
Tool Cone
Tool cone also called as HORN amplifies and focuses the mechanical energy
produced by transducer and imparts this to the work piece
Material of the cone should be of adequate strength to withstand the stress at the
nodal plane.
Titanium is the good material for tool cone
Page 4
Tool Tip
Tool tip is attached to the base of the cone by silver brazing, soft soldering or
screws.
The tool tip geometry governs the shape or impression or cavity to be produced
A 11.98 mm dia tool tip may produce 12 +/ - 0.005 mm hole when 600 grit is
used
Smaller the contact area, the better the abrasive flow under the tool and higher the
penetration rate
Tool tip has to withstand vibrations and it should not fail or wear out quickly
Wear occurs at end and wear at sides is 10 times less
Tough malleable materials such as alloy steels and stainless steel prove
satisfactory
Tungsten carbide is the best one but presents many problems in shaping. Cost is
high
Abrasive slurry
Some abrasives used are

o Alumium oxide ( Alumina)
o Boron Carbide
o Silicon carbide
o Diamond dust
Boron is the most expensive abrasive material but is best suited for tungsten
carbide , tool steel and precious stones
Silicon finds the maximum application
Diamond dust ensures good accuracy, surface finish and cutting rates
The size of abrasive vary from 200 and 2000 grit
Course grades are good for roughing, whereas finer grades (1200 to 2000) are
used for finishing
In actual practice the surface roughness of the machined face is governed by work
material, roughness on toll surface, vibration amplitude, fineness of abrasive grit,
efficient slurry circulation
Page 5
Liquid media
Abrasive is suspended in liquid
Acts as acoustic bond between work piece and vibrating tool
Helps efficient transfer of energy
Acts as a coolant
Provides medium to carry the abrasive to the cutting zone
Helps to carry away the worn abrasive and swarf
Characteristic of good suspension media
Density , approximately equal to that of abrasive
Good wetting properties to wet the tool, work and abrasive
High thermal conductivity
Low viscosity to carry the abrasive down the sides of the hole between the tool
and work piece
Noncorrosive properties
Tool Feed mechanism

The feed mechanism must perform the following functions
Bring the tool very slowly close to the work piece
Provide adequate cutting force and sustain this during cutting
Decrease the force at the specified depth
Return the tool
Page 6
In systems shown in fig (a) & (b) counter weights are used. The force is adjusted
through weights
Figure (c) shows a compact spring loaded system which is quite sensitive
For high rating machines, pneumatic or hydraulic systems are used ( Fig (d) )
Transducers
Energy is being drawn and in electrical form and is converted to mechanical form
by transducer
2 types of transducers Piezoelectric and magnetostriction
Magnetostriction means a change in dimension occurring in ferromagnetic

materials subject to an alternating magnetic field.
The connecting body is attached to the transducer receives and transmits this
change in length and its further amplified by a horn
The piezo electric crystal transducer is made either from ceramic or natural
crystals like quartz.
Concentrator
Provides the link between the transducer and the tool
Horn is the Concentrator
Page 7
Nodal point clamping
Rigid system should be made without any loss in the mounting . So damped at the
nodal points
To reduce the loss and fatigue failure clamping is made in the nodal points (Refer
diagram under Acoustic head (page 3)
Mechanics of Metal cutting
The abrasive grains are thrown onto the work surface and then the surface is
chipped
The abrasive grains are hammered on to the work surface
Erosion or cavitation occurs under the tool and causes material removal
Effect of parameters
Kc/s = kilo cycles /sec = Khz

Ketos is an oil-hardening tool steel which may be hardened from fairly low temperatures
with little size change
Page 8
Page 9
Page 10
Page 11
Applications
Page 12
Recent Developments
Mullard research laboratories USA have developed that combines electrochemical
reaction and ultrasonic abrasion
This approach machines 9 times faster than ultrasonics
Engis limited of England has developed Die ripper in which diamond plated tool
oscillates at ultrasonic speed as well as rotates at high speed ( 5000 rpm) . This
increases MRR several times
Operational Summary
Page 13
Abrasive Jet Machining
This process of removal of material by impact erosion through the action of a

concentrated, high velocity stream of grit abrasives
It is used to cut hard and brittle materials and the process is free from vibration
AJM uses a stream of fine grained abrasive mixed with carrier gases at high
pressure
Stream is directed by means of a suitably designed nozzle onto the work surface
to be machined.
Material removal occurs due to erosion caused by abrasive particles
Applications
Removing flash and parting lines from injection molded parts
Deburring and polishing plastic, nylon and teflon components
Cleaning metallic mould cavities otherwise may be inaccessible
Cutting fragile components made of glass, refractories, ceramics and mica
Producing high quality surface
Reproducing design on glass surface with the help of masks made of copper
Page 14
Scheme of AJM
Advantages and Disadvantages
Ability to machine brittle material
Metal removal at microscopic scale, no heat generation
Low capital investment and low power consumption
Not suited for ductile material (low MRR)
Abrasives stick over the surface during machining
machining accuracy is poor, nozzle wear is high
Pollutes the environment
Page 15
Carrier Gas
Gases used are air, carbondioxide and nitrogen
Air is widely used ( low cost and easily available)
Gas should be non toxic , cheap easily available
Capable of being dried and cleaned easily

Abrasives
Aluminum oxide , Silicon carbide are used for cutting
Sodium bicarbonate, Dolomite and glass beads are used for cleaning , etching ,
de-burring and polishing
The abrasive should have a sharp and irregular shape and be fine enough to
remain suspended in the carrier gas
Should have excellent flow characteristics
Grain size
Most favorable grain size 10 to 50 microns
Course grains are recommended for cutting
Finer grains are useful in polishing, deburring etc.
Page 16
Jet Velocity
Kinetic Energy of the abrasive jet is utilized for metal removal by erosion.
Erosion to occur the jet must impinge the work surface with a certain minimum
velocity
Jet velocity is a function of nozzle pressure, nozzle design, abrasive size, mean
number of abrasives per unit volume of carrier gas. (M)
M=
Vol. Flow rate of abrasives / unit time

------------------------------------------Vol. flow rate of the carrier gas/ unit time
Jet Pressure
Page 17
Work Material
AJM is recommended for processing of brittle materials
Most ductile materials are practically un-machinable by AJM
Stand Off Distance ( SOD)
Stand off is defined as the distance between face of the nozzle and the work
surface
A large SOD results in the flaring up of jet which leads to poor accuracy
Small MRR at low SOD is due to reduction in nozzle pressure with decrease in
distance
Small MRR at large SOD is due to reduction in jet velocity with increase in
distance.
Page 18
Page 19
Nozzle Design
Nozzle has to withstand the erosive action of abrasive particles
Should be made of materials that can provide high resistance to wear.
Common materials are sapphire and tungsten carbide
Should be designed that pressure loss due to bends and friction loss is as little as
possible.
Nozzle can be of rectangular or circular in cross sections
Nozzle Wear
Page 20
Operational Summary
Page 21
Water Jet Machining
Employs a fine jet of water with a high pressure ( 1500-4000MN/sq.m) and high
velocity ( upto twice the speed of sound)
When fine jet bombarded on the work piece erodes the material.
High velocity flow is virtually stopped, then the KE is converted to pressure

energy ( called stagnation pressure)
Mechanism of Metal removal
Mechanism of water jet machining is erosion caused by localized compressive failure

which occurs when the local fluid pressure exceeds the strength of the material
Jet cutting equipment
Pump : to pressurize the liquid to 1500 4000 MN/sq m
Tubing : High pressure to transport fluid
Ratio Outside to inside diameter is 5 to 10
Tubing made of solid stainless steel
Valves: most high pressure valves are of needle type
Nozzle : made of sintered diamond and sapphire
Exit diamter of nozzle 0.05 to 0.35mm
Process Details
Page 22
Advantages
Water is cheap, non toxic
Any contour can be cut
Does not generate heat
Best suited for explosive environments
Effect of parameters
Page 23
Page 24
Page 25
Operational Summary
Page 26
Review Questions
Part A
1. What are the abrasives used in AJM process?
2. Name the nozzle materials used in AJM processes
3. What are carrier gases in AJM? Name a few carrier gas.
4. What are the desirable properties of carrier gas in AJM?
5. What are the applications of AJM
6. What are the factors that affect the MRR in AJM process
7. Differentiate abrasive jet machining and sand blasting process?
8. What is transducer in USM?
9. List the different types of transducers in USM
10. What is magnetostriction effect?
11. What is piezo electric effect What is feed mechanism in USM ?List the different
types of USM
12. State the tool wear ratio in USM ?
13. What are the types of work materials for USM ?
14. What are the abrasives used in USM process?
15. What is abrasive slurry?
16. What are the typical applications of USM?
17. What are the types of tool materials for USM
18. List the unique benefits offered by WJM process
19. List the applications of WJM
20. What is mixing ratio in abrasive jet machining
Part B
1. How do operating parameters affect the machining process in AJM process
2. Define ultrasonics and describe the process in which these are used to machine
the material
Page 27
3. What are the constituents of slurry used in ultrasonic machining? Name the
characteristics of a good suspension media. Which fluid satisfies most of these
requirements
4. Sketch and describe the types of tool feed systems used in ultrasonic machining
5. Discuss the effects of the following parameters on the rate of material removal
and surface finish obtainable in USM
(i)
Amplitude and frequency of vibration
(ii)
Abrasive grain size
(iii)
Static load
6. Discuss why AJM technique, when applied to ductile materials leads to a low rate
of material removal
7. Discuss the effects of the following parameters on working accuracy and rate of
metal removal in AJM
8.
(i)
Grain size
(ii)
Jet velocity
(iii)
Stand off distance
(i)
What is the principle of water jet machining?
(ii)
Write a note on the special features of the equipment used in this

method of machining
(iii)
Give the practical applications of water jet machining
9. Why the ductile material erode less than brittle materials in USM process
10. Explain why there exists an optimum SOD for max MRR
Page 28
Electric Discharge
Machining
Dr.S.Satish Kumar, Professor, Dept of Mech. Engineering
References
UNIT III
Syllabus
Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)- working Principles-equipments-Process
Parameters-MRR-electrode / Tool Power circuits- Tool wear dielectric- Flushing
Wire cut EDM - applications
Electric Discharge Machining
History of EDM
In 1970 , the English scientist Priestley first detected the erosive effect of
electrical discharges on metals.
EDM has found ready in the machining of hard metals or alloys which cannot be
machined easily by conventional methods.
Application seen in machining of dies, tools made of tungsten carbides, Stellites

or hard steels.
Popularity of EDM
Most suitable for electrically conductive materials. Physical and metallurgical

properties of work material, such as strength, toughness, microstructure etc are no
barrier
Work piece is not subjected to mechanical deformation. As a result slender and

most fragile jobs cab be machined more easily
Although metal removal in this case is due to thermal effects, there is no heating
in the bulk of the material.
Complicated die contours in hard materials can be produced to a high degree of

accuracy and surface finish
Spark erosion machining process
Consider the case of a discharge between two electrodes (tool cathode and work
anode) through a gaseous or liquid medium
1|Page
Compiled by Dr.S.Satishkumar
Suitable voltage is applied. The potential intensity of the electric field between
them build up , until a predetermined value
Individual electrons break loose from the surface of the cathode and impelled
towards the anode under the influence of field forces.
While moving in inter electrode space, the electrons collide with the neutral
molecules of the dielectric detaching electrons from them and causing ionization.
Ionization becomes such that a narrow channel of continuous conductivity is

formed
This results in momentary current impulse or discharge.
This leads to generation of extremely high temperature between 8000 C and

12000 C causing fusion or partial vaporization of the metal and dielectric fluid at
the point if discharge.
This results in the formation of tiny crater at the point of discharge in the work
piece.
Mechanism of metal removal
Fundamentally the electro-sparking method of metal working involves an electric

erosion effect which connotes the breakdown of electrode material accompanying
any form of electric discharge, (The discharge is usually through a gas, liquid or
in some cases solids)
2|Page
A necessary condition for producing a discharge is the ionization of the dielectric

, that is , splitting up of its molecules into ions and electrons
This leads to generation of extremely high temperature between 8000 C and

12000 C causing fusion or partial vaporization of the metal and dielectric fluid at
the point if discharge.
This results in the formation of tiny crater at the point of discharge in the work
piece.
Spark erosion machining
Less tool wear (cathode)
The momentum with which positive ions strike the cathode (tool) is much less
than the momentum with which the electron stream impinges on the anode surface
A compressive force is generated on the cathode surface by the spark which helps
reduce tool wear
3|Page
Classification of Spark erosion machining process
Sinking by EDM
4|Page
Cutting by EDM
Grinding by EDM
5|Page
Electrode Feed control
Both work piece and electrode is eroded
Working gap is maintained hence spark voltage remain unaltered
Overshooting may close the gap and hence short circuit may take place
Rapid reversing speed is essential
Servo mechanism affecting the movement may be electric motor driven, solenoid
operated or hydraulic operated
Di-electric fluids
Remain electrically non conductive until required breakdown voltage is reached.

They should have high dielectric strength
Breakdown electrically in the shortest possible time once the breakdown voltage
is reached
6|Page
Quench the spark rapidly or de-ionise the spark gap after the discharge had
occurred
Be capable of Carrying swarf particles.
Good degree of fluidity & be cheap and easily available
Transformer oil, paraffin oil , kerosene, lubricating oil and other petroleum
distillate can be used as dielectric fluids
Flushing
Correct circulation of dielectric fluid between electrode and work piece to obtain
highest machining accuracy
Flushing in EDM can be achieved by anyone of the following methods
(i)
Injection flushing
(ii)
Suction flushing
(iii)
side flushing
(iv)
Flushing by dielectric pumping
Pressure or injection flushing
Dielectric fluid is injected either through the work piece or tool
7|Page
Vacuum flushing / suction flushing
Dielectric fluid is sucked either through the work piece or tool
Side flushing
When flushing holes cannot be drilled either in the work piece or the tool side flushing is
employed
8|Page
Dielectric pumping /reciprocating electrode
Flushing is done by electrode pulsation movement.
When the electrode is raised the gap increases, resulting in clean dielectric fluid
sucked into mix with contaminated fluid.
Particle flushes out when electrode is lowered
Suitable for deep hole drilling
ELECTRODES
Spark erosion is basically a copying process
the shape and accuracy of the machined part will therefore primarily depend on
the shape and accuracy of the tool or cutting electrode
Selection of electrodes
Four main factors determine the suitability of a material for use as an electrode
Maximum possible material removal rate
9|Page
Wear ratio
ease with which it can be shaped or fabricated to the desired shape
Cost
Selection of electrode material
Tool electrode design
Electrode is the mirror image of the work
Clearance should be provided between tool and work cavity produced
Magnitude of the clearance varies with the rate of metal removal , the material
and work
10 | P a g e
Operating conditions on side clearance during boring
Process parameters
11 | P a g e
Pulse energy at a constant voltage is varied by changing the size of the capacitors
12 | P a g e
13 | P a g e
14 | P a g e
Machine tool selection

A variety of EDM machines ranging from small machines to large machines are available
The factors that have to be considered are
The number of parts to be machined
Accuracy required
Size of the work piece
Depth of the cavity
Orientation of the cavity
Spark erosion generators

Discharge may be produced in a controlled manner by natural ignition and relaxation ,
or by means of a controllable switching element for eg, electronic valve, thyristor,
transistor etc
Generators for EDM may be classified to
Relaxation generators
Rotary pulse generators
Static pulse generators

.
Relaxation Generators (R-C circuit)
15 | P a g e
Rotary pulse generators
The capacitor is charged using a diode. The circuit permits high metal removal rates.
16 | P a g e
Static pulse generator (Controlled pulse circuit)
These circuits offer the advantage of faster rate of metal removal and low tool electrode
wear; The RC circuits are replaced with vacuum tubes and oscillators.
17 | P a g e
Wire Cut EDM
Saw is a wire electrode of small diameter

Horizontal movement of the work table is controlled by CNC modern machines
The electrode wire is used only once, then discarded because the wire looses its form
after one pass through the workpiece
Kerf in Wire Cut EDM
The electrode wire cuts a slot or kerf in EDM

The width of the kerf is wire diameter plus overcut illustrated in fig
18 | P a g e
Operational summary
19 | P a g e
Review Questions
Part A
1. What is the working principle of EDM process?
2. What is the purpose of dielectric in EDM?
3. What are the factors affecting Metal removal rate in EDM ?
4. What are the basic requirements of tool material in EDM?
5. Name the common tool materials
6. Define wear ratio in EDM
7. List the advantages of wirecut EDM
8. Name the materials that cannot be machined in EDM?
9. List the properties of dielectric fluids?
10. Why a tool feed mechanism is necessary in EDM?
11. What is overcut in EDM?
12. What is the mechanism of metal removal in EDM process?
13. Why tool has less wear when compared to work piece in EDM?
14. How do you classify spark erosion machining?
15. What is Electrode feed control?
16. List the properties of dielectric fluid.
17. What is flushing?
18. What are the factors that determine the suitability of a material for use as an
electrode?
19. How do you classify the generators for EDM?
20. What is Kerf in wirecut EDM ?
Part B
1. How gas, stacks and slugs and debris are formed during machining by EDM?
What are the provisions to be made for their removal?
2. What are the ways of gap flushing used in EDM? Explain in detail.
3. What are the functions of dielectric used in the machine? List its properties.
20 | P a g e
4. In an EDM operation employing relaxation circuit, discuss the effects of

(i) charging resistance (ii) gap setting (iii) capacitance on the rate of metal
removal How does this type of machine compared with pulse generator
5. Discuss the factors influencing the choice of electrode material in EDM. Name
the best electrode material for finish machining a small die made of WC by EDM
process
6. Discuss the advantages of EDM as compared to other non traditional methods
with regard to (i) material removal rate (ii) accuracy (iii) surface finish
7. Explain with a neat sketch the working of Wire cut EDM.
21 | P a g e
LASER BEAM MACHINING (LBM)- UNIT -5

LASER stands for Light Amplification using Stimulated emission of
Radiation
Laser provide intense and unidirectional beams of light. This light is
coherent in nature, monochromatic, divergence and bright.
Monochromatic means its wavelength (Colour) occupies a very narrow
space of the spectrum. This is in contrast to white light, which is
composed of many different colours. The net result is that a simple lens
can be used to form concentrate laser light to a much smaller diameter
spot and a much higher intensity than with other types of light.
Ordinary light means travel randomly with respect to time and
space, there fore it is described as incoherent light. In contrast, the light
from a laser is coherent (travels in phase) and there can achieve higher
focus intensities than normal light.
Along with coherence, lasers are well collimated with beams that often
diverge with angles of less than 1 to 2 m.rad. The low divergence rate of
laser is important factor in achieving a high intensity in the work-piece.
For example, a 100 w light bulb at 1 m distance illuminate objects
with an intensity of 0.0008 w/cm 2.
In contrast, at a distance of 1 m, a 100 w laser with a 1 cm
diameter beam will generate a power density of 127 w/cm2. In addition if
a lens is used, to focus and concentrate light to a spot 0.127 mm in
diameter, the power density may increase to more than 800,000 w/cm 2
A beam directly form laser is useless for material processing
applications unless its power density is increased by focusing
For heating surface power density required
1.5 x 10+2 to 1.5 x 10+2 w/cm2
Melting surface (for Welding) Power density required
1
1.5 x 104 to 1.5 x 106 w/cm2

For cutting and drilling Power density required
1.5 x 106 to 1.5 x 108 w/cm2
For more than 1.5 x 108 w/cm2 material is removed by sublimation
(i.e solid to direct vapour stage)
APPARATUS
The most important point of laser apparatus is the laser crystal. Many
materials with laser actions have been developed.
1.
Calcium Fluoride crystal doped with neodymium (Ca + F 2 + Nd)
2.
Glass doped with various Rare earths.
3.
Most commonly used laser crystal is a man made Ruby
Consisting of Al2O3 into which 0.055 Chromium has been introduced.

Crystal rods are usually round and the end surfaces are made reflective.
A laser rod of 3 Joule unit is about 6 mm in diameter and 70 mm /long.
The laser rods are excited by the Xenon filled flash lamp which
surrounds it. Both are enclosed inside a highly reflective cylinder which
directs the light from flash lamp on to rod. The chromium atoms of the
ruby are thus excited to high energy levels. The excited ions emit energy
(Photons) when they return to the normal state. In this way, a very high
energy is obtained in short pulses. The ruby rod becomes less efficient at
higher temperatures. It is thus continuously cooled with water, air or
liquid nitrogen.
MATERIAL REMOVAL
It is a combination of melting and evaporation. It is essentially a thermal
process of material removal.
CUTTING SPEED AND ACCURACY OF CUT

The latest commercially available laser unit of 800 w capacity can cut
most metal plates up to 3 mm thick at speed of about 1 to 1.25 m/ min
The feature of cutting edge is square and straight edge obtained.
In this HAZ is very low i.e 1 mm in 3 mm plate cutting. No. change
practically in metallurgical properties.
ADVANTAGES
1.
Any solid metal w/o decomposition can be cut
2.
No contact of tool with work.
3.
The Beam can be projected through a transparent window
4.
Large mechanical forces are not exerted to work PC
LIMITATION
Materials with high conductivity and or reflectivity cannot be cut.
So, Al, Cu and their alloys cannot be cut satisfactorily.
Out put of energy of laser is different to control
The laser system is quite inefficient.
The least diameter which can be cut depends mainly on laser

divergence.
GENERAL PROCESS PRINCIPLE OF LBM
STIMULATED EMISSION
N2
E2
E1
N1
Interaction of Photons & atoms to produce stimulated emission
The Key principle behind the operation of laser has explained by Albert
Einstein is that under proper conditions light energy of a particular
frequency could be used to stimulate the electron in an atom to emit
additional light with exactly the same characteristic as the original
stimulating light source.
From the above sketch it can be seen that if an atom or molecule is
raised to a high energy level E2 by an out side energy source (e.g heat,
light, chemical energy etc) and is allowed to decay back to its ground
state energy level E 1 a photon (unit of light) is released. If the photon
contacts another atom or molecule that has been raised to high energy
level, the second atom or molecule will be triggered back to its ground
state. The return back to ground stage makes it release the second
photon along with the trigger photon. The pair of electron released is
identical in wave length, phase, direction & energy. This sequence of
triggering clone photons from stimulated atoms or molecules is known
as stimulated emissions.
But to build a working laser following two conditions are needed.
1.
Energy source which gives out initial stimulation should be very

powerful so that majority of atoms or molecules lased are at their
highest energy level. This condition is known as Population
inversion.
2.
Second condition required is to produce a laser is to provide a feed

back system. The feed back mechanism captures and redirect a
portion of the coherent photons back into the active medium to
stimulate the emission of still more photons of the same frequency
& phase.
EQUIPMENT
Lasers that are used for material processing applications must be high power, reliable and a relatively low acquisition cost. The table shows five
types of lacer meeting the above criteria.
TERMINOLOGIES ASSOCIATED WITH LASER
1.
MONO CHROMATIC LIGHT

In this all the photons have the same energy and hence the same
frequency and wave length.
2.
COHERENT LIGHT
It means that all the photons or light energy are in phase.
3.
INTENSE LIGHT
It means that all the emitted waves are in phase or coherent and
highly directional
4.
STIMULATED EMISSION
If an atom or molecule is raised to a higher energy level (E 2) by an
outside energy source (e.g heat, light chemical etc.,) and is allowed
to decay back to its ground state energy level (E 1), a photon (a unit
of light) is released. If the photon contacts another atom or
molecule that has been raised to a high energy level, the second
atom or molecule will be triggered to return back to ground state,
the return to ground state causes the second atom or molecule to
release a second photon along with trigger photon. The pair of
photons produced by this chain of events is identical in
wavelength,
phase
direction
and
energy.
This
sequence
of
triggering clone photons from simulated atoms or molecules is

known as simulated emission.
5.
ABLATION
Evaporation or melting of a surface through heating by friction
with atmosphere.
6.
POPULATION INVERSION
Usually the number of particles in the higher energy level E2 (i.e
the population of the higher energy level) is less than the
population of E1 of lower energy level. For laser action the
population of atoms in the higher energy state should be
increased. The process of increasing the population of higher
energy level than lower energy; i.e making E2 > E1 is called as
Population inversion.
7.
PUMPING
The method of achieving population inversion i.e raising the atoms
from lower energy state is called Pumping
8.
FEED BACK MECHANISM

The partially reflecting mirrors used in laser beam machine
capture and redirect a portion of coherent photons back in to the
active medium to stimulate the emissions of still more photons of
the same frequency and phase. Also the feed back mechanism is
designed to allow a small percentage of the coherent photons to
leave the system in the form of laser light. Although some of the
photons are allowed to escape the system, many photons will still
be available to maintain the amplification process through
stimulated emission. The small percentage that was allowed to
escape is laser light, hence the name light amplification by
stimulated emissions of radiations (LASER).
MAIN PROCESS DETAILS

LBM is based on the conversion of electrical energy to light energy and
then in to thermal energy. In a typical system, charged capacitors are
discharged through a gas filled flash lamp with a power source of 250 w
1000 w in order to produce and intense flash of white light. Radiation
from the lamp is directed into the laser, where the light is amplified and
emitted as a coherent, highly collimated beam of single wave length. This
narrow beam is focused by an optical lens to produce a small intense
spot of light on the work surface. Optical energy is converted into heat
energy upon impact and temperatures generated can be made sufficient
to melt and vaporize every known material.
Although laser is used as light amplifier in many applications, their main
use is as optical oscillators or transducers for converting energy into
highly collimated, and high focused (i.e a very small divergent of less
than 0.001 radian) beams of optical radiation (light). Light energy emitted
by laser is very monochromatic and highly collimated and had high
focused power density. Light radiated by excited electrons is in phase
with the beam which initiates the radiation. As the intense light
continues to travel back and forth through the laser material more and
more electrons are stimulated to release their energy all in phase. As the
light is reflected and moves back in the tube, it soon becomes so
powerful that a ray burst from the partially reflecting end.
Many types of laser exist which produce highly directive beams of
optical infra red radiation. They can be classified as solid state, gas or
liquid.
Solid state units have laser rods made of any one of a number of
solid
materials
including
Ruby,
Neodymium
doped
glass
and
neodymium doped Yttrium Aluminium Garnet (Called YAG), gas
units has glass tubes filled with CO 2, (usually a mixture of CO2, helium
and nitrogen) but called CO2 Laser, Helium Neon, Cadmium gas or
Argon.
The Laser rod or tube is pumped by an energy source (Krypton,
Tungsten-halogen, or Xeon filled flash lamps) and radiant energy
known as Laser light is emitted from one end of the Rod or tube, laser
beams may operate continuously or be pulsed, with pulse durations as
short as a few billionth of a second.
COMPOSITION & PROPERTIES OF SOME LASER MATERIALS
RUBY LASER
Crystalline Ruby is Aluminium oxide with chromium ion impurities in
the Aluminium lattice structure. A small percentage (0.01 0.05) of
A1+++ ions are replaced by Cr - - - ions. The Aluminium & oxygen ions are
inert only the chromium ions participate in the laser action, ruby lasers
have a relatively short wavelength (0.069 micron) and one limited in
applications.
CO2 LASER
CO2 laser has a wavelength of 10-6 microns, CO2 laser is especially used
for machining non metals as non metals have high energy absorption at
the wave length of CO2
ALCOHOL LASER
These are liquid laser used in research and in medical applications.
DETAILS COMPONENT OF SOLID LASER
10
DETAIL COMPONENTS OF GAS LASER
FEED BACK
MECHANISM
100 %
REFLECTIVE MIRROR
LASER
MATERIAL
(GAS
MIXTURE)
ENERGY SOURCE
ELECTRICITY
PARTIALLY
REFLECTIVE MIRROR
11
Flash lamp requires frequent replacement; their life mainly depends

upon the energy input and current pulse shape. Flash lamp life can vary
from as short as a few hundred shots. In general, pulsed laser system is
designed to provide a flash lamp life of between 10000 to 100000
operations betweens lamp replacements.
Not all the materials removed by evaporation, since laser machining is
basically a high speed ablation process.
12
13
Pulse duration is not a major factor for laser machining. However a long
pulse produces a large heat affected Zone (HAZ) and a large amount of
molten material surrounding the hole.
To obtain uniformity in the laser machined hole, it is necessary to
maintain a uniform energy density over the area to be drilled during the
laser pulse.
If the intensity is increased sufficiently high and the pulse duration is
short, vaporization of the material surface occurs and the vaporized
metal is thrown off from the surface.
To meet the basic requirement for industrial Applications the laser
system must have the following specification:
a)
Sufficient power output
b)
Controlled pulse length
c)
Suitable focusing system
d)
Reliability of operation
f)
Suitable safety characteristics
MRR (MATERIAL REMOVAL RATE)

Material Removal Rate by a laser satisfies the following relationship.
Material Removal Rate
R=
Where
KP
60 E A t
in mm3/second
Power of laser incident on the surface
Vaporization energy of material W/mm3
Area of laser beam at focal point in mm 2
Thickness
Constant, whose value depends upon the
of material in mm
Material used and is measured in mm/min
14
APPLICATIONS
1.
Most materials can be cut by laser. Almost any intricate

pattern, shape or contour can be cut without the need of special
fixtures at rapid cutting rates. The laser is suitable for precision
work.
2.
The laser beam is used for drilling purpose. A small hole is

generated by laser in a single pulse on thin material. A thicker
work piece may need a sequence of controlled laser pulses to
gradually increase the hole depth. Most of the laser beam
applications are in small hole drilling such as fuel filters,
carburetor nozzles, diamond drawing dies etc.
3.
Laser beam can be used for marking or engraving so as to

produce controlled surface pattern on a work piece. In this way
company logo, part number serial numbers can be made.
4.
Laser beam are used to vaporize foreign materials clogged in

electron microscope apparatus.
ADVANTAGES
1.
With the help of laser it is possible to drill micro holes with

large depth to diameter ratios.
2.
the properties of heat treated material or magnetic material are

not affected by laser beam machining. There is very small heat
affected zone (HAZ)
3.
There is no tool wear or any tool breakage involved in this

process.
4.
Any metal or non metal can be machined. Materials like

Tungsten, Ceramics, zirconium, wood, paper etc., can be
machined by this process.
5.
No burns are produced. This is a clean cut process.

15
6.
The process has ability to drill in inaccessible locations.
7.
It is possible to drill at shallow angles (15)
8.
It can weld & machine through glass or any optically

transparent materials.
9.
No direct contract between tool & work piece.
10.
It can easily well dissimilar materials.
11.
Because of small HAZ; it can easily work close to heat sensitive

components.
12.
Refractory, brittle, non-metallic & hard surfaces on easily to

work with.
13.
Work piece need not be electrically conductive.
14.
A laser beam can be split in to several beams; each beam can

be used to perform same operations or different operations.
15.
Material wastage is minimum amount.
16.
The only material impervious to the concentrated energy would

be substance with 100% reflectability but there is no such
material. Even the highly reflective surface of Al and SS can be
treated for faster cutting with laser.
LIMITATIONS (DISADVANTAGES)
1.
The material removal rate of 0.0065 Cu.Cm / hr on LBM is the

lowest compared to other machining processes.
2.
The hole produced by LBM may taper from inlet to exit. The
taper on one side can be as much as 0.05 mm/mm.
3.
Circular holes produced by LBM are restricted to 3.20 mm in

diameter in material thickness not exceeding 12.5 mm
4.
LBM results in series of ridges along the edge of the work piece
when laser is used for cutting. This is due to metal cooling on
the sides of hole.
5.
High capital investment.
16
6.
Not suitable for machining Blind Holes in metal.
COMPARISON BETWEEN EBM & LBM

As both are so similar in application, it is required to make some
comparison.
1.
Main advantage of LBM is that it does not require Vacuum.
2.
Power density (i.e the out put in watts which can be

concentrated upon an area, usually expressed in units of
W/mm2) are greater for laser than electron beam.
3.
The laser beam can not be deflected electrically, so that the

movement of the beam with respect to the work piece must be
carried out mechanically, therefore the laser beam cannot be
controlled as accurately and machining tolerances are less,
being in the order of 0.01 mm.
MATERIAL PROCESSING LASER

Laser type
Mode of operation
Active media
Ruby
Pulsed
Solid state
Nd: Glass
Pulsed
Solid state
Nd: YAG
CW /Pulsed
Solid State
Alexandrite
CW / Pulsed
Solid State
CO2
CW/Pulsed
Gas
17
PLASMA ARC MACHINING (PAM)

Plasma Arc was initially employed to cut metals that are difficult to
machine by conventional methods. Now days Plasma Arc has been
successfully employed for spraying, surfacing and welding metals like
Aluminium, stainless steel and titanium etc.,
PLASMA
When heated to elevazted temperatures, gases turn into distinctly
different types of matter which is plasma. The changes that take place in
the gas when heated to few thousand degrees arc
Some of electrons are removes from outer boundary of atoms thus
they become ionized.
The released electron strikes to atoms to further heat them to
increase the kinetic energy.
Getting highly excited the atoms give out de-excitation light.
This effect produces more electrons and ions.
So there new maters generated can conduct electricity due to
available of free charges.
At high charge densities these matter becomes bright due to
emission from atoms.
So we see Plasma in Tube lights, lightening and Om SUN
NON THERMAL GENERATION OF PLASMA
When gases are heated by an applied electric field and an ignite
supplies the initial electrons, which accelerates in the electrical field,
before colliding and ionizing the ions.
The free electrons thus get accelerated and cause further
ionization& heating of gases. This process continues till a steady state
is obtained in which the rate of production of free charges is balanced
18
by recombination & loss of free charges to the walls & electrodes. The
actual heating of the gas takes place due to energy liberated when free
ions & electrons recombine into atoms or recombine into molecules.
The bonding energy thus liberated is in the form of kinetic energy
of atoms or molecules formed by the recombination. So it is clear the
heat content of the molecular gases is higher than that of monoatomic gases.
The energy input of such mechanism is determined by the
enthalpy of the gas at the required temperature, thermal conductivity
of the gas, loss of energy in the forms of radiation.
The electrical conductivity of the gas is a relevant parameter for
ascertaining the current density in the plasma for the given field.
19
20
The principle of plasma generation is that the high velocity electron of

the arc collides with gas molecules and produce dissociation of
diatomic molecules followed by ionization of the beam. The plasma
forming gas is forced through the nozzle duct in such a manner as to
stabilize the arc. Much of the heating of the gas takes place in the
constricted region of the nozzle duct, resulting in the relatively high
exit of gas velocity and very high core temperature upto 16000 C
MECHANISM OF METAL REMOVAL
Metal removal in PAM is necessarily due to high temperature
produced. Work Piece is heated due to Anode Heating, due to direct
electron bombardment plus the convection heating from the high
temperature plasma that accompanies the arc. The heat produced is
sufficient to raise the work piece temperature above its melting point
and the high velocity gas stream effectively blows the molten metal
away. Under optimum conditions upto approx 45% of the electrical
power delivered to the torch is used to remove metal from work piece.
PHYSICAL CONFIGURATION
In PAM, variables such as torch standoff, angle, depth of cut, feed and
speed of the work to wards the torch are important. The following
sketch shows metal removal as a function of torch angle.
21
REMOVAL RATE
MM3 /S X 102
20
15
10
10
20
-10
TORCH ANGLE ()
Operation data : Typical conditions for plasma cutting of
Aluminium
Speed
Orifice
Power
m/min
dia mm
KW
7.5
60
2270 Ar 3700 N2 -
1135 H2
OR
900 H2
12
5.0
50
1850 Ar 3959 N2 -
925 H2
1800 H2 OR
25
2.25
80
1850 Ar 3950 N2 -
935 H2
1800 H2 OR
50
0.5
80
1850 Ar 3950 N2 -
935 H2
1800 H2 OR
75
0.375
4.5
90
3700 Ar 3950 N2 -
1800 H2
2000 H2 OR
100
0.3
4.5
90
3700 Ar 3950 N2 -
2000 H2
1800 H2 OR
Thickness
22
Gas Flow (Litre / hour)
Accuracy and surface finish

Cutting speed controls amt of thermal energy transferred in the top
part of the unit of speed is high kerf will be wide at top part and
narrow downwards .
KERF
The optimum cutting speed is obtained by advancing the torch head

at the rate at which the distribution of heat flow from the plasma into
the material is almost uniform through out the thickness of material.
Under such condition perpendicular edges are obtained that is kerf is
as wide at top as at the bottom. Kerf wilh plasma cutting is about half
to two times as wide as oxy fuel into in plates upto 50 mm thickness.
Dross is given to the material that melts during cutting and adheres
to the bottom face of cut edge. Plasma arc cutting are normally --dross free if proper cutting conditions and appropriate gases are used.
ELECTRIC BEAM MACHINE (EBM)
PROCESS PRINCIPLES
EBM is a thermal material removal process that utilizes a focus beam
of electrons having a high velocity to perform high speed drilling &
cutting.
Material heating action is achieved when high velocity electrons strike
the surface. Upon impact K.E. of electrons gets converted to heat
23
energy necessary for rapid melting and vaporization of any material.

Invented in Germany by Dr. K.H Steigerwald. EBM can drill material
upto 10mm thick at perforation rates that far exceed other
manufacturing processes. It is most often applied for high speed
drilling of round holes in metals, ceramics and plastics of any
hardness.
The EBM process begins after the work Pc is placed in the work
chamber and a vaccum is achieved. To create a hole by an electron
beam, occurs in 4 stages. First the electron beam is focused on the
work piece to a dia that is slightly smaller than the final desired
diameter,.Power is adjusted that the electron beam will generate a
power density at the work piece in excess of 10 8 W/Cm2 .
The Power density of that magnitude is more than enough to
instantly
melt any material regardless of thermal conductivity or
melting point.
Drilling is accomplished through the combination of electron beam
pulse and an synthetic or organic backing material which is applied to
the exit side of the surface being drilled.
When the focused beam strikes the surface of work Pc, local
heating,melting and vapoursation takes place instantly. Only about
5% of the affected material is actually vapourised. The pressure of the
escaping vapour is sufficient to form and maintain a small capillary
channel in the material. The beam & capillary rapidly penetrate the
work piece and a finite distance to the backing material.
The volume of backing material that is contacted by the beam is
almost totally vapourised resulting in the explosive release of backing
material vapor the molten wall of the capillary is expelled in a shower
of sparks leaving a hole in the work piece and a small cavern in the
backing material.
A single pulse is used to produce a single hole. However, if the
material is very thick then multiple pulses may be required. Any hole
24
which is not round the beam, pulsing rates up to 1000 pulses / sec is
deflected by computer to cut out the shape along the perimeter. Using
this technique, almost any hole shape can be generated.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM FOR EBM
25
At this point the Bombarding high speed stream of electrons impinges

on the work piece and its K.E is transformed into thermal Energy.
Note : An electron beam having a cross sectional diameter of
0.00127 to 0.00254 cm will result in a power density of 1.6 billion
watts / sq.cm; this extremely high power density of immediately
vaporizes any material on which the beam impinges.
GENERATION OF ELECTRON BEAM
The electron beam is formed inside an electron gun; which is basically
a triode and consists of (1) a cathode which is hot tungsten or
tantalum filament emitting high negative potential electrons a grid
up negatively biased with respect to the filament and an anode at the
ground potential through which the accelerated electrons pass. A
stream of electrons are emitted from the tip of the hot cathode and
accelerated towards anode by a high accelerating potential between
the anode and cathode. The degree of negative bias applied to grid cup
controls the flow of electrons or beam current and can be used to turn
the beam current and can be used to turn the beam on and off.
Because of the shape of the electrostatic field formed by the grid cup,
the electrons are simultaneously pre focused electrostatically and
pass as a converging beam through the hole in the anode without
colliding with the anode. As soon as the electrons pass through the
anode, they have reached their maximum velocity for a given
accelerating voltage and will maintain this velocity (the process takes
place in a vacuum environment) until they collide with the work piece.
Before the electron collide with the work piece a variable strength
electron magnetic lens is used to refocus the beam to any desired
diameter to less than 0.00254 cm at precise location on the work
26
piece and thus obtain an extremely high power density on the work
piece.
The high power density

of the electron beam
produces a deepening
metal vapour capillary
encircled by molten
material.
The
sharply
focused
electron beam strikes the
material to be drilled Local
heating and fusion of the
surface
Electron beam is drilled

through material being
pieced and penetrates
upto a certain depth
into
the
auxiliary
material.
As a result of high
vapour pressure of the
auxiliary material the
molten
part
of
the
material being drilled is
expelled.
27
The Four steps that lead to material removal by electron Beam

drilling)
EQUIPMENT:
EBM equipment is very similar to EBW Equipment Most system sub
assemblies such as vaccum system, work piece positioning system
and vaccum chamber are essentially identical that is used fro EBW.
Only significant difference is there with respect to ELECTRIC GUN &
POWER SUPPLY.
ELECTRON BEAM GUN
Function is to generate, shape and deflect the electron beam to drill or
M/c work piece EBM gun is used only for material removal and
operates only in Pulsed Mode
A TYPICAL TRIODE ELECTRON GUN
A Electron cloud is generated by a super heated tungsten filament
which also act as a cathode.
28
SCHEMATIC OF ELECTRON BEAM GUN

High Voltage
Plug
High Voltage
Insulator
Cathode
Anode
Vacuum
Pump
Electromagnetic
Lens
Deflection
system
29
In application the filament or the cathode provides the source of

electron emission. The filament is made of shaped strip of Tungsten or
Tantalum and is inductively heated to a temperature of approximately
2480 C. Because the filament is in a high vacuum environment.
Heating to this high temperature caused thermoionic emissions of
electrons. The filament acting as hot cartridge cathode emitter is
maintained at a high ve potential to repel the negatively charged
electrons towards the ground potential anode. As the newly formed
beam of electron begins its acceleration to the anode, it passes
through a hole in the bias grid. A (-ve) biasing voltage applied to the
grid controls the flow of electrons to the anode. By varying the
neagative potential difference between the grid an cathode the flow of
elcteons in the beam can be completely suppressed or precisely
ramped to various discreet levels. As the beam passes through the
grid it continues accelerating until the maximum velocity is reached
as it passes through a hole in the anode.
The well formed high velocity electron beam then travels through
an electromagnetic focusing coil that forces the beam to converge to a
focal point at the work piece.
PROCESS PARAMETERS
Beam current, pulse duration, lens current and beam deflection
signal are 4 (four) most important parameters associated with EBM
Determination of initial setting is through trial & error testing. Once
established each parameter is computer controlled to maintain the
process.
30
Beam current is continuously adjusted from 100
amp to 1
amp
EBM machine available that can generate pulse energy is excess of

120 joules / pulse, which is very high compared to other process. The
extremely available energy of higher magnitude can be used for any
deep drilling of large dia.
Longer the pulse duration widen will be diameter and deeper
drilling.
PROCESS CAPABILITY
Matls can be processed by E.B.M are
S.S, Cobalt, Alloys, Copper, Aluminium, Titanium, Ceramics, Leather &
Plastic.
Because of high concentration of electron beam, the HAZ seldom exceeds
0.025 mm, No burr is generated on exit side of the hole. In entrance side
a small lip of solidified material may remain around the hole diameter.
Hole can be drilled by high aspect ratio to the tune of 15 : 1. Hole
dia that can be drilled range from 0.1 to 1.4 mm in thickness upto
100mm
The tolerance on hole is typically 5% of the diameter or 0.03 mm
31
EBM MACHINE
AC SUPPLY MAIN
TUNGSTEN
FILAMENT
ELECTRON
GUN ASSY
HIGH
VOLATAGE
SUPPLY
FOCUSSED
ELECTRON BEAM
COMPONENT
TABLE
BEARING
BEARNI
VARIABLE
SPEED DRIVE
32

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Compiled by Dr.S.Satishkumar, St.

Josephs College of Engineering , Chennai - 119

Compiled by Dr.S.Satishkumar, St. Josephs College of Engineering , Chennai - 119

Difficult to machine harder materials

Need of newer Machining Technology

Material Strength Vs Machining Cost

Compiled by Dr.S.Satishkumar, St. Josephs College of Engineering , Chennai - 119

Classification of modern machining process

Compiled by Dr.S.Satishkumar, St. Josephs College of Engineering , Chennai - 119

EDM and USM require approximately same power

Shape Applications of modern machining process

Compiled by Dr.S.Satishkumar, St. Josephs College of Engineering , Chennai - 119

Compiled by Dr.S.Satishkumar, St. Josephs College of Engineering , Chennai - 119

Effects on equipment and tooling

Compiled by Dr.S.Satishkumar, St. Josephs College of Engineering , Chennai - 119

Compiled by Dr.S.Satishkumar, St. Josephs College of Engineering , Chennai - 119

Compiled by Dr.S.Satishkumar, St. Josephs College of Engineering , Chennai - 119

Compiled by Dr.S.Satishkumar, St. Josephs College of Engineering , Chennai - 119

Syllabus: Ultrasonic machining , Abrasive Jet Machining,

Compiled by Dr.S.Satishkumar, St. Josephs College of Engineering, Chennai - 119

Ultrasonic frequency above the upper

frequency of human ear

Material is removed by the action of abrasive grains

to the work surface at high frequency

Schematic representation of USM

Compiled by Dr.S.Satishkumar, St. Josephs College of Engineering , Chennai - 119

Scheme of Acoustic head

Compiled by Dr.S.Satishkumar, St. Josephs College of Engineering , Chennai - 119

The excitement of the tool is mostly given by magentostrictive transducer

Four mail elements

A shaped tool is given a mechanical vibration.

Earlier it was assumed that material is removed by brittle failure. So brittle

There is no limitation to the range of materials that can be machined

Titanium is the good material for tool cone

Compiled by Dr.S.Satishkumar, St. Josephs College of Engineering , Chennai - 119

Wear occurs at end and wear at sides is 10 times less

Some abrasives used are

Silicon finds the maximum application

The size of abrasive vary from 200 and 2000 grit

Compiled by Dr.S.Satishkumar, St. Josephs College of Engineering , Chennai - 119

Acts as acoustic bond between work piece and vibrating tool

Helps efficient transfer of energy

Provides medium to carry the abrasive to the cutting zone

Helps to carry away the worn abrasive and swarf

Characteristic of good suspension media

Density , approximately equal to that of abrasive

Good wetting properties to wet the tool, work and abrasive

High thermal conductivity

Tool Feed mechanism

Bring the tool very slowly close to the work piece

Provide adequate cutting force and sustain this during cutting

Decrease the force at the specified depth

Return the tool

Compiled by Dr.S.Satishkumar, St. Josephs College of Engineering , Chennai - 119

2 types of transducers Piezoelectric and magnetostriction

Magnetostriction means a change in dimension occurring in ferromagnetic

Provides the link between the transducer and the tool

Horn is the Concentrator

Compiled by Dr.S.Satishkumar, St. Josephs College of Engineering , Chennai - 119

Nodal point clamping

Mechanics of Metal cutting

The abrasive grains are hammered on to the work surface

Kc/s = kilo cycles /sec = Khz

Compiled by Dr.S.Satishkumar, St. Josephs College of Engineering , Chennai - 119